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Plate 1. the Colville River Drainage Basin, Which Is Approximately 100

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Plate 1. The Colville River drainage basin, which is approximat ely 100 tim es th e size of its delta, covers 29% of the North ern Slope of Alaska. Unlike the larger dr ainage basin s in th e Arctic, that of th e Colville is entire ly confined to th e zone of cont inuos permafrost . Du ring floodin g, th e sa line wate r th at has intruded into th e cha nnels is flushed out and a freshwater wedge is creat ed in the ocean in front of th e delta. Journal of Coastal Research 718-738 Royal Palm Beach, Florida Summer 1998 Arctic Deltas H. Jesse Walker Department of Geography Louisiana State University Baton Rouge, LA 70803, U.S.A. ABSTRACT_•••••••••••••••••••••••••••_ WALKER, H.J., 1998. Arctic Deltas. Journal of Coastal Research, 14(3),718-738. Royal Palm Beach (Florida), ISSN ,tllllllll:. 0749-0208. ~ ~. Arctic river deltas are among the most unique and fragile of deltas to be found on earth. Leading to this uniqueness ~ ~ and fragility are the interactions between geologic, oceanographic, climatologic, biologic, and cryospheric activities c+ &__7t' that occur in high latitudes. These interactions are analyzed at both regional and local levels with respect to their influence on delta formation. Specific morphological forms, such as ice-wedge polygons, and processes, such as ther­ moerosion, that are associated with permafrost are identified. Arctic deltas, including the Ob, Lena, Yenisey, Mac­ kenzie, Yukon and Colville, are discussed illustrating the diverse range of variables affecting deltaic processes. Vari­ ables considered include age, size, shape, discharge, sediment load and surface forms. Current anthropogenicimpacts on deltaic resources, such as construction associated with hydrocarbon production, are considered as is the potential for change that could result from a rising sea level. ADDITIONAL INDEX WORDS: Arctic, Alaska, Canada , Russia, coastline, deltas, deltaic processes, permafrost. INTRODUCTION Eurasian Continents range in distance from the North Pole by 650 km in northern Greenland to about 2500 km in west­ Delt as are among th e most dyn amic and complex natural ern Canada and eastern Siberia. Across these continents flow phenomena on ea rth. Their dynamism stems from the fact a number of rivers (Figure 1, insert A), many of which have th at they are the result of interactions between various ele­ formed deltas where they empty into the Arctic Ocean or its ments of the hydrosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere, bio­ bordering seas. The general courses of these rivers is deter­ sphere and, in high latitudes, the cryosphere. In addition, mined by the structure of the cont inents (Figure 1, insert B). most present-day deltas have been impacted heavily by hu ­ mans and, in the process, many deltaic forms and processes The Land have been altered. Of the world's deltas least modified by humans, those in The structure of the Arctic has been described as being the Arctic stand out. However, even some of those deltas are nearly symmetrical about the Arctic Basin (OSTENSO, 1968; being affected today because of the exploitation of various SATER et al., 1971; STEARNS, 1965). It has often been said mineral resources, development of arctic navigation, im­ that the Arctic is "anchored" by three Precambrian shields, provements in technology, and a political climate that fosters one of each located in Canada-Greenland, Scandinavia and arctic activities. north-central Siberia (Figure 1, insert B). These sh ields are This ess ay, which is devoted to arctic deltas, first summa­ separate d by mountains, plateaus and plains of younger and rizes the various geologic, oceanographic, climatologic, biolog­ varied origin. All of these structural units influ en ce the ar­ ic and cryospheri c activities that establish the environmental rangement of the drainage basins that are prevalent in the setting for arctic deltas in gen eral. Thi s section is followed by Arcti c today. As GORDEEV, et aZ. (1996) note:".. the East­ a discussion of the various forms present and the various pro­ European and Siberian platform and the folded areas . .. are cesses operating in arctic deltas. A third part is a brief de­ composed of terrigenous, carbonate, chemogenic, and volcanic scription of several of the deltas found in the Arctic. It is sedimentary rocks from the Archean to the Quaternary age ." followed by a section about how humans are impacting arctic Added to this complex are various extensive evaporites that deltas, and finally there is a brief discussion about the future increase the diversity of materials transported to the deltas. of arctic deltas . In contrast, the Yukon and Mackenzie Rivers flow through highly erodible materials and, as a result, have suspended Regional Setting load s many times the amount of Siberian rivers. The Arctic Ocean, the sma llest of the world's oceans, with The Sea an area of about 14 X 106 km", is nearly landlocked. Although it surrounds the North Pole, th e bordering American and The Arctic Ocean, similar to the other oceans, has deep central portions bordered by continental shelves. However, in the case of the Arctic Ocean, the continental shelves, into 98138 received and accepted in revision 9 May 1998. which the rivers of the adjoining continents drain, equals 720 Walker THE ARCTIC A. DRAINAGE B. BASIC STR UCTURE C. SEA ICE D. PERMAFROST Figure 1. The Arctic. (A) Arctic Drainage. (B) Basic Structur e: 1. Sh ields, 2. Plains and Plat eau s, 3. Fold Mountains. After SATERet al. (1971). (C) Sea Ice: 1. Average minimum extent (summer), 2. Average maximum extent (winte r). After Sa ter et al. (1971). (0) Perm afrost: 1. Contine nta l Sh elf, 2. Conti nuous, 3. Discontinuous. After Pewe (1983). about one-third of the total ocean area. These shelves vary in water that flows through it from th e Atlantic Ocean is rel­ width from only a few lOs of km off Greenland and western atively warm and highly saline. As it moves into and Canada to more than 900 km in the Barents Sea. Because of through th e Arctic Ocean it affects sea-ice formation and these extensive shelves, th e volume of th e Arctic Ocean is less climatic conditions. The surface water in the Arctic Ocean in relation to its area than that of the other oceans. The shal­ is also modified by seasonal events such as the freshening low waters over these exte ns ive shelves are conveni ently di­ that occurs from sea-ice melting and the influx of large vol­ vided into six seas because of the positions of several of the umes of fresh water from the land, especially Siberia Arctic Ocean's islands and a few continental ind entations. (WALKE R, 1992 ). They include the Barents Sea, the Kara Sea into which flows At th e present time in geologic history, sea ice (Figure 1, the Yeni sey, th e Laptev Sea with the Lena, the Ea st Siberian insert C) dominates the Arctic Ocean. Its cover, which aver­ Sea with th e Kolyma, the Chuckchi Sea, and the Bering Sea ages 2 to 3 m thick, ranges from about 8 X 106 km 2 before with the Yukon River (Figure 2). The so-called Beaufort Sea , freeze-up (August) to 14 X 106 km 2 at its maximum extent into which the Mackenzie River flows, is unlike th e other seas (Februa ry and March). During its maximum extent, all arctic because it has a very narrow shelf and is essentially a part deltas are ice-bound, a condition th at usu ally lasts for seven of the Canada Basin. to nine months. It is a length of time th at is shorter than for Although the Arctic Ocean has a number of connections other coastal situations becau se of th e discharge of relatively to th e south, all but one- the Fram Strait-are sh allow . The warm water from inland th at speeds sea-ice melt. The sub- Jo urna l of Coast al Resear ch, Vol. 14, No.3, 1998 Arcti c Delt as 721 RIVERS SEAS 1. Olenek A Beaufort 2. Kolyma B Chukchi 3. Lena 4. Khatanga C Bering 5. Indigrika D East Siberian 6. Yana E Laptev 7. Dubawnt F Kara 8. Anadyr G Barents 9. Bock H Norwegian 10. Anabar I Greenland 11. Pyosino 12. Cappermine J Hudson Bay 13. Yenisei 14. Colville 15. Mackenz ie 16. Ob-irrysh 17. Churchill 18. Nelson 19. Severn 20. Yukon 21. Pechora 22 . Albany 23 . Dvina Figure 2. The Arctic Ocean and adjacent land areas with the distribu tion of rivers, seas, per mafrost, ocean currents and ti des . Compiled from num erous sources including NOAA (1981 ), Lewis (1982), Pewe (1983 ) and Walk er (1992). aqueous portions of deltas are likely to hav e bottom-fast ice that is sufficiently low to insure th at all surface water freezes and may support numerous pressure ridges. and remains frozen for up to nine months. In much of th e One of th e characteristics of sea ice in th e Arctic Ocean is Arcti c the depth of annua l freezing in lakes, rivers and th e th e ". .. almost constant drift and deformation"(HIBLER, sea reaches two or more meters. 1989) caused by winds and ocean currents . Hibl er further Precipitation, which primarily occurs as snow over most of notes th at the". .. magnitude of this interaction is especially th e Arctic, tends to be minimal. However , becau se of th e long pronounced near th e coast . .."(1989). Thus, ocean curre nts, period oflow temp erature, it remains on the surface for man y often enha nced by wave action, move ice floes into shallow months.
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