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Tensions and Transformations: an Ethnographic Account of Disability Sport in the United Arab Emirates

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Tensions and Transformations: an Ethnographic Account of Disability Sport in the United Arab Emirates Tensions and Transformations: An Ethnographic Account of Disability Sport in the United Arab Emirates By Seth Perkin Doctoral Thesis Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Philosophy of Loughborough University May 2020 © by Seth Perkin 2020 Abstract The United Arab Emirates (UAE) has experienced rapid social and economic growth since its formation in 1971. These developments have resulted in the repositioning of the UAE in the global hierarchy of power built on their success in the oil industry and their ability and desire to establish themselves as an international sporting and tourist destination. Because of its newfound influence, the UAE has come under surveillance concerning various social concerns, one of which includes the treatment of people with disabilities. Using a Foucauldian lens, this thesis ethnographically examines how the government of the UAE has harnessed its increasing financial and political influences to enhance the lives of people with disabilities from the grassroots, to the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) where the nation is becoming increasingly influential. Building upon the existing literature by analysing the construction of disability through local influences, such as Islam and Arab Culture and external Western forces, this thesis will examine the cultural landscape of disability sport in the UAE and address the ethnocentric nature of previous studies. By utilising Foucauldian theoretical concepts, in particular, disciplinary power, biopolitics and governmentality, the thesis addresses three main areas of investigation. Firstly, the extent to which the relationship between the UAE and the West has influenced the developments of the UAE. Secondly, the degree to which global and local factors influence the construction of disability. While the final question examines the internal and external forces that influence the provision of disability sport both within the UAE and the nations increased global influence. Ultimately, this thesis highlights that Disability sport within the UAE has become a vehicle for global demonstrations of the success of the country and in turn is utilised to maintain political and economic stability. Keywords: disability; disability sports; ethnography; Foucault; parasport; Paralympics; United Arab Emirates i Acknowledgements There are several people that I would like to acknowledge that have helped my throughout the process of this PhD. Firstly, I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr P. David Howe. From intellectual debate to hearing how this is Oxford United's 'year', your help, support and guidance have been invaluable throughout the process. I would also like to thank Professor Richard Giulianotti, who has supported my project as well as Dr Joe Piggin, who acted as my internal reviewer. To my parents, thank you for all your help, support and endless phone calls that you have had to put up with while I have written my thesis. Keith, Chris and Toby, thank you for keeping me sane during the process and to my late grandparents, thank you for everything that you did for me throughout the process. Without your love and support, this would not have been possible. To ZZ.0.07, it was a pleasure sharing an office with you guys, thank you for all the debates, and laughs that we shared. To Alex, thank you for your friendship and support during this time. To Camelia, thank you for all that you did throughout this process. Your friendship was invaluable. Finally, thank you to all my participants that took part in the study and giving up your time to share your experiences. ii Table of Contents ABSTRACT I ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS II TABLE OF CONTENTS III LIST OF TABLES VI LIST OF FIGURES VII ABBREVIATIONS VIII CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER 2. THE ARAB WORLD AND THE UNITED ARAB EMIRATES 9 2.1 INTRODUCTION 9 2.2 ORIENTALISM VS. OCCIDENTALISM DEBATES 9 2.3 CRITIQUES OF ORIENTALISM 11 2.4 ARAB CULTURE AND ISLAM 13 2.5 THE ARAB GULF 15 2.6 THE UNITED ARAB EMIRATES 17 2.7 CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY IN THE UAE 19 2.7.1 NEOLIBERALISM AND THE UAE 22 2.8 WOMEN IN THE UAE 25 2.9 SUMMARY 26 CHAPTER 3. DISABILITY 27 3.1 INTRODUCTION 27 3.2 DEFINING DISABILITY 27 3.3 A BRIEF HISTORICAL SKETCH OF DISABILITY 29 3.4 RELIGION AND DISABILITY 34 3.5 CROSS CULTURAL UNDERSTANDINGS OF DISABILITY 38 3.6 WESTERN MODELS OF DISABILITY 39 3.7 ISLAM, THE UNITED ARAB EMIRATES, AND DISABILITY 43 3.7.1 POLITICAL AND SOCIAL INFLUENCES ON DISABILITY AND SPORT 48 3.8 DISABILITY SPORT AND THE PARALYMPICS 53 iii 3.9 SUMMARY 58 CHAPTER 4. FOUCAULT: ISLAM, ARAB CULTURE, AND POWER 59 4.1 INTRODUCTION 59 4.2 FOUCAULT’S THEORETICAL POSITION(S) 59 4.3 LOCATING FOUCAULT 61 4.3.1 INFLUENCES OF HOMOSEXUALITY 64 4.4 POWER AND DISCIPLINE 68 4.5 GOVERNMENTALITY AND BIOPOWER 73 4.6 TECHNOLOGIES OF THE SELF 78 4.7 SUMMARY 80 CHAPTER 5. METHODOLOGY 82 5.1 INTRODUCTION 82 5.2 PHILOSOPHICAL CONCERNS 83 5.3 ETHNOGRAPHY 88 5.4 VIRTUAL ETHNOGRAPHY 90 5.5 CHALLENGES OF ETHNOGRAPHY 94 5.6 METHODS 97 5.6.1 FIELDWORK AND FIELD RELATIONS 98 5.6.2 INTERVIEWS 100 5.6.2.1 Interview Participants 101 5.6.3 DOCUMENTS AND THE ONLINE WORLD 103 5.5 DATA ANALYSIS 106 5.6 SUMMARY 109 CHAPTER 6. THE CULTURAL LANDSCAPE OF THE UAE 111 6.1 INTRODUCTION 111 6.2 DEVELOPING THE DESERT DREAM 111 6.3 LOCATING DISABILITY 119 6.4 DISABILITY CULTURE 128 6.5 GOVERNMENT RESPONSES 134 6.6 SUMMARY 137 CHAPTER 7. SPORT IN THE UAE 139 7.1 INTRODUCTION 139 7.2 ECONOMIC INTERESTS 139 7.3 UAE SPORT 144 7.4 SUMMARY 151 iv CHAPTER 8. DISABILITY SPORT IN THE UAE 153 8.1 INTRODUCTION 153 8.2 THE CULTURAL POLITICS OF DISABILITY SPORT 153 8.2.1 GOVERNMENT RESPONSES TO DISABILITY SPORT 163 8.2.2 DEVELOPMENTS IN DISABILITY SPORT 166 8.3 THE FOCUS OF DISABILITY SPORT IN THE UNITED ARAB EMIRATES 172 8.4 THE PARALYMPIC MOVEMENT AND THE UAE 186 8.4.1 GLOBAL GOVERNMENTALITY, THE UAE, AND THE INTERNATIONAL PARALYMPIC COMMITTEE 189 8.4.2 PARASPORT IN THE UAE 200 8.5 RESPONSES TO RIO 206 8.6 FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS OF DISABILITY SPORT IN THE UAE 215 8.7 SUMMARY 219 CHAPTER 9. CONCLUSION 222 9.1 INTRODUCTION 222 9.2 THE UAE AND THE WEST 223 9.3 CONSTRUCTING DISABILITY 226 9.4 THE UAE AND DISABILITY SPORT 230 9.5 RESEARCH DESIGN LIMITATIONS 233 9.6 FUTURE RESEARCH 235 REFERENCES 236 APPENDIX A – PARTICIPANT INFORMATION SHEET 282 APPENDIX B – PARTICIPANT CONSENT FORM 285 APPENDIX C – SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW QUESTIONS AND PROMPTS 286 v List of Tables Table 5.1 Interview Participants ............................................................................. 102 Table 5.2 Thematic analysis steps adapted from Braun and Clarke (2006) ........... 107 Table 8.1 Summer IPC accredited events that the UAE have hosted between 2011- 2019. ...................................................................................................................... 192 Table 8.2 Winter IPC accredited events that the UAE have hosted between 2018- 2019. ...................................................................................................................... 196 Table 8.3 Summer Paralympic Medals won by the UAE ........................................ 209 vi List of Figures Figure 6.1 Zayed Bin Sultan Street in Al Ain ......................................................... 113 Figure 6.2 A Bus Stop in Dubai located on a Sandbank, which doubled up as a walkway for pedestrians ......................................................................................... 125 Figure 6.3 A bus stop near a pedestrian without a drop-down kerb located in one of Dubai’s gated communities. ................................................................................... 125 Figure 8.1 The new disability sport club’s stadium, complete with wheelchair ramps to provide accessible access from the ground to the viewing areas.…………………………………………………………………………………….. 169 vii Abbreviations BOA British Olympic Association CRPD Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities GCC Gulf Cooperation Council ICF International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health IOC International Olympic Committee IF International Federation IPC International Paralympic Committee ISMG International Stoke Mandeville Games ISMGF International Stoke Mandeville Games Federation IWAS International Wheelchair & Amputee Sports Federation MENA Middle East and North Africa MERI Middle Eastern Research Institute NPC National Paralympic Committee OCOG Organising Committee for the Olympic Games PAMS Professionals Allied to Medicine RTA Road Traffic Accident UAE DSF United Arab Emirates Disabled Sports Federation UAE NPC United Arab Emirates National Paralympic Committee UN United Nations UPIAS Union of Physically Impaired Against Segregation VPN Virtual Private Network WHO World Health Organisation viii Chapter 1. Introduction This project seeks to investigate the relationship between disability and sport in the context of the United Arab Emirates (UAE). The distinctiveness of this project is that it explores the intersection of disability and sport in a non-Western context. As Howe (2008) established, research conducted with a focus on the Paralympic Games has been centred on Western contexts, thus potentially presenting an ethnocentric account due to these events not being explored from other cultural vantage points. The current project is unique, for the literature that has previously analysed the relationship between sport and the Arab World (Amara, 2005; Amara, 2007; Amara, 2012; Henry, Amara & Al–Tauqi, 2003; Sugden, 2006; Whitfield, 2006) has left a significant void at the intersection between
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