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Landscape and History since IAND. WHYTE landscape and history globalities Series editor: Jeremy Black globalities is a series which reinterprets world history in a concise yet thoughtful way, looking at major issues over large time-spans and political spaces; such issues can be political, ecological, scientific, technological or intellectual. Rather than adopting a narrow chronological or geographical approach, books in the series are conceptual in focus yet present an array of historical data to justify their arguments. They often involve a multi-disciplinary approach, juxtaposing different subject-areas such as economics and religion or literature and politics. In the same series Why Wars Happen Mining in World History Jeremy Black Martin Lynch A History of Language China to Chinatown: Chinese Food Steven Roger Fischer in the West J. A. G. Roberts The Nemesis of Power Harald Kleinschmidt Geopolitics and Globalization in the Twentieth Century Brian W. Blouet Monarchies 1000–2000 W. M. Spellman A History of Writing Steven Roger Fischer The Global Financial System 1750 to 2000 Larry Allen Landscape and History since 1500 ian d. whyte reaktion books For Kathy, Rebecca and Ruth Published by Reaktion Books Ltd 79 Farringdon Road, London ec1m 3ju, uk www.reaktionbooks.co.uk First published 2002 Copyright © Ian D. Whyte 2002 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publishers. Printed and bound in Great Britain by Biddles Ltd, Guildford and King’s Lynn British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Whyte, I. D. (Ian D.) Landscape and History since 1500. - (Globalities) 1.Human ecology - History 2.Landscape ecology - History I. Title 304.2 isbn 1 86189 138 5 Contents 1 Landscape and History 7 2 Early Modern Landscapes 27 3 Enlightenment, Picturesque and Romantic Landscapes 70 4 Industrial and Imperial Landscapes 122 5 Modern and Post-Modern Landscapes 164 references 219 bibliography 238 photographic acknowledgements 251 index 252 one Landscape and History Landscapes are important because they are the product of one of the most enduring sets of linkages: the relationships between the physical environment and human society.1 They are created by people through their engagement with the world around them. They are, then, social constructions, whether intentionally or unintentionally, but they need to be viewed within the context of their own natural and cultural histories in order to be properly understood. Landscapes are the result of attitudes as well as actions, so that ideologies are important in appreciating them. The history of landscape is inevitably grounded in the analysis of its visible features, but such structures are created and destroyed within ideological contexts that need to be appreciated for a full understanding of landscape.2 For individuals, landscapes may be real, lived-in places, or distant, half-fantasized ones. Landscapes can be familiar and comfortable, exotic or unattractive, valued or inspiring. They are the product of changes through time, often over thousands of years. Sometimes such changes occur slowly and subtly, at other times rapidly and dramatically. Landscapes are all around us, something we interact with daily, both physically and in our imaginations, forming backdrops to the whole stage of human activity.3 Landscapes are never unchanging, although the pace at which they change has varied through time and over space in the half millennium consid- ered by this book. Because of their time-depth, landscapes involve interactions between the present and the past, and give a sense of identity at individual, local, regional and national scales. Landscapes are multi-layered, and constitute a form of memory in which is stored the history of successive periods of human activity on the surface of the earth. They are 7 palimpsests that hark back to earlier engagements with the environment by different societies, emphasizing change, both ancient and recent. Because people have markedly different views about land- scapes, their nature is contested,4 which makes landscape ‘a concept of high tension’.5 Attitudes to landscape have changed markedly over time, as people’s perceptions and interpreta- tions have altered in the light of their own changing experience. Landscapes that today are valued for aesthetic or environmental reasons, and which now may be carefully man- aged, were not created intentionally, in the main, but have developed as a by-product of historical processes. Social struc- tures, cultural traditions, economic activities and political patterns have all played crucial roles in the shaping of land- scapes. The values placed on different types of landscape are not fixed, but have changed over time and may represent dif- ferent things to different people at any one period. The ways in which people interact with their environ- ments to produce landscapes depend on time, place and historical context, but also on age, gender, socio-economic status, ethnicity, race and other variables. Views of landscape can be contested by different groups within a society. The anti- enclosure sentiments in the poems of John Clare (1793–1864) indicate an opposition between elite views of landscape and more down-to-earth peasant viewpoints. At a personal level, they also highlighted internal tensions within Clare as a poet: he despised his uneducated fellow labourers, who in turn despised him for his education; he wrote about the injustices created by the imposition of enclosure by the landed elite, yet was forced to do so using the literary forms and conventions of this very group.6 Landscapes can be contested by different social, cultural and ethnic groups – the perspectives of North American Indians or Australian Aborigines versus European settlers, for example. A good modern instance of a contested landscape is Stonehenge and its environs, where archaeologists, tourists, Druids, New Age travellers, English Heritage and the National Trust all have their own images, symbolism and views regarding the ways in which the area should be preserved and its landscapes managed and consumed.7 8 . landscape and history But landscape is more than just a particular assemblage of natural and man-made features; any landscape is composed not only of what lies before our eyes but what lies within our heads.8 Perception specialists argue that landscapes cannot be defined simply by itemizing their parts. The landscape perceived by one person is not the same as that perceived by another, even within the same culture. Every individual has his or her own personality and cultural viewpoint, which filter and distort information, giving a selective impression of what a landscape is like; such views may be close to reality or may contain major misconcep- tions.9 D. W. Meinig has suggested that ten people might view a landscape in ten different ways, in terms of representing nature (the insignificance of human activity), habitat (people’s adjust- ment to nature), artefact (human impact on nature), system (the scientific view of the processes of interaction between society and environment), problems (which can be solved through social action), wealth (property), ideology (cultural values or social philosophy), history (chronology), place (the identity that loca- tions have) and aesthetics (the artistic qualities of place).10 So the interpretation of landscapes can depend upon the values and attitudes of individuals: a capitalist might interpret landscape in monetary terms, an artist in aesthetic terms and a scientist in ecological terms. Impressions of landscape can also vary between people who are detached observers, or ‘outsiders’, and those who are ‘insiders’, living and working within particu- lar landscapes and interacting with them on a daily basis. The outsiders see landscapes afresh, while to the insiders they are subservient to everyday life, work and social interactions. Understanding people’s perceptions of places is important in that what people do with their environment arises from how they see it. Considerations of landscape perception are not purely academic then; they are also important in practical terms.11 Decision makers operating in response to a particular landscape will base their decisions on the environment as they perceive it, rather than how it really is.12 Cultural factors condi- tion landscape perceptions to a considerable degree. Individuals have personalized attitudes to landscape, but there are also wider consensuses. Some influential perceptions of spatial differences that have landscape dimensions are ancient landscape and history . 9 and deep-rooted. For instance, the modern north–south divide in England has been traced back to the early thirteenth-century split between King John and his barons.13 In terms of a contrast in landscape as well as in society, this divide gained a peculiar slant in the nineteenth century with the rise of industrialization, when, as in Mrs Gaskell’s novel North and South of 1855, it referred to contrasting states of minds as well as contrasting landscapes and societies.14 Although some perceptions of landscapes can be enduring, popular tastes regarding which types of landscape are favoured change over time, as do the standards by which landscape is judged. In the modern world, it is hard to experience landscape without preconceived images. In the nineteenth and early twen- tieth centuries,
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