DEPX­ ,,-~ GEOL! ..Vi ) .;, J C ONT E NTS

Page Mineral resources in the Puget Sound area Present status and potential...... • . . . • • • . . • . • ...... 1

Known and potential mineralized areas...... 1,2

Minerals' economic contribution. • . • • . • . . . . • . . . . • • . • ...... • • • . • . . . • . 2

Introduction. 2 Purpose •.• 2 _Scope . .. . 2 Basic assumptions .. 2,3 Physical features and their relationship to mining. 3 Puget Sound Province ..••... 5 Cascade Mountains Province .. 5

History of mining activity ...... 5

Mineral production trends ...... • ...... •..•.....•.•.•. 5-8

Mineral commodity reviews...... 8

Nonmetals...... 8 Cement...... 8- 17 Clay •••. 17-21 Lime •.•...... 21-24 Olivine •.• ...... 24,25 Peat ..•...... 25-27 ~ ·{1' Sand • 1 and gravel .•• 27-31 t Stone ...... 31-35 6\ Silica .••.•.....• ..... 35-37 I 11«- Talc (soapstone). .... 37-39 ij' { l"'~ Metals •.•.•• .... 39 Copper. (_ .. 39,40 , Gold ••• ...... 40,41 Manganese...... 41 Other metals. 42

Fuels •••.•• 42 Coal ...... 42-45 ~etroleum and natural gas •• . . .. 45,46

i T t-.ld-"\ Wd, 5 ~ 1 CONTENTS Page L\.~"'- \~lo3 Industrial operation reviews •.•.•••.••.••..••... • ...... •.. . .. 46 ~:) "2.-- --- Primary metals. 46 Aluminum. 46,47 Copper. 48,49 Steel.. 49,50

Pulp and paper ...•..••.••.•• 50,51 Sulfate-pulping process. 51 Sulfite-pulping process •. 51-53

Mineral requirements .. 54 Lime ...... 54 Limestone .•.. • . . •. 54 Sal t cake (sodium sulfate) . 54,55 Sulfur...•...... •. 55 Salt (sodium chloride). 55,57

Employment .•.•...•.. 57 Primary metals . . 57 Mining • . • .•.••. 57-63

Present status and potential of the River Bas ins .••.•.•...•....•••.•..• 65

Known and potential mineralized areas . • .•..•. •. .• ...•..•... . .• •• ••. 65 Nooksack River drainage system.• 65 Limestone .•. 65,68 Olivine •. 68 Coal •...•. 68,69 Sand and gravel. . .. 69 Clay ...... ' 70 Stone other than limestone. 70 Peat . . •. 70,71 Silica .. 71 Diatomite. 71 Gold •.. 71, 72 Nickel. 72 •• Silver. 72 Zinc ... 72 Oil and gas. 72, 73 Copper ... 73 Chromium. 73 Iron ...... 73 • ii CONTENTS Page

Skagit River drainage system. 74 Limestone .. 74 Olivine. 74,78 Coal • . .. 78 Sand and gravel. 78 Clay ...... 79 Stone other than limestone. 79 Asbestiform materials. 79 Diatomite .. . .. 79 Mineral water. 80 Oil and gas . • 80 Peat•.. 80 Silica .• 80,81 Strontium.• 81 Pumicite. .. 81 Talc. .... 81,82 Gold. 82,83 Copper. ... 83,84 Chromium...... 84 Iron • •• 84 Lead •••• ...... 84 Si lver. 84 Nickel...... 84,85 Zinc .•...... 85 Manganese. 85 Molybdenum...... 85 Still~guamish River drainage system.•. 85 Limestone .. ..•... 85 Sand and gravel. 88 Coal .• 88 Peat.. 88 Pumice. 88 Asbestos •.• 89 Diatomite •. 89 Copper. 89 Gold •••. 90 Silver• . 90 Iron ..• 90 Other properties in the Stillaguamish River drainage system ...... 90 Snohomish River drainage system. 90-93 Limestone • .•. • •• 94 Sand and gravel•. 94 Clay ...... 94 Stone other than limestone •• 95 Mineral water.•. 95 Coal • ...... ••• 95 e

iii CONT ENTS Page

Peat .•..•. 95 Diatomite. 96 - Asbestos. 96 Antimony. 96 Arsenic. 96 Copper. 96-98 Gold. 98,99 Iron. 99 Molybdenum, lead, and nickel. 100 Silver. 100 Zinc., 100

Cedar River drainage system.. 100 Sand and gravel •. 104 Stone .. 104 Silica. 104 Clay. 104 Coal. 105 Peat. 105 Diatomite .. 106 Copper and gold. 106

Green River drainage system. 106 Coal ...... 106 Sand and gravel. 106 Clay ..• 106,107 Silica .. 107 - Stone. .. 107 Peat.• 107 Mercury. 107 Oil and gas •• 108 Mineral springs, arsenic, and iron. 108

Whidbey Island drainage system. 108 Peat• ...... •..... 108 Sand and gravel •• 108 Diatomite ... 108

Elwha-Dungeness Rivers drainage system. 112 Stone . •.•.•..... 112 Sand and gravel•• 112 Mineral water.• 112 Manganese. 112 Peat•• ...•. 113 CONTENTS Page

West Sound Basin drainage system. 113 Stone other than limestone. .. .. 113 Sand and gravel. 113 Peat•.. 113 Clay ••. 113 Iron ... 118 Copper. 118 Manganese .. 118 Limestone. 118 Diatomite. 118

Nisqually River drainage system •. 119 Clay. 119 Coal •.. 119 Peat. 119 Sand and gravel .. 119 Stone •.. •.• ·... 122 Mineral water •. 122 Copper ..•.... . • 122 Iron ...... 122 Other mineral deposists .•. 122 Gold. 123 Zinc •. .. 123

Deschutes River drainage system.•• 123 Sand and gravel. 123 Stone.. • • . 123 Peat••.. 124 Mineral water. 124

White-Puyallup Rivers drainage system. 124 Sand and gravel •. 124 Coal .. 124 Stone. 125 Peat ..• 125 Silica. ... 125 Clay •.• 125 Alumite. 128 Perlite •. 128 Di atomite. 128 Copper •... 128

San Juan Islands drainage system. 128 Limestone •.. 128 Sandstone .. 129 Sand and gravel. 129 Clay. 129 Peat. 129 e

V CONTL:N'l'S Page

Present and future demand for minerals for the Puget Sormd area ...... 133

Water use by mineral industries ..••.•...... , . . , .. ,,.,,,,.,,,· 133,134

Land needs for minerals development...•...... , , . . , ... , . , . , , , , , , , , , , 134-136

Future needs for minerals in the Puget Sound area ...... •...... •.. 136

Projections ...... •. , ....• , , ... . . , , , , . , , , . , .. , , · , , , · , · , 136,138 Cement ...... •...... • .•. 138,139 Clay ...... 139 Lime ...... 141 Peat ...... 141 Sand and gravel and stone ...... • . .•...... , ... 141-145 Miscellaneous minerals ...•.....·· ..•...... •..•...... 146,147

Means to satisfy mineral needs •..•...... •.... •...... , . , . 14 7 List pf references ..•...... • .... • .• ,,. ,, .. ,., .• ,,,, .. ,,, ,• ·•,·,·,,· 148-150 e

vi ILLUSTRATIONS Fig.

1. Map of Puget Sound area showing major mineral resources ...... 4

rJ 2. Location map, Puget Sound area mineral processing and related industrial operations. . . . . • . . . . • ...... • ...... 12

th 3. Employment trends in Washington for selected industries, 1950-64 ...... • • ..•...... •...... 58

4. Map of mineral resources in the Nooksack Basin ...... 67

5. Map of mineral resources in the Skagit Basin ...... 77

6. Map of mineral resources in the Stillaguamish Basin ...... •... 87

7. Map of mineral resources in the Snohomish Bas in ...... •...•.. •... 93

8, Map of mineral resources in the Cedar-Green Basin •....•..•...... 103

9. Map of mineral resources in the Whidbey Basin ....•.•...... •.... 111

10. Map of mineral resources in the Elwha-Dungeness Basin...... 115

11. Map of mineral resources in the West Sound Basin .....•. . ·....•. ... 117

12. Map of mineral resources in the Nisqually- Deschutes Basin ••...... 121

13. Map of mineral resources in the Puyallup Basin•.... . • .. . • . ••..•. • 127

14. Map of mineral resources in the San Juan Basin .•..•.•••.•...... 131

15. Washington versus United States per capita cement consumption, 1940-64 ...... •..· ...... , ...... , , .. · 137

e 16. Clay production in the Puget Sound area, 1948-64 ... . .•.....•.•.. , 140

17. Washington versus United States per capita sand and gravel and stone production, 1940-64 ... •... .•.• ...... •. . .. 142

18. Sand and gravel produced by commercial firms in the Puget Sound area, 1951-64 . • .. ...•...•...... •...... •...... · 144

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vii TABLES

1. Value of mineral production by county, 1955, 1960, 1964 ...... •.•...• . . , .... 6 2. Mineral production in Puget Sound area, 1900-64 .. . •.•...... •. . .. 7 3. Production of minerals in Puget Sound area by· decade...... 9 4. Relative unit values of nonmetals and coal from Puget Sound area by decade, 1900-64 ...... •..•...... 9 5. Production of cement in the Puget Sound area, 1950-64 . •...... •...... •...... •....•...... 10 6. Cement consumption...... 14 7. Estimated consumption of cement in Puget Sound area ...... 14 8. Estimated raw materials used in manufacturing cement in the Puget Sound area, 1964 •...... • . • ...... 15 9. Clays produced in the Puget Sound area, 1948-64 • ...... 18 10. Lime production in the Pacific Northwest, 1964• ...... 22 11. Apparent primary open-market lime consumption in Washington ...... ••...... •...... • ...... •. .. .. 23 e 12. Peat production in Washington, 1950- 64 ... .. • . . ..• • ...... 26 13. Sand and gravel production in the Puget Sound area, 1950- 64 ...... 29 14. Sand and gravel production from commercial pl~nts in Washington and Puget Sound area, 1964 ...... 29 15. Sand and gravel usage in the Puget Sound area, 1964 ...... 29 16. Stone production in the Puget Sound area, 1.937-64 •...... •..... 32 17. Stone production from the Puget Sound area by type of stone, 1964 ...... •...... 32 18. Crushed stone production from commercial plants in th_e Puget Sound area, 1964 ...... •...... 33 19. Stone usage in the Puget Sound area, 1964 ...... • ...... •• . .. 33 20. Foreign imports of limestone to harbors in the Puget Sound area, 1959-64 ..••...... •...... 34 21 . Soapstone production in the Puget Sound area, 1950-64 ...... •...... • ...... 37 22. Total gold production in the Puget Sound area to 1967 ...... •.... 40 23. Coal consumed in Washington ...... •.....•...... •...... 42 24. Factors contributing to cost of coal production in 1964 for Washington and surrounding states ..•...... •..... 43 25. Coal reserves of the Puget Sound area and adjacent areas ....•...•...... 44 26. Aluminum production and raw material consumption in the Puget Sound area ...... 4 7 27. Projected steel proquction and raw material consu~tion in the Puget Sound area, 1965, 1980, 2000, and 2020 .... . • ...•.•.••...... 50 28. Pulp and paper companies of the Puget Sound area, 1964 ...... 53

viii TABLES

29. Raw material requirements for manufacturing pulp and paper in the Puget Sound area, 1964 ...... •.. • . . 53 30. Apparent consumption of salt in Washington, 1955-64...... , ..... · · · · · . · · · · · · · · 56 31. Chlorine plant capacity in the Puget Sound area ....•...... 56 32 . Estimated employment in mining and related manufacturing industries requiring significant quantities of mineral raw materials in the Puget Sound area, 1964 ...... 59 33 . Average sand and gravel output per man per hour at t/ commercial operations, 1958-64 ...... •.•. , ...... 60 34 . Total employment at commercial and Government-and- contractor operations, 1963-64...... • ...... • . • ...... 61 35. Mining industry employment by economic divisions, 1980-2020 ...... 62 ~ Estimated cost of labor at mining operations in the Puget Sound area, 1964 ...... •..• . ....•.. ..• ...... •..· .. 63 37. Mineral industry water use, 1962, Puget Sound area, all commodities ...... • •...... •..•.... 134 e 38. Land in Puget Sound area disturbed by surface-mining ac;:tivities, 1850-1965 . . . . •...... •.....•...... •..•..•...... · 135 39. Estimated mineral production in Puget Sound a·rea, 1980-2020 ...... •.....•....• . ..•••...... · 138 40. Estimated consumption of portland cement by economic division, 1980-2020 .....••.••...... ··········· ··139 41. Percent of total sand and gravel production from Government-and-contractor operations ...... •... •.. .. 143 42. Estimated per capita requirements for aggregates in the Puget Sound area, 1980-2020 ...... •...... · 145 43. Estimated production (consumption) of sand and gravel by economic subdivision, 1980-2020 ...... 145 44. Estimated production (consumption) of stone by economic division, 1980-2020 ...... ••.. ···· ·· ··146

.e

ix MINERAL RESOURCES IN THE PUGET SOUND AREA PRESENT STATUS AND POTENTIAL

KNOWN AND POTENTIAL MINERALIZED AREAS

During 1964, the area that drains into Puget Sound accounted for about 44 petcent of Washington's mineral production. King, Pierce, Skagit, Snohomish, and Whatcom were and still are the leading counties in terms of · quantity and value of minerals produced. Total production value from the whole area was $35.6 million in 1964.

The Puget Sound area is particularly rich in reserves of nonmetallic minerals . Sa~d, gravel, clay, cement, and stone are produced in quantity for the construction industry. The largest olivine deposit in the United States is located in the area, and several operators are presently producing from it. All of the State's talc production and almost all of the peat production came from the area. Limestone for use in making cement and lime, and for use as a soil conditioner is plentiful, and the limestone used by two of the State's largest cement plants is quarried in the region. Other nonmetallic minerals that are now being mined, have been mined, or have the potential for production, are strontianite, celestite, silica sand, quartz, alunite, and pozzolanic materials . Substantial reserves of most of these minerals are still available.

In the past, the area has produced considerable amounts of minerals that have yielded copper, gold, silver, manganese, antimony, arsenic, chrome, iron, lead, mercury, and zinc. During the past two decades production has declined, but with the constant change in requirements for metals brought on by rapidly changing technology, and with improved methods in extractive metallurgy and lower cost mining methods , the Puget Sound area holds promise as a future major source of metallic minerals . The area contains several apparently large low-grade copper deposits that could produce copper, with molybdenum, silver, zinc, and gold as byproducts.

At the present time, no crude oil or ~tural gas is produced in the Puget Sound area, but the area has a potential for future production. Within the -- Puget Sound area there are unexplored areas that have structural and strati­ graphic conditions favorable for the accumulation and storage of oil and gas.

Coal reserves in the Puget Sound area are extensive and are adequate for the area's present and· future needs. The important fields are in Cedar-Green, Puyallup and Nooksack basins.

In summary, the Puget Sound area is richly endowed with mineral resources. Extensive coal, sand and gravel, clay, stone, and peat deposits occur in the lowland areas. The mountainous area in the eastern part of the region has a large potential for producing metallic minerals, as well as stone and nonmetallic mineral products. e 1 Areas in which mineral deposits occur in the Puget Sound area are shown on the map in figure l. More detailed maps showing mineral resources in each of the basins are shown in figures 4 and 14.

MINERALS' ECONOMIC CONTRIBUTION

Introduction

Purpose

The mineral industry study, prepared by the U.S. Bureau of Mines, the Washington Division of Mines and Geology, and the Department of Natural Resources, is intended to furnish guidance for appraising the need for comprehensive development of water and related land resources as set forth by Senate Docwnent 97.

Scope

The mineral study delimits the mineral industry potential of a 12-county area or 10 major basins as shown in figure 1. The 12 counties covered are King, Kitsap, Island, Pierce, San Juan, Skagit, Snohomish, and Whatcom, and parts of Clallam, Jefferson, Mason, and Thurston. Major objectives are to present the record of mineral production, describe the type and location of major mineral resource deposits in the area, identify the economic and technologic influences on the mineral industry within the area, and project the activity of the minerals industry within the study area for the years 1980, 2000, and 2020. Since the future economy of the Puget Sound area will not occur in geographic isolation, the study includes consideration of areas beyond the regional boundaries which influence economic development in the area of principal interest. The economic activity of the Puget Sound area is tied to activities in the Pacific Northwest, the Nation, and other nations because of trading relations and competition. An analysis is made of these inter­ relationships and their trends and changes as they influence the economic future of the Puget Sound area.

1~ Basic Assumptions

I The basic assumptions for this study are similar to those adopted by Bonneville Power Administration in its Economic Base Study of the Pacific Northwest. Some of the national ass\Dllptions used by that agency that pertain to this study are:

(1) Sufficient quantities of water of acceptable quality will be available by timely development to avoid being a constraint to economic growth. 'f-i~ "" .. ~~' \ I >; 2 ' t C ~ ~ (2) The Federal Government, as a matter of national policy, will actively support programs designed to stimulate economic growth.

(3) There will be no general war or any appreciable cessation of the cold war throughout the period to 1980. Expenditures on national security will continue to account for approximately 10 percent of GNP. After 1980, gradual disarmament will decrease the relative cost of military expenditure.

(4) There will be a continued relaxation of trade tariffs and quotas accompanied by an expansion in international commerce.

(5) United States population will expand to:

1980 259,584,000 2000 336,800,000 2020 467,700,000

(6) The Federal Government will use its resources energetically to promote maximum employment, production, and purchasing power; accordingly, employment at approximately 96 percent of civilian labor force will prevail nationally throughout the forecast period.

(7) United States gross national product will increase in billions of 1960 dollars to:

1980 $1,130 2000 2,472 2020 5,402

(8) Development of technological processes, together with expansion of worker skills and capital formation, will increase produc­ tivity per manhour approximately 2.9 percent per year.

Physical Features and Their Relationships to Mining

The Puget Sound drainage basin is a U-shaped trough extending east about 110 miles from the Olympic Mountains to the Cascade Mountains divide, and south approximately 140 miles from the Canadian border to the southern tip. It falls within the Puget Sound, Cascade Mountain, and Olympic Mountain physiographic provinces in western Washington. The land area, of about 13,300 square miles, is slightly larger than the States of Delaware and Maryland combined; water area totals about 2,000 square miles. The west slopes of the Cascade Mountains cover the eastern part, and the east slopes of the Olympic Mountains cover the western portion. Lowlands are prominent in the central part from the southern tip to the Canadian border.

Puget Sound itself is an inland sea which joins the Pacific Ocean through the Strait of Juan De Fuca. The Sound, over· 90 miles long, extends southward to Olympia. There are over 2,000 miles of coastline e in the many inlets and islands of the Sound.

3 Fig. 1

(MAP OF THE PUGET SOUND AREA SHOWING MAJOR MINERAL RESOURCES)

4 Puget Sound Province

The Puget Sound Province lies between the Olympic Mountains-Willapa Hills area to the west and the Cascade Range to the east. It consists of a depressed area, mostly below 1,000 feet in altitude, that reaches across the State from Canada into Oregon, where the Willamette Valley is its geomorphic continuation. The northern half is partly occupied by the intricate reaches of Puget Sound,. Admiralty Inlet, and the Georgia, Juan De Fuca, Rosario, and Haro Straits.

Rainfall is moderate, varying from 28 to 55 inches annually in areas of greatest population. There are many streams; most of the large rivers have their sources in the Cascade Range. The large rivers, flowing into the Sound, have silted estuaries which form rich farm land; intermediate stages of the rivers contain marshes. A specific example is the Skykomish and Snoqualmie Rivers which have built up long fills that converge at Monroe (Snohomish County) where both rivers, forming a broad flat valley, continue as the Snohomish River to Puget Sound at Everett.

Throughout the Puget Sound Province, the bedrock consists largely of Tertiary sedimentary and volcanic rocks. Much of the southern part of the province is covered by sand and gravel and finer sediments that were sluiced out toward the south by melting glaciers. Alluvium also is common in areas immediately surrounding the Sound, In the northern half of the region, erosion has cut through the sedimentary formations exposing Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks. The province is a region principally of industrial minerals, however, some metallic minerals have been mined in the Green River and San Juan areas.

Bituminous and subbituminous coal of the Eocene Puget Group and Paleocene Chuckanut Formations occur extensively within the eastern part of the province. Of the eight major coalfields of the State, all but one are in this general area,

Cascade Mountains Province

The many large rivers and their tributaries have dissected the Cascade Mountains Province into deep valleys, canyons, and ravines. The intervening ridges are commonly steep-sided, high, and serrated above the timber line. Glacial features are common in the Cascade Mountain Range.

The rocks in the northern half of the Cascade Mountains Province are chiefly Paleozoic and Mesozoic sediments, and metamorphic types and granitic rocks. In the central part, rocks are mainly Tertiary volcanics with minor sedimentary interbeds. 1

History of Mining Activity

Mineral Production Trends

Mineral production values for the Puget Sound area have ranged from $23.9 million in 1955 to $35.5 million in 1964 which is less than 1 percent .e of national mineral production values, table 1.

5 Although total mineral production values for the area cannot be published each year, to avoid disclosing individual company confidential information, the area in the past decade has accounted for between 36 and 44 perc_ent of the mineral production value in the State. The Puget Sound area accounted for about 44 percent of the State mineral production value in 1964. Throughout the period 1955-64, five counties have led in terms of mineral production value. The counties, in .order of descending value, are King, Whatcom, Pierce, Skagit, and Snohomish. On the average, mineral production value from the other seven counties amounts to less than $500,000 for each county annually and is confined largely to output of common con­ struction materials, such as sand and gravel and stone.

TABLE l. - Value of mineral production by county, 1955, 1960, 1964 (thousand dollars)

County 1Q5'5 lakl 1964 Minerals oroduced in lClhh in order of value Clallam •. .... • ...... *253 ~88 *231 Sand and gravel, stone. Island ...... l09 220 72 ' Stone, sand and gravel. Jefferson •. ... .•...... w 457. w· do, King., ...... •. , .... 9,151 7,8o5 12,826· Cement, sand and gravel, stone, coal, clays, peat. Kitsap • ...... •.•..•.•• 133 282 · 372 . Sand and gravel, stone, peat. Mason •...... ••• w w 234 Stone, sand and gravel. Pierce •...... • 2,502 3,290 4,327 Sand and gravel, lime, stone, clays, peat. e S1n Juan •...• .....••• • w 156 w. Sand and gravel, stone. Skagit, .•..•....••.. ,. w 3,053 4,108 Cement, olivine, sand and gravel, stone, soapstone peat. Snohomish •...... • • • 1,359 1,938 3,358 Sand and gravel, stone, peat, clays. Thurston •...... • 387 267. 347 . Sand and gravel, coal, stone, peat. Whatcom•.•.•...... •• w w w Cement, stone, sand and gravel, olivine , clays. Combined counties .•...• 10 0~4 w Q.676 '. Puget Sound Area Total• . 23,928 w 35,551 Sc.ate total...... 67,331( 72,4o4 8o,977 Percent of State tota,l 36 w 44 National total...... , ... million dollars 15,792 18,032 20,472

W Withheld to avoid disclosing individual company data.

Total recorded mineral production for the Puget Sound area approxi­ mates $751 million, table 2. Although Bureau of Mines records for metals, coal, and cement are complete from early 1900, information before 1933 is sparse for the other nonmetals. Nevertheless, nonmetals have accounted for $527.6 million, or 70 percent of the total recorded mineral production value. Coal and peat, at $·216 .4 million, comprised 29 percent of the total, and metals, at $7 million, were less than 1 percent of the total recorded value.

Cement, coal, sand and gravel, and stone stand out as dominant materials produced and comprise over 96 percent of the total recorded mineral production values in the area.

Several commodities, such as clay, lime, silica sands, olivine, talc, copper, gold, and manganese, have contributed significantly to the total minerals value and will possibly share in the future economic contributions to the area.

6 TABLE 2. - Mineral producLion in Puge t S0111nd are.a, 1900 ... 64

Qu.1ntlty 1/ Value Hinerals r r C1duced Years of ------1J.-.t..h ... ou""•:.:.•naad:.:."s,__l t-_,...,l thc:.:o:.:.u•~•e.cnd::.,sCL..!) --_-_ - _-_-_-_-_-_-_-_::c__:0:...:.:.11 ..::n__:t::._:.i ..::e:...•=------f----'-'reo::c.:corc,:dec•d,,_,c"r,_,o"'du,,.,c:.,t.!.:loeenc______Nonmetals e Abrasives...... W W Pierce, Skagit 1923-43, 1946· 47 Asbestos...... W W Skagit 1930-34 Clay••• , •• , •• • ••••••• , ., •.• , 2,~,0J $2,897 King. Pierce, Skagit, SnohOtPi:$h, Whatcom 1933-64 Cement (}76-pountl b. .. rcls).. l?."/,2:,0 }19,}19 King, Sk•glt, Whatcom 1909-64

Lime,...... 597 8,791 Xing 1 Pierce, San Juan, Snohocnish, Whatcom 1925-56, 1963-64 Olivine...... W W Skagit, Whatcom 1946-64 Pul'!'lice. : ,, , ,.,, .. , •••.• ,.,.. 1 2 King, Skagit, Snohoa,ish 191'6-52, 1955-56 s,nd and gravel,,,, •..••• , .. 161 ,275 118,182 All counties· 1935-64

Silic:a sand...... 492 2,864 King, Pierce, Ska'git 1 WhatcOnt 1937-64 Stono ...... ,...... 45,909 71,935 All counties 1929, 1933, 1937-64 Stro:,,tium.... •• •• • • • •• • . • •• • W W Skagit 19~0-42, 1946, 1953, 1956-59 Su Hur...... 2/ 9 King 1939-i.o, 1943-47, 1950 Ta lc ...... · ;r ., , ~ 6ol King, Skagit 1933-64 Undistributed }/...... l----""'-~l---'~0•,.,1~11 Total nonmetals !!,/...... 527,629 Fut!h

Coal...... 69 1 260 2141 912 King, Pierce, Skagit, Thurston. Wh4tcom 1900-64 PeatT~~~i· l----".,,Oee6_-1-__~~.~«~::s: '---.1 King, Kitsap, Piet'ce, Skagit, Snohomish, Thurs con 1957-61, f~~i~:!J:::::::::: 21 4 Mtotah 2/ .

Gold {ounces)...... 107 2,689 Clallam 1 King 1 Pitrce 1 Skagit, Snohomish. Wha:tcom 1904-64 Silver (ounces)...... 343 23() Clall•m• King, Pierce, Skagit, Snohomish, Whatcom 190i.-1,9, 1951-62 Copper ...... , 7 2,252 King, Pierce, Skagit, Sru>hQSrll6.J\.\ Wh~atcOffl 1904-11, 19l4·3(), 193}-49, 195l-56, l958·62 Lcad•zinc ...... ,.... g/ 3 King, Pierce, Skagit, SnohOO'lish~atcom 1908, 1910, 1914, l916, 1918, 1922, 1924-41, 1949, 1951-53, 1961 Chromite••••••••• •••• , .••••• 2/ 10 Sk•g1t 1917-18, 1956, l958-59 Iron ore • •• . •••••••••••• , ••• }5 w Snohocnhh 1907-10 Mllngane:se (35 percent or more Mn) •••••••• : ...... 52 1,845 Clallant, Ha.son 1916, 1924-26, 1942-1,6, 1952-5}, 1959 Mercu1·y ••..••• , •••• , ••• • ,, •• w w King 1957-58 Molybdenum • . .. . , ••..••.••.•• 3 II Snohomish 1958-59 Undistributed §/, ...... ,, ... 67 Tot al metals ~/ ••.•••••• 7,095 Mineral industry total '!!I, 751,159 W Figure '"'ithheld t o avoid disclo&in& individual company confidential

e Compiling production of minerals by decade, table 3 sbows that pro­ duction of construction materials, such as cement, sand and gravel, and stone, is increasing. Progressive increases also show for lime, olivine, and silica. Output of clays and talc has declined from the 1950-59 base, and coal output shows a continuous decline from the high rates of production established during the period 1910-19. For metals, production of gold was highest during the depression years, copper was mined extensively in the late 1920's and manganese output was greatest during World War II. Relative unit values of minerals over the period 1900-64 were computed by dividing actual u~ t values of select commodities by the Spencer raw material index (29),-1 table 4. Annual raw material prices were aggregated to conform to decade compilations derived from table 3 , The computations

Underlined numbers in parentheses refer to items in the list of references at the end of the report.

show that the relative price for many of the nonmetals, such as stone, clay, silica, talc, lime, and olivine, have declined in the past 25 years. e

7 Throughout the 25-year period, the relative unit price for cement increased only 17 cents per barrel, and sand and gravel increased only 6 cents per ton. Coal, in direct contrast to these figures, has increased about $2.00 per ton over the 25-year period.

Cx./..,A,t:1- ])1 -riv v.- MJ;pt •,rl· f' . a/A~ -f~.:f \-,- Mineral Commodity Reviews

Reviews by commodity are::-nea for minerals ascertained from past relationships to be important to the growth of the area~ ~st and current trends are given for each commodity where information is available. Rela­ tionships such as marketing factors (local, national, and regional), technology, specifications, processing techniques, substitution, trends in ore grade, and other important aspects for many commodities are discussed. Pertinent information also is given for minerals requirements by the pulp and paper and primary metals industries. The major mineral producers and related -...... _ industrial operations in the Puget Sound areas are shown by economic division in figure 2. Announced plant expansions also are given on the map. Sand e and gravel and connnon stone operations producing less than 100,000 tons annually are excluded. /

(1.l 3 Nonmetals e Cement . ( ~...( t.. -':~;,rJ,,f)

In the Puget Sound area, cement is produced by Lone Star Cement Co. at Concrete and Seattle, by Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co. at Bellingham, and by Ideal Cement Co. at Seattle. There are two other cement plants in the State, one in Pend Oreille County and one in Spokane County.

Cement production began in the Puget Sound area at the Concrete plant in 1909; output followed at Bellingham in 1913, at Grotto in 1928, and at Seattle in 1929. e Cement data for the State of Washington have been combined with Oregon figures in the past to avoid disclosing information concerning Oregon producers; therefore, past production data cannot be given for the State of Washington. Production of cement from the four plants in the area can be shown historically without revealing individual plant data in Oregon and Washington, and production figures for the four plants in the area are shown in table 5.

Commitments were made in 1965 by three firms to construct additional cement-producing facilities in the Puget Sound area. Peter Kiewit Sons' Co. was named general contractor for constructing Ideal Cement Co. 's proposed $20-million cement plant at Seattle.

8 TABLE ). - Production of minerals in Puget Sound area b-y decade !/ Nonmct.th Cement S:tnd {Ind "l'.JV

1900-09 519 $886 - . - . . . . - - . . 1910-19 9,417 15 , 404 - - . - . . - - - - 1920·29 1·,.21,4 37,208 . . 28 $70 - - . - - 98 $ 1,}69 1930-39 19,656 32,295 6,728 $2,921 1,419 2,049 82 $99 . . 2 $15 11,9 1,6·ra 19>,o-_1,9 27,966 6o,ll81 29,958 15 ,')'28 6 ,628 9,705 570 6o6 119 $419 21, 203 l '(} 2,:,91 19;0-59 33,035 101,,164 71,894 53,227 22,}i:6 }6,120 1,309 1,578 209 1,2}7 52 300 119 2,1,55 196o-6l1 19,393 68,1182 52,695 116 ,306 15,1,1.a 23 ,991 51,0 614 163 1,208 14 82 167 3,938

Toro I '}_/ 127,230 319,319 ' 161 ,275 118,182 45,909 71,935 2,501 ?.,1!1)·7 49?. ?.,864 93 601 '{06 I 1,8}1 Net.,l Fueh Fu~b ·-· Met.oh Nonmeta ls Coal Peat total Gold Silver Co.J21?!!., le~d zinc Other mctnls cot~ Year totnl val\Je Shon tons V:1lue Short tons Value value Ounces _V~luc Oune.cs V4 l ue V::ilue Value ~1.!t.1 1900-09 $886 17,148 $34,023 - - $34, 023 22 $Ji58 120 $72 $66 $52 ~6Ji 1910-19 15,404 19,276 1,9 ,821< - - 49,824 19 395 41 33 349 15 79 1920-29 38,647 14,061 52,359 - . 52,359 26 542 115 &) 1,347 320 2,2 1930-39 39,058 9,m 29,985 - - 29,985 37 1,213 27 15 219 - l,41i 19110-49 89,932 6 ,786 32,366 - - 32,366 1 51 33 2; 106 1,t,18 1,5 1950-59 199,082 1,895 13,592 107 $393 13,985 1 22 7 6 130 117 274 196o-64 1411,621 322 2 , 763 199 1,130 ),892 !J.I 8 1 1 38 - 47 Total '}_/ 527,629 69,26o 214,912 306 ·1,522 216,431, 107 2,689 }43 230 2,255 1,921 7,095 75 1,159 1/ Q\lantities and v., lu.cs arc tl,ousands. gj Inc ludes abrasives, asbesco:-; , lime, olivine, strontium, sulfur. }./ Columns and rows ~Y not add t o totals bccc1use of rounding. 2../ J.ess than 500.

TABLE 4. - Relative unit values of nonmetals and coal from Puget Sound area by decade, 1900-64 ];_/

Spencer Raw_ ' Material 2/ Construction materials Price Inde°x Cement Sand and o:ravel Stone Year lQ'i7-'iQ = 100 Actual Relative Actual Relative Actual Relative e 1900-09 34. 1 $1. 71 $5.00 1910-19 4o.8 1.64 4. 00 1920-29 69,2 2.16 3.12 $2. 50 $3.62 1930-39 52.6 1.64 3.12 $0.43 $0.82 l. 44 2. 74 194o-49 65.4 2. 18 3·.33 . 53 . 81 1.46 2.23 1950-59 93.0 3.15 3.38 .74 .80 l. 61 L 73 1960-64 101.0 3.53 ) . 50 .88 .87 1.55 1. 53 Other nonmetals Clav Silica ·-· ··- · Talc Undistributed Actual Relative Actual Relative Actual Relative Actual Relative 1900-09 36. l 1910-19 46.3 1920-29 46.2 $13,97 $30.20 1930-39 27.; $1.21 $4. 4; $7,50 $27,50 11.26 41.20 194o-49 47,5 1.06 2.23 $3. 52 $7,4o 8.46 17,8o 13. 82 29. 10 1950-59 87.8 1.21 1.38 5.92 6. 75 5.77 6.57 20.63 2;.50 1960-64 109.0 1. 14 1.05 7,41 6.8o 5.86 5.;8 23. 58 21.60 Fuels Coal Actual Relative 1900-09 20. 7 $1.98 $9-55 1910-19 29,3 2. 58 8.8o 1920-29 49.6 ;.72 7.50 1930-39 33.1 3.07 9.26 194o-49 66.8 4, 77 7.14 1950-59 98.4 7.17 7.;o 1960-64 94.o 8.58 9.10 1/ Values for cement are dollars per barrel; other conunodity values are dollars per ton. g! U.S. Department of Commerce. Raw Materials in the United States Economy : 1900-1961. Bureau of Census Working Paper 6, 1964 , 139 pp. The decade figure was compiled by aggregating - annual data. 9 TABLES. - Production of cement in the Puget ~ound area, 1950- 64

Quantity Year (?76-pound barrels) Va l ue 1930 2,823,354 1940 2,879,096 1950 3,223,513 $8,559,812 1951 3,584,928 10,570,36rr 19?2 3,543,539 10,512,001 195) 3,475,647 10,556,458 19)4 3,192,020 10,131,710 1955 3,783,517 12,007,528 1956 3,017,280 lOs,454,982 19j"( 2,240,301 7,659,128 1958 3,196,136 11,023,906 1959 3,778,502 12,688, 124 1960 3,815,359 13,305,679 1961 3,698,237 12,675,111 1962 3,676,688 13,064,249 1963 3,819,533 13,716,593 1964 4,291,717 15,721,047 e

10 Explanation for

FIGURE 2. - Location map, Puget Sound area mineral processing' and related industrial operations .

Cement Coal l , Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co. 37 . Coal, Inc. 2. Lone Star Cement Corp. 38. Palmer Coking Coal, Inc. 3. Lone Star Cement Corp, 39, Palmer Coking Coal, Inc. 4. Lone Star Cement Corp. 40. Queen Coal Co. 5 , Ideal Cement Co. 6. Kaiser Cement & Gypsum Corp. Olivine 7. Ideal Cement Co, 41. Northwest Olivine Corp, 42 . Olivine Corp, Lime 8. Pacific Lime, Inc. Silica 43 . Smith Bros. Silica Sand, Inc, Aluminum 44. Cavanaugh Molding Sand Co. 9. Kaiser Aluminum & Chem, Corp, 10 . Intalco Aluminum Corp, Talc and miscellaneous 45. Northwest Talc & Magnesium Copper (and byproduct sulfuric acid) 46. Manufacturers Mineral Co. 11, American Smelting & Refining Corp. Sand & Gravel, 100,000-200,000 tons Ferroalloys 47. Miles Co. 12 , Ohio Ferroalloys Corp. 48. North Kitsap Gravel & Asphalt Co . 49 . Olympia Oil & Wood Products Co. Steel SO. Reid Sand &·Gravel, Inc. 13. Bethlehem Steel Co . , Pac. Coast Div. 51, Stoneway Sand & Gravel Co. 14, Northwest Steel Rolling Mills, Inc . 52, Tim Corliss & Sons 15. Isaacson Iron Works 53. Western Sand & Gravel Co. Petroleum 200 2 000-500,000 tons 16. Mobil Oil Co . , Inc. 54 . Associated Sand & Gravel Co . , Inc. 17 . Shell Oil Co. 55 . Cadman Gravel Co. 18. Texaco, Inc. 56. Cascade Asphalt Paving Co. 19. Union Oil Co. of California 57. Freeway Concrete Supply Co. 20 . U.S. Oil and Refining Co, 58. Holroyd Land Co . , Inc. 59 . Lakeside Gravel Co. Sulfuric acid 60, North Star Sand & Gravel Co. 21. General Chem . Div. ,Allied Chem.Corp, 61. Renton Sand & Gravel 62 . Renton Sand & Gravel Chlorine 22. Georgia Pacific Corp . Over 500,000 tons 23. Hooker Chem. Corp. 63. Boise Cascade Corp., Klinker Div, 24 . Pennsalt Chemicals Corp. 64. Friday Harbor Sand & Gravel Co. 65. Glacier, Sand & Gravel Co. Glass 66 , Pioneer Sand & Gravel Co. 25. Northwestern Glass Co.

Gypsum Stone, 100,000-200,000 tons 26. Kaiser Cement & Gyps\JIII Corp. 67. Associated Sand & Gravel Co . , Inc. 68 . Black River Quarry, Inc. Clays 69. Woodworth & Co. , Inc. 28, Builders Brick Co. 29 . Builders Brick Co. 200,000-500,000 tons 30. International Pipe & Ceramics Corp . 70. Associated Sand & Gravel Co., Inc, 31 . International Pipe & Ceramics Corp. 71. General Construction Co. 32 . International Pipe & Ceramics Corp. 72. Kaiser Cement & Gypsum Corp. 33. International Pipe & Ceramics Corp. 73. Lone Star Cement Corp. 34. International Pipe & Ceramics Corp. 74. Puget Sound Bridge & Dry Dock Co . 35. Lowell Brick & Tile Co . 36. Lynden Clay Products, Inc,

11 Fig. 2. -

(LOCATION MAP - PUGET SOUND AREA MINERAL PROCESSING AND RELATED INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS)

12 Foundation testing and other work are underway at the company 25-acre site on the Duwamish River Waterway, and completion of the 2.5-million­ barrel-annual-capacity plant is scheduled for early 1967. The source of limestone for the operation will be from deposits at Texada Island, British Columbia. Kaiser Cement & Gypsum Corp~ announced a settlement agreement with the Federal Trade Commission providing for divestment of its cement plant at Bellingham and two of the three aggregate and ready­ mix cement plants of its subsidiary, Glacier Sand & Gravel Co. The agreement provided that the cement plant be divested within 4 years and the two aggregate and ready-mix concrete plants within 2 years. The company cement plant at Bellingham was sold to Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co. in 1966. The aggregate and ready-mix concrete plants of Glacier Sand & Gravel Co. to be divested were the Vancouver, Wash., plant and the Albina Street plant in Portland, Oreg . To protect its market positioµ in the area, Kaiser Cement & Gypsum Corp. signed a long-term lease with the Seattle Port Commission for a proposed 20-acre tidewater cement-plant site on the Duwamish River Waterway at Seattle. The company did not set a date for the proposed 2-million-barrel-annual-capacity cement plant construction; however, terms of the lease require the company to make property improvements of at least $10 million within 4 years. The firm is expected to use high-calcium limestone from Texada Island, British Columbia.

Cement firms operate distribution centers, including storage silos for bulk cement to service local markets; some large users, such as ready­ mixed concrete companies, have similar storage facilities. Cement is distributed to consumers in the Puget Sound area and the State of Washington and surrounding areas from the four operating plants and from three distribution terminals. Ideal Cement Co. operates a cement distri­ bution plant at Seattle. Kaiser Cement & Gypsum Corp. operates two terminals at Seattle. It is estimated that in 1964 about 1 million barrels of cement produced in the Puget Sound ar-ea was shipped out of the area to points of consumption within and outside the State. Shipments of portland cement by Washington producers by type of customer in 1964 was 58.6 percent to ready­ mixed concrete companies, 11.5 percent to concrete product manufacturers, 5.2 percent to building material dealers, 13.5 percent to highway contractors, 10.5 percent to other contractors, and less than 1 percent to Federal, State, and local Government agencies.

Cement consumption in the United States and Washington for select years from 1910-64 is shown in table 6. Per capita consumption in Washington has been greater than United States per capita consmnption, which is probably due to dam construction in the State; however, beginning in 1961, per capita consumption in the State fell below the United States figures.

Consumption of cement in the Puget Sound area, shown in table 7, was estimated from the State per capita figures. About 85 percent of the cement consumed in the area is within economic Division I, and an estimated 75 per­ cent is used in manufacturing concrete products such as ready-mixed concrete.

13 TABLE 6 . - Cement consump t i on (thousand 376- pound barrels) 1./

... United States Washington

Year Quantity Per capita Quant i ty Per capita

1910 74,381 0.81 NA NA 1920 94,001 o.86 1,834 1.33 1930 158,030 1.29 3,102 1.98 191+0 127,701 0.96 3,541 2.04 1950 222,608 1.48 4,210 l.77 1951 235,047 1.53 4, 518 1.86 1952 245,177 1.57 4, 954 2.01 1953 255,263 1.61 5,399 2.17 1952+ 269,827 1.67 5,631 2.24 1955 287,135 1.74 5, 595 2 . 15 19?6 303,399 1.80 4,683 1. 76 19) 7 283 ~912 1~67 5,088 1. 87 1958 302,070 1.73 6,545 2.36 1959 33 1,263 1.87 5, 721 2.03 1960 307 ,564 1. 71 5,643 1.98 1961 35 1,715 1.92 5~462 1.85 1962 326 . 146 1. 76 4,984 1.67 1963 343,061 1.82 5,224 1. 71 1964 358,761 1.88 5,368 1. 75 NA Not available~ !/ Data are in terms of destination of shipments of finished Portland cement from mills in the United States which is considered apparent consumption.

TABLE 7. - Estimated consumption of cement in Puget Sound area (thousand 376-pound barrels)

Economic divisions Puget Sound area

Year I II III Total

1950 2,117 220 175 2,510 1960 2, 995 285 220 3,500 1964 2,925 275 215 3,415

14 e Raw materials consumed in manufacturing cement in the Puget Sound area are shown in table 8. The raw material requirements are based upon cement plant production capacity, which is estimated to be 5.6 million barrels annually. During the past 15 years, cement plants in the area have operated at between 54 and 77 percent of total capacity. The existing cement plants in the Puget Sound area use large quantities of cement rock (argillaceous limestone), there­ by reducing their clay and silica requirements. The two proposed plants near Seattle will probably use high-calcium limestone from Texada Island, British Columbia, and clay and silica requirements will be greater from these plants.

TABLE 8. - Estimated raw materials used in ~anufacturing cement in the Puget Sound area, 1964

...r: xis:ing• .I.. p.: an.s.I. P:oposed plon;s 1/

·Quantity y' Qu~r,·1·.:.1.y y' ""·· ''

Cement rock (argillaceous limestone) . 1, oco 1,00J L.:mesrone · . '\OtS1 • h -ca I c1um· ) .. . •...... 3CQ 1, 100 f::'\ Clay and siliceous materials ..•..•. . 100 1.JU Slag ...... • 30 5G Gypsum ...... 50 60 Energy (m:liion kwhr} ...... • . .• 125 200 ·Plant capacity (million banels) • ••••• 5.6 8.5

?!cnts under construction end onnovnced expansion. Thousand short. tons unless otherwise specifled. Assuming limestone (high-calcium) will come from Texada Island, British Columbia.

Transportation cost restrains the volume of imports and exports, limits the market area of the individual plant, and .plays a major role in governing the movement of cement within an area, and from one area to another. In 1964, 84 percent of the cement produced in the area was transported by truck, 14 percent was shipped by rail, and 2 percent e was moved by boat.

15 Originally, shipments of cement were in barrels to protect the product from exposure to moisture; however, the barrel has not been used as a container for many years. The traditional units of measure have been retained in showing cement statistics; bags containing 1 cubic foot of portland cement weigh 94 pounds, and four bags are equal to one 376-pound barrel. In 1964, over 88 percent of the shipments of cement in the Puget Sound area was in bulk, and all the rest was in paper bags. Specially designed equipment is used to handle cement in bulk. Bulk Transportation is by special trucks, railroad cars, ships, and barges which are self-unloading and _eliminate the costs of pack.aging and containers.

Labor costs have been reduced by use of higher capacity machinery combined with centralized controls with electronic or automatic equip­ ment. The amount of labor required to manufacture a barrel of cement is estimated to range from 6 to 15 man-minutes, depending upon size and degree of automadon of the plant. If employm,ent costs. are estimated at $3.50 per hour, then there is from 36 to 88 cents labor in producing a barrel of cement. Estimated labor cost for producing cement in the Puget Sound area in 1964 was 62 cents per barrel.

The percentage increases in price for cement have lagged far behind competing building materials such as lumber . Total average value of cement produced in the area by 10-year intervals has increased from $2.16 per barrel, f.o.b. plants, for the period 1920-29, to $3.53 per barrel during the 5-year interval between 1960 and 1964. When the value is compared in terms of constant 1957-59 dollars, the relative price has increased only $0 . 38 per barrel over a period of 45 years, or from $3.12 per barrel, f.o.b. plants, during the 'period 1920-29, to $3.50 per barrel during the period 1960-64.

It is illegal for cement companies to quote prices for their products at designated pricing points, but individual firms acting independently can absorb freight charges to compete in the available market. (1!)

Portland cement has little utility alone but rather is the material which, in the presence of water, binds mineral aggregates into concrete, or as a constituent of mortar, will hold building blocks or bricks together. Most portland cement approach their ultimate strength in 1 year and reach 65 to 75 percent of their ulti­ mate strength in 7 days. High-early-strength types reach almost one-half of their ultimate str.ength in 1 day. Cement is an essential constituent of concrete, and there is no substitute for cement in this field. As the binder in concrete for engineering construction, portland cement has comparatively little COlllpetition. For many concrete uses, the consumer has a choice of alternate materials (bituminous concrete) or of using other materials such as pozzolan in combination with cement to lower the cement requirements. The choice of principal structural material is governed by many factors such as cost, personal prefer­ ence, and building codes and specifications.

16 Specifications issued by the American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) in 1917 were accepted as u. s. Government standards. Since then, revisions have been made from time to time as various types of cement were produced to meet certain requirements. In 1940, the ASTM grouped portland cements under five types, based partly upon the proportions of calcium, silica, and alumina in the cement. The latest ASTM specifications are voluminous; the important specifications which have been determined are listed for each type of cement and may be obtained from the ASTM.

Clays are classified into six groups by the Bureau of Mines. These are kaolin, ball clay, fire clay, bentonite, fullers earth, and miscellaneous clay. Fire clay and miscellaneous clay are the only types produced in the Puget Sound area. Fire clays are basically kaolinitic but usu~lly include other clay minerals and both organic and inorganic compounds. Generally, fire clay indicates use for refractories.

The term miscellaneous clay refers to clay and shales not included under the other five clay types. There are no recognized grades based on prepara­ tion, and very little based on usage, although such clay may sometimes be referred to as common, brick, sewer pipe, or tile clay.

The quantities of fire clay and miscellaneous clay produced in the Puget Sound area cannot be revealed individually for many past years, because it would reveal individual company data. The information can be published separately for only 3 years during the past 17 years, or from the period 1948-64. Total production of clays in the Puget Sound area is shown in table 9.

Fire clays for refractories totaled 9 percent of total clay pro­ duction in 1948, 35 percent of total clay output in 1954, and 28 percent of clay production in 1957. These clays were valued, f.o.b. mine, at $2.77 per ton in 1948; $2.55 per ton in 1954;· and $2.53 per ton in 1957. Common clays produced for the years specified above totaled 75,722 tons in 1948, 68,379 tons in 1954, and 130,640 tons in 1957. The clays were valued at $0.75 per ton, f.o.b. mine, in 1948; $0.71 per ton in 1954; and $0.88 per ton in 1957.

Output of miscelle.neous clay and fire clay in the Puget Sound area in 1964 totaled 106,752 tons valued at $126,297. The bulk of the pro­ duction was from King County; some was produced in Pierce, Snohomish, and Whatcom Counties.

In King County, the glacial clay that is widely distributed along the coast has been used for many years in making structural clay products. The better grades of clay and carbonaceous shales for making refractories at the Renton complex of International Pipe & Ceramics Corp. occur in southern King Ccunty.

The highest concentration of ceramic plants in the Pacific North­ west is in the vicinity of Seattle. Six manufacturing plants in the Seattle area produce structural clay products, and refractories.

17 TABLE 9. - Clays produced in the Puget Sound area, 1948-64

clavs !Miscellaneous ( common) Fire clay ( refractorv) Total Value Year Short tons Value Short tons Value Short tons $56,398 7,186 $19,974 82,908 $76,372 1948 75,722 101,576 1949 w w w w 90,749 w w w w 78,967 77,846 1950 100,856 19'.:, l w w w w 76,584 w w w w 131,973 146,712 1952 132,969 1953 w w w w 109,637 68,379 48,322 36,845 93 ,910 105,224 142,232 1954 187,695 1955 w w w w 181,111 w w w w 143,387 189,299 1956 245,966 1957 130,640 119,295 50,028 126,671 180,668 w w w w 154,1314 174,546 1958 179,918 1959 w w w w 146,376 1960 w w w w 128,247 145,850 1961 w w w ~ 118,305 133,520 w w w w 80,787 90,840 1962 117,780 1963 w w w w 105,917 1964 w w w w 106,752 126,297 W Withheld to avoid disclosing individual company data. Many clay deposits are mined in central and southeastern King County by International Pipe & Ceramics Corp. and transported to the company clay-processing complex at Renton. The mining in recent years of the Blum, Harris, and Kummer clay deposits, all in King County, by Inter­ national Pipe & Ceramics Corp. has been the most extensive local develop­ ment of ceramic raw materials of refractory grade in the Puget Sound area. Common clays for manufacturing brick and other structural clay products have been mined by the company from the Palmer, Renton, Preston, and many other pits in King County. Some of the more important clay prop­ erties of the Puget Sound area are discussed below.

Reserves of 1,715 million tons are outlined at the Blum deposit; the iron oxide content of the material is high, averaging 8.9 percent. (15) Kaolinite is the principal clay mineral; boehmite and gibbsite also are present in the shale. The material is dug and hauled by truck about 21 miles for proces;ing at the Renton plant of International Pipe & Ceramics Corp.

At the Harris mine, a dark-gray carbonaceous shale is mined. Over­ burden is stripped, and the clay face is blasted and loaded by drum hoist and scraper. The material is hauled by truck about 8 miles for processing at the Renton plant of International Pipe & Ceramics Corp. Underground mining is contemplated for this property in the future; reserves are estimated to be adequate for 50 years' supply at current rates of production.

The Kummer property, mined intermittently by International Pipe & Ceramics Corp., yields a high-quality carbonaceous clay. Underground mining of this superduty refractory clay is by room-and-pillar method.

18 The clay is burned in piles on the surface to oxidize carbonaceous material, hauled by truck 18 miles to Renton, and calcined in a rotary kiln at the plant of International Pipe & Ceramics Corp. Proved and inferred reserves are estimated to be adequate for 25 to 30 years' supply at current rates of output.

At the Auburn mine, operated intermittently by International Pipe & Ceramics Corp., a low-heat-duty fire clay high in silica, feldspar, and mica is produced by open-pit methods and haul~d by truck 20 miles to the Renton plant. Reserves, equally divided between proved and inferred classifications, are estimated to be over 300,000 tons.

At the Palmer mine near Palmer, operated intermittently by Inter­ national Pipe & Ceramics Corp., a siliceous sedimentary clay is dug and hauled 23 miles to the Renton plant for making structural clay products. Proved reserves are estimated to be 125,000 tons.

The Renton property is a thick bed of red-firing shale adjacent to the plant of International Pipe & Ceramics Corp . The shale, ranging from dark-gray to brown and from plastic to sandy in consistency, is blasted from a 150-foot quarry face and loaded into trucks for hauling to storage. Reserves are estimated to be very large.

The semirefractory clays of the Hammer Bluff formation near Kummer about 6 miles north of Enumclaw have been mined in the past by Inter­ national Pipe & Ceramics Corp. Also, an estimated 1.1 million tons of alunite-bearing volcanics ranging from 30 percent alunite down to 20 percent alunite is deposited on the slopes of White River Valley, 10 miles east of Enumclaw. Other King County deposits of refractory clays include the Kangley, Kanaskat, and Durham deposits.

The only other recent clay producer in King County, Builders Brick Co., produces a red-firing plastic clay from the Newcastle deposit near Newcastle with proved reserves of 50,000 tons and inferred reserves of 100,000 tons. The material is used by the company in manufacturing structural clay products.

The large and constantly increasing marketing area of King County makes it a natural center of ceramic industry. Additional sources of ceramic raw materials within the county will depend upon further pros­ pecting in the coal-mine areas for shales suitable for making expanded aggregates, and•in the areas near the Blum, Kanaskat, Kangley, and Kummer deposits for-high-alumina shales for refractory raw materials.

A recent development has been the importing of clay material from California to the Seattle area. Quantities of imports are not avail­ able, but it is estimated that the difference between 1964 production of about 107,000 tons and 1957 production of 181,000 tons is made up of imports. Based on this assumption, imports to the Seattle area probably approximate 75,000 tons annually.

Many clay mines near Seattle have been subject to zoning restric­ tions and have been closed. A specific example is the Taylor Clay mine e .

19 and plant formerly operated by International Pipe & Ceramincs Corp. The mine and plant were purchased by the City of Seattle, and the plant was dismantled to protect the city watershed; operations ceased in 1950.

Clays suitable for manufacturing structural clay products are widespread in Pierce County. Currently, Buil9ers Brick Co. digs an altered white to light-gray andesitic rock from the Clay City pit. The material is made into structural clay products at a plant with capabilities of 50,000 equivalents per day. The only significant deposit of refractory-grade clay in the county is the La Grande property in cuts and pits along the Chicago, Milwaukee, & St. Paul railroad 1/2 mile north of La Grande. The clay was mined and processed in past years by Denny-Renton Clay & Coal Co. at a plant near La Grande .

Lowell Brick Co. digs clay from a glacial deposit at Lowell in Snohomish County for manufacturing common brick. Reserves are extensive, but not much exploration has been done. The clay products are marketed in the Puget Sound area and in central Washington.

The carbonaceous shale deposits near S1.U11as in Whatcom County con­ stitute the only known deposits of clay better than structural grade in that area. The Sumas clay mine, operated in past years by Inter­ national Pipe & Ceramics Corp., yielded a carbonaceous shale with a p.c.e. of 31. On an ignited basis, the Fe o3 content was 2.45 percent; Al o , 47.33 percent; and Si0 , 49.82 percenf.2 2 3 2 Lynden Clay Products, Inc., has in the past intermittently operated a structural clay plant near Everson.

Shales in the Waterman Peninsula area of Kitsap County exhibit good expansion properties. The location, on waterways to Seattle, Tacoma, Olympia, Bremerton, Everett, and Bellingham, makes this area an ideal location for an expanded aggregate plant. More extensive prospecting of these shales is needed. Presently, there are no clay industries operating in the county.

Clays are mined for manufacturing cement in King, Skagit, and Whatcom Counties. • In general, specifications for clays depend upon end use and are based upon the method of preparation and physical and chemical tests of the products. Many producers and consumers rely on their own tests and specifications applicable to their specific needs; however, numerous specifications have been established by the American Society for Testing Materials; American Foundrymen's Association; American Oil Chemists Society; American Petroleum Institute; Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry; and other organizations,

For ceramic purposes, there are no direct substitutes for clays, although there are alternate materials for almost all ceramic clay products, Wood, glass, concrete, plastics, various metals, and other materials may be used in place of ceramic clay products. There are alternate materials for most clays used for nonceramic purposes. In

20 many nonceramic uses, clays are used because they are less expensive than other materials having equal or better qualifications.

Cinders, blast furnace slag, pumice, and perlite are substitutes for expanded shale and clay lightweight aggregate in some uses. Argillaceous limestone (cement rock), where. available, reduces or eliminates the need for clay in manufacturing cement .

Fire clay and kaolin have a complex relationship with a wide variety of other refractory materials, including silica, dolomite, mullite, magnesite, chromite, graphite, bauxite, olivine, and rare­ earth oxides.

Transportation is a relatively small factor in the clay-processing industries. Most of the miscellaneous-clay and fire-clay ·processing plants obtain their supply of raw material from deposits adjacent to the plant. An exception is the International Pipe & Ceramics Corp. clay processing complex near Renton. The company hauls clay by truck to the Renton plant from pits up to 27 miles distant. Transportation is a major factor in marketing of brick, tile, lightweight aggregates, and other clay construction products. Only in special instances can the marketing radius exceed a few hundred miles.

Intense competition from other construction materials is threaten­ ing the structural clay products industry; in some cases, principal competing products, such as glass, metals, conventional and special concretes, are replacing clay brick and tile.

Fire-clay industries also are ~hreatened by competition. In some local areas, the high-grade fire-clay deposits are becoming exhausted. Competition from other refractories is increasing because of technolog­ ical changes and because of higher maintenance and replacement costs involved with fire-clay products. Data are lacking on the quantities and qualities of clay and shale suitable for production of expanded lightweight ~ggregates and for other uses in the Puget Sound area. Lack of adequate data on potential markets for lightweight clay and shale aggregate prevents the optimum growth of the lightweight aggregate industry. • Lime

Lime is regarded as a basic industrial chemical and the starting material for a wide variety of chemicals. In the Pacific Northwest, it is used in the construction industry for finishing lime, masons lime, and for soil stabilization. Also, lime has wide application in the metallurgical industries, where it is used in ore concentration, smelting, and refining copper and aluminum~ and as a flux in steel making. Olher major industrial uses of lime in the Pacific Northwest include the pulp and paper and beet sugar industries. The neutralization properties of lime permit its use for sewage and water treatment of industrial, municipal, and agricultural water and wastes. Lime pro­ e. duction in the Pacific Northwest in 1964 is shown in table 10.

21 TABLE 10. - Lime production in the Pacific Northwest, 1964 !/ e

Production End use ( short tons)

Captive operations Sugar refining 170,120 Other g/ 110,207

Total lime used 280,327

Non- captive operations }/ Meta llurgica 1 14 , 004 Pulp and paper 42 , 151 Water treatment 1,910 Other !!J i/ 51,803

Total lime sold 109,868

Total lime production 390,195

1/ Excludes lime regenerated from calcium carbonate sludge at pulp mills. g/ Includes lime produced at operations and used directly for metallurgical purposes, sewage treatment, and manufacturing calcium carbide. A distribution by specific use cannot be . given because it is individual company confidential data. e }/ Includes production that was sold by Pacific Lime , Inc., Tacoma, Wash.; Elliston Lime Co., Elliston, Mont.; Chemical Lime Co. , Baker, Oreg. ; and Ash Grove Lime & Portland Cement Co . , Portland, Oreg. ~/ Includes lime sold for sewage treatment, petroleum refining, manufacturing calcium carbide i/, and for tanning, construction, agricultural, and unspecified purposes . Part of this category was specified by producers regarding end use. A distribution by specific use cannot be e given because it is individual company confidential data. 2/ The average annual quantity of lime sold for manufacturing calcium carbide from 1962-64 was 24,800 tons,

Lime production figures cannot be revealed for the State of Washington or for the Puget Soun~ area, because it would reveal indivi­ dual company data. Significant past production of lime in the Puget Sound area for open-market sale has come from two operations. From 1925-56, Roche Harbor Lime & Cement Co. produced lime from limestone mined near the plant at Roche Harbor, San Juan County. The plant was permanently closed on Sept. 30, 1956, and subsequently dismantled. In 1963, Pacific Lime, lnc., began production from a 250-ton-per-day lime plant at Tacoma, Pierce County. Limestone for the operation comes from company quarries at Texada Island, British Columbia. The Tacoma operation currently is the only lime producer in the State manufacturing lime for open-market sale. Small amounts of lime have been produced in the past from intermittent operations in King, Snohomish, and Whatcom Counties. Captive-lime plants in the State, where lime is manufactured by a specific industry for its own use, include operations at sugar refineries in Grant and Yakima Counties. Re-use of lime is customary in the pulp and paper industry. Reclamation plants recarbonate the used lime sludge, dewater it, and recalcine. Regenerated lime for pulp and paper operations accounts for a large part of the total lime production in the Puget Sound ar~a.

22 TABLE 11. - Apparent primary open-market lime consumption in Washington (short tons) Per capita consumption (tons per person) Shipments to Tota 1 apparent United Year IImports }_/ Washington g/ consumption Washington States 1q-:,o 24,214 37,136 61,350 .026 .049 1~15 1 22,031 48,577 70,608 .029 .052 1952 15,762 51,994 67,756 .028 .050 1953 18,496 52 ,997 71,493 .029 , .059 1.0:=;4 25,524 45,872 71,396 .029 .052 1~'5~ 28,676 49,212 77,888 .030 .062 19S6 31,053 46,761 77,814 .029 .061 19'5'7 37,440 32,783 70,223 .027 .059 1958 15,551 32,187 47,738 .017 .052 19"59 15,488 33,435 48,923 .017 .069 1960 17,392 30,543 47,935 .017 .072 1961 18,862 ,2/451,011 469,873 .16 .081 ·1962 19,009 ,2/471,041 490,050 . 16 .094 1963 2,588 68,781 71,369 .023 .047 1964 80 73,195 73,275 .024 .050 .. 1/ Imports of lime through the Washington customs district. }./ Shipments to Washington of primary open-market lime sold in the United States. ll Includes regenerated lime and lime at captive operations. Regenerated lime totaled 349,247 tons in 1961 and 367,278 tons in 1962. Data are not comparable with other year~.

Apparent lime consumption in the State of Washington is shown in table 11. Per capita consumption figures are compared for Washington and the United States. In 1964, Washington per capita consumption was about one-half of the United States figure, or about 50 pounds per person as compared with about 100 pounds per person consumed in the United States. It is estimated that about 350,000 tons of· lime is regenerated annually at pulp and paper mills in the State, and a large share of this production is in the Puget Sound area. Significant quantities are produced captively for use in sugar refining. In the Puget Sound area, an estimated 47,000 tons of lime is consumed annually exclusive of that recycled at pulp and paper mills. In addition to this, approximately 140,000 tons or 40 percent of the State total recycled lime is regenerated annually for use at pulp and paper mills. Recycled lime production at pulp mills in the Puget Sound area comes from opera­ tions of Crown Zellerbach Corp., Port Townsend; St. Regis Paper Co., Tacoma; and Weyerhaeuser Co., Everett.

Quotations in Engineering News~Record for delivered hydrated finishing lime in December 1965 were $52.00 per ton in Seattle, which was the highest delivered price recorded in the United States. The average price reported for 20 major cities in the United States was $38.94 per ton. The delivered price for pulverized quicklime was e. $48.00 per ton in Seattle and .averaged $38.15 per ton for 13 cities in the United States. 23 There are no alternate materials, within a comparable price range, to replace lime in its use as an alkaline reagent in manufacturing chemicals and in many industrial uses. Finely ground limestone has largely replaced lime in agricultural uses because it lasts longer in the soil and requires less frequent application.

In building construction, gypsum plaster and wallboard have largely replaced the lime-sand plastered walls because of lower costs of instal­ lation. The use of lime for masonry mortars has declined because of utilization of cement for mortar.

Olivine

Olivine is a magnesium-iron silicate usually found in igneous rocks such as basalt and gabbro. It is the principal constituent of a rock known as dunite. Conunercial domestic deposits are in Washington North Carolina, and Georgia. '

In Washington, the olivine reserve in the form of dunite, with layers and lenses of chromite, is estimated at SO million tons on Cypress Island and many million tons in the Twin Sisters region. (12) The reserve of olivine is estimated at 230 million tons averaging 4~ percent magnesia in North Carolina and Georgia. (14)

The origin and mode of emplacement of the massive Twin Sisters Range (Skagit and Whatcom Counties) olivine-chromite-bearing zone has been described. (26) The Twin Sisters dunite body, an elliptical mass 10 miles long and 1;°"miles wide, is located about 60 miles north of Seattle and 20 miles east of Bellingham. Dunite forms the entire Twin Sisters Range with a total area of about 36 square miles; it is exposed vertically from 1,500 feet to 7,000 feet, the highest point in the range.

Open-pit methods are used to mine olivine in Washington. Olivine output, mined by open-pit methods, is crushed and ground to various size fractions and marketed principally for use as foundry sand, rather than as a source of )!!agnesia, to consumers in Western and Midwestern States and Canada. In 1964, crude material was mined by Northwest Olivine Co., Pacific Olivine, and Scheel Stone Co , in Skagit County; and by Olivine Corp., Whatcom County. Olivine was processed by crushing, grinding, and sizing At plants of Northwest Olivine Co., Hamilton;· North­ west Talc & Magnesium Corp., Clear Lake; and Olivine Corp., Bellingham, The Olivine Corp. operations at Bellingham have been described. (25)

To avoid disclosing individual company data, output of olivine cannot be shown for· many past years. According to the Northwest Olivine Co. 1961 general report to stockholders, the company shipped to consumers 3,200 tons of olivine in 1958; 4,591 tons in 1959; and 6,674 tons in 1Q60. The material was valued at about $28.50 per ton, f,o,b. plant. Output has increased sharply in recent years, and in 1964, processed olivine tonnages were 26 percent greater than in 1963.

24 Although output of olivine has been used for foundry sand rather than a source of magnesia, in 1965, a pilot plant was constructed and operated at Bremerton to determine the feasibility of processing olivine for its magnesium content. Feasibility results of the pilot-plant operation are not available; however, it is not unreasonable to expect that the vast resources of olivine of the Twin Sisters Range will be sources of magnesia in the future.

In the United States, magnesium and magnesium compounds are produced from sea water, dolomite, ores other than dolomite, and evaporite deposits and lake and well brines. In 1963, about 74 percent of the caustic calcined and refractory magnesia sold or used by producers in the United States came from well brines, bitterns, and sea water, using calcined dolomite or lime in the process. The remaining 26 per­ cent was from magnesite. About 2 million tons of dead-burned dolomite used for refractories and flux was produced from dolomite.

The principal magnesium ores other than dolomite for recovering magnesium are magnesite, brucite, and olivine. Eleven percent of the estimated 65 million tons of magnesite resources in the United States is in Stevens County. (.§) Northwest Magnesite Co. furnishes refractory magnesia to the steel industry from operations in Stevens County. The quantity of material mined each year cannot be given, because it would reveal individual company data.

Depending upon requirements, many refractories made from materials such as bauxite, alumina, zirconia, mullite, silicon carbide, and boron carbide may be used in place of magnesia refractories.

Specifications regarding specific uses for olivine are scarce, although the Steel Founders' Society of America has issued raw materials specifications for olivine. The specifications are used by the steel­ casting industry as a control for purchasing olivine aggregate. To insure quality material, specifications are needed from founders of other metals. According to papers given in 1964 at the Northwest Regional Conference, American Foundrymen's Society, olivine can be substituted for zircon in many foundry applications. (20) Also, olivine fills out complicated shell cores better than zircon and has permitted elimination of sand additives, with consequent reduction in costs at operations of Pacific Southern Foundries, Inc., Bakersfield, Calif. (1) Experience with the use of olivine from the Twin Sisters Range as· a molding~ facing, coremaking, and refractory sand at a Pacific Northwest foundry has been described. (10) . . . ~

Peat For the purposes of collecting and compiling economic and statistical data on the peat industry, the Bureau of Mines has classified peat into three general types--moss peat, reed-sedge peat, and peat humus. Moss peat consist~ chiefly of the poorly or moderately decomposed stems and leaves of several species of sphagnum, hypn\Dll, and other mosses. Reed­ sedge peat consists chiefly of the poorly or moderately decomposed remains of reeds, canes, and reed-like grasses and sedges, such as wire grass, saw grass, rushes, and cattails. Peat humus is peat which is so decom­ posed that its biological identity has been lost. 25 The peat resources of the United States have been surveyed extensively, and known reserves are estimated at approximately 14 billion tons of air-dried peat. Peat is found in 35 States in the United States; however, the principal deposits, or 90 percent of ·the reserves, are found in Minnesota, Wisconsin, Florida, and Michigan. Less than 1 percent of the total United States reserve, or an estimated 73 million tons, is in t he Pacific Coast States of California, Oregon, and Washington. Peat reserves at active operations in Washington were estimated at 2 million tons in 1964, or 2 percent of the total peat reserves at active opera­ tions in the United States.

Peat deposits are numerous in the Puget Sound areas, and the resources have been described. (27) Nine of 14 peat deposits in the State with areas of 600 acres or more and 19 of the 21 deposits in the State with maximum depth of 40 feet or more are in the Puget Sound area.

Peat production in Washington from 1950-64 is shown in table 12. Production by county was not available previous to 1957, but most, if not all, peat production came from the Puget Sound area. Peat moss and reed-sedge peat are the common types produced in the Puget Sound area, although some humus is removed . Washington ranked first in peat output for the United States during the period 1951-54. In 1964, the State ranked sixth in domestic production, accounting for 5 percent of the national total. Output was from 15 operations, and King County led in peat production, followed by Snohomish, Thurston, Kitsap, Pierce, and Skagit Counties. Humus, peat moss, and reed-sedge peat were produced, ~nd most was s.old in bulk.

TABLE 12. - Peat production in Washington, 1950-64

Year Short tons Value 1950 1951 45,304 $98,955 1952 42,58o 111,386 1953 32,107 104,274 1954 43,134 153,058 1955 37,640 113,254 1956 37,043 128,964 1957 39,364 153,274 1958 34,642 115,941 1959 32,884 123,586 1960 27,770 120,748 1961 55,543 359,099 1962 42,762 288,215 1963 38,648 187,549 1964 35,017 170,497

26 Before 1955, most domestic peat was sold locally in bulk because packaging materials in which peat could be packaged and sold economically had not been developed. With the advent of synthetic films, inexpensive moisture-proof containers became available, and large quantities of domestically produced peat are now packaged and distributed to all parts of the United States. In the Puget Sound area, bulk peat usually is sold by the producer directly to consumers. Prices of peat vary greatly, but in general, the sales value depends chiefly upon the kind of peat, the degree of processing, and whether the peat is sold in bulk or packaged. In most instances, the value of packaged peat is about double that of bulk peat, and in 1964, the average plant ·price of bulk peat in the United States was $7.04 per ton, while the unit price of packaged peat was $12.05. Peat sold in bulk for use in mixed fertilizer had the lowest average unit value ($6.14 per ton); packaged peat sold for packing flowers ($17.70 per ton) and for potting soils ($68.86 per ton) had the highest.

The average unit value for peat sold in Washington was $4.79 per ton in 1964, the lowest for any State. The average price per ton for all domestic peat sold in 1964 was $9.67.

Virtually all the peat consumed in the Puget Sound area is used for agricultural and horticultural purposes. The outlook for the domes­ tic peat industry is expected to be one of continued growth. Since 1945, the number of producers in the United States has more than doubled, and domestic output has increased more than fivefold. Consumption in the Puget Sound area should continue upward, because peat is in demand by homeowners, landscape gardeners, nurseries, and greenhouses in most parts of the area, particularly in urban and suburban areas. Future output, expected to reach 50,000 tons by 1980, is projected for past production trends.

A continuing problem of both producers and consumers is the lack of an adequate classification system for identifying the various types of peat. The present and most generally accepted system which groups peats according to botanical origin, is overlapping and does not recog­ nize their different chemical and physical properties. The problem currently is being res·olved by American Society for Testing and Materials Committee D-29, which was organized in 1963 to stimulate research and formulate definitions and specifications relating to peats, mosses, humus, and related products.

Sand and Gravel The term~ consumption and production are used interchangeably for sand and gravel as stocks are relatively small and constant. Sand and gravel are not major commodities in foreign trade.

27 Sand and gravel production is divisible into two main classes: commercial production which consists of a particular plant ' s output with at least part of the material sold on the open market, and Govern­ ment-and-contractor production, which is produced exclusively for use on Federal, State, county, or municipal projects . If part of the pro­ duction from a particular plant is sold commercially, the entire output is placed in the commercial category.

Sand and gravel production in the Puget Sound area for the period 1950-64 is delimited by commercial and Govermnent-and-contractor (non­ connnercial) operations in table 13. Sand and gravel production in the Puget Sound area has ranged from 34 to 62 percent of the State out­ put in the past 15 years; in 1964, area output was 39 percent of the State total. The largest amount of sand and gravel production in the area is in Division I, and for the period 1960-64, output in that division was over 80 percent of the area total. Most of the production in Division I is from commercial operations.

Combined output of sand and gravel from Division II and III for the past 5 years has been less than 20 percent of the area total. The material from this area has been largely from Government-and-contractor operations. Much of the Government-and-contractor production in the Puget Sound area is bank-run material which is used for roads.

The number of commercial sand and gravel plants operating in the Puget Sound area is given in table 14. Data were compared with State figures and show a range of capacity for producing plants in the State and in the Puget Sound area.

In the State of Washington in 1964, there were 167 commercial sand and gravel plants, of which 94 were stationary, and 73 were portable or semiportable operations. About one-half, or 79 of these plants, were in the Puget Sound area where sand and gravel was produced at 20 station­ ary operations shown in figure 2, and 59 portable and semiportable plants.

The largest plants in the State," or all operations producing over 500,000 tons annually, are in the Puget Sound area. Most, or 82 percent of the sand and gravel production in the area, came from stationary plants. The remaining 18 percent came from a number of portable and semi­ portable operations throughout the Puget Sound area. There are no stationary plants in Division Ir'I, and there is only one operation of that type in Division.II. Nineteen of the stationary operations were located in Division I.

Sand and gravel usage in the Puget Sound area in 1964 is shown in table 15. Analysis by division is given, and the data are compared with State figures. About 43 percent of the sand and gravel produced in the area during that year was used as road material, 33 percent was used for building purposes, and 19 percent was fill, largely for road­ beds. Overal~, the extensive utilization of sand and gravel in concrete for construction of buildings, for concrete paving~ and as roadbed fill accounts for 96 percent of production in the Puget Sound area.

)

28 TABLE 13. - Sand and gravel production in the Puget Sound area, 1950-64 ( thousand ah,ort tons)

Oivisjon l Uivisior~ 11 and Ill Pui

TABLE 14. - Sand and gravel production from commercial plants in Washington and Puget Sound area, 1964·

Wa ~~ ; n"'t"n !P.u<>et Sound Annual production Number of Total production Number of Total production (short tons) olants

Tota 1 167 14,637 79 9,863

1/ TABLE 15. - Sand and gravel usage in the Puget Sound area 1 1964 - (thouaand short tons and thousand dollars)

uiviS 1ons Puget Sound State 1 II I I tot l total Percent of !Jse Ouantltv Value Quantitv Value Ouantitv Value Ouantitv Value -Ouantitv Value State total

Bu.ilding...... • . 3,426 $~, 750 601 $556 28 $25 4 ,055 $4,331 5,616 $6,496 72 Road mat,eri.al•..•.. 4,147 .089 577 490 632 529 5,356 5,lo8 21,933 16,0;6 24 Fill •.... ,,,, ,,, •. , 2,o85 1,316 282 134 32 22 2,399 1,472 3,111 2,054 77 Railroad ballast... 141 72 4 3 - - 145 75 376 271 39 Other g/ ...... , .. ,. 313 278 49 48 4 3 ;66 329 884 1,114 41 Total ..•... .. ,,. l0, 112 9,505 1,513 1,231 696 579 12,321 11,315 31,920 25,971 39 1/ Excludes special industrial sands. e °g/ !Jnspecified purposes.

29 Crushed stone and other materials are used to implement or replace sand and gravel in some types of construction. The materials are sold at prices comparable to those received for sand and gravel in areas of short supply, and if transportation costs are lower, competition for markets is keen, although many producers of building materials stock all types of aggregates.

Sand and gravel has a relatively low value per ton; therefore, transportation factors loom large in the economics of the industry and sometimes make up more than two-thirds of the selling price. There has been a marked trend toward increased truck transporatiQn for many years. Utilization of portable plants also has shortened the distance of transport.

The unit value of sand and gravel produced in the Puget Sound area for the past 25 years has increased from an average of $0.53 per ton during the period 1940-49 to $0 .88 per ton during the past 5 years. In terms of 1957-59 constant dollars, the unit value has increased only $0.06 per ton in the past 25 years, or .from an average of $0.81 per ton during the period 1940-49 to $0 .87 per ton in the past 5 years .

Because of the relatively low-unit value of sand and gravel, deposits are seldom surveyed in depth to determine reserves. As a result, few definite measures have been taken toward conservation; the supply generally has been considered adequate except in deposits near large cities. Indirectly, a measure of conservation can be considered as a result of using portable plants that are able to mine small, scattered deposits near points of application. Little or no regard has been given to the various ideas advanced for multiple land use for sand and gravel deposits.

Sand and gravel occur in the same deposits, but the relative proportions of each vary over a wide range from cobblestones to silt. Consequently, the problem of producing aggregate to rigid specifications is difficult and involves combinations of many tyses of equipment, such as crushers, screens, washers, classifiers, and grinding units. Many operators are unaware of methods by which much of·this processing equip­ ment may be used efficiently. In addition, th~ wide range of specifi­ cations for construction sand and gravel set by Federal, State, and other Government agencies multiplies the difficulties faced by operators who attempt to furnish aggregates of a specified size distribution.

Except for bank-run sand and gravel produced largely by Government­ and-contractor operators for road fill, most construction sand and gravel is processed to meet exacting specifications . With increased demand for washed aggregate, the problem of securing adequate supplies of wash water has been intensified with the accompanying problems of waste-water disposal. (21) The problems of land-use planning to allow extraction -0f sand and gravel before such deposits are lost forever by covering them with buildings are receiving some consideration. (.!)

Standards set for sand and gravel used in roadbuilding and concrete construction tend to become more specific and rigid as regards shape, physical properties, and screen size. Specifications for construction sand and gravel are numerous and are published in detail by the American e Society for Testing Materials, Federal and State highway officials, industrial ~rganizations, and contractors' associations. 30 Specifications require tests for soundness, freedom from deleterious particles, resistance to freezing and thawing, adhesion of bitumens, size gradation, and many others.

Major construction programs will continue to be dependent upon supplies of large amounts of low-priced raw materials such as sand and gravel. Continuation may be expected of the Federal highway program, originally scheduled to be completed in 1972, with expansion of programs for ·interstate and primary systems and modernization of existing road systems.

Increased production of aggregate will be required to supply this demand as well as for construction of new schools, industrial plants, sewage and water treatment plants, and homes. The unit price may con­ tinue to be low, and specifications probably will tend to become more stringent, Operations in many areas will be dependent upon seasonal activity ot the construction industry and suburban growth, although supplying new marketing areas may also curtail some operations through restrictive zoning legislation.

Stone

The term "crushed and broken stone" is applied to irregular fragments of rock crushed or ground to smaller sizes after quarrying. Classification terms, such as traprock, granite, and miscellaneous stone, are used in the broadest sense in the crushed stone industry. Traprock refers to all dense, dark, and fine-grained igneous rocks, such as basalt and diabase. Granite includes the coarser grained igneous rocks. The term miscellaneous is applied to stone that is not readily classified by producers; in the Puget Sound area, it comes largely from intermittent portable operations at numerous areas. Riprap, a term designating usage, consists of heavy irregular rock chunks used chiefly for river and harbor work, such as spillways at dams, shore protection, docks, and other similar construction that must resist the force of waves, tides, or strong currents. Also, it is used as fill in roadways and on embankments.

Historical data regarding types of stone production in the Puget Sound area were compiled from available information and are shown in table 16. Basalt is the common type of s ·tone quarried in the area, although large amounts of limestone have been quarried for manufacturing cement and lime.

Stone production, as with sand and gravel, is divisible into two main classes: commercial production, which consists of a particular plant's output with at least part of the material sold on the open market, ~nd Government-and-contractor production, which is produced exclusively for use on Federal, State, county, or municipal projects. If part of the production from a particular plant is sold conunercially, the enti~e output is placed in the commercial category. Basalt or trap­ rock accounted for 75 percent of the stone produced in 1964, and 24 percent of the traprock was from Government-and-contractor operations, table 17. The remaining. 25 percent of the stone produced was largely limestone for manufacturing cement; some granite, marble, dimension sandstone, and miscellaneous stone were produced, largely for building purposes. 31 TABLE 16 . - Stone production in the Puget Sound area, 1937-64

Sheet tons Value Years of Tvoe of stone (thousands) (thousands) Counties oroduced in recorded production Basalt (crushed} ••• •••...••• • .•• 28,86·r $37,341 All counties except San Juan 1937-64 e Granite (ere.shed}, .•. . ••••• , . • .. 2,037 3,713 All counties except Island 1937-64 and San Juan (dimension}, •. , • • •• •.•• . 7 37 King, Kitsap, Snohomish, 1946-48, 1950-52, Whatcom 1955 , 1958-61 Limestone (crushed}, ....•.•• •. . • 9,450 20,964 King, Pierce, San Juan, 1929, 1933, 1937-64 Snohomish, Whatcom Marb l e (crushed}. , ... . .••.. •.• . . 1 13 King , Snohomish 1959-60 Miscellaneous ~crushed} •.. •. . . . . 5,452 4,857 All counties eKcept San Juan 1938-63 . dimension} • • ..•• . 1 14 Skagit. Whatcom 1942, 1961, 1963-64 Silica, industrial (crushed} l/, 492 2,864 King, Pierce, Skagit, Whatcom 1937-64 (lncludessandstone, quartz, quartzite, and special sands} Sandstone (dimension}• .•• .• • •••• 93 4,994 Clallam, King, Pierce 1937-43, 1946-64 Total 1/ (crushed} ••. • ...••. 45,807 66,888 (dimension} ••...•.• 101 5,045 Grand total 1/ g; ...... 45 ,909 71,935 1/ Compilations for industrial silica were obtained from industrial sand and stone classifications, and amounts are not added to totals shown. g_/ Figures in columns may not add to total s hown because of rounding.

TABLE 17 . - Stone production from the Puget Sound area, by type of stone, 1964 e Thousand Value Unit value Type of stone short tons (thousands) (per t on)

Traprock: Commercial •••••••• 1,779 $3,277 $1.84 e Noncommercial • • • •• 833 873 1.05 Limestone ••••... .• ••• 78o 1,458 1.87 Other 1./ 92 328 3.56 Total stone g/ ... 31484 .5, 936 1.70 1/ Includes ranite ble sandstone g ' ma ' and miscellaneous s tone. g/ Owing to rounding 9 individual items may not add to totals shown. e In 1904, crushed stone was processed at 32 commercial operations in the Puget Sound area, table 18. Eight of the plants were stationary operations, each producing over 100,000 tons annually, ·and are shown in figure 2. The eight plants accounted for 83 percent of the stone pro­ duced at commercial operations in the area. The remaining stone from commercial operations, or 17 percent of the total, came from 20 portable operations, each producing less than 25,000 tons annually, and 4 semi­ portable operations producing between 25,000 and 100,000 tons each. Highly efficient portable plants, mounted on pneumatic-tired wheels, . are becoming popular. Such plants are used in locations where freight rates on stone produced at permanent plants make their cost prohibitive. An advantage of the portable plants, in addition to saving transportation cost on stone, is that they can be moved from point to point on a deposit with the result that selective quarrying may be employed. Use of small crushers requires greater rock fragmentation, and this results in increased drilling and blasting costs. 32 TABLE 18. - Crushed stone production from commercial plants in the Puget Sound area, 1964.

Pu~et Sound Area Total A?~11 ua 1 production Number of production 1/ ( s hort tons) plants (thousand short tons) · less than 25 ,000 ••. . . . 20 178 25,000 - 100, 000 . ... . • 4 271 100,000 - 200,000 • • . • • 3 530 200 , 000 - 500,000 .• ..• 5 1,614 500,000 and over •.. . • . 0 0

Tota 1 .. ~ o o •• o , •• c. 32 2,593 ll 83 percent of commercial stone produced was from stationary operations; 17 percent of stone was from portable and semiportable operations.

Stone usage in 1964 in the Puget Sound area is shown by economic divisions in table 19. The area accounted for 34 percent of the stone produced in the State during that year. Concrete aggregate and road­ stone are the major uses for stone in the Puget Sound area consuming 62 percent of the total in 1964. Output of stone for this use was greatest in Division I. About 14 percent of the total stone produced in 1964 was consumed as riprap, and 24 percent was used in manufacturing cement and other special uses.

TABLE 19. - Stone uaage in the Puaet Sound area, 1964 ( thousand ahort tone and thouoand dolars)

Diviaione Puget Sound 111 total State tot.al Percent of I I1 ,;.::::_ntt tu State total Ouantltv Value Ouantitv Value Value u, e Ouantltv Value '-·· ntt.tv Value $258 w w llulldlng dlmenaion•...... $257 $1 - - 29 29 ll $}04 2,141 3,253 7,709 $9,745 28 .Concrete and r~detone ..• 1,416 2,4}0 522 5 19 20} 483 l,o8o 1,365 45 289 489 68 73 126 215 777 Rlprap•.... , , ...... •..•• 831 i.649 L,488 3,761 56 Other •....••••••. • ••.• • •• 6o 247 771 1,402 3,484 5 ,937 10,276 14,871 34 Total.. JJ ...... 1,794 },423 l,}61 1,995 329 519

Leu than 500 ton• . g/ll OWlhg to . roundlng indlvldual lte1111 may not add to totals 1hown. W Withlield to avolof dlicloaing..individual company' drta.

Imports of crushed stone are significant in the Puget Sound area; they consist chiefly of limestone and siliceous materials from Canada. Quantities of siliceous materials shipped to the area from foreign sources are not available. Imports of limestone from foreign sources (Canada) to harbors in the Puget Sound area are shown in table 20. Imports from Canada have increased fivefold in the past 6 years, or from 96,273 tons in 1959 to 549,803 tons in 1964. Limestone from foreign sources was used at pulp mills in the area before 1961. How­ ever, during thRt year, a cement plant in the area began using high­ calciwn limestone from Texada Island, British Columbia, and in 1963, a lime plant at Tacoma began using limestone from the same source. Requirements for limestone from Texada Island will increase upon comple­ tion of the two proposed cement plants at Seattle. 33 TABLE 20. - Foreign imports of limestone to harbors in the Puget Sound area, 1959-64 (short tons)

1 1 61 1 62

Everett o ...... o •••• o .... o • 23,423 22,943 23,482 21,895 21,868 27,893 Port J\ngeleso••••• • •••o•• 22,893 26,597 31,918 28,994 29,870 29,100

C. C ,I ...... • S~a 1 e • • 0 35,980 39,572 182,461 224,553 222,046 359,020 'Tacoma ...... ,. •••• ., ...... l,865 7,258 5,358 18,449 107,839 114,173 Other Puget Sound ports. 12 112 16 020 16 482 1 o 8 16 06 1 61

J ota 1 o ... " Q • • • •• • • •• • 96,273 112 .390 259,701. 312,989 397,929 549,8o3

Source; Dept. of the Army Corps of Engineers. Waterborne Commerce of the United States. Part 4, Waterways and Harbors Pacific Coast, Alaska, and Hawaii, annua 1 issues.

Washing is becoming more generally practiced in the crushed stone industry. A common method of washing, if the stone is merely coated with dust, is to use water jets upon the stone during its passage over screens.

Increasingly rigid requirements resulting through evolution of technical design have produced many different specifications for crushed stone. Many volumes have been written on specifications, testing, and test methods by such organizations as the American Society for Testing Materials and American Association of State Highway Officials. Generally, construction requirements demand stone that is clean, strong, durable, sound, and dense, particularly when it is used as coarse aggregate. Most construction operators purchase their stone on spe.cifications based on physical properties. Many of these specifications differ widely, particularly with respect to the exact application of the stone and to a lesser extent to the geographic location. As a result, many types of rock are unacceptable for one or more construction uses since they are unable to meet the requirements.

Reserves of stone are large, but stone deposits of the character or quality required to meet specifications for a particular use are limited in some areas. Crushed stone is a high-bulk, low-unit value connnodity, and its economic utility is restricted by its ability to compete on a delivered price basis with alternate :materials or sources. Availability.and cost of transportation often determine whether a parti­ cular deposit is or is not a commercial reserve.

During the past 25 years, the value of stone produced in the area, largely on a delivered price basis, has increased from $1.46 per ton during the period 1940-49 to $1.55 per ton for the period 1960-64. When comparing these figures, in terms of constant 1957-59 dollars, the value of stone in the area has declined from $2.23 per ton to $1.53 per ton during the same 25-year period.

34 Local shortages exist in rapidly urbanizing areas owing to zoning restrictions imposed as built-up areas encroach upon existing quarries; sometimes, buildings occupy ground that otherwise might have been worked for stone in the future. Metallurgical- or chemical-grade stone is a special case with definitely restricted distribution of deposits. Discovery of new sources is becoming increasingly difficult and expensive.

Based upon anticipated or planned public and priv~te construction and continuation of various highway building programs, the quantity of crushed stone produced annually may be expected to increase. Further expansion of the roadbuilding program appears imminent with an accompanying demand for more road aggregate. Changes in roadbuilding technology caused by heavier and faster traffic also will increase demand for roadstone; currently, more stone is used for wide and heavy shoulders than for the pavement itself.

Present trends in methods for producing crushed stone tend to increase efficiency and reduce costs; increased concern is shown by producers about methods for dust control, water pollution, and noise in quarry operations.

No new uses for crushed and broken stone are in prospect. New quarries to produce aggregate for local buildings are frequently opened and abandoned as programs are completed. Larger, well-established quarries will expand and modernize equipment as demand increases. Shipping radii of quarries possibly will increase through use of innova­ tions such as unit trains and articulated railroad cars.

There is need for simplification and standardization of specifica­ tions for crushed stone aggregate. No uniform method is in actual use by the various States for designating aggregate gradation sizes. Suppliers would find it simpler and less costly if specifications for Federal, State, county, and municipal purchases, at least in similar areas, used identical specifications for the same type of construction.

Sand and gravel is interchangeable with stone under many construc­ tion specifications, and competition is keen where these occur together; profits usually are held to narrow margins.

The crushed stone industry is becoming interested in diversification into concrete products~ ready-mixed concrete, and asphalt plants in order to sell service and dispose of surpluses profitably. Silica Jt is estimated that current consumption of silica-bearing materials in the Puget Sound area, exclusive of low-grade construction materials, approximate 225,00 tons annually. Roughly 85 percent of the material is obtained from outside the region. In the area, silica is used as a fluxing agent, for manufacturing amber glass, as a filter medium, as an abrasive, and for other specialized purposes. Substitute materials, such as olivine and zircon, relatively abundant materials in the Northwest, have been· used successfully as foundry molding sands and are competitive with silica sand in some areas, but their high-unit costs restrict their use.

35 The glass industry is one of the most important users of the higher priced industrial sands produced in the Puget Sound area. Sands used for glassmaking must meet definite specifications for both grain size and chemical composition. Large tonnages of industrial sands are used in iron and steel foundries to make molds for castings.

Sandstone, quartzite, and crushed quartz are used as a flux in the metallurgical industry, by the chemical industry, and for manufacturing cement.

Smith Brothers Silica Sand Co. operates a 100-ton-per-day plant at Aubu!n, Wash . , which utilizes scrubbers and classifiers to produce sand suitable for use in manufacturing amber glass. Northwestern Glass Co., Seattle, purchases most of the sand firm's output, and to meet the stringent raw material requirements for making amber glass, the sand must be carefully sized through 20 on 100 mesh, the alumina content of the sand must be held to 4 percent, plus or minus 0.1 percent, and the iron content must not exceed 0.15 percent. Sand is hauled by truck to the plant from nearby deposits which are estimated to have reserves of 50 years' supply at current rates of production. (~)

Other special sands are produced by Cavanaugh Molding Sand Co. at Renton, International Pipe & Ceramics Corp. from its Pit 55, Pacific Building Materials Co., and by Manufacturers Mineral Co., Seattle. Pacific Silica Co . , with headquarters in Seattle, operates quarries at Denison, Wash.; Basin, Mont.; and Oliver, British Columbia, Canada.

There is no nationally recognized market price for silica because of the fluctuation in value, specifications, and marketing of the industrial mineral. Silica materials generally have a low value per ton, and for this reason, transportation is a major factor in marketing. Value of silica depends upon the availability of a suitable market and upon the economics of producing a specified product. Prices and minimum acceptable grades for silica vary widely; specifications usually depend upon the use for the material.

Sand from the St. Peter sandstone formation, Ottawa, Ill., is the standard with which silica sands in the Pacific Northwest are compared. In spite of the high delivered cost of this sand, it generally is used where the highest quality of silica is needed. St. Peter sandstone formation· sands from Midwestern sources are charge.d at $2 per ton, f.o.b. mine, Ottawa, Ill.; however, such sands delivered to Pacific Northwest consumers cost from $12 to $16 per ton. Silica sand from Ione, Calif., priced at $5.50 per ton, f.o.b. Ione, sold in 1964 at a delivered price of $14.16 per ton at Portland, Oreg., and $15.06 per ton at Seattle, Wash.

At comparable costs, quartz also is imported to the area and other parts of the Pacific Northwest from Oliver, British Columbia, Canada.

The average value of industrial sands sold by producers in the Puget Sound area from 1960-64 was $7.41 per ton, f.o.b. mines. In contrast, sand produced in the area sold for an averaie value of $5 .92 per ton, f.o.b. mines, during the period 1950-59.

36 Important developments in the Pacific Northwest industrial silica field have been the opening of the Lane Mountain silica deposit, Stevens County, and development of a Bovill, Idaho, operations as sources of silica in the early 1960's. Future possibilities do not preclude Washington as an important source of silica for the Pacific Northwest. Expansion will probably come from producers already established in the area and possibly from deposits located near water transportation. The Chelan County. silica sand deposit, near Wenatchee, is a specific example; however, detailed analysis of these sands is needed before the feasibility of making materials suitable for industrial use in the Pacific Northwest can be determined.

Talc (soapstone)

Output of talc (soapstone) in the Puget Sound area, the only area where talc has been produced in Washington, is shown for the period 1950-64 in table 21. Annual production has been declining steadily, and from the highest recorded annual production for the area of 8,920 tons in 1952, output declined to 2,680 tons in 1964. Output from the Puget Sound area was less than 1 percent (0.3 percent) of United States mine production of talc and soapstone in 1964.

TABLE 21. ·- Soapstone production in the Puget Sound area, 1950-64

Year Short tons Value 1950 6,171 w 1951 6,300 w 1952 8,920 w 1953 5,351 $28,833 1954 3,493 w 1955 5,319 w 1956 4,627 w 1957 4,065 24,525 1958 4,000 20,680 1959 4,073 22,724 1960 2,406 12,233 1961 2,927 22,914 1962 2,835 11,070 1963 2,969 17,518 1964 2,680 18,372

w Withheld to avoid disclosing individual company data .

There are at least 10 deposits of soapstone in Skagit County, the only source of talc in the area, and many ·were mined in the past for .use as furnace blocks in soda furnaces at Kraft-pulp mills. Present production is used as a carrier for insecticides or as a paint filler. None· is mined for ceramic purposes, and most of the soapstone mining is e intermittent.

37 In 1964, soapstone was mined at deposits near Marblemount, Skagit County, by Herman Smith, Skagit Talc Products, and Scheel Stone Co. Two operators sold crude material for grinding at plants of Northwest Talc & Magnesium Co., Clear Lake, and Miller Products Co . and Stauffer Chemical Co., both in Portland Oreg . Ground material was used in insecticides and paint manufacture. Another producer sold soapstone for sculpturing purposes.

With the exception of small quantities sold for sculpturing purposes, talc and soapstone have no end use in the crude form and usually receive some treatment before being sold. At Skagit County operations, talc is handpicked at the mines and shipped to grinding plants at Clear Lake and Portland, Oreg. Following crushing, roller mills, in closed circuit with air separators, are used for fine grinding the soapstone to sizes ranging from 100 to 325 mesh.

Although not used in Washington, fluid-energy grinding mills are used in other parts of the United States to make products of finer particle size than are attainable with standard mills. The product, popularly called micronized talc, sells for a premium price.

Prices for talc and soapstone are negotiated between buyers and sellers on the basis of a wide range of specifications. Grades and specifications for talc and soapstone usually are identified with the end use, such as filler, ceramic, steatite, cosmetic, and pharmaceu­ tical grades. The unit value of soapstone from Skagit County operations in 1964 was $6.85 per ton, f . o.b . mine.

A great variety of grades of talc and soapstone are ·produced in California, and the same general price range prevails for the materials from other producing areas. For comparison purposes, California talcs are valued in the range of $8 to $75 per ton, f.o.b . mines, and ground and bagged material is priced as follows: soapstone and grades of talc used mostly as fillers - $17 to $20 a ton; ceramic and paint talcs - $30 to $32; steatite-ground talc - $35 to $40; cosmetic and pharmaceu­ tical talcs - $35 to $50; and micronized talcs - $50 to $100.

Talc and soapstone reserve data are lacking for the State of Washington. Quantitative data on domestic talc and soapstone resources are not complete, but about 90 million tons of reserves have been estimated on the basis of available information. (J) Additional deposits will probably be discovered in some of the major producing areas for which reserve data are lacking. The largest known ore bodies, containing over 50 percent of the known reserves, are in New York . Deposits in Vermont comprise 30 percent of the reserve, and the remaining, 20 percent is distributed between California, Georgia, Montana, Nevada, North Carolina, and Texas.

Competition of talc and soapstone with other materials is determined partly by ,rice and partly by performance. Kaolin, fullers earth, diatomite, limestone, and other nonmetallic fillers are common competi­ tive materials. Many of the uses for talc and soapstone can ·be filled either by other natural materials, such as clays, diatomite, feldspar, ~ and kyanite group minerals, or. by manufactured or processed materials. ,..,

38 CQmpetition from these materials 1.nlposes limits beyond which it is difficult to develop new talc markets or even to maintain and expand those already existing. The development of standard specifications for talc and soapstone has been hindered by the diversity of physical and chemical properties of the materials from d.ifferent parts of the country.

While large producers have developed improved processing methods and can turn out high-quality products wi.th little variation from year to year, the small operators do not have the facilities or capital to achieve and maintain such· quality and are, therefore, at a disadvantage in marketing their products. It is unlikely that the small talc and soapstone operators in Washington will foll.ow United States consumption or mine production patterns and trends.

Metals

Copper

Average grade of copper ores produced in the United States has declined steadily from 3.3 percent in 1889 to 0.73 percent in 1964. Improved ~ining and processing techniq~es have made it possible for producers to mine low-grade ores previously thought to be uneconomical. For instance, Kennecott Copper Corp. reports in its 1964 report to shareholders that in 1915, average copper content of its Utah copper mine ore was about 1.43 percent. In that year, 74,000 tons of copper w~ produced from the mine. In 1964, despite a strike and copper con.~ent of only O. 79 percent, 196,000 tons of copper was produced from the same mine. United States producers sup,plied 1,246,780 tons of copper from Q0111estic holdings in 1964, or about 28 percent of world production of 5,420,000· tons. Of 121,927 tons of copper produced in Washington from earliest records through 1964, 7,072 tons came from the Puget Sound area. The largest production for any property in the area was from the Su~et mine in Snoh~ish Co~nty in the 1920's. All copper production from the Pug,t So~nd area w~ less than l percent of domestic production in . 1964.

The largest known copper reserves in the Puget Sound area are located a~ the Glacier Peak property in Snohomish County where resources are estimated at about 30 million tons of ore containing over 0.4 percent copper. Reserve.estimates for the United States ·total about 32.5 million tons of copper contained in ore, or sufficiency for about 20 to 25 years' supply at current production rates, based on the assumption that the cQst price ratio will be such to permit mining ore having approximately the same grade as that now being produced. The major portion of ltnown copp.er ore reserves in the Pacific Northwest exist in the Butte, Mont., district, The Anaconda Company at Butte estimates that copper reserves of low-grade material amenable to open-pit mining methods are in excess of 300 million tons. The reserve estimate for t~e Puget Sound area based on this estimate would e be less than 10 percent'of Pacific Northwest reserves.

39 Extensive drilling programs have been carried out in recent years at copper properties in King and Snohomish Counties. In 1961, Bear Creek Mining Co., a subsidiary of Kennecott Copper Corp., curtailed exploration in the Glacier Peak area because the U. S. Forest Service ruled that mining exploration could not be carried out by helicopter except on the few mining claims already established in the Glacier Peak Wilderness area. In 1962, Ridge Mining Corp. , another Kennecott subsidiary, assumed control of the Glacier Peak copper property from Bear Creek Mining Co. The Bear Creek firm had conducted an extensive exploration of the property for several years.

In 1963, Bear Creek Mining Co. optioned 15 patented and about 35 unpatented mining claims from United Cascade Mining Co. in King County. The prospect, located along the Middle Fork of the Snoqualmie River, was mapped, sampled, and diamond-drilled by a 15-man crew; however, the option was dropped in 1965.

Government restraints possibly will play a major role in developing the Glacier Peak property in the future; mineral development of the property could be deterred because of wilderness legislation.

Gold

Gold contributed the largest total value of metal production in the Puget Sound area, and output totaled 106,993 ounces valued at $2,688,884. Output has been from operations in Clallam, King , Pierce, Skagif; Snoho­ mish, and Whatcom Counties (table 22). Whatcom County mines have been the source of most gold produced in the area, and about 85 percent, or over 90,000 ounces, came from this county. Important output from Whatcom County mines has been from the Boundary Red Mountain and Lone Jack mines in the Mt. Baker mining district, and from the Azurite, Mammoth, and New Light mines in the Slate Creek mining district. Both mining districts are in the North Cascades Primitive Area, which has been proposed for Wilderness Area legislation.

TABLE 22. - Total gold production in the Puget Sound area to 1967

Countv Ounces Value

Clallam, Pierce, Skagit •••• 560 $14,036 King • .....•.... . •....••.•. 7,127 157 ,647 Snohomish ...... •..•.. 9,107 205,98o Whatcom •• • ••.• • ••..••• •• ••• 90,199 2,311,221

To ta 1 • .••••...... •••. 106,993 2,688,884

40 Much of the activity in gold mining occurred during the Great Depression years; in 1937, output from five lode mines in Whatcom County reached a record 13,197 ounces. In 1938, output from five lode and two placer mines in the county totaled 12,294 ounces. Output dropped to less than 500 ounces in 1940 and has never attained a peak of over 500 ounces annually since that time. Many gold-mining opera­ tions were curtailed as a result of War Production Board Order L-208, which removed labor and equipment priorities from gold-mining operations in 1942. The subsequent high cost of rehabilitation, plus a general increase in mining costs and a constant gold price, has prevented many mines from reopening.

Manganese

Output of manganese from the Puget Sound area approximates 52,000 tons of manganese ore containing 35 percent or more manganese, valued at $1.8 million.

The greatest amount of manganese was produced from operations at the Crescent mine in Clallam County. Output from the mine totaled 18,228 tons of ore containing 35 percent or more manganese for the period 1924-26. In 1942, record output of 10,660 tons was reported for the property, and during the period 1942-46, 32,008 tons was produced. Some manganese has been mined in Mason County.

Extensive tests and exploration work have been made on the manganese resources in Clallam, Jefferson, and Mason Counties. Two reports describ- , ing the manganese deposits also give bibliographies of investigations made concerning these resources. (11) (18a) Sufficient exploration has not been performed to accurately estimate the potential tonnages of manganese available in the Puget Sound area.

The United States has virtually no· reserve of direct shipping manganese ore. Its reserves of ore from which a 35-percent or greater manganese concentrate can be produced by normal concentration methods are scattered and may approach l million tons, depending on premium prices.

The United States is one of the largest consumers of manganese ore in the world, using 2,241,756 short tons of ore containing 35 per­ cent or more manganese in 1964. The large United States consumption, coupled with its small production of ore, 19,887 tons in 1964, makes this Nation the World's largest importer of manganese ore, and imports totaled 2,221,869 tons during that year.

The major categories of use for manganese and manganese ore in the United States are metallurgical, chiefly in the form of ferromanganese (94 percent); dry-cell battery manufacture (1 percent); and chemicals and miscellaneous (about 5 percent).

41 Other Metals

Small amounts of lead-zinc have been produced, largely as byproduct at copper operations. Chromite has been mined in Skagit County, mercury in King County, and iron ore and molybdenum have been produced in Snohomish County. The total value of all these conunodities was less than $100,000.

Fuels Coal

Output of coal in Washington from five coal mines in three counties was 68,058 tons in 1964. King County led in coal production, followed by Thurston and Lewis Counties. Production of less than 1,000 tons, which is not compiled in annual Bureau of Mines tabulations for coal, was reported by producers in King and Pierce Counties.

In the Puget Sound area in 1964, coal output was from underground mining operations in the Green River district in King County and the Wilkeson-Carbonado districts in Pierce County. In King County, Palmer Coking Coal Co., Inc., supplied coal from the Rodgers No. 2 and No. 3 mines near Ravensdale and the Franklin No. 10 and No. 12 mines near Black Diamond. Less than 1,000 tons was produced by Coal, Inc., from the Black Knight mine near Ravensdale. In Pierce County, less than 1,000 tons of coal was produced by Queen Coal Co. at the Carbonado­ Wingate mine near Carbonado.

Per capita consumption of coal in Washington in 1964 amounted to less than one-fourth (0.23) of a ton. This was considerably lower than the national. average of 2.5 tons. Coal consumption in Washington totaled 715,000 tons in 1964, which was 78 percent below the total for 1944, table 23. The decline is attributed to competitive fuels dis­ placing coal in many sectors of the fuel economy. One of the important displacements has been the former lucrative coal market for railroad fuel, which presently is virtually nonexistent owing to the shift from coal to oil-burning equipment. Other inroads on coal markets have been made by other fuels competing for industrial and space-heating require­ ments where convenience of use is a major factor in consumption. TABLE 23. - Coal consumed in Washington (in thousand of tons) 0 ,E,igin of coal 1944 1960 1964 washington • •...... •• . 1,511 222 68 u tah., ...... o,,, ••••• 769 607 l.l 600 wyoming ...... 0 • •• •••• 614 55 ll 47 Montana ...... 394 - - 0 ther ...... II •• 27 12 -

Tota 1 ...... 3,315 896 715 ll Estimated figures .

Source : U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, Division of Bituminous coal. 42 The coal consumed in Washington in 1964 was obtained chiefly from sources outside the State, principally Utah; some was obtained from Wyoming, and in the past, Montana and Canada have been important sources,

Detailed data regarding specific consumer uses are incomplete; however, about 320,000 tons of coal were used at the Hanford Works at Richland, and approximately 100,000 tons were used at institutions and buildings owned or operated by agencies of the State of Washington. The remaining 295,000 tons were used at Federal buildings, residential homes, commercial establishments , and at various industrial plants. Reliable consumption estimates cannot be given for the Puget Sound area.

Adverse geological conditions, limited mechanization of mining operations, low productivity of workers, and extraneous matter that is mined with coal contribute to high costs of coal production in the Puget Sound area, Factors which are directly related to the cost of coal production, such as productivity, amounts of extraneous matter, and types of mechanization are compared for Washington and surrounding States and the United States in 1964 in table 24,

TABLE 24. - Factors contributing to cost of coal production in 1'!!64 for Washington .!!',!I surrounding States

value Productivitv Extraneous matter Mechanization Unit of coal (unde r ground mines) Percen cage of Percentage of Type of underground load,ing (dollars tons per man per day total production refuse to raw devlces used mechanically coal (nercent) per ton) cleaned Loading Continuous Hand-loaded machines mining conveyors machines $7.40 Montana . •..••...•. 6.09 w w 96.2 - 3.8 67.6 15.3 41. 7 58.3 - 7.03 Utah.••..•.••.•.• . 13. 98 8. 45 Washington ...... •• 5. 53 95.4 34.2 61.9 - 38. l Wyoming ...... •.•• 7. 74 2.1 4.o 89.0 - 11.0 3.15 United States .•... 13. 74 63.7 20,l 54.3 44.4 1.3 4. 45 Alberta .•••..•.•.• NA NA NA NA NA NA 6.64 British Columbia •• NA NA NA NA NA NA 6.02

W Withheld t o avoid disclosing individual company data. NA Not available.

About 76 men were employed in coal mining in Washington in 1964 . The average quantity of coal produced per man per day in Washington was 5. 53 tons, the lowest productivity rate in the United States. The average productivity figure for underground mines in the United States was 13.74 tons per man per day.

Ninety-five percent of the coal produced in Washington in 1964 was washed ano upgraded mechanically with jigs and concentrating tables. Of 98,663 tons of raw coal fed to cleaning equipment in 1964, clean coal totaled 64,905 tons, and 34 percent was refuse. Percentage of refuse was higher than for surrounding States or for the United States avera~e.

43 At Washington operations in 1964, there w~s a higher percentage of hand- loaded conveyor devices used than in comparable areas where loading and continuous mining machines were used more extensively.

From 1961-64, the average unit value of coal at the mine i n the Puget Sound area was $8.58 per ton. The unit value of coal mined in Washington in 1964 was $8.45 per ton. This was higher than for coal mined in 1964 in areas surrounding the Paci(ic Northwest and in the United States. For instance, the unit value of coal mined in Montana (bituminous) was $7.40 per ton, Utah coal was valued at $7.03 per ton, coal f r om Wyoming was valued at $3.15 per ton, and the average for the Uni ted States was $4 . 45 per ton.

Detailed analyses of coal have been published and are available for most of the fields in Washington. (2) (3) (24) (30) The coalfiel ds in Washington are almost entirely in Eocene beds and are fossili zed remains of the tropical coastal swamps of that time. The principal fields are subbitlllllinous and bittuninous coal and occur on the lower west slopes of the Cascades . Some fields of anthracite, northwest of Mt. Baker and southeast of Mt . Rainier , are in places where the ordinary coal was so intensely deformed that most of the ~olatile components were driven off, leaving nearly pure carbon.

Coal reserves of the Puget Sound area, Washington, and important surrounding States and territories are given in table 25 . Reserves of Washington, although large, are smaller in quantity than comparable resources in surrounding areas.

TABLE ~5. - Coal r eserves of t he Puget Sound area and a.l!jacent areas (Million tons)

Publication Remaining da te of Ori 2i nal estima te res erve s 50-percent esti mate Bi tumino-e s Subbitumi nous Lill.nite Total Jan. l 196o recover y

Montana ...... • 1949 2,363 132 , 151 87,533 222,047 221, 705 110,853 Utah .• ...... , ...... 1960 28,222 156 - 28 ,378 27 ,858 13 ,929 Washi ngton .• ...... 1960 1,908 4, 155 116 6,185 6, 185 3 ,093 Puget Sound ...... 1960 l ,58o 441 - 2 ,021 2 ,021 1,010 Wyoming ...... 1950 13,235 108,319 - 121, 554 120,750 6o ,375 Alberta . ..• . . . . • ; .. 196o 39,315 8,556 4 47,875 47,273 23 ,636 British Columb ia • .. 1960 17,832 - 998 18 ,830 18 , 546 9,273 1

About 33 percent of the coal reserve estimate for the State is in the Puget Sound area. Most of the bituminous coal reserves of the State, or about 1.6 billion tons, are within the area situated in King (391 million tons), Pierce (362 million tons), Skagit (507 million tons), and Whatcom (320 million t ons) Counties.

Subbituminous coal reserves of Washington, comprising 67 percent of the total coal reserve estimate, occur south of the Puget Sound area boundary in Lewis and Thurston Counties.

44 In Washington, most of the coal reserve occurs in beds more than 42 inches in thickness and is interbedded with shale, sandstone, or other extraneous matter. Structural position of coalbeds plays an important part in the high cost of recovery.

Coalbeds in the Puget Sound area are highly disturbed structually. Seam dips of 50 0 or more are not uncommon, and numerous faults are present, particularly in the Green River district of King County and the Wilkeson-Carbonado and Fairfax areas of Pierce County. The coking coals of Pierce County warrant special attention because of their possible future use in metallurgical industries in the Pacific Northwest or their export to Japan. Coking coal has been produced in the past from the Wilkeson-Carbonado and Fairfax areas of Pierce County, and reserves are estimated at 242 million tons for these Pierce County fields. In both of the fields, the geologic structure is so complex that accurate estimates of minable reserves would necessitate detailed geologic mapping and exploration. Such exploration undoubtedly would increase the reserve estimate greatly.

The other important coal-bearing strata in Washington, in the Centralia-Chehalis district (largely subbituminous coal) of Lewis and Thurston Counties and the Roslyn coalfield in Kittitas County, are gently folded, and coalbeds generally dip less than 30 0 •

The dominant position of Utah coals in the Washington market is attributed to better quality as compared with Washington coals. Pro­ duction costs from sources of coal surrounding the State are lower owing to favorable mining conditions conducive to mechanization of operations and a high rate of productivity.

Feasibility studies undertaken by private and public sources in the State of Washington indicate that coal can compete successfully with gas or oil and that reserves in the State are adequate to satisfy demand ·on a long-term basis. The Japanese steel industry has expressed an interest in the coking coals of Pierce County. Development of this market is a possibility if exploitation and preparation of the coal can be accomplished economically and a market outlet found for the middling coals that would have to be recovered from the high proportion of reject matter obtained in the· preparation of coking coals of required specifications.

Petroleum and Natural Gas

No petroleum or natural gas has been produced in the Puget Sound area. Records of the State Division of Mines and Geology show that from 1900 to 1964, over 250 wells were drilled, and that over 400,000 feet of exploratory drilling has been done in the area and inunediate surrounding area in search of oil and gas. Most drilling has been in Whatcom County where 90 wells have been completed, and footage drilled totals 88,921 feet. Numerous shallow tests have been made in the county, and of the 88 wells completed, 53 wells were drilled to depths of less than 500 feet. King County· ranks second with 59,995 feet of drilling at 22 dry holes . Snohomish County ranks third with 38,262 feet of

45 test holes drilled. Pierce County has the record of deepest test, the Phillips Petroleum Co. State No. 1, which was drilled in 1963 to a depth of 12,920 feet .

Results of oil and gas exploration in the Puget Sound area have been described. (2) (18)

Industrial Operation Reviews

Primary Metals Aluminum

Olin Industries constructed the first alumin\Dll plant in the Puget Sound area at Tacoma during World War II. The plant, with primary aluminum reduction capacity of 21,000 tons annually, was taken over by Kaiser Aluminum & Chemical Corp. (formerly Permanente Metals) in 1947 and operated by that firm until 1958.

In 1964, because of a continuing increase in demand for aluminum, Kaiser Aluminum & Chemical Corp. partially reactivated its Tacoma plant, which had been shut down since 1958, and a new finn, Intalco Aluminum Corp., announced plans to build a primary aluminum reduction plant near Bellingham. By year end, two-thirds of the Tacoma plant's 41,000- ton primary aluminum reduction capacity was in operation with the remainder to be activated in 1965. Intalco Aluminum Corp., a joint venture of American Metal Climax (which owns 50 percent), Pechiney Compagnie of France (25 percent), and Howe Sound Aluminum (25 percent), planned to initiate production from a 76,000-ton-annual­ aluminum-reduction-capacity potline by April 1966 at Bellingham. Two additional potlines of the same /capacity, giving a total annual aluminum reduction capacity to the Bellingham plant of 228,000 tons, are to be on line in 1968, giving the area a potential output capability of 269,000 tons of primary aluminum annually.

The major raw material for making aluminum is alumina, and about 2 pounds is required for each pound of primary aluminum produced. The new smelter at Bellingham is expected to be suppli.ed with alumina by ship from Australia, a distance of about 6,600 miles. American Metal Climax, a SO-percent owner of Intalco, signed .an agreement with Western Aluminum, a subsidiary of Alcoa of Australia, Pty., Ltd., to supply some of the alumina requirements of the Bellingham. plant. Both plants in the Puget Sound area will be supplied with alumina by Queensland Alumina, Ltd. , a consortium including Pechiney, Kaiser, Alcan, and Australian interests. The firm recently constructed an alumina plant with initial capacity of 600,000 metric tons near Gladstone in Queens­ land, Australia. Kaiser Aluminum & Chemical Corp. and the Port of Tacoma have announced plans to establish a facility for ship unloading and storage of alumina. Under the agreement, the Port of Tacoma will install by 1967 and operate the storage facilities for 40,000 tons of alumina which will be used at the company Tacoma and Mead aluminuin reduction plants.

46 Other raw materials required to produce a pound of aluminum include carbon anode electrodes (0.55 pound) and cathode carbon (0.02 pound) which are obtained largely from California suppliers of green petroleum coke. Also, small but important electrolyte materials, such as cryolite and aluminum fluoride (0 .02 to 0. 03 pounds each), are obtained from the southern States, and fluorspar (0.003 pound) comes from Montana.

The new smelter of Intalco at Bellingham probably will ship most of its ingot outside of the Western States to processing plants of its owners. Howe Sound, taking 25 percent of the output, has a rolling mill at Lancaster, Pa. The destination of the 25-percent share of Pechiney is not known, but may include the Howe Sound plant through Pechiney's interest in Howe Sound. The 50-percent share of American Metal Climax probably will go partly to the Hunter Engineering Division at Riverside, Calif., and partly to subsidiaries and affiliates in Southern and Northeastern States. Ingot from the Kaiser & Chemical Corp. Tacoma plant goes to company rolling and extrusion mills at ·Trentwood, Wash.

Primary aluminum production for the Puget Sound area has been projected to increase at an average annual rate of about 10 percent, or from 166,000 to 680,000 tons during the period 1965-80. (19) Employment for the same period was projected to grow at an average annual rate of 6 percent, or from 1,200 to 3,000 employees. In the study, it was expected that Pacific Northwest aluminum production growth would be comparable to that for the United States during the period 1975-85.

From 1985 to 2020, Pacific Northwest growth was estimated to be less than that nationwide; nuclear power, becoming less expensive by that time, will allow aluminum reduction plants to be located closer to the larger aluminum markets. Aluminum output of the Puget Sound area was estimated to reach 870,000 tons annually by 1985, and this figure was held constant to 2020 owing to lack of dependable informa­ tion to the contrary. Aluminum production and raw material requirements by the industry in the Puget Sound area are shown in table 26. TABLE 26. - Aluminum production and raw material consumption in the Puget Sound area

1965 1980 2000 2020

Aluminum production (thousand tons} ...••...... !/269 680 870, 870 Raw materia Is: Alumina (thousand tons) ... 520 1,300 1,700 1,700 Carbon anode electrodes (thousand tons) . • . ..• ... 150 375 475 475 Cathode carbor (tons) .... 5,400 13,600 17,000 17,000 Cryolite (tons) ...... 5,400 13,600 17,000 17,000 Aluminum fluoride (tons) .• 5,_400 13,600 17,000 17,000 Fluorspar (tons} •...•.•.... 800 2,000 2,600 2,600 II Estimated primary aluminum plant capacity planned by 1968. 47 Copper

American Smelting and Refining Company (Asarco) operates a copper smelter and refinery at Tacoma which is a custom operation capable of treating a charge of 600,000 tons of copper ores, concentrates, and fluxing materials annually. Refining capacity is 114 .000 tons annually of refined copper. In addition, a 150-ton-per-day sulfuric acid facility utilizes sulfur-dioxide gas obtained from converters.

Refined copper is marketed mainly in Europe and the Far East; a small amount is shipped to domestic consumers. Sulfuric acid out­ put, marketed by Stauffer Chemical Co . , is used principally in fertilizer manufacture.

Smelting is carried out in two reverberatory furnaces and three converters; raw material shortages are common, and a large part of the ti.nle, only one reverberatory furnace is used.

The Asarco plant, with port facilities for loading and unloading ocean-going ships, receives a large part of its raw material from foreign sources such as the Philippine Republic, Canada, and South America.

In 1963, in an effort to insure future operations at the Tacoma copper smelter, which had been operating mostly on foreign ores, American Smelting and Refining Company agreed to assist in financing development of a copper property in northern British Columbia. The property, owned by Granduc Mines, Ltd., a subsidiary of Newmont Mining Co., was reported to have ore reserves of about 32. 5 million tons averaging 1 .93 percent copper. U~der the agreement, American Smelting and Refining Company negotiated to process concentrates from the operation for 10 years and was to advance $10 million on the purchase of this material. Production, expected to begin early in 1968, was to be approximately 2.5 million tons of ore per year, from which concentrates containing an estimated 42,500 tons of copper were to be recovered.

Copper ores and concentrates used at the operation are the most significant raw material requirement and vary with the grade of ore processed, but average about 475,000 tons annually at full output. Other raw materials used include about 90,000 tons of silica, obtained· from a beach sand and gravel operation and from silica-bearing ores shi,pped to the plant, and 30,000 tons of limestone that comes from Texada Island, British Columbia. Employment at the Tacoma operation varies between 725 at full operation down to 525 employees when one furnace is in use .

Projections of copper output used in this study were developed as part of a study of the Pacific Northwest copper industry for the Bonneville Power Administration. (17) Estimated future copper pro­ duction and associated raw materialconsumption are not expecte·d to change significantly at the Tacoma operation in the future. No

48 additional expansion was predicted for the Tacoma smelter before 1980, and because output of copper metals is expected to increase only about 1 percent annually after 1985 in the Pacific Northwest, estimates are held constant to 2020.

In the study, the potential for discovering large copper deposits in the Pacific Northwest seemed best in western Washington.

Steel

There are three steel plants in the Puget Sound area, all in Seattle, and annual electric-furnace steel-ingot capacity at the plants is about 400,000 tons, or 73 percent of the Pacific Northwest total. Two of the operations are steel rolling mills producing their own ingot, and one is an ingot-forging plant (also producing its own ingot).

Raw materials consumed in producing 1 ton of steel ingot include steel scrap (1.07 tons), coke (3.5 pounds), limestone (50 pounds), lime (20 pounds), dolomite (15 pounds), iron ore (12 pounds), carbon electrode (12 pounds), and fluorspar (1.2 pounds). Steel scrap is the most significant cost item, accounting for over 65 percent of the total estimated production cost for a ton of steel. Steel scrap is purchased from dealers in the Pacific Northwest; limestone and lime are obtained from western Washingt'on operations; coke comes from pe­ troleum coke producers in California; iron ore is shipped from Idaho and Nevada; and fluorspar is from near Darby, Mont.

Bethlehem Steel Co., Pacific Coast Division, operating the largest steel mill in the Pacific Northwest, revamped its plant at Seattle in 1958 which had been acquired by the company in 1930, but historically, the operation dates back to 1895. The change included two electric furnaces capable of yielding 420,000 ingot tons annually, but having an official annual capacity of 246,000 tons. Rolled products from this plant, made to standard steel specifications for hot-rolled, plain carbon, and low-alloy steels, are marketed in the Pacific North­ west and in parts of Canada.

Isaacson Iron Works, established in 1907 at Seattle, has equipment for providing 102,000 tons of steel ingot annually; also, this operation is capable of forging 60,000 tons and machining 30,000 tons of steel annually. Although forging capacity varies with the type of order, ship shafting maximum capacity is 60,000 tons per year, and the company has cou.tinued to make ship shafting since World War II. Occasionally , ingots are poured and forged to billets and in turn sold to steel mills for rolling. forged products are sold nationally because there is little market for forgings locally except for small shapes. Markets have been sought in foreign countries.

Northwest Steel Rolling Mills, Inc., beginning operations in 1926 and currently operating two furnaces providing 53,000 tons of steel

49 ingot annually, produces plain rounds, reinforcing bar, flat bar, and angles to supply markets in Portland, Spokane, Alaska, and Vancouver, British Columbia. About two-thirds of the output is rein­ forcing bar for concrete.

Projections of steel output used in this study were based on a study of the Pacific Northwest steel industry for the Bonneville Power Administration. (.!&)

Estimated steel production and associated raw material consumption are shown in table 27 for 1965, 1980, 2000, and 2020. Steel production in the Puget Sound area currently .is entirely dependent on iron and steel scrap; there are no integrated iron ore reduction plants . In the future, it is possible that a prereduced ·iron ore pellet or sponge iron from a source outside the area will be used to supplement the scrap charge. The projections of iron ore consumption were made using the present ratio of iron ore used per unit of steel produced. It is assumed that the present steel plant lo,cation at Seattle will exert influence upon the possible future smelting plant location, and that steel output will continue to be from the Seattle area.

TABLE 27. - Projected steel production and raw material consumption in the Puget Sound area - 1965, 1980, 2000, and 2020

lg65 1980 2000 2020

Steel production (thousand

tons) J,.i . o • o •• • • e • o • • " •• o •••• 402 530 750 850 Raw materials : Steel scrap (thousand tons). 425 570 800 900 Coke breeze (tons) ...... ~ 700 900 1;300 1,500 Limestone (tons) ••. • •.. • ..• • 10,000 13,300 18,700 21,200 Lime ( tons) ..... o •• • •••• •• •• 4,000 5,300 7,500 8,500 Dolomite (tons) ••••• • •• • •••• 3,000 4,000 5,600 6,400 Iron ore (tons) • .. . . .•• ... •• 2,400 3,200 4,500 5,100 Fluorspar (tons) •..• . • •. .• •• 240 318 450 510 11- Kingston,. Gary A. The Steel Industry of the Columbia Basin. A report for the Bonneville Power Administration, Portland, Oreg., 1962, 58 pp.

Pulp and Paper

Pulp and paper industry requirements for ~ineral commodities are complex, and substitution of different raw material shifts consump­ tion trends sharply.

In general, calcium, sodium, and sulfur compounds are used by the paper industry in preparing cooking liquor at pulping operations. By digesting the wood with a cooking liquor, all the constitutents of

50 wood chips except cellulose, which is processed into various paper products, are dissolved and removed. At paper-making operations, e chlorine which is made from salt (sodium chloride) is used for bleach­ ing, and clays are used for coating and filler purposes.

Sulfate- (Kraft) and sulfite-pulping operations and the chlorine­ alkali industry are the important users of mineral raw materials for manufacturing pulp and paper in the Puget Sound area. The groundwood­ pulping process is a mechanical operation and does not use minerals.

No attempt is made to show the diverse chemicals produced by the complex chlorine-alkali industry other than to give the raw material (sodium chloride) consumption and source.

Sulfate-Pulping Process

The sulfate process of manufacturing pulp uses lime, chiefly for chemical recovery, and salt cake (sodium sulfate) in the system. An advantage of the sulfate process is that processing chemicals are recovered and returned to the system.

The largest application of lime in pulp manufacture is as a causticizing agent in sulfate plants where the waste sodium solution containing sulfate and carbonate ions is recovered and reacted with high-calcium lime to generate chemicals for reuse in the process. Either quicklime or hydrated lime can be us,ed, but quicklime generally is preferred because the heat generated by its slaking hastens the chemical reactions .

The sulfate-pulping method would represent a significant market for soda ash except that large amounts of sodium hydroxide, a pre­ ferred, substitute in the sulfate process, are produced by the chlorine­ alkali industry in the Pacific Northwest .

The Kraft paper and paperboard industry requires an estimated 70 percent, or about 600,000 tons, of the total sodium sulfate output in the United States. Salt cake aids in digesting pulpwood by dis­ solving the lignin and releasing the cellulose fibers, which are processed into various paper products . In the cooking process, a portion of the sodium sulfate is reduced to sodium sulfide. Much of the salt cake is recovered and recycled, but in order to replenish losses, 100 to 200 · pounds of the salt cake is required per ton of pulp, depending upon the type of wood being pulped and other factors.

Sulfite-Pulping Process

In the sulfite process of pulp manufacture, limestone is the source of ~alcium, and elemental sulfur is used to generate sulfur dioxide, which in turn is converted to sulfurous acid. Lime can be used in place of limeston~; however, in the Pacific Northwest, lime­ stone is used at most sulfite-pulping operations .

51 In the sulfite wood-pulping process, a sulfur dioxide compound is used to form water solubles of the nonfibrous constitutents of the wood. Sulfurous acid alone can do this work; however·, the industry uses a solution of a metallic bisulphite with a varying amount of sulfurous acid. Of the metallic bases, calcium and magnesium or a mixture of the two are the most commonly used, although sodium and ammonia also have been used in this process. The source of sulfur dioxide in manufacturing sulfurous acid at Pacific Northwest pulp mills is elemental sulfur. Pyrite can be burned to make sulfur dioxide for use in making sulfurous acid; however, no acid of this type is manufactured from pyrite in the area.

Substantial progress has been made in recent years in devising systems and installing facilities to recover process chemicals used in making sulfite pulp. The use of magnesium oxide, anhydrous ammonia, or sodium carbonate, rather than calcium carbonate which has been used largely in the past, allows recovery of chemicals to the process­ ing system and thereby lowers the amount of wastes emitted from the plants.

Recovery of materials is not economically feasible when using the calcium carbonate process of manufacturing sulfite pulp.

The additions of new sulfite-production capacities in recent years have been considerably less than those of sulfate-pulp capacities, and this may be due in part to the fact that a recovery process for Kraft pulp spent liquors has been in use for many years.

The type of process and plant capacity, in tons per day, are shown in table 28 for pulp and paper companies operating in the Puget Sound area, that require significant quantities of mineral raw materials. Operations in the Puget Sound area account for 59 percent of the sulfite-pulp capacity and 37 percent of the sulfate-pulp pro­ duction capacity in the State. The same operations comprise 48 percent of the sulfite and 20 percent of the sulfate-pulp plant capacity in the Pacific Northwest. About 30 percent of the total pulping operations in the Pacific Northwest is in the Puget Sound area.

Capacity figures are difficult to evaluate as they depend on a number of assumptions which often are not stated. The considerable variance in capacity estimates among industry representatives suggests that the figures may be inflated. The estimated increase in future demand should absorb any existing unused capacity, and the figures are sufficient for compiling trends for mineral consumption. At capacity operation, about 575,000 tons of sulfate pulp and 775,000 tons of sulfite pulp would be processed annually in the Puget Sound area.

Raw material requirements in 1964 for manufacturing pulp and paper in the Puget Sound area are shown in table 29.

52 TABLE 28. - Pulp and paper companies of the Pu8et Sound area, 1964 .. Tota 1 sulfate- Puln nrocess and canacitv { tons ner dav) sulfite pulping Citv Firm Sulfite Sulfate nnerations

Anacortes Scott Paper Co. 120 Bellingham Georgia Pacific Corp. 500 Everett Scott Paper Co. 775 Everett Simpson Lee Paper Co. 135 Everett Weyerhaeuser Co. 300 325 Port Angeles Crown Zellerbach Corp. 88 Port Angeles Fibreboard Paper Products Corp. 65 Port Angeles Rayonier, Inc. 3'75 Port Townsend Crown Zellerbach Corp. 400 Tacoma St. Regis Paper Co. 8oo

2,223 1,660 3,883 Puget Sound total, • • •••...•. . .•••..• • ..•••••••..... 8,600 State tota i ...... 4,165 4,435 Puget Sound as percent of State total. •..•.• ...... • 59 37 45

Washington-Oregon total. ...••.....••...... ••. 4,635 6,635 11,270 Puget Sound as percent of Washington-O~gon total. 48 ?5 34

Pacific Northwest total. . .. , .•.••... , ..... , . . . , 4,635 8,185 12,820 Puget Sound as percent of Pacific Northwest total. 48 20 30

Sources: Post's Paper Mill Directory Lockwood's Directory of the Paper and Allied. L.D. Post, Inc., 1440 Broadway Trades New York, N.Y. 1964 Lockwood's Trade Journal, Inc., 1964

TABLE 2.9. - Raw material requirements for manufacturing pulp and paper in the Puget Sound area, 1964

Estimated unit requirements Type of Minera 1 raw (pound per ton operation material used of pulo oroduced) Short tons

Sulfite-sulfate Clay 25,000 Sulfate Salt cake 140 40,000 (sodium sulfate) Sulfite Sulfur 225 87,000 Chlorine-alkali Salt NA 370,000 '::iulfate Lime (makeup) 35 10,000 Sulfate Lime (recycled) NA 140,000 Sulfite Limestone 300 115,000 Sulfite Magnesium oxide 120 0

NA Not applicable .

53 Mineral Requirements

Lime. An estimated 50,000 tons of primary lime is consumed annually at pulp and paper operations in the Pacific Northwest. The lime comes from operations of Chemical Lime Co. , Baker, Oreg. ; Ash Grove Lime & Portland Cement Co., Portland, Oreg.; Elliston Lime Co., Elliston, Mont.; and Pacific Lime, Inc., Tacoma .

Limestone. About 115,000 tons of limestone is consumed annually at sulfite-pulping operations in the Puget Sound area. Most of the limestone used at these operations in the Puget Sound area is from Texada Island, British Columbia, Canada.

General requirements for limestone established by sulfite-pulp producers specify a minimum of 96 percent calcium carbonate containing less than 0.7 percent iron and aluminum oxides, and less than 2 per­ cent magnesium carbonate.

With recovery systems available, limestone consumption at sulfite plants in the Puget Sound area can be reduced by substituting magnesium oxide, anhydrous ammonia, or sodium carbonate into the system.

Salt Cake (Sodium Sulfate). Consumption of salt cake at sulfate­ pulping operations in the Puget Sound area approximates 40,000 tons annually. The present source of salt cake for Kraft pulp operations in Oregon and Washington, and some of that used in.British Columbia, is from the Searles Lake operations in California of Am~rican Potash and Stauffer Chemical Co., West End Division. About one-half of the salt cake used in British Columbia Kraft-pulping operations and most of the material used in Idaho and Montana is supplied from the Saskatchevan producers of natural sodium sulfate. The product supplied by American Potash and Stauffer Chemical Co. has a minimum purity of 99 percent anhydrous sodium sulfate, while that supplied by the Canadian producers is slightly less pure, ranging fr.om 97 . 5 to 98 per­ cent minimum anhydrous sodium sulfate.

Most Kraft-pulping operators in the Pacific Northwest prefer the higher grade sodium sulfate from California, particularly those operations receiving salt-water-borne logs. Sodium chloride impurities present in the natural sodium sulfate from Saskatchewan causes corrosion· in liquor-burning furnaces and increased problems involved in liquor­ recovery operations. Methods are needed to determine feasibility of leaching the salt from salt-water-borne logs before utilizing the wood in pulp production in the Pacific Northwest.

The amount of salt cake required per ton of sulfate pulp produced has been decreasing. Efficiency has increased markedly in the utilization of this product by _the sulfate-pulp producers. In 1949, over 200 pounds of salt cake was required per ton of sulfate pulp produced; by 1954, the ratio had dropped to 174 pounds of salt cake

54 per ton of pulp; in 1962, it had dropped to 120 pounds per ton with some mills using only 55 pounds. (22) (23)

Puget Sound area pulp mill superintendents have indicated that an average of 140 pounds of salt cake is required for each ton of sulfate pulp produced in the Pacific Northwest. (28)

Sulfur. Approximately 87,000 tons of elemental sulfur is consumed annually in manufacturing sulfite pulp in the Puget Sound area.

The source of sulfur for sulfite-pulp operations in Oregon and Washington is largely from natural and refinery gases in western Canada. Some comes by boat from Frasch-process sulfur mines in Texas and Louisiana. The sulfur from Canada usually is in molten form, which reduces handling costs, fµel costs, corrosion of equip­ ment, and product losses over that in bulk from the Gulf Coast States.

The delivered price of sulfur from Canadian sources ranges from $26 to $36.50 per long ton to Pacific Northwest consumers, whereas the delivered price of sulfur from the Gulf Coast ranges from $37 to $46 per long ton.

Sulfite-pulp producers require 99.5-percent-pure sulfur with a maximum of 0.3 percent insoluble carbon disulfide. With recovery systems available, sulfur consumption at sulfite plants can be re­ duced by as much as 65 percent. Consumption of sulfu~ at sulfite mills in Washington declined from 141,367 long tons in 1955 to 131,579 long tons in 1962. (13) The decline was dde to installation of faci­ lities to recover sulfur dioxide gas and other chemicals at one mill in the State and the closing of another mill with similar capacity that did not recover process chemicals.

Salt (Sodiwn Chloride). The Pacific Northwest is an important salt-consuming industrial area lacking in local salt-producing facilities.

Salt is reduced to chlorine, caustic soda, and ntm1erous other chemicals by the chlorine-alkali industry in the Puget Sound area. Caustic soda, sodium hydroxide (NaOH), cotnlllercially known as caustic alkali, lye, or simply caustic, is recovered as a coproduct of chlorine from salt. Most of the chlorine and caustic soda production goes to the pulp and paper industry; some is marketed for use in petroleum refining , sewage treatment, food processing, agriculture, and for other industrial use. The tonnages of salt shipped to Washington are shown in table 30. Before 1960, most of the salt to the area came by rail from solar salt operations at Salt Lake City, Utah; since 1960, the greater part of the salt imported to the area has come by barge from Baja California, Mexico. In 1964, apparent consumption of salt in Washington totaled

55 483,000 tons. In 1964, approximately 33 percent of the salt const.nned by the chlorine-alkali industry in Washington was from domestic sources, largely from Solar Salt Co. operations at Salt Lake City, Utah. The remaining 66 percent came from Baja California, Mexico. The delivered price of salt to Pacific Northwest consumers ranges from $7 to $12 per ton.

TABLE 30. - Appatent consumption of salt in Washington, 1955-64 (thousand short tons)

Shipments to Apparent Year Washington 1/ Imports g/ consumption 1955 370 11 381 1956 408 0 408 1957 329 59 388 1958 291 45 336 1959 295 82 3Ti 1960 129 249 378 1961 12~ 270 394 1962 175 290 465 1963 167 251 418 1964 159 324 483 11 Shipments to Washington of evaporated and rock salt produced in the United States. • g/ Imports ( largely from foreign sources) through the Washington Customs district for cons,umption of salt.

The chlorine plant capacity and estimated salt requirements of the chlorine-alkali industry in the Puget Sound area are shown in table 31. About 80 percent of the salt shipped to Washington, or an estimated 370,000 tons of salt, is consumed annually in the Puget Sound area. TABLE 31. - Chlorine plant capacity in the Puget Sound area

Chlorine Estimated plant capacity calt requirements City Firm 'tons oer dav) (short tons per year) Bellingham Georgia Pacific Corp. 100 65,000 Tacoma Hooker Chemical Co. 335 220,000 Tacoma Pennsllt Chemicals Corp. 130 85,000 Puget Sound total • •.• .•• • ...•. • •.••• 565 370,000 State total • •• •••••••• . •.••••• • •..•• 710 4601;'000 Puget Sound ~s percent of State total ••• 8o ·e

56 The chlorine-alkali industry in the Puget Sound area accounts for about 67 percent of the chlorine-caustic soda output in the Pacific , Northwest. Chlorine-alkali operations in the area include those of Georgia Pacific Corp., Bellingham, and Hooker Chemical Co. and Pennsalt Chemicals Corp., both at Tacoma . Other chlorine operations in the Pacific Northwest include plants of Weyerhaeuser Corp., Longview, Wash., and Pennsalt Chemicals Corp . , Portland, Oreg.

E m l? l o y m e n t

Employment trends in the mining and manufacturing industries in Washington, requiring significant quantities of mineral raw materials, are shown in figure 3.

Primary Metals

Employment is largest in tne primary metals industry which is dependent upon local as well as national fluctuations of supply and demand. Employment in the industry reached a peak of 15,000 men in 1956. Lessened building construction, lowered demand for nonferrous metals, and particularly a cutback of defense procurement that affect the State aircraft industry, led to a lowered rate of expansion in the State in 1957 and 1958. National conditions influencing mineral markets were mostly unfavorable during the 2 years, particularly those demand factors relating to lead-zinc and copper mining, as well as aluminum and copper smelting and refining. For example, during 1957, the number of workers in the aluminum industry declined from a January total of 10,000 to 7,900 in December. Lower employment also occurred in smelting and refining other nonferrous metals, and layoffs were recorded for the steel industry late in the year. Employment in the primary metals industry has not reached the 1956 peak, and in 1964, total ~ployment in the industry was about 11,600 men.

Mining

Figures published by the Washington Employment Security Department show that employment in mining has declined from 3,000 men in 1950 to 1,900 men in 1964. The decline possibly is due largely to classi­ fication methods; in 1958, the department compiled data for stone, clay, and glass products which had been pr~ented differently before that time, and some of the employment in mining possibly was included in that classification. Some min{ng employment by that department also is included in a classification for construction workers. Bureau of Mines records show that employment in mining has increased from 2,900 men in 1959, the first year of available information, to over 4,000 men in 1%4.

57 • e

10

8

(/') Q) Q) 6 >,. Stone, cloy, and gloss products 0 a. E Q) 4 Mining (Bureau of Mines) r() 0

2 Mining (State)

I '--.,___.,___..___..__---11...----1----'----'----'----'-----L.----L.----L.-__, 1950 1954 1958 1962 F I GU RE 3 . - E m p Io y me n t T re n d s i r, W a s h i n gt on for Se I e ct e d I n d us t r i es, I 9 5 0 - 6 4 . u-1 oo

58 Estimates of employment in 1964, prepared from information published by the Washington Employment Security Department and from Bureau of Mines records, are shown for mining and related manufacturing . industries requiring significant quantities of mineral raw materials in the Puget Sound area, table 32. Employment is largest in the primary metals industry, and about 3,800 men are employed at aluminum, copper, and steel reduction works in the area. An estimated 3,650 men are employed 'by manufacturers included in the stone, clay, and glass products industrial classification. Employment is large in th~ concrete products sector of the stone, clay and glass industry classification. There are about 25 concrete product plants in the Puget Sound area with Qver 20 employees each, and tota~ employment in manufacturing concrete prod­ ucts is about 3,000. Concrete products, such as ready-mixed concrete, concrete pipe, concrete block and brick, and precast concrete, are oriented toward local markets. Manufacturers of concrete products attempt to locate near primary raw material sources such as sand and gravel deposits or in proximity to distribution terminals of cement plants. About 75 percent, or an estimated 2,500 barrels of cement consumed in the area in 1964, was used in manufacturing concrete products. TABLE 32. - Estimated employment in mining ahd related manufacturing industries requiring significant quantities of mineral e raw materials in the Puget Sound area, 1964 EmElolees 1964 198t'f 2000 2020 Mining: Nonmetals : Cement-lime •...... • ••••••• 425 400 400 500 Sand and gravel • • . .• . •. . ••• •• 825 900 1,150 1,300

Stone o • " " ••• • , • ••••••• •• $ •••• 450 550 700 8oo Miscellaneous •• .•.. : •• ..•••• • 75 100 100 100

Total nonmetals •.•••••• 1,775 1,950 2·,350 2,700 Fuels:

Coa 1 • . . . o • • • • ti •• • •• • • • •• o ~ •••• 50 Peat a • o ...... o ••• ct • 45 Petroleum (exploration) •••• • • 55 Total fuels ...... •... 150 150 . 150 150 Me ta 1 s •••• . •••••• •• •• .• •.•••••••• '35 50 50 50

Total mining •. •• • •••• • • 1,960 2,150 2 ,550 2,900

Primary meta ls (smelting, refining, casting) : Aluminum• ...... " ...... ••• 1,200 3,000 3,700 3,700 Copper • •. • . .. . •...... o o o o • • • 600 700 700 700

Steel !i O • O • 0 • 0 • • • 0 • 0 9 • • • • • 0 • 2,000 1,700 1,600 1,400

Total primary metals •• • 3,800 5,400 6,000 5,800 1/ Steel employment projections are based on a 3.2-percent average increase in productivity for manufacturing steel ingot and an assumed constant figure for iron and steel foundry employment (650 employees).

59 An estimated 92 percent of the employment in mining in the Puget Sound area is at nonmetal operations, particularly sand and gravel and stone operations, which accounted for about 70 percent of the total employment in mining in 1964. Coal and peat operations and petroleum exploration accounted for about 7 percent of the total employment in mining. Less than 2 percent of the totaJ mining employment is in Division I, 25 percent in Division II, and 5 percent in Division III.

Since employment in mining in the Puget Soupd area is mainly in quarrying nonmetals, particularly sand, gravel, and stone, projections for mining employment are dependent largely upon the outlook for these commodities. Productivity is an important factor in estimating employment trends for these commodities, and available information was compiled.

Relationships regarding productivity were compared for the sand and gravel industry in Washington, the United States, and California, the State with greatest production of sand and gravel in the United States. Average employee output per hour from commercial sand and gravel operations is shown for Washington, California, and the United States for the period 1958-64 in table 33. Information for 1964 is not available, but in 1963, output per employee averaged 21,400 tons annually, or 11.5 tons per hour, from California commercial sand and gravel operations where 93.8 million tons was produced, which was more than double the amount of sand and gravel produced at commercial operations for any other State in the United States. Average output per man was over 8.0 tons per hour and ranged from 14,000 to 15,400 tons annually in three States (Illinois, Michigan, Ohio) where in excess of 30 million tons of sand and gravel was produced from commer­ cial operations in 1963. The average figure per employee for the United States was 13,700 tons annually, or 7.5 tons per hour. At Washington commercial sand and gravel operations, the average output per man annually was 14,300 tons, or 9.6 tons per hour. Output per employee exceeded 20,000 tons at several sand and gravel operations in the Puget Sound area in 1964, and for two large operations, the figure exceeded 40,000 tons. Comparing the information ·presented in table 33 over the perio~ 1958-63 indicates that each year productivity could increase about 0.1 ton per man per hour in the United States. Output per man would about double in 50 years based on this trend of avail­ able information. TABLE 33. - Average sand and gravel output per man per hour at commercial operations, 1958-64 (short tons) ·

I Year Washin2ton California United States

1958 . • 0 10.9 · 9.6 6.9 1959 ••. 9.8 8.9 6.8 1960 ••• 9.4 9.6 7.4 1961. .• 9.8 9.9 7.4 1962 •• . 10.0 10.0 7.5 1963 .• • 9.6 11.5 7.5 e 1964 .. 0 NA NA NA NA Not available. 60 Available information also was compiled for employment at commercial and Government-and-contractor sand and gravel and stone operations in the United States, Washington, and California, table 34. The data show that output per employee at stone operations is about one-half that of sand and gravel operations, or ranges from 7,500 tons to about 9,800 tons per employee. In Washington, the average employee output at stone operations ranged from 7,800 tons in 1963 to 9,700 tons in 1964. Several large commercial stone operations in the Puget Sound area reported output of over 18,000 tons per man in 1964. From all sand and gravel operations in Washington, employee output is slightly larger than for commercial operations only; many Government-and-contractor operations supply sand and gravel from bank-run material, thereby cutting down on labor and processing equipment. Sand and gravel employment estimates for the Puget Sound area are based on the State average at commercial operations, or about 15,000 tons per employee. Stone estimates are based on output of 7,500 tons per employee. It seems reasonable to assume that future efficiency of sand and gravel and stone operations will improve, particularly near expanding centers of population. Productivity, in terms of output per employee, has been projected to double or reach 30,000 tons for sand and gravel and 15,000 tons for stone by 2020 at sand and gravel and stone operations near large population centers in Division I. Productivity has been e estimated to remain constant throughout the period of this study at operations supplying aggregates in Division II and III with low popula­ tion densities .

TABLE 34. - Total employment at commercial and Government-and-contractor operations, 1963-64

Washington United States California Sand and Sand and Sand and gravel Stone gravel Stone gravel Stone Employment : e 1963 . .•• 1,382 1,332 5~,8o4 91,960 5,462 5,031 1964 •.•. 1,940 1,320 55,400 94,600 5,465 4,675 Production: ( thousand tons) 1963 •••• 22,760 12,934 821,850 688,366 112,185 37,977 1964 •. •• 31,920 10,276 868,779 725,269 112,995 45,805 Output per man: (short tons) 1963. 0 0 0 16,468 9,710 15,564 7,485 20,539 7,548 1964 0 ••• 16,453 7,784 15,681 7,667 20,676 9,797 e 61 Employment by the cement industry could be reduced sharply, possibly by as much as one-half of 1964 employment by 1980. Output in 1964 was from established plants in the Puget Sound area, and out­ put per man is estimated to be about 12,500 barrels . Firm commitments have been made by cement operators to construct highiy efficient cement manufacturing capacity of 8.5 million barrels before 1970. If plans for additional cement facilities in the Puget Sound area are realized, output per man from the new plants can be expected to reach about 28,000 barrels. It is assumed that some of the established plants in the area will remain operational and will take up the employ­ ment slack between committed operations. Employment projections for cement and lime operations, therefore, are held constant to 2000 when additional cement and lime plant expansion possibly will necessitate additional employment in manufacturing these materials.

Employment at miscellaneous nonmetals, and coal, peat, petroleum. exploration, and metal mining operations is not expected to be over 200 men by 2020. Present employment at operations supplying these minerals is less than 200 men. In the absence of. dependable informa­ tion to the contrary, projections for these comnodities ' are held constant with 1965 figures. Estimated mining employment is shown by division in table 35.

TABLE 35 . - Mining industry employment by economic divisions, 1980-2020

Economic Divisions 198o 2000 2020

I 1,430 1,750 2,015 II 58o 625 675 III 140 175 210 To tal Basin 2,150 2, 550 2, 900

The estimated cost of labor at some mining operations in the Puget Sound area is shown in table 36. About 50 percent of the total value of sand and gravel, or $0 .53 per ton, was labor cost. The unit cost of labor at stone operations averaged $0.92 per ton, or comprised 54 percent of the total value for these materials. Labor costs for cement, averaging $0.62 per barrel, comprised 18 percent of the total value.

62 TABLE 36. - Estimated cost of labor at mining operations in the Puget Sound .area, 1964

Sand and gravel Stone Cement

Production li . .•...... • •...... ••••.•• 12,357 3,484 4 , 292 Value ( thousand dollars) • • ...... • •••• •• $ll,592 $5 ,936 $15,721 Unit value ( dollars per ton) ...... •. $1.07 $1.70 2/ $3.66 Wages • •••••• ••. ••• • .••.. ••• . .. • ••• • • ••• $5 ,8oo $3,200 $2,8oO Percent of total value 50 54 18 Unit cost of labor ( dollars per ton). $0.53 $0.92 g/ $0.62 ... ll Production of sand and gravel and stone is 1,000 short tons; cement is 1,000 barrels. g/ Dollars per barrel.

63 PRESENT STATUS AND POTENTIAL OF THE RIVER BASINS

KNOWN AND POTENTIAL MINERALIZED AREAS

The locations of the known mineral deposits in each planning division are shown in figures 4 through 13. The open circles on the maps indicate properties that have a record of production; the dots with numbers represent properties for which estimates of ore reserves have been made. These properties also are tabulated on the pages facing the maps and are identified by numbers which are used in the text where references are made to given properties.

Nooksack River Drainage System

The Nooksack River drainage system is one of the most important olivine and limestone-producing areas in the Puget Sound area. Other mi,nerals that are or have been produced in quantity during the past are sand at\d gravel, building stone, coal, clay, silica, and gold. A few tons of chromite and copper ore have been produced for testing purposes, and small amounts of silver, lead, zinc, and peat also have been produced. Other mineral deposits that have been found in the area contain diatomite, nickel, and iron as their principal values.

Limestone

Limestone occurs as pods, lenses, and beds in the argillites and graywackes of the Chilliwack Group of Paleozoic age. Most of the de­ posits are located on Sumas, Red, and Black Mountains near Kendall, and Church Mountain near Glacier, all in northern Whatcom County. Since 1926, the limestone has been used primarily by the pulp and cement industries of Whatcom County. Production figures that are available between 1919 and 1958 (first production began in 1912) show that about 2.5 million tons of limestone has· been used. Pro­ duction figures subsequent to 1958 are not available for publication. e

65 1:x1 1L/\NATI0N rOR FIG. 4 MINERAL PROPERTIES* IN NOOKSACK-SUMAS BASINS

METALLIC MINERALS (with production or reserves data where available)

Chromium (30 properties) Gold-Continued 12 - Danny 9 - Great Excelsion (prod. - $20,276) 12A - Industrial Mining Co, 5 - lone Jack (prod. - $550,000) 11 - Ribbon 10 - Nooksack

Copper (3 properties) Iron (4 properties) SC - Glacier 4C - Church Mountain (reserves - 8 - Si Iver Tip (prod. - 27 tons) 18 million tons) 4A - Lynden (reserves - 30,000 tons) Gold (17 properties) 4B - Sumas Mountain (reserves - 1 - Boundary Red Mountain (prod. - 750, 000 tons) $851,000) 6 - Evergreen Nickel (2 properties) 4 - Gargett 7 - Goat Mountain Silver (1 property) 2 - Gold Basin 3 - Gold Run Zinc (1 property)

NONMETALLIC MINERALS (with reserves data where available)

Asbestos (1 property) Refractory clay (5 properties)

Coal (reserves - 303. 82 million tons) 2 - Denny-Renton 1 - Sumos Common ~ (4 properties) Silica (1 property) 6 - Bellingham 5 - Brennon 4 - Olympic 3 - Everson 11 - Grandview Specia I clay (1 property)

Diotomite (3 properties}

Olivine (reserves - 160 billion tons) 8 - Northwest Olivine Co. 7 - Olivine Corp. 9 - Pacific Olivine Co.

STONE DEPOSITS limestone Sandstone (5 properties) Reserves Volcanic rock (4 properties} Less than 10,000 tons (17 properties) 10,000 to 1 million tons (4 properties) 1 million to 10 million tons (2 properties} More than 10 million tons (3 properties)

* Some properties not plotted on map because of poor description of location and/or lock of space.

66 Fig. 4

(MAP SHOWING MINERAL RESOURCES FOR THE NOOKSACK RIVER BASIN)

67 Reserves are estimated to be well over 100 million tons, most of which is contained in the Kendall, Sumas Mountain No . 2, and Black Mountain deposits. Both the Sumas Mountain No. 2 and Black Mountain deposits are undeveloped . There are several other limestone deposits in the more remote and inaccessible parts of the Nooksack River drain­ age system that apparently are very large, but as yet, they have not been examined in detail, and no estimate of tonnage can be given. At present (1966) , all production is coming from the Kend~ll and Silver Lake No. 1 deposits. The limestone from the Silver Lake de­ posit is being used primarily in the pulp industry, and the Kendall deposit is the source of raw material used at a cement plant in Bell­ ingham, and has been for many years. A summary of limestone reserves is as follows : 3 deposits con­ tain over 10 million tons each, 2 deposits contain between 1 and 10 million tons, 4 deposits contain between 10,000 ~nd 1 million tons, and 17 deposits contain less than 10,000 tons, or their size is not known.

Olivin~

The largest olivine deposit in the United States -- the Twin Sisters olivine -- is literally a mountain of ore -- the Twin Sis- ters Mountains -- and covers an area 4 miles wide by 10 miles long. Three companies are currently (1966) producing olivine from the deposit, and it appears that the market for the material is increasing steadily. From 1957 to 1958, production increased 110 percent; from 1958 to 1959, 44 percent; from 1959 to 1960, 44 percent; from 1960 to 1961, 50 percent; from 1961 to 1962, 34 percent; and from 1962 to 1963, 44 percent. In the short period of time in which olivine has been mined from the Twin Sisters deposit, it is estimated that more than a million dollars worth of material has been taken out. Re­ serves are estimated at 160 billion tons, which, for all practical purposes, is an unlimited supply for all present and future needs.

The coal-bearing rocks in Whatcom County are about 12 ,000 feet thick. Stratigraphically, the two principal coal seams are more than 10,000 feet apart, with the Blue Canyon coal at the base and the Bell­ ingham coal near the top . Several lesser seams occur in the interven­ ing rocks. The areal extent of the various beds is not accurately known; however, approximate bounds have been established. The thickness of the seams ranges from a few inches to 14 feet. The Bellingham No. 1 coalbed has an average thickness of 14 feet, but only the upper 7 or 8 feet was mined. The Bellingham No. 2 bed, 2 feet in thickness, was found about 100 feet below the No. 1 seam. The coalbed mined at Blue Canyon ranges in thickness from an inch or so to 12 feet and is

68 reported to average 7 feet. Three other coalbeds, each about 2 feet thick, occur above the main seam. In the Glacier field, where the coal is anthracite, the beds vary in thickness from a few inches to several feet, pinching and swelling rapidly within a short distance. Other coalbeds have been found in isolated outcrops and drill holes throughout the county, but very little is known of them. The Bellingham coal seam was discovered in 1852, and the first coal mine in the State was opened on it the following year. From 1853 to 1955, when production ended, about 5.75 million tons of coal was taken from this bed. Two other mines, at Blue Canyon and at Glen Echo, had production of about 380,000 and 65,000 tons, respec­ tively. Probably less than 1,000 tons of anthracite was produced from the Glacier field. Coal reserves remaining total at least 303 million tons. The Bellingham coal seam, probably the most important, has a minimum of 50 million tons of bituminous coal reserves. There are in excess of 77 million tons of reserves in the Bellingham field, the Lake What­ com field has more than 113 million tons, Glacier field has about 5 million tons, the Blue Canyon coal zone contains at least 30 mil­ lion tons; and other fields contain a total of more than 78 million tons of reserves. e Sand and Gravel The western part of the Nooksack River drainage system contains relatively small quantities of sand and gravel suitable for construc­ tion uses. The most valuable material•comes from deposits that were formed by melt-water streams flowing off the Vashon continental ice sheet. Although glacial till is ordinarily considered unfit as a source of aggregate, good gravel is so scarce that in places where the till has a high pebble content, it has been washed, crushed, and used for concrete and bituminous aggregate. Gravel terraces, river bars, and deltaic deposits found along the Nooksack River are small and commonly contain so many fragments of deleterious material that their suitability for use in aggregate is often questionable.

Sand and gravel deposits in the upper drainages are derived from alpine glaciation. These deposits usually contain a consider­ able. quantity of undesirable rock fragments which limit their usage. All told, ~re than 40 sand and gravel pits a~e known, and most of them are in the glacial outwash deposits of the western part of the area. Available figures show that from 1951 to 1960, sand and gravel production was valued at $915,976. Figures prior to 1951 and subsequent to 1960 are unavailable for publication.

69 Clay is a fairly common commodity in the western part of the Nooksack River drainage system; however, only two, pits are currently (1966) being operated. Most of the clay is glacial in origin and varies in thickness from a few inches to over 200 feet. Five re­ fractory clay deposits in the Kendall area are associated with bed ed­ rock. One other special clay, an impure nonswelling bentonite, also occurs . Material from the two operating pits, the Brennan (fig. 4, No. 5) and the Everson {fig. 4, No. 3), is used as an ingredient in making cement and for making heavy clayware, respectively. No estimate as to the total of past production or potential reserves is available for common clay except that the values are large. Three of the refractory clay pits have a record of past produc­ tion. Complete production figures are not available, but an estimated 53,418 tons worth $151,000 was mined between 1922 and 1949. In all, total refractory clay reserves are probably near 1.5 million tons. Little is known about the bentonitic clay except that where exposed it has a thickness of about 7 feet.

§.tone Ot~er Than_h;mestone The Nooksack River drainage system has one of the most unusual and attractive building stones found in the Puget Sound area. This is the Shuksan stone, which is quarried for its rich green color. It is a chlorite-rich andesite that has good resistence to weather­ ing and, as such, is used for facing on buildings, fireplaces, and wherever rock stability is important. There are four quarries, two from which this material is presently (1966) being taken.

All other rock quarries, both abandoned and producing, are in massive sandstone of the Chuckanut formation. The sandstone is used primarily as riprap for flood control along the Nooksack River and as jetty stone and salt water riprap in the Bellingham Bay area. Two such quarries were in operation in 1965, although, as can be seen on figure 4, several other quarries have a record of production. One old abandoned quarry along Chuckanut Drive provided building stone during the early days.

Fifteen major peat deposits comprising 6,616 acres have been investigated. Other large areas are known to be underlain by peat, but these have not been investigated. Most .of the bogs are located on the relatively flat area in the western part of the drainage system.

70 There are no producing peat operations at the present time (1966), but total production over the years has amounted to $40,000, with practically all of the production consisting of sphagnum peat from Mosquito Lake. Peat reserves are sufficient to take care of the drainage system's demands for many years.

One silica deposit occurs and was first discovered in 1897; the land was patented in 1912. In 1935, the deposit was opened by Olympic Portland Cement Co., and for 12 years thereafter, the silica was used as an additive in manufacturing a low-temperature cement, most of which was used in the construction of the Grand Coulee Dam. Although some assays on the silica have run as high as 96.98 percent, the average, arrived at through extensive sampling and assaying, is only about 90 percent Si0 • Reserves are estimated at 50,000 tons. Production figures are2 not available for publication.

Diatomite Three diatomite deposits are known, none of which appear to be C011111ercial. Excess of organic matter, small size, and thick over­ burden present obstacles that make the deposits economically unat­ tractive. No estimate as to reserves is available. e The Boundary Red Mountain mine (fig. 4, No. 1) has been the most important gold-producing property. The mine, located in north­ central Whatcom County, was developed on a quartz vein that averages fro~ 2 to 3 feet in width, but varies from less than 1 foot up to 7 feet. The trend of the vein is irregular, varying from N 40 0 E to N 130 E, and it dips from SO to 60 degrees to the southwest. The wallrock is a dense, fine-grained di.orite, separated from the vein by a thin parting of gouge. The gold is finely divide~ and free and is usually not visible to the unaided eye. Approximately 56,700 tons of ore was taken from the property between 1912, when production was first reported, and 1947, .when the last production was recorded. During this time, operation o,f the property was intermittent. The ore averaged $15 a ton, and total production was about $851,000. Other minerals occurring in the vein are pyrite, chalcopyrite, pyr­ rhotite, and tetradymite. Silver values were not reported as being important. The Lone Jack mine (fig. 4, No. 5) operated between 1902 and 1924. Free gold with minor amounts of gold telluride occurs in a quartz vein that is traceable for some 2,500 feet. The average width of the vein is 30 inches, but pay zones are localized, and only portions of the vein carry commercial ore. The country rock is a schist. The ore is reported to have contained 2.5 ounces of gold per ton, and total production was valued at $550,000.

71 The Great Excelsior mine (fig. 4, No. 9) operated during the early part of the century, and by 1915, when the last production was reported, the net return was $20,276. The ore deposit is a sulfide­ cemented brecciated greenstone with quartz-dolomite gangue that occurs along the contact of an intrusive body. There are two mineralized zones, the largest of which has a maximum width of 75 feet. Ore minerals are pyrite, chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite, galena, sphalerite, tellurides, and native silver. The ratio of gold to silver in the ore is about 1 to 30.

Fourteen other gold properties are known; six (fig. 4, Nos. 2,3, 4,6,7, and 10) of these are reported to have made test shipments of one form or another.

There are two reported nickel properties (fig. 4), neither of which has produced any ore. Both deposits are the "nickel ledge" type, occurring in silica-carbonate rocks.

Probably the best possibility for the recovery of nickel is from the Twin Sisters olivine. Nickel assays on the olivine range from 0.143 percent to 0.612 percent with an average value of 0.254 percent. At present (1966), no detailed work has been done on the nickel-rich areas of the olivine mass. If the olivine were to be dissolved in a process used to recover magnesium chloride, possibly the nickel could be recovered as a byproduct.

Silver

Silver has been produced only as a byproduct of gold mining. The only silver property, the Tooker-Lestrud, is near the Excelsior mine. The mineral deposit consists of a pyrite zone up to 25 feet wide in metamorphosed volcanic and sedimentary rocks. The silver values are carried in the pyrite.

No zinc has been produced, and only one propeTty, the Chain Lakes, has been staked for its zinc content. The ore deposit consists of disseminated sulfides in brecciated limestone, greenstone, schist, and volcanic rock. Principal sulfides are sphalerite, chalcopyrite, pyrite, and bornite.

Oil and Gas_ No oil has been produced. Exploration has been limited, as most companies have directed most of their exploration efforts to other parts of the State.

72 There has been a small amount of subcommercial gas production. This has come from an area just to the northwest of Bellingham, where the gas has been recovered from Pleistocene glacial deposits. Apparently the gas was generated in the coal seams o.f the underlying Chuckanut formation and migrated up into the glacial drift, where it was trapped. Locally, the gas has been used to heat outbuildings (barns, etcetera) that are located on the property from which the gas was recovered. The gas is produced from shallow depths (170 + feet) and was first discovered by water welldrillers.

Although no significant amount of copper has been produced, one property, the Silver Tip (fig. 4, No. 8), made a 27-ton shipment in 1947. However, before the operators were able to get into regular production, a snowslide destroyed the mine mill. Four and one-half tons of ore were shipped from the Glacier property in 1951.

Three properties are known to have copper as their principal value. All the known copper deposits are either small replacement bodies or fissure and vein deposits that have developed along shear zones.

Chromium

Most of the chromium deposits occur as chromite segregations or lenses in the Twin Sisters dunite mass. However, two deposits north of the Twin Sisters are associated with serpentinized rocks. Test shipments have been made from the Danny (.fig. 4, No. 12) and Ribbon (fig. 4, No. 11) properties, which are located on Twin Sisters Mountain, but there has b_een no significant production from the properties. The Industrial Mining Co. (fig. 4, No. 12A) made shipments in 1959 from its property on the south flank of Twin Sisters ~untain, but production statistics are not available for publication. The ore occurs as chromite segregations in lenses in serpentine and dunite.

At least 30 chromite prospects are known.

Four iron properties are known, but none of these have produced. The Sumas Mountain deposit (fig. 4, No. 4B) is a laterite that developed on rocks of pre- Tertiary age. The Church Mountain deposit (fig 4, No. 4C) was formed by the deposition of iron-rich material in a marine environment. The other two deposits, the Ruth Mountain and the Lynden (fig. 4, No. 4A), have pyrite and limonite (bog ore), respectively, as their ores. Reserve calcul~tions for the Sumas ~untain deposit show 750,000 tons of 25-percent iron to be present. Reserves at Church Mountain are estimated at 18 million tons of material containing about 20 percent iron. The Lynden deposit contains about 30,000 tons of 30-percent iron. An estimate of reserves at the Ruth Mountain is not available.

73 ~it River .Draina~~tem

The Skagit River drainage system has been an important limestone source for many years. It also is the only area in the Puget Sound region where talc, strontium, and asbestos have been produced. Other minerals and ores that have been or are being produced are sand and gravel, coal, clay, olivine, peat, silica, pumice, basalt, copper, gold, chromium, and iron. Small test shipments of lead have also been made. Other ore deposits in the area contain nickel, silver, zinc, manganese, and molybdenum. Nonmetallic minerals that occur in the area but which have had no production are mineral water and diatomite. Although rocks favorable for the occurrence of oil and gas occur, test wells drilled to date have not been productive.

The limestone occurs as beds and lenses in predominantly thin­ bedded siltstones and graywacke along with conglomerate, chert, and volcanic rocks of the Chillawack Group. The deposit.s are located near Concrete in Skagit County, Dock Butte in Skagit and Whatcom Counties, and Circle Peak and Lime Mountain in Snohomish County. The first limestone deposit to be quarried, the Concrete deposit, was the first one to be developed for manufacturing cement in Washing­ ton. Originally, a cement plant was put into production in 1907 at Concrete by the Washington Portland Cement Co. · A short time later, Superior Portland Cement (now Lone Star ·cement Corp.) built a plant at Concrete also. The Washington Portland Cement plant has been closed for years, but the Superior (Lone Star) plant has been in production continuously to the present time (1966). Production figures are not available for publication; however, it is estimated that the deposit at Concrete has produced several million dollars worth of limestone since it was first opened. The only other deposit that has been quarried is the Three Mile Creek deposit, but production figures are not available for publication.

Limestone reserves are estimated at slightly more than 1 billion tons, most of which is contained in two deposits, the Concrete in Skagit County and the Lime Mountain in Snohomish County.

A breakdown of limestone reserves follows: 4 deposits with 10 million or more tons each, 3 deposits with between 1 and 10 million tons, 12 deposits with between 10,000 and 1 million tons, and 7 deposits with less than 10,000 tons, or whose size is not known.

Two areas are potential olivine sources -- Goat Mountain and Cypress Island (fig. 5). One of the Cypress Island deposits, Olivine Hill, has a record of past production. Olivine from this site was fused with phosphate rock to make fertilizer.

74 1:Xl'TJ\N/\'J'ION rOR nc:. 5 MINERAL PROPERTIES* IN SKAGIT-SAMISH BASINS

METALLIC MINERALS (with production or reserves doto where avoiloble)

Chromium (8 properties) Gold-Continued 29 - Cypress (prod. - 70-80 tons) 22 - North Ameri con 30 - Lost Chance 20 - Old Discovery Placer 28 - Reody Cash (prod. - 75 tons) 41 - Peabody 38 ~ Rainy (prod. - 20,000 tons) ~ (27 properties) 14 - Seattle-St. Louis 37 - Foggy 20A - Tacoma 34A - G loci er Peak (reserves 30 23 - Whistler million tons) 35 - He leno (prod. - 150 tons) Iron (6 properties) 39 - 0 ond B (prod, - 12 carloads) 31 - Homi hon (prod. - 5,000 tons; 34 - Som Strom reserves 500,000 tons) 32 - Stephens (prod. - 45 tons) Lead (23 properties) Gold (91 properties) 26 - Boston (prod. - 2 tons) I 7 - Allen Bos in 27 - Johnsburg (prod. - 19 tons) 13 - Anocortes 22 - Anoka /vongonese (1 property) 24 -Azurite (prod. - $972,000; reserves 14,500 tons) Molybdenum (1 property) 33 - Blue Bird 16 - Choncellor (prod. - 120 tons) 12B - Si Iver Creek 15 - Forrer Placer 13A - Fourth or July Nickel (16 properties) 36 - Glory of the Mountain 31A - Mount Vernon (reserves - 50 18A - Goat million tons 40 - Justice 21 - lazy Tor Heel Placer Si Iver (14 properties) 19 - fvommoth (prod, - 30,000 tons) 42 - Monte Cristo (prod. - $1.7 million) 25 - Wi II is and Everett 18 - New Light (prod. - $400,000) Zinc (1 property)

NONMETALLIC MINERALS (with reserves doto where available)

Asbestos (6 properties) Silica (8 properties) 26 - Burlington 16 - Bacon Creek 27 - Lymon 16 - Pressentin 16 - Scheel Cool (reserves - 510.27 million tons) 17 - Silico Comp 15 - Stoner ~ ~ (5 properties) 12 - Alger Strontium (1 property) 25 - Boy View 30 - Alverson 22 - Con ere le 21 - Fridoy Creek Tole (12 properties) 29 - Tiloh 18 - Alvord Oiotomite (1 property) 28 - CIP.or Lake 18A - Dad's Girl Mineral~ (3 properties) 23 - Londonderry 18 - McMyrl-Wilson Olivine (reserves - 10 mi Ilion tons) 18 - Rainbow 24 - Sadie Cudworth 20 - Scheel Clausen 14 - Skagit Tole Products Pumice (2 properties) 31 - Dorrington 13 - Skagit River

STONE DEPOSITS

Limestone Basalt (3 properties) Reserves Other~ (3 properties) Less than 10,000 tons (7 properties). 1O, 000 to 1 mil I ion tons (11 properhe!) 1 million to 10 million tons (3 properties) More than 10 mil lion tons (4 properties) e * Some properties not plotted on mop because of poor description of location and/or lock of space.

76 .!:.iz.•.. 5

e (MAP SHOWING MINERAL RESOURC[S IN THE SKAGIT RIVER BA.SI:; )

77 Reserves for the Goat Mountain area are estimated at 10 billion tons and for Cypress Island at 50 million tons.

Coal occurs in several areas. The major coal deposits are in the Hamilton, Cokedale, and Blue Canyon areas, and small deposits of unknown size occur in the McMurray area.

The coal measures in the extreme northwest part of the area are part of the Blue Canyon coal deposit and occur near the base of the Chuckanut formation. The rest of the coal deposits are separated from the Blue Canyon area by a band of pre-Tertiary metamorphic rocks; however, the coalbeds in the Cokedale and Hamilton areas are probably the same age as the lowermost beds of the Blue Canyon coal. The Cokedale and Hamilton coals are probably continuous under the over­ lying Pleistocene glacial drift and Recent alluvium that appears to separate them. The position of the McMurray coal in the stratigraphic section is not definitely known.

The thickness of the coalbed that was mined in the Blue Canyon area varies from Oto 12 feet but averages about 3 to 4 feet. The Cokedale coal varies from a few inches to almost 30 feet in thickness, but only about half of the 30 feet is reported as being usable coal. Thickness of beds in the Hamilton area is not known other than that there is at least one seam more than 4 feet thick. The number of beds present at Cokedale and Hamilton is not known, and very little is known about the McMurray coal.

Reserves are estimated at over 510 million tons. Blue Canyon reserves are about 50 million tons, Cokedale has about 212 million, and Hamilton has about 249 million.

§.!pd and Gravel

The best sand and gravel deposits are associated with glacial outwash material in the western part of the area, especially near Sedro Woolley. Most of the terrace deposits along the Skagit River are suitable for aggregate use also; however, many of the gravel bar deposits along the river are unsuitable because they contain too many soft rock fragments.

Well over 40 sand and gravel pits are known to have produced aggregate or fill material at one time or another. Practically all of them are in the western part of the drainage sy.stem, although there are a few pits along the upper reaches of the Skagit River. Complete production figures are not available, but it is estimated that over 8 million tons of sand and grave~ has been produced between 1920 and 1965.

78 Clay deposits are fairly comnon in the western part of the Skagit River drainage system, but at the present time (1966), there is no clay production from the area. There are six pits (fig. 5) that have a record of production -- all of them either in glacial or lac­ ustrine deposits. Some shale deposits in the Chuckanut formation near McMurray are suitable for making red-burni~g ware, but they have not been utilized. All clay produced has been used in the manufacture of heavy ware and as an ingredient in making cement to raise the silica and alumina content.

Stone Other ThJm__.Limestone Nine stone quarries are in the Skagit River drainage .system, one in silica-carbonate rock, one in travertine, one in schist, and six in andesite. The schist is used as ashlar and flagstone; the travertine is used as a decorative stone; the others are used as rubble, landscape rock, and riprap. Production records are not complete for the drainage system; prior to 1913, no reports were made , and many of the totals subsequent to that time are not available for publication.

Asbestiform Materials Of seven asbestiform mineral properties, only two have a record of production. The Burlington deposit, which is in a greenstone that crops out on a hill just north of Burlington, was used to make special cements. The fibrous material is a mixture of actinolite and fibrous soapstone. The Lyman deposit, which is near Hamilton, is reported to have shipped a small amount of amphibole asbestos. Three of the asbestos properties contain serpentine asbestos (chrysotile), and four contain amphibole asbestos. As noted above, the production has been from the latter. All of the deposits are associ­ ated with basic and ultrabasic rocks. Total production of asbestos is estimated at less than 1,500 tons. No estimate of reserves is available.

Diatomite Only one diatomite deposit has been reported, and it has not had production. It is a 6- to 12-foot bed that covers about 15 to 20 acres and ts overlain by from 6 to 12 inches of overburden. Reserves are estimated at about ~0,000 tons.

79 Of three mineral hot springs, none have been developed. They are the Baker Hot Springs in Whatcom County, and the Sulfur Hot Springs and Kennedy Hot Springs in Snohomish County.

Oil and Gas

The Chuckanut formation of Paleocene age, cropping out in the western part of the Skagit River drainage aystem, contains many beds that have physical conditions favorable for the accumulation of oil and gas. To the present time (1966), there has been only one test well drilled below 1,000 feet. A few deep water wells have encount­ ered small gas pockets that bled off very quickly. -Three water wells are reported to have had oil shows at± 100 feet, but these reports are probably erroneous.

Peat

Fifteen major peat areas comprising 1,147 acres have been in­ vestigated. Of these peat areas, five contain more than 2 feet of sphagnum moss in some part of the bogs. Other peat deposits are known to exist, but as yet have not been investigated. All but three of the bogs studied are located on the glacial plain of the western part of the drainage system.

There is only one bog producing peat, and it is a comparatively new operation, having started in 1962. Production figures are not available for publication, and no quantitative estimate of reserves can be made ; however, reserves are probably adequate to meet the demands of the area for many years.

---Silica·- Eight known silica deposits are in the form of massive quartz. Four properties in the area have a record of production. The material produced has been used a pulp stone, molding sand, and glass sand. No production figures are available for publication. Reserves are estimated to be well over 1 million tons.

Only one strontium property is known . It is located about 1.5 miles southwest of La Conner (fig. 5) . The st~ontium minerals are scattered through a 3- to 4-foot-wide fracture zone in a serpentinized dunite. The richest solid ore zone is about 30 inches wide.

80 Information available on the property indicates that there are only a few thousand tons of ore available. Production from the prop­ erty was primarily during World War I, when a few hundred tons of material was shipped. Since then, only a few small shipments have been made.

There are two occurrences of pumicite. The Skagit (fig. 5, No. 13) ·consists of three deposits within a 40-acre area that at one time apparently was a lake basin. All three deposits are fine-grained light­ gray pumicite so uniform in texture that stratification is barely visible. The deposits contain high quality pumicite, but they are not very large. Reserves covered by less than 15 feet of overburden are estimated at 15,000 to 18,000 tons. A few carloads have been mined and shipped, but no figures are available for publication.

The Darrington deposit (fig. 5, No . 31) is alluvial in origin and has had minor production.

Twelve talc properties are known; eight have a record of production. This drainage system is unique in that it has within its bounds the only producing talc properties in Washington State. Production first started in 1929 or very shortly thereafter and has been continuous ever since. Three companies are currently (1966) engaged in the production of talc. The producing mines are the Rainbow, Skagit Talc Products, and the Clear·Lake.

It is estimated that about 75,000 tons of talc worth about $800,000 has been produced. An estimate of reserves cannot be given because of lack of information.

The Azurite mine (fig. 5, No. 24) has been one of the important gold-producing properties. Ore minerals are chalcopyrite, sphalerite, pyrite, pyrrhotite, and galena in a quartz vein. The vein cuts argillitic country rock and is from 2 to 4 feet wide. The material mined averaged 0.385 ounce of gold and 0.036 ounce of silver per ton, and production amounted to $972,000 during the 4 years from 1936 through 1939 that the property was active. Known high-grade material has apparently been depleted, but there is reported to be a proven reserve of 14,500 tons of ore averaging $11 per ton.

The Anacortes mine (fig. 5, No. 13) operated in the late 1930's and early 1940's; several thousand dollars worth of $18- to $20-per-ton ore was produced during that time. The gold was in a quartz vein that averaged 2 feet in width ·in slate, conglomerate, and diorite. The ore minerals are tellurides, sulfides, and free gold.

81 The Chancellor mine (fig 5, No. 16) operated between 1935 and 1939. Total shipments were 120 tons of ore that averaged 0.735 ounce of gold and 3.48 ounces of silver per ton. The mineralization is along shear zones in quartzite and consists of pyrite, arsenopyrite, galena, and sphalerite in a quartz-calcite gangue. The veinlets that fill the fractures along the overall shear zone are from 3 to 12 inches wide.

The Mammoth mine (fig. 5, No. 19) reportedly produced 15,000 tons of ore prior to 1900, and 30,000 by 1942. Total production is reported to have been more than $1 million. Ore occurs in a 1- to 3-foot quartz vein that carries free gold, tellurides, pyrite, arsenopyrite, galena, and sphalerite. The vein cuts argillite and quartzite country rock.

The New Light mine (fig. 5, No. 18) produced 60,000 tons of ore in the early part of the 20th century and several tons of high-grade ore from 1940 to 1942. Total value of production is estimated to have been about $400,000. The ore deposit is in a fracture zone in limy and graphitic argillite and consists of graphitic shear zones, interlacing quartz veinlets, and breccia zones cemented by quartz and sulfides. Ore minerals are free gold and gold-bearing pyrite. The Monte Cristo mine (fig. 5, No. 42) is one of the more famous mines of the Cascade Mountains. It was first opened about 1893, but after a few years of production was forced to close because of manage­ ment and transportation problems. The mine produced 300,000 tons of ore having an estimated total worth of more than $1.7 million. The mineralization is in a shear zone that contains sulfide lenses 1 to 15 feet thick and up to 300 feet in diameter. Ore minerals include arsenopyrite, pyrite, sphalerite, galena, chalcopyrite, and jamesonite. The country rock is schist and quartz diorite. The Rainy mine (fig. 5, No. 38), which is near the Monte Cristo, produced 20,000 tons of ore that averaged nearly 0.6 ounce of gold and 2.2 ounces of silver per ton. The ore body is localized along a fracture zone in schist and andesite. Gold and silver values occur in arsenopyrite and pyrite. There are 15 properties (fig. 5, Nos. 13, 13A, 14, 15, 17, 17A, 18A, 20, 21, 22, 23, 33, 36, 40, and 41) that have made test shipments of gold ore or have produced but for which no production records are available. In addition, there are at least 69 prospects that have gold as their principal value.

Shipments of copper are reported to have been made from five properties. None of the properties, however, have been able to main­ tain a sustained production. There are at least 27 copper properties in the area.

82 Twelve carloads of hand-sorted ore was shipped from the O and B mine (fig. 5, No. 39) to the Everett smelter prior to 1901. Assays on the material shipped averaged $35 per ton. The mineralization occurs along fracture zones in andesite which are as much as 4 feet wide and vary from 2 to 50 feet in length.

Shipments from the Helena mine (fig. 5, No. 35) amounted to 150 tons of ore that ran $19 to $32 per ton. The ore is said to be in at least two sulfide-bearing quartz veins in shear zones in granite.

One shipment reported to have been made from the Stephens property (fig. 5, No . 32) assayed 2 percent copper. The property is within the Anacortes city limits, .and is a 10-foot shear zone in granodiorite that is exposed for 600 feet. The zone is serpentinized and poorly mineralized.

The Foggy mine (fig. 5, No. 37) is reported to have had production, but the amount is unknown. The mine is in a partially mineralized fracture zone that can be traced for 5 , 000 feet on the surface.

Some hand-sorted ore was produced from the Sam Strom property (fig. 5, No. 34), but the amount is unknown. The ore body is a mineralized shear zone in diorite and slate. The zone is 500 feet wide and is shot with quartz veinlets.

The Glacier Peak property (fig. 5, No. 34A) is probably the most important copper property. There has been no production from the property, but considerable exploration work has been done to interpret the ore zones. Mineralization is along closely spaced joints in quartz diorite. The ore minerals also replace ferromagnesian minerals in the rocks . Copper is distributed uniformly, and molybdenum erratically, throughout the deposit. The property consists of at least two ore bodies. The largest is reported to contain an estimated 20 million tons of ore that runs better than 0.40 percent copper with values in molybdenum, gold, and silver. The smaller ore body is reported to contain an estimated 10 million tons of ore that runs better -than 0.40 percent copper, approximately 0.70 percent molybdenum,'and additional values of gold, silver, and tungsten.

Ch~ium Eight chromium properties are known, three of which have made small ore shipments. The Ready Cash mine (fig. 5, No . 28) shipped chromite in 1917 and 1918. Total reported production was 75 tons. Chromite occurs as irregular veinlets an inch or more thick and clots a foot or more in diameter in a serpentine country rock.

The Last Chance property (fig. 5, No. 30) is reported to have produced, but no records are available. Mineralization consists of thickly disseminated chromite grains in serpentine. The Cypress mine (fig. 5, No. 29) produced for a short time between 1956 and 1959 from the dunite and serpentine body on Cypress Island. Exact production figures are not available, but it is estimated that about 70 to 80 tons of ore was extracted and shipped.

83 Five other properties have undergone development work in the area, but none has madP ore shipments.

Iron Shipments have been made from only one of the six known iron deposits. Tilis , the Hamilton (fig. 5, No. 31), has produced about 5,000 tons. 'nle ore body consists of discontinuous beds and lenses of magnetite and hematite in a fine-grained schist.

Reserves are estimated at 500,000 tons of ore that contains about 38 percent iron.

Leaq_ Twenty-three properties have lead as their principal value. Two of the properties, the Boston (fig. 5, No. 26) and Johnsburg (fig. 5, No. 27), have made test shipments of 2 tons and 19 tons, respectively. Values on both properties are in veins containing lead, silver, zinc, gold, and copper. Tile vein at the Boston property is in foliated diorite, and the Johnsburg vein is along a shear zone in a schist.

No estimate of lead reserves is available.

There are at least 14 silver properties, 1 of which has had a record of production. 'nle Willis and Everett mine (fig. 5, No. 25) had a short period of activity early in the century, but the amount of production is not known . Assays of the high-grade ore ran $200 silver and $9 gold. 'nle deposit consists of three veins that cut a granitic country rock and vary from 4 to 12 fe~t in width.

At least 16 nickel properties are known. Practically all of the deposits are of the "nickel ledge" or silica-carbonate rock type. None of the properties have had commercial production, but one -- the Mount Vernon (fig. 5, No. 31A) -- has made several test shipments.

An estimated 50 million tons of silica-carbonate rock is at the Mount Vernon property. Some 15 million tons of this has been blocked out by drilling. A sulfide breccia zone, discovered during the drilling, was estimated to contain between 15,000 and 50 ,000 tons of ore containing 0.2 percent nickel and 0.02 ounce of gold per ton. 'nle approximate average tenor oi millions of tons of the silica-carbonate rock is 0. 2 to 0.) percent nickel and about 0 . 02 ounce of gold per ton, but no effective method to concentrate the valuable minerals in this rock is presently known.

84 A second ore body that has received considerable attention is the Jumbo Mountain deposit. No estimate of reserves is available, but some assays showing as high as 13 percent nickel have been reported. The nickel minerals occur in dunite dikes and in concentrations of pyrrhotite along the contacts of the dikes with the schistose country rocks.

The one zinc property is a small vein deposit and apparently has had very little work done on it.

There is only one manganese property, and it has no record of production. The deposit consists of a concentration of pyrolusite in sand and gravel.

!1o 1 y b d~.m!!!_ One molybdenum property -- the Silver Creek (fig. 5, No. 12B) -­ is in a bleached silicified volcanic rock near the contact of a grano­ diorite intrusive. Molybdenite and chalcopyrite grains are scattered throughout the host rock, which is cut by small quartz stringers. Chip samples assayed 0.40 ounce of silver, 1.50 percent copper, and 0.15 percent molybdenum.

Stillaguamish l!_~ver Drainage System_

The Stillaguamish River drainage system has recorded production of sand and gravel, limestone, copper, silver, gold, and iron. Other mineral deposits that have been found in the area contain diatomite, peat, coal, pumice, asbestos, manganese, nickel, zinc, lead, and arsenic.

Limestone

Limestone occurs as pods, lenses, and beds in argillite, graywacke, and volcanic rocks of Paleozoic age. The deposits are located near Darrington, Arlington, Granite Falls, and Silverton, all of which are in the Snohomish County part of the drainage system and are in the mountainous part of . the area.

Limestone production began about 1934, and it is estimated that since that time, well over half a million tons of limestone worth over $1.5 million has been produced. Reserves are estimated to be in excess of 38.5 million tons. About 99 percent of the reserves are contained in the Galbraith and Bonanza Queen deposits, which are near Darrington and Silverton, respectively.

85 EXPLANATION FOR FIG. 6

MINERAL PROPERTIES* IN STILLAGUAMISH BASIN

META LUC MINERALS · (with production or· reserves data where available)

Arsenic (1 property) Lead (1 property)

Copper (38 properties) Manganese (3 properties)

46 - Bonan:ia Queen (prod. - 830 tons) Nickel (1 property) 49 - Mamie 48 - Ore Recoveries (prod. - 200 tons) Si Iver (4 properties) 45 - St. Louis and Jackson 44 - Wayside (prod. $500,000) 50 - "45" (Magus) (prod. - 3, 185 tons} Gold (29 properties) Zinc (1 property) 47 - Copper Independent (prod. - 1 carload)

Iron (3 properties) 43 - Jefferson (prod. - 6,000 tons)

NONMETALLIC MINERALS (with reserves data where available)

Asbestos (1 property) Diatomite (2 properties)

Coal (reserves - 44.56 million tons) Pumice (1 property)

STONE f>EPOSITS

Limestone Reserves less than 10,000 tons (9 properties) 10, 000 to 1 mi 11 ions tons (3 r,roperties) 1 million to 10 million tons 1 property) More than 10 million tons (1 property)

* Some properties not plotted on map because of poor description of location and/or la.ck of space.

86 Fig 6

(MAP SHOWING MINERAL RESOURCES IN THE STILLAGUAMISH BASIN)

87 A breakdown according to size of deposit shows nine deposits with less than 10,000 tons each, three deposits with more than 10,000 but less than 1 million tons each, one deposit with more than 1 million but less than 10 million tons, and one deposit with more than 10 million tons.

Sand and Gravel Good sand and gravel deposits occur in the glacial outwash of the western part of the area and in the river bars and terraces along the Stillaguamish River. The river bars are mostly west of Arlington and contain hard, well-rounded gravel. Some 40 to 50 sand and gravel pits have produced aggregate or fill material at one time or another. Complete production figures are not available for publication. No estimate of the reserves can be made, but they are large.

Coal Coal occurs in two areas. The largest deposit is part of the Hamilton coal area. The smaller deposit, called the Rick Creek coal area is about 4 miles south and slightly east of the Hamilton beds. The Rick Creek coal may be a continuation of the coalbeds that occur in the Hamilton area; however, their stratigraphic position is not definitely known • . There has been no production from either the Hamilton or Rick Creek beds. Reserves are estimated at 44.56 million tons in the Hamilton beds. No estimate is available for the Rick Creek coal.

At least a hundred peat bogs are known, the largest of whicn covers over 200 acres. Ten peat bogs covering a total of 687 acres have been investigated in detail. Seven of these bogs contain sphagnum moss. There has been no peat production, but reserves are sufficient to take care of the area's demands.

Pumice

The one pumice property is near Oso and is reported to cover 20 to 25 acres. No other information is available concerning the deposit.

88 One occurrence of talcose asbestos is reported. It is near Clear Lake in the e~stern part of the drainage system and occurs in a serpen­ tine dike. There has been no production from the property.

Diatomite

Two diatomite deposits have been reported. One, near Kings Lake, is said to cover 1 acre, but no depth is given. No information is available concerning the other deposit.

Copper ' . The Wayside mine (fig. 6, No. 44) has probably produced more copper than any other property in the Stillaguamish River drainage system. Total production has been about $500,000 worth of ore that contained 10 percent copper, 0.01 to 0.25 ounce of gold per ton, and 6 to 10 ounces of silver per ton. The ore is in a 6- to 18-inch-thick quartz vein that cuts slates and siliceous limestone. Ore minerals e are chalcopyrite, pyrite, galena, sphalerite, and bornite. Prior to 1918, the Bonanza Queen (fig. 6, No. 46) produced approximately 830 tons of ore, which is reported to have averaged 3.5 percent copper, 0.04 ounce of gold per ton, and 2 to 3 ounces of silver per ton. The ore deposit consists of massive sulfides in lenses along a shear zone that is 10 to 75 feet wide. The zone cuts argillite country rock and can be traced for 3,000 feet on the surface. Ore minerals are pyrite, chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite, sylvanite, and realgar.

The Ore Recoveries mine (fig. 6, No. 48) shipped 200 tons of concentrates in 1940. Ore values ran between $3 and $7 per ton, 75 per­ cent of which was gold. The ore deposit is a quartz vein in metamorphic rocks.

The St. Louis and Jackson mine (fig. 6, No. 45) is reported to have produced a small amount prior to 1909. The deposit consists of a well-mineralized quartz vein 1 to 6 inches wide along a shear zone in granite.

A small ore shipment is reported to have been made from the Mamie property (fig. 6, No. 49) in 1916. No other information is available.

Approximately 33 other copper properties are known.

89 Gold

No sust ained gold production has been reported. One carload of picked ore from the Copper Independent mine (fig. 6, No. 47) was shipped to the Everett smelter prior to 1901. The deposit is a mineralized shear zone in granite. The zone contains ore bodies 100 to 200 feet long and 2 to 3 feet wide.

Approximately 28 other gold properties are known .

Silver

Only one property, the "45" Magus (fig. 6, No. 50), has produced silver. The mine produced 3,185 tons of ore from 1896 to 1902. Ore shipped returned 0.35 to 1.06 ounces of gold per ton and 48 . 4 to 171. 4 ounces of silver per ton. The deposit is made up of mineralized fracture zones in metamorphic rocks. One vein has an indicated length of 3,000 feet. Ore minerals are galena, sphalerite, ruby silver, chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite, pyrite, pyrrhotite, marcasite, scheelite, and tetrahedrite.

Three other silver properties are known.

Of the three iron properties (fig. 6), one has a record of production. The Jefferson mine (No . 43) yielded about 6,000 tons of bog ore that assayed 51 percent iron, 4.93 percent silica, and 0.02 percent sulfur. The iron bog is reported to be 2. 5 to 3 feet deep and to cover 30 acres.

Other Properties in the Stillaguaniish River Drainage System

Other mineral properties that occur but which have no record of production include three manganese prospects and one prospect each of nickel, zinc, lead, and arsenic.

Snohomish River Dr.ainage Syste~

The Snohomish River drainage system is one of the most important . mineral producing areas of the Puget Sound area. Its mineral resources are varied, and it has a long history of production. Mineral commodities that have been produced are sand and gravel, limestone, clay, basalt, sandstone, granite, mineral water , antimony, arsenic, copper, gold, silver, and iron. Other mineral deposits that have been found in the area are coal, diatomite, asbestos, nickel, zinc, lead, and molybdenum.

90 cxrLANATTON rOR rTG. 7 MINERAL PROPERTIES* IN SNOHOMISH BASIN

METALLIC MINERA LS (with production or reserves data where available)

Antimony (3 properties) Gold (138 properties) 78 - Grand Centro I 75 - Apex (prod. - $300, 000) 76 - Great Republic 59 - Blue Bird 81 - Coney Basin (prod. more than Arsenic (1 property) 40 tons) 88 - Cormack (prod. - 20 tons) 66 - Reiter (prod. - 22 tons) 74 - Dornon and Pythias {prod. 22 tons) Copper (91 properties) 55 - Good Hope {prod. more than 61 - Broken Ridge one carload) 71 - Buckeye 57 - Horseshoe Bend Placer 73 - Climax 62 - Index Gold Mines, Inc. 65 - Charlotte (prod. - 2 carloads) 59A - Lost Chance 67 - Copper Bell 79 - Lennox 68 - Copper King 87 - Dutch Mi Iler Iron (8 properties) 64 - Ethel (prod. - 400 tons) 72 - Anderson 53 - Florence Roe (prod. - 606 tons) SSA - Lockwood Pyrite {reserves - 52 - Iowa (prod. - 200 tons) 3 . 5 million tons) 60 - Kromono (prod. more than $13,000) 70 - Lake Serene (prod. more than 4 Lead (18 properties) carloads) 51 - Mackinaw Molybdenum (3 properties) 86 - Middle Fork (reserves more than 100 tons) Nickel (2 properties) 56 - New york - Seattle 85 - Quartz Creek (reserves - 4. 5 Si Iver (10 properties) million tons) 80 - Snoqualmie 84 - Aces Up 54 - Sulton King 83 - Cleopatra 58 - Sunrise (reserves - 4.5 million tons) 77 - Seattle-Casca de 69 - Sunset (prod. - 13 million lbs . cu; reserves - 500, 000 tons) Zinc (3 properties) 78 - Uno

NONMETALLIC MINERALS {with reserves doto where available)

Asbestos (1 property) Common clay-Continued 39 - Monroe Coo l (reserves - 14 million tons) 33 - Schaffer Brick Yard 37 - Snohomish Common Cloy (8 properties) 32 - Oregon Flower-Pot Co. Diotomite (1 property) 34 - Everett Brick Yard 40 - Grotto Mineral Water (5 springs) 35 - Lowell Brick & Tile Co. 36 - Garland Hot Springs 38 - Meadowdo le Pottery 41 - Scenic Hot Springs

STONE DEPOSITS

Limestone Bosa It (5 properties) Reserves Granite (6 properties) Less than 10, 000 tons (5 properties) 10, 000 to 1 mi 11 ion tons (6 properties) Sandstone (l property) More than 1 million tons (1 property)

* Some properties not plotted on mop because of poor description of location and/or lack of space.

92 (MAP SHOWING MINERAL RESOURCES IN THE SNOHOMISH BASIN) e

93 Limestone occurs as lenses and beds in argillite and volcanic rocks of Paleozoic age. The deposits occur near Granite Falls on Pilchuck Creek, near Gold Bar and Grotto on the Skykomish River, and near Snoqualmie Pass on the South Fork of the Snoqualmie River. Most of the limestone produced has been used to make portland cement; the. remainder was used for agricultural purposes. Production first began in 1928 a·t the Grotto plant of Northwest Portland Cement Co. (now Ideal Cement Co.) and has been continuous ever since. Total production of limestone to date (1966) is estimated at about 2 million tons.

Reserves are estimated to be over 7.5 million tons. A summary of the deposits follows: five deposits with less than 10,000 tons each or whose size is unknown, six deposits with more than 10,000 tons but less than 1 million tons each, and one deposit that contains more than 1 million tons.

Sand and Gravel

The best sand and gravel deposits are found in the glacial outwash material that blankets the western part of the area. Because the rapidly expanding urbanization of the western border of the drain­ age system is eliminating from use the grave~ deposits there, almost the only gravels available for use are those farther to the east on the outwash plain. River-bar gravel along the Skykomish and Snoqualmie Rivers also is suitable for aggregate use.

The exact numbe~ of sand and gravel pits that have produced aggregate or fill material is not known, but the number probably ex­ ceeds 100. Many of them have been covered or rendered unusable by eastward urban expansion of the communities bordering Puget Sound.

Clay deposits are relatively widespread, especially in the western part of the area. The clay deposits are both glacial and al­ luvial in origin. At one time or another, eight pits have produced clay for brick, tile, pottery, and as an ingredient in cement. Pres­ ently (1966), two pits are in operation, and these seem to adequately fill the needs of the area for their particular product or use. One pit, which is in south Everett, supplies clay for red-burning ware. The other pit, at Grotto, produces shale which is used as an ingredient in making portland cement.

No estimate of clay reserves is available, but the reserves are sufficiently large to meet projected future demands, provided the clay deposits are not overrun by urban expansion. Complete production figures are not available, but from 1944 to 1963, approximately 280,000 tons of clay and shale was mined.

94 Stone Other Than Limestone

Five basalt, one sandstone, and six granite quarries are in the . Snohomish River drainage system. Six of these quarries -- two granite and four basalt -- are currently (1966) operating. The basalt quarries produce rubble, landscape rock, riprap, and crushed rock. One granite quarry, at Baring, produces material that is crushed and used for poultry grit. The other granite quarry produces rubble and landscape rock.

No reserve figures are available, but there appears to be an adequate amount of material available to meet needs for several years to come. However, the adequacy of the reserves is difficult to pre­ dict, because mining operations in the western part of the drainage system are being curtailed more and more by zoning restrictions. Pro­ duction fitures are not available for publication.

Mineral Wate~

Two mineral springs have been developed for commercial use, but only Garland Mineral Springs (fig. 7, No. 36) is still used in conjunc­ tion with a resort. The temperatures of the four springs at Garland range from 50° to 84° F. Mineral contents vary, but they are generally low in sulfur and iron. Scenic Hot Springs (fig. 7, No. 41) was once operated as a resort, but now the waters are not used. An attempt was made in the early days to develop Goldmeyer Hot Springs as a hotel e resort, but it failed. Other mineral springs are the Skykomish Mineral Springs (not shown on map)'and Money Creek soda springs.

Two coal seams were opened along Raging River between 1886 and 1888. Considerable development work was done on the property, and about 25,000 tons of coal was taken out. About 23 feet of carbonaceous material containing approximately 7 to 12 feet of coal in two main beds make up the coal measures. Reserves amount to about 14 million tons. The coal occurs in the Puget Group, but its stratigraphic po­ sition in the unit is not known.

There are probably over a htmdred peat deposits, the largest of which covers 1,975 acres. Twenty-six bogs have been investigated in detail, and there are seven bogs that currently have commercial peat operations on them. Peat bogs cover a total of 5,780 acres. Sphagnum peat occurs in 14 of the area's bogs. Production figures for the drainage system are not available for publication. Reserves are pro­ bably adequate for many years' supply.

95 Diatomite

No diatomite has been produced, and little information is avail­ able on the one known deposit. Available information indicates that it is too small to be of much interest.

One asbestos property is known. The asbestos is a crossfiber variety in which the fibers are 1/4 inch long. The deposit is in a peridotite country rock. The property has no record of production.

AntimonY._

Of three antimony properties, two are reported to have had pro­ duction. Antimony was discovered at the Great Republic mine during 1892, and a small amount of ore was mined there between 1901 and 1905. Production is reported for the years 1938 through 1941, but no sta­ tistics are available. The ore deposit is in a flat-lying mineralized fault in andesite, and the ore mineral is stibnite. Values of gold and silver have been reported from the property also.

An unknown amount of ore was produced from the Grand Central mine in 1908. Stibnite is in narrow veinlets of quartz, calcite; and pyrite along a 40-foot-wide zone in andesite.

Washington was the first State in the United States to produce white arsenic. The smelter was located at Everett, and for 2 years, part of the ore came from the Reiter mine (fig. 7, No. 66). Production from the Reiter amounted to 22 tons of arsenic, and the property pro­ duced for only 2 years. The ore deposit consisted of 2- to 12-inch fracture fillings in granodiorite.

Copper

At least 91 copper properties are known, 19 of which have report­ ed production or have made test shipments.

Shipments from the Charlotte mine (fig. 7, No. 65) have been two carloads of high-grade ore. The mineral deposit consists of small lenses of ore along a shear zone in granodiorite. The mineralized zone is 20 feet in diameter and has a maximum width of 4 feet; its length is unknown.

About 400 tons of ore was shipped from the Ethel mine (fig. 7, No. 64). The ore deposit is along a shear zone in granodiorite. The width of the zone varies from a few inches to 27 feet.

96 The Florence Rae mine (fig. 7, No. 53) produced 101 tons of ore during 1918 and 1919, and 505 tons of ore from 1937 to 1941. The 505 tons averaged 12.4 percent copper, 0.01 ounce of gold per ton, 2.36 ounces of silver per ton, 0.8 percent zinc, and 0.07 percent nickel. The ore deposit consists of four principal vein systems in metamorphic rocks and quartz diorite.

Production from the Iowa mine (fig. 7, No. 52) amounted to 104 tons prior to 1937 and 96 tons from 1937 to 1941. The ore shipped prior to 1937 assayed 10 percent copper, 0.233 ounce of gold per ton, and 3.23 ounces of silver per ton. Mineralization is along fracture zones in metamorphic rocks and diorite. Zones vary in width from a few inches to 48 inches.

The Kromona mine (fig. 7, No. 60) is in a shear zone that cross­ es the contact of quartz diorite with older metamorphic rocks. In 1954, 102 tons of concentrates shipped from the property gave a net return of $13,191. Concentrates were also shipped in 1955, 1958, 1959, 1960, 1961, and 1962, but production figures are not available for publication.

Four carloads of ore were shipped from the Lake Serene mine (fig. 7, No. 70) prior to 1901, and an unknown amount was shipped to the Tacoma smelter in 1949. The ore body consists of mineralized fissures, and high-grade ore is reported to have been worth about $90 a ton.

No ore shipments have been made from the Middle Fork property (fig. 7, No. 86) (also called Clipper group and Gilbreath), but it is reported that drilling in rec~nt years indicates a large potential ore body containing between 0.50 and 1.0 percent copper, with values in gold, silver, and molybdenum . · Mineralization is in breccia pipes and along shear zones and cross-fractures in granodiorite.

Shipments of concentrates from the Quartz Creek property (fig. 7, No. 85) were made in 1954. It is reported that, of the two mineral­ ized zones on the property, the one to the east is in a breccia pipe and contains about 150,000 tons of 5-percent copper ore with $7 to $8 in gold and silver per ton; the west ore body is in a shear zone in granodiorite and contains an estimated 4 million tons of 0.7 to 1.0 percent copper ore.

The Sunset mine (fig . 7, No. 69) has produced more copper than any other mine in the Snohomish River drainage system. Production was spasmodic from 1902 to 1949, but during its periods of operation, 12,912,000 pounds of copper, 1,500 ounces of gold, and 156,000 ounces of silver were taken from the mine. The ore deposit consisted of five main shear zones in granodiorite with lenses of ore a few inches to 16 feet wide. Reserves may be as much as 500,000 tons of ore con­ taining over 1 percent copper plus values in gold and silver.

97 The Sunrise prospect (fig. 7, No . 58) has had considerable devel­ opment work done on it, but no ore shipments have been made . The deposit is a mineralized breccia pipe with quartz veinlets extending out from the breccia. The country rock is quartzite and hornfels. The zone is estimated to contain 4. 5 million tons of mineralized material. Assays have run as much as 6 percent copper with values in gold, silver, and molybdenum; however, the overall copper content of the deposit is probably well below 1 percent.

The Mono property (fig. 7, No . 76A) has received considerable attention during the last few years. Drilling in 1965 is reported to have indicated approximately 100,000 tons of ore that is reported to average 1 . 37 percent copper, 1.22 percent zinc, 0.08 ounce of gold per ton, and 0. 98 ounce of silver per ton. The ore body, or bodies (there may be as many as three on the property), consists of silicified and bleached andesite breccia along a granodiorite intrusive contact. There is some question as to whether the mineralized zone is a breccia pipe or a linear shear or breccia zone along the contact. The ore body, so far as past exploration has revealed, is about 60 feet wide, 200 feet long, and over 300 feet deep .

Gold

Gold properties number at least 138 (fig. 7), Ten of these are known or reported to have had production or have made test shipments ,

A total of $300,000 in gold and silver was produced from the Apex mine (fig, 7, No. 75) in King County during the years it was worked. Prior to 1901, 300 tons of ore worth $80,000 was taken out; last production was in 1943. Concentrates shipped in 1920 averaged 21 to 26 percent arsenic, 18 to 20 ounces of silver per ton, 1.5 to 2. 5 ounces of gold per ton, and 4.5 to 6 percent lead. The ore minerals occur in narrow streaks along a 2- to 6-foot~wide quartz vein in granodiorite.

The Coney Basin mine (fig. 7, No . 81) was worked in 1895, 1934, . 1937-39, and 1941. Production from the property in 1895 was 40 tons of ore; figures on total production are not available for publication. The ore body consists of a small persistent quartz vein and a silici­ fied zone that is 4 feet wide. Eight tons shipped to the smelter in 1941 had 0. 86 ounce of gold per ton, 19 . 7 ounces of silver per ton, · 0.82 percent copper, 6.0 percent lead, 6.0 percent zinc, 1.52 percent arsenic, and 0.2 percent antimony.

One carload of ore was reportedly shipped in 1909 from the Good Hope mine (fig, 7, No . 55) . No information is available as to the type of ore deposit or quality of ore.

Twenty tons of ore were shipped from the Carmack mine (fig. 7, No . 88) prior to 1901. The ore deposit consists of three veins, which are 12 feet, 2 1/2 feet, and 1 foot wide. Assays are reported to have run 1 to 1,5 ounces of gold per ton.

98 A 23-ton shipment is reported from the Damon and Pythias mine (fig. 7, No. 74) prior to 1940. Assays on the shipment were reported to show 0.87 ounce of gold per ton, 9.0 ounces of silver per ton, and 4 percent lead. Mineralization consists of two veins in grano­ diorite. One is said to average 3 feet in width over a 900-foot length.

The Index Gold Mines, Inc., mine (fig. 7, No. 62) is reported to have been active in 1939, when shipments of 10 tons per day were being made. No estimate of tonnage shipped is available. Typical assays are said to have shown 5.4 ounces of silver per ton, 6.3 per­ cent lead, 2.5 percent zinc, and 11.59 percent arsenic. Gold values are not known. The ore values are said to be in a vein more than 18 inches wide.

A 1-ton test shipment was made from the Lennox property (fig. 7, No. 79) in 1947. Irregular mineralization is along shear zones that are reported to persist at depth in granite.

A shipment from the Blue Bird mine (fig. 7, No. 59) has been reported, but the amount is unknown. The ore is in a 2-foot zone within a vein that is said to be 27 feet wide.

A small amount of gold is said to have been produced from the Last Chance mine (fig. 7, No. 59A) in 1935. No other information is available. e The Horseshoe Bend Placer (fig. 7, No. 57) gold property on the North Fork of the Snoqualmie River had considerable development work done on it . Values were reported to be 25 cents to 40 cents per yard, and several thousand dollars worth of gold was taken from the property.

Iron ' Eight iron properties are known; of these, only one has a record of production, and this was probably a test shipment.

The Anderson property (fig. 7, No. 72) had one carload of ore taken from it. The ore body_is a linticular mass of 11a111etite with amphibole gangue in a limy quartzite, and presumably is a replacement deposit. The Lockwood Pyrite (fig. 7, No. SSA) in the Sultan Basin has been extensively drilled during the last few years. Prior to this drilling, it was estimated that the deposit contained over 3.5 million tons of pyrite ore. An average of 75 analyses shows 25 percent iron and 25.6 percent sulfur. Low values in precious metals are present also. The ore deposit consists of three tabular bodies totaling more than 3,000 feet in length and 1 to 75 feet thick in metamorphic rocks.

99 Molybdenum, Lead 1 and Nickel Three molybdenite properties (fig. 7) occur, but none have a re­ cord of production.

Eighteen lead properties (fig, 7) are known, but none are reported to have had a record of production. Assays from the various properties indicate that precious metal values are commonly associ~ted with the lead.

Two nickel properties (fig. 7) occur, but neither of them has a r ecord of production. The nickel values are in silica-carbonate rock.

Silver

At least 10 properties have silver as their principal value. Of these, three have a record of production.

The Cleopatra mine (fig. 7, No . 83) bad intermittent production prior to 1914. It operated again in 1938, 1940, and 1941. Production fr011 the property is reported to have been valued at about $250,000. The deposit consists of altered and aineralized zones along joints in granodiorite.

The Seattle-Cascade mine (fig. 7, No. 77) has a record of a few carloads of lead ore with high silver values being shipped before 1900 and again in 1940.

No other production information is available. The ore is in shear zones in granodiorite. The best mineralized zone has an average width of 18 inches. ,

A test shipment of 500 pounds of ore of unknown grade was made from the Aces Up mine (fig. 7, No. 84). Mineralization i s along joints in granodiorite and varies in width from a few inches to 2 feet. ~

Zinc

No production has been recorded from the three zinc properties (fig. ll).

Cedar River Drainage System

The Cedar River drainage system is one of the most important sand and gravel and clay producing areas in the entire Puget Sound area. Other commodities that are being produced or have been produced are stone, silica, and coal. Although a few metallic mineral claims have been staked in the extreme eastern part of the drainage system, no production has been recorded.

100 EXPLANATION FOR FIG. 8

MINERAL PROPERTIES* IN CEDAR-GREEN BASINS

METALLIC MINERALS (with production or reserves data where available)

Arsenic (2 properties) Iron (1 property)

Copper (2 properties) Mercury (2 properties)

Gold (3 properties) 97 - Roya I Reword (prod. - 20 flasks)

NONMETALLIC MINERALS (with reserves data where available)

Coo I (reserves - 812 mi 11 ion tons) Refractory clay (21 properties)

Common cloy (19 properties) 73 - Adderson 72 - Alcorn 60 - Abramson 78 -Auburn 69 - Boyne 79 - Blum 60A - Builders Brick 76 - Brooks 61 - Builders Brick 68 - Gladding Mc Bean 65 - Builders Brick 49 - Horris 67 - Durham Coo I 47 - Issaquah 59 - Duwomish River 71 - Johnson Coal Co. 66 - Empire Brick and Tile Co. 70 - Kummer 58 - Hill Brick Co. 75 - Smith Bros. 44 - Hi 11 Brick Co. 57 - Taylor 62 - Lone S tor 48 - Newcastle Silica {9 properties) 43 - Northwest Haydite 74 - Alcorn · 63 - Northwest Pottery Co. 50 - Renton 77 - Brooks 64 - Seattle Brick & Tile Co. 54 - Cavanough 78 - Gladding McBean 45 - Stillwell 52 - Taylor 52A - Renton Junction 51 - Renton mine 46 - Washington Pottery Co. 77 - Smith Bros. Diatomite (1 property) 53 - Wilde

Mineral Water (2 springs) Specia I clay (3 properties) 55 - Cedar Moun ta in 42 - Northwest Haydi te

STONE DEPOSITS

Basalt (7 properties) Granite (1 property)

* Some properties not plotted on map because of poor description of location and/or lack of space.

102 Fig. 8

e (MAP SHOWING MINERAL RESOURCES IN THE CEDAR-GREEN RIVER BASIN) e

103 Sand and Gravel Good sand and gravel deposits are in short supply. This area e is undergoing an urban expansion that is moving eastward from Seattle and the several communities on the east side of Lake Washington. As residential development moves eastward, it is overrunning potential gravel-producing areas to the extent that the remaining high-quality deposits are almost entirely east of Lake Sanunamish and southeast of Renton. Nine pita are currently producing aaterial for aggregate, crushed rock, and fill aaterial, but no statistics on total production are available for publication. Sand and gravel production is not meeting the current (1966) demand, and it appears that this situation will worsen because of the above-mentioned expanding urbanization. Most of the western part of the drainage aystem is blanketed by glacial outwash.

Stone Three basalt quarries and one granite quarry are known. At the present (1966), only one quarry, the SUDSet basalt quarry, is operating in the area. The others have been closed for one reason or another, not the least of which has been adverse zoning restrictions. ·

No stone production figures are available for ·publication. Although there are probably adequate reserves available under normal conditions, the urbanization of the area and the zoning restrictions prevent the area from producing enough stone to meet its own demands.

Silica

· Four silica properties have a record of production. At present (1966), only one property is being actively worked -- the Cavanaugh molding sand pit. This pit has a long record of continuous production, but production figures are not available for publication, nor is there any estimate of reserves for the Cavanaugh pit or the drainage system as a whole. The location of the Cavanaugh pit along the valley wall is such that it probably will not be affected by zoning in the imme­ diate future.

Seven common clay pits, four refractory clay pits, and three special clay pits occur. Two common clay pits, the Newcastle and Renton, are currently (1966) being operated. One refractory clay pit is currently producing, and although neither of the bloating clay deposits is operating, one of them, the Cedar Mountain property, is being actively developed. Many of the clay pits that have produced in the past are inactive at present, but they could be reactivated at any time. Clay production figures are not available for publication, and there is no estimate of reserves.

104 Coal

Coal has been one of the important resources contributing to the development of the Cedar River drainage system. Coal was first mined in the a'rea near Renton in 1853. There are five coal areas (fig. 8), but none of them are producing today.

The most extensive coalbeds of the area are in the Newcastle­ Grand Ridge area, where the coalbeds occur in sedimentary rocks of the Renton Formation. The structure is fairly simple -- the beds trend about east-west and pitch northward. The coal was first discovered near Issaquah in 1863. From the date of discovery to 1961, about 13 million tons of coal was produced. Reserves for the Newcastle-Grand Ridge coal area are estimated at 310 million tons.

Coal in the Renton area occurs in the Renton Formation. The coal seams pitch rather gently except in the southern part of the field, where the pitch reaches 65°. About 4 million tons of coal was mined in this area from 1852 to 1961. Reserves are estimated at about 50 million tons.

The Cedar Mountain coal area is about 4 miles southeast of Renton. The coal seams occur in the Renton Formation, but no corre­ e lation with the Renton area coal measures has ever been made. Produc­ tion from the Cedar Mountain area has amounted to about 4 million tons, and reserves are estimated to be about 67 million tons.

Coal in the Tiger Mountain area occurs in sedimentary beds of the Puget Group. The stratigraphic relations to other coal seams in King County are unknown. About 50,000 tons of coal has· been mined from the area, and reserves are estimated to be about 9 million tons.

The Taylor coal beds are contained in sedimentary rocks of the Puget Group and are cut by several dikes and sills. Throughout the field, most of the coalbeds pitch about 70°. Incomplete production figures indicate that at least 640,000 tons of coal was taken from the area during its period of activity, and there are an estimated 19 m.illion tons of reserves.

Peat Seventeen peat bogs, covering 1,703 acres, have been investi­ gated in detail. Eight of the bogs investigated contain sphagnum peat. Two bogs are in commercial production, but no statistics on pro­ duction are available for publication. Reserves appear to be adequate for the area's needs.

105 Diatomite

The McAleer Lake diatomite deposit, the only occurrence, is a bed 4 fee t thick and is said to cover several acres. No other informati on is available concerning the deposit.

Copper and Gold

There are two copper properties and three gold claims, none of which have produced.

Green River Drainage System

The Green River drainage system is the source of more coal and stone than any other drainage system in the Puget Sound area. Other commodities produced in quantity are clay. silica, peat, and sand and gravel. A small amount of quicksilver has been produced from the area, and arsenic and iron deposits also occur. Two mineral springs are known. (Note Fig. 8 for map showing mineral resources for the Green River Basin.)

Coal The first mining of coal in the Green River district began about 1883, and production has been continuous ever since. Peak production from the area was in 1903, when over 900,000 tons of coal was produced. Output has declined steadily since then, and in 1964, only ab"out 60,000 tons was produced. Total production is estimated at a little more than 25 million tons. Reserves are estimated in excess of 357 million tons.

Sand and Gravel

Three of the four sand and gravel operators obtain their aggre­ gate from glacial ,outwash material. The fourth operator obtains part of his aggregate from the Stuck River. The deposits in this area, as in the Snohomish and Cedar River drainage systems, are slowly being made useless by urban expansion, but at a less rapid rate. About 50 pits in the area have produced sand and gravel for fill, aggregate, and crushed rock. No estimate of total production or potential re­ serves is available.

Twenty-one deposits of clay~ 12 common and 9 refractory -­ have a record of production. Of these, only three -- two common and one refractory -- are currently in operation. Eight additional re­ fractory clay deposits are known but have not been developed. As in the Cedar River drainage system, the history of clay production in the Green River drainage system indicates that almost any pit that is inactive now could be reactivated in a matter of days, ex­ cepting those pits that have been covered by real estate development.

106 Although the clay reserves in the area appear to be large, no exact estimate of their size is available. Production is estimated to total in excess of 500,000 tons of clay.

Silica

Silica deposits have been formed by deep thorough weathering of arkosic sandstones of the Puget Group. The fe.ldspar grains have been altered to clay, but the quartz grains have remained unchanged. The mixture of quartz grains and clay is washed, removing the clay and leaving a high silica sand residue.

Four silica deposits are known, but only one is currently produc­ ing. This deposit, operated by Smith Bros. Silica Sand Co., Inc., produces sand for manufacturing amber glass. No production statistics or reserves estimates of silica for the area are available for publication.

Stone

Probably more stone is produced than from any other area in the Puget Sound area. Five quarries are in the area; three are inter­ mittently active, and the other two have been operating continuously for many years producing rubble, landscape rock, and crushed rock. The two operating quarries are both in basalt and are near the southern e boundary of Seattle. One of the other quarries, at Veazey Station near Enumclaw, is an excellent source of riprap because of the columnar nature of the rock.

No production figures are available for publication. The Black River quarry appears to have adequate reserves for several years of production, but reserves at the Riverton quarry are nearly depleted. The other quarries apparently have sufficient reserves for many years at the present rate of production.

Peat Twenty-one peat bogs, covering 1,200 acres, have been investi­ gated. Five of these bogs contain sphagnum peat, and seven of them are currently (1966) producing. Reserves are adequate for many years to come at the present rate of consumption.

Mercury Mercury has been produced from one property -- the Royal Reward (fig. 8, No. 97) -- near Black Diamond. The ore deposit consists of cinnabar-filled fractures in sandstone, carbonaceous shale, and andesite. Gangue minerals are realgar and orpiment. It is estimated that about 20 flasks of quicksilver were produced during the time the property was active in· 1957 and 1958.

107 Oil and Gas

The sandstone of the Puget Group offers excellent reservoir rock for the accumulation of oil and gas, and many of the shale beds might well be considered as source rocks. In spite of apparently favorable conditions for the occurrence of oil and gas, none has been found in commercial quan~ity. Oil shows have been restricted to fluores­ cence in cores, and gas shows have all been low volume. Thirteen test wells have been drilled, the deepest of which had a total depth of 6,023 feet.

Mineral Springs, Arsenic, and Iron

Two undeveloped mineral springs are in the drainage system. One iron and two arsenic deposits are in the area, but none of them have had production.

Whidbey Island Drainage System

The three types of mineral deposits known to occur in the Whidbey Island drainage system are sand and gravel, peat, and diatomite;

Peat Thirteen peat bogs covering 1,949 acres have been investigated. Of ' these, six contain sphagnum peat. The largest bog covers 792 acres, and one bog, at Cranberry Lake, has sphagnum to a depth of 45 feet . There is one peat producer. Statistics on peat production are not available for publication, and there is no estimate of reserves . . Reserves, no doubt, are sufficient to supply the area's needs for many years.

Sand and Gravel Almost the entire Whidbey Island drainage system is covered by glacial deposits (fig. 9) that in places contain sand and gravel suit­ able for commercial use. At least 11 pits have a record of production. Currently (1966), three companies are producing sand and gravel from the area. No estimate of reserves is available.

Diatomite One diatomite deposit is reported, but no information other than its location is available.

108 EXPLANATION FOR FIG. 9

MINERAL PROPERTIES IN WHIDBEY-CAMANO ISLANDS

NONMETALLIC MINERALS

Diatomite (1 property)

110 Fig . 9

(MAP SHOWING MINERAL RESOURCES lN THE WHIDBEY BASIN)

111 Elwha-Dungeness Rivers Drainage System The Elwha-Dungeness Rivers drainage system is most important for its manganese production. Other mineral commodities that have been or are being produced are mineral water, stone, and sand and gravel. Peat also occurs.

Stone Stone has been produced from three quarries -- two in basalt and one in sandstone. One quarry is active intermittently at the present time (1966). Production statistics are n.ot available, nor is there an estimate of reserves.

Sand and Gravel

Most of the northern border of the drainage system is mantled with glacial material (fig. 10), much of which might serve as sources of sand and gravel. Twenty-nine pits have been productive in the area at one time or another, but at the present time (1966), only 4 pits are being operated. Sand and gravel production statistics are not available. Reserves are adequate for many years at the present rate of consumption.

Mineral Water

A group of 21 mineral springs that have a large flow of hot sulfur water has been developed at the Olympic Hot Springs resort (fig. 2). The water is used for bathing and swimming facilities.

Manganese

Three of 32 manganese properties have a record of production. These are the Crescent, Hurricane, and Bright Angel mines.

The Crescent mine (fig. 10, No. 89) produced 16,27~ tons of ore from 1924 to 1926, and about 33,500 tons from 1941 to 1946. Small shipments were made in 1952 and 1953. The ore body originally consisted of three lenses ·of manganese ore in limestone and volcanic rocks. Two of the lenses have been mined out, and no estimate of the reserves in the remaining lens is available. Assays on the shipments made from 1941 to 1946 averaged about 51.6 percent manganese, 1.6 percent iron, 9 ~1 percent Si0 , 0.05 percent phosphorus, and 4 percent water. 2 A reported 1,000 tons of high-grade manganese ore was shipped from the Hurricane mine (fig. 10, No. 91) . The ore deposit is similar to that at the Crescent mine. The Bright Angel mine (fig. 10, No. 90) is reported to have shipped ore, but no other information on the property is available.

112 Peat

Two peat bogs totaling over 150 acres have been examined in the area. No production of peat has been reported.

West Sound Basin Drainage System

Current (1966) mineral production from the West Sound Basin drain­ age system is confined entirely to nomnetallic products -- sand and gravel, stone, and peat. Clay, manganese, copper, and iron have been produced from the area, the last two in only minor quantities. One limestone deposit occurs, but no stone has been produced from it. Diatomite also occurs in the area.

Stone Other Than Limestone

Stone has been produced from seven basalt quarries, two granite quarries, and one sandstone quarry. Currently (1966), only two quar­ ries, both in basalt, are being operated. At the Mats Mats Bay quarry, basalt is quarried at sea level and loaded directly onto barges for transportation to various destinations around the Sound.

Stone production statistics are not available for publication. Reserves are adequate for many years at the present production rate.

Sand and Gravel Glacial debris that at many places contains material suitable for aggregate covers most of the lowland part of the drainage system (fig. 11). Reported gravel pits number 125; however, there are prob­ ably more. Sixty-eight of these pits have produced in the past 20 years.

Production statistics are not available for publication. Sand and gravel reserves in the area appear to be adequate for many years.

Peat Forty-six peat bogs covering 5,763 acres have been investigated. Twenty-five of these bogs contain sphagnum moss. The largest bog investigated covers 2,065 acres and is in Jefferson County.

Four peat producers are currently operating. No estimate of production is available for publication. Reserves are very large.

Clay was formerly produced from three pits, and the material from the deposits was used to make common brick. No estimate of production is available for publication.

113 EXPLANATION FOR FIG. 10

MINERAL PROPERTIES* IN ELWAH-DUNGENESS BASINS

METALLIC MINERALS (with production or reserves data where available)

/v\anganese (32 properties) 90 - Bright Angel 89 - Crescent (prod. - 50,000 tons) 91 - Hurricane (prod . - 1,000 tons)

NONMETALLIC MINERALS (with reserves data where available)

Minero I water (1 spring} 80 - Olympic Hot Springs

STONE DEPOSITS

Basa It (2 properties} Sandstone (5 properties}

* Some properties not plotted on map because of poor description of location and/or lack of space.

e

114 Fig. 10

•

(MAP SHOWING THE MINERAL RESOURCES IN THE ELWHA-DUNGENESS BASIN)

. 115 CXPLANATION FOR FIG. 11

MINERAL PROPERTIES* IN WES T SOUND BASIN'S

METALLIC MINERALS (with rpoduction or reserves data where available)

Copper (2 properties) tv\anganese (21 properties) 93 - Black and White (prod. - 5 tons) 94 - Black Hump 95 - McKean Iron (1 property) 96 - Tri pie Trip (prod. - 1 carload) 92 - Chimacum

NONMETALLIC MINERALS (with reserves data where available)

Common clay (3 _properties) Diatomite (~ properties) 83 - Fox Island 81 - Harper 82 - Port Orchard

STONE DEPOSITS

Basa It (7 properties) Limestone Reserves Granite (2 properties) Less than 10,000 tons (1 property)

Sandstone (1 property)

* Some properties not plotted on map because of poor description of location A and/or lack of space. : W

e

116 Fig. 11

- (MAP OF WEST SOUND RIVER BASIN)

117 The West Sound Basin drainage system had the distinction of producing the first pig iron in Washington. A blast furnace began operation at Irondale on Port Townsend Bay in 1880. Ore for the furn­ ace was dug from the Chimacum limonite bog. The bog ore did not prove satisfactory, and the furnace was shut down in 1891. Later, it was rebuilt and ore from outside the drainage system was used. No production figures are available for the Chimacum iron (fig. 11, No. 92), and the amount of bog iron left in the deposit is unknown. The exact location of the bog from which the Chimacum iron was produced is unknown, but the approximate location is shown on figure 11.

Copper Two copper properties are known, the Black Tail and the Black and White (fig. 11, No. 93). A test shipment of 5 tons was made from the Black and White prospect in 1915, but no other shipments have since been reported. The mineralized zone consists of three irregular lenses along an altered basalt-phyllite contact. The Black Tail pro­ duced copper, but there is no record of the amount.

Manganese Three of 21 manganese prospects have a record of production. The McKean claim (fig. 11, No. 95) had reported production prior to 1918, and the Black Hump (fig. 11, No. -94) prior to 1924. In both cases, the amount of production and character of the ore body are unknown. A carload of ore assaying 35 to 45 percent manganese and li to 30 percent silica is reported to have been shipped from the Triple Trip mine (fig. 11, No. 96) during World War I. The ore minerals were concentrated in lenses along a basalt-limestone contact.

Limestone One limestone body has been investigated. It contains between 10,000 and 1 million tons of limestone but has had no production.

Diatomite Three diatomite deposits are known in the area, but none have a record of production. Preliminary investigations indicate they are subcommercial. e

118 Nisgually River Drainage System

Clay and sand and gravel are the most important minerals mined in the Nisqually River drainage system. Other minerals that have been or are being produced in the area are coal, mineral water, stone, copper, and iron. Mineral deposits that occur in the area, but which have not as yet been developed, are peat, perlite, silica, diatomite, and gold.

Four clay deposits have a record of production. Three of these contain common clay that has been used to make clayware such as brick, tile, and pottery. Only one deposit is currently active -- tiuilders Brick Co.'s pit at Clay City.

A fourth deposit, near La Grande, consists of refractory clay. It was mined years ago by the Denny-Renton Clay and Coal Co.

No production figures or estimate of common clay reserves are available. The refractory clay deposit at La Grande has estimated reserves of 7,000 yards.

Coal The Ashford coal area coal seams are in sedimentary rocks of - the Puget formation, but their stratigraphic relation to other coal­ beds to the north is unknown. The beds have been folded and faulted, and it is not unusual to find coal seams pitching more than 60.0 Pro- duction has been limited; only about l,000 tons of coal has been mined. Reserves are estimated at 13 million tons.

Peat

Thirteen peat bogs have been investigated. Three of the bogs contain sphagnum peat. No peat is currently being produced from the Nisqually area.

Sand and Gravel Several large, high-quality gravel deposits occur. Aggregate, fill, and crushed rock have been produced from more than 50 pits. Currently, sand and gravel is being produced from only one pit, and most of its production is being exported to the White-Puyallup Rivers drainage system •

. Production figures are not available for publication, and no quantitative estimate of reserves has been made other than they are e adequate at the present rate of consumption.

119 EXPLANATION FOR FIG. 12

MINERAL PROPERTIES* IN NISQUALLY-DESCHUTES BA S IN S

METALLIC MINERALS (with production or reserves data where available)

Copper (3 properties) Gold (1 property)

107 - Eagle Peak (prod. less than 200 tons) Iron (1 property) 107A - Paradise (prod. - 40 tons) 106 - Mashel 105 - St. Clair Lake (reserves - 7,600 tons)

NONMETALLIC MINERALS (with reserves data where available)

Coo I (reserves - 13. 41 rfl i II ion tons) Perlite (1 property)

Common clay (3 properties) Refractory day (1 property) 89 - Bean 90 - La Grande 89A - Builders Brick 88 - Gail Sigford Pottery Silica (1 property)

Diatomite (1 property)

Min era I water ( 2 springs) 91 - Longmire Springs 87 - Olympia Hygeian Springs

STONE DEPOSITS

Granite (2 properties) Volcanic rock (6 properties)

* Some properties not plotted on map because of poor description of location and/or lack of space.

e

120 Fig. 12

(MAP SHOWING MINERAL RESOURCES FOR THE NISQUALLY-DESCHUTES BASIN)

121 Stone

There are five stone quarries -- three in andesite and two in granite. The two andesite properties, both near Eatonville, are cur­ rently (1966) producing landscape rock and rubble. Production statistics are not available for publication. Reserves are sufficiently large to last for a considerable time.

Mineral Water The Longmire Springs (fig. 12) are within the boundary of Mount Rainier National Park. The temperature of the spring waters ranges from cold to hot, and the waters vary in mineral content from carbon dioxide to a sulfur-iron mixture. A hotel is located at the springs.

Copper

The Eagle Peak mine (fig. 12, No. 107) had a reported production of 100 tons in 1919 and unknown amounts in 1925 and 1928. Total pro­ duction has probably been less than 200 tons. The deposit is in miner­ alized joints or slip planes in granite. One zone ranges from 6 inches to 5 feet in width. One 18-ton shipment contained 8.05 percent copper, 0.09 ounce of gold, and 1.87 ounces of silver per ton.

A reported 40-ton shipment was made from the Paradise mine (fig. 16, No. 107A) prior to 1921. The deposit is in a mineralized slip plane in andesite that carries 4 to 8 inches of ore. The only ship­ ment made· is reported to have assayed 10 percent copper.

A copper property known as the Mashel (fig. 12, No. 106) is re~ ported to have shipped copper around 1900. The deposit is an altered volcanic rock with thin seams of native copper along joint planes.

Iron

A small amount of bog ore was mined at St. Clair Lake (fig. 12, No. 105) for use as a mineral pigment. The deposit contains roughly 7,600 tons of bog ore. One analysis showed 54 . 05 percent Fe o , 14.90 2 3 percent Si02, 7.50 percent A1 o , 2.80 percent organic matter, and 18.20 percent moisture. 2 3

Other Mineral Deposits

There are two diatomite deposits, one silica deposit, one perlite deposit, and one gold deposit in the drainage system. None of these properties have had development work or production.

A test shipment from the Copper King (fig. 12, No. 98) was made in 1918, and the Surprise mine (fig. 12, No. 99) had a similar ship­ ment in 1919..

122 Gold

Prior to 1945, the Silver Creek mine (fig. 12, No. 102) had shipments of 100 tons of ore that ran more than $50 per ton. The ore deposit is an altered silicified andesite mineralized along narrow joints .

The Silver Creek Gold & Lead mine (fig. 12, No. 100) reported 20 tons shipped in 1945 that ran $89.75 per ton. The ore is in a rhyolite cut by a fault zone .1 to 4 feet wide containing limy gouge and bands of quartz with sulfides.

At the Washington Cascade mine (fig. 12, No. 103), 5 tons was produced in 1936 and 30 tons in 1938. Return on the 30 tons was $180. The ore deposit is a 5-foot vein in andesite.

The Silver Creek gold placer (fig. 12, No. 101) reported returns of about $1.25 per yard over a 10-year period (1920-30). Total pro­ duction values are not available.

Zinc The only zinc property, the Golden Rule, has had no production.

Deschutes River Drainage System

Sand and gravel, stone, peat, and mineral water have been pro­ duced from the Deschutes River drainage system. No other mineral commodities have been found in sufficient quantity to have stimulated serious investigation.

Sand and Gravel Sand and gravel is being produced actively from two pits and in­ termittently from another pit. Several other pits in the area have been active and upon rare occasions are reactivated for special uses (these are owned and used .mostly by Thurston County).

Production statistics are not available for publication. Sand and gravel reserves are adequate for many years at the present rate of production.

Stone Stone has been produced from three quarries. Two quarries are in basalt, and the third is in gabbro. All three quarries have been worked within the past few years and will continue production in the future as needed. Stone production statistics are not available for publication. Reserves appear to be adequate for several years' use.

123 Peat Fifteen peat bogs totaling 1,278 acres have been investigated. Six bogs contain sphagnum peat, and two of them are being actively mined. Production figures are not available for publication. The area has substantial reserves.

Mineral Water Years ago, mineral water from the Olympia Hygeian Spring, in Tumwater, was bottled and sold for table use. Production was dis­ continued many years ago. No estimate of the amount of water sold is available.

White-Puyallup Rivers Drainage System

Coal, sand and gravel, and building stone have played an important part in the mineral economy of the White~Puyallup Rivers drainage system. Other minerals that are being or have been produced from the area are peat, clay, silica, copper, and gold.

Sand and Gravel Some of the largest and best sand and gravel deposits of the Puget Sound area are in the White-Puyallup Rivers drainage system. The deposits near Steilacoom are exceptional -- they are high-quality gravel and are located at and near tidewater. Much of the material produced from the Steilacoom deposit is exported to other parts of the Puget Sound area. Thirteen sand and gravel companies are pro­ ducing from 14 or more pits. Sand and gravel production figures are not available for publi­ cation. Reserves are estimated to be adequate at the present rate of consumption for several years to come.

Coal The coal deposits occur in sedimentary rocks of the Puget Group, and are confined to a north-south-trending belt from 3 to 6 miles wide (fig. 13). The coal-bearing strata have been folded and faulted, and some seams pitch more than 60 0 • Coal was discovered in the area along the Carbon River in 1862. The first recorded production was in 1874. Production rose to a high of 832,272 tons in 1913, but since then, has declined steadily until now only a few hundred tons is produced annually. Production figures indicate that over 21 million tons of coal has been produced. Reserves are estimated at 348 million tons. e

124 Stone

Eight stone quarries have reported production. Breakdown by rock types shows one granite, two sandstone, and five basalt quarries. Most of the rock from the area is used for riprap, lartdscaping, and rubble . The Wilkeson quarry produces one of Washington's most attractive building stones. The Wilkeson rock is a cream- to tan-colored sandstone of the Puget Group that resists weathering for outdoor use and also is attrac­ tive for indoor uses. It is used as rubble, cut stone, ashlar, and ornamental stone.

Figures on production of stone are not available for publication. Reserves are adequate for many years at the present rate of consumption.

y Peat

Sixteen peat bogs totaling 843 acres have been investigated. The largest one covers 250 acres, and three of them contain sphagnum peat. Four bogs are productive in the area; production figures, however, are not available for publication. Peat reserves are adequate for many years at the present rate of production. e Silica

· Two silica properties (fig. 13) have a record of production. Currently, only one property, the Denny-Renton quarry, is producing. Both deposits are large masses of silicified and bleached andesite. The Denny-Renton quarry material is used for building stone, stucco dash, and terrazzo chips . Silica from the other quarry was used as an ingredient in the manufacture of portland cement.

No information is available as to how much material has been used from the two quarries. Total reserves are not known, except they are reported to be large.

One clay pit is reported to have had production. This pit at Ruston, which contains conunon clay, has been covered over by housing developments and is no longer in use. One other clay deposit in the area contains bentonitic clay interbedded with perlite.

No production or reserve figures are available for the clay deposits.

125 EXPLANATION FOR FIG. 13

MINERAL PROPERTIES* IN PUYALLUP BASIN

METALLIC MINERALS (with production or reserves data where available)

Copper (7 properties) Gold (12 properties) 98 - Copper King 102 - Si.Iver Creek (prod. - 100 tons) 104 - Starbo 100 - Silver Creek Gold & Lead 99 - Surprise (prod. - 20 tons) 101 - Si Iver Creek Placer 103 - Washington Cascade {prod. - 5 tons)

Zinc (1 property)

NONMETALLIC MINERALS (with reserves data where available)

Alunite (reserves - 588,000 tons) Perlite (4 properties) 86A - White River Si Ii ca (2 properties) Coo I (reserves - 347. 8 mi I lion tons) 86 - Denny-Renton Common clay (1 property) 85 - Superior · 84 - Ruston Special clay (1 property)

Diatomite (2 properties)

STONE DEPOSITS

Bosa It (5 properties) Sandstone (2 properties)

Granite (1' property)

* Some properties not plotted on map because of poor description of location and/or lack of space.

e

126 Fig. 13

e (MAP SHOWING MINERAL RESOURCES IN THE PUYALLUP RIVER BASIN)

127 Alunite

The Enumclaw alunite ore body consists of disseminations and fracture fillings of alunite in altered andesite. Extensive drilling in 1940 indicated 588,000 tons of alunite in the deposit, but as yet no attempt has been'made to mine it.

Perlite Four perlite deposits are known, but none of them have been worked.

Diatomite The Parkland diatomite deposit is reported to be 15 to 30 feet thick and covers 30 acres. No material has been produced from this deposit.

Copper

Of seven copper properties, one has had production, and test shipments have been made from two. The Starbo mine (fig. 13, No. 104) had production during 1915-17, 1926, and 1928 from lenticular irregu­ larly mineralized fractures up to l foot wide in andesite. Production fi2ures are not availah1°

San Juan Islands Drainage System Jy far the most important mineral produced in the San Juan Islands drainage system is limestone. Other mineral products that have been produced are sandstone and sand and gravel. Peat also occurs in the area.

Limestone

Limestone occurs on several islands of the San Juan group as pods, l«!ases, and beds in argillite of mostly Paleozoic age (a few &mall deposits are Mesozoic in age). Most of the limestone mined has been used to make lime. First production of limestone was started about 1882 and has been practically continuous since that date. An estimated 9 million tons of limestone has been produced from the area. Reserves are estimated at over 1.5 million tons. A breakdown of deposits shows l deposit that contains more than 1 million tons, 6 deposits each with between 10,000 and 1 million tons, and 34 deposits each having less than 10,000 tons or whose size is not known.

128 Sandstone

Four quarries have a record of sandstone production. The amount of production and reserves are not known. The sandstone was used for building stone, paving blocks, and riprap.

Sand and Gravel Ten sand and gravel pits are listed for the San Juan Islands, and at present (1966), one pit is producing material commercially. No estimate of reserves is available; however, they are probably small.

One clay deposit has a record of production, but it no longer is used.

Peat Thirteen peat bogs totaling 498 acres have been examined in de­ tail. Eight of these contain sphagnum peat. No peat production from the area has been recorded. e

129 EXPLANATION FOR FIG. 14

MINERAL PROPERTIES IN SAN JUAN BASIN

NONMETALLIC MINERALS

Common clay (1 property)

10 - Orcas Is land

STONE DEPOSITS

Limestone Sondsto·ne (4 properties) Reserves Less than 10,000 tons (34 properties) 10,000 to 1 million tons (6 properties) More than 1 million tons (1 property)

e

lJO Fig. 14

(MAP SHOWING MINERAL RESOURCES IN THE SAN JUAN BASIN)

131 e

PRESENT AND FUTURE DEMAND FOR MINERALS FOR THE PUGET SOUND AREA

There are numerous problems associated with projecting mineral needs for the Study Area. These problems are greatly magnified when projections are done at the small scale of a river basin. Thus, for simplicity, and for the sake of greater accuracy, projections contained in this portion of the Appendix have been done only at the Study-Area level. Some of the problems that are evident in projecting mineral needs, are data problems associated with mineral production disclosure by individual companies, the small amount of land that is in question, mining activities restricted only to locations of deposits, plus the wide range of problems that are associated with the economic and governmental aspects of mining.

The Present and Future Demand for minerals in the Puget Sound Study Area that have been developed for this portion of the Appendix include water needs, land needs, future mineral needs, and a short discussion related to the means to satisfy mineral needs.

If specific information is desired for a mineral location, or detailed information regarding a single mineral, please refer to the Present Status and Potential Section of this chapter, where information and a detailed map of mineral locations can be examined.

WATER USE BY MINERAL INDUSTRIES

The results of a U.S. Bureau of Mines 1962 survey of water require­ ments for the mineral industry (exclusive of smelters, refineries, and cement plants) of Washington indicated that approximately 9 billion gallons of water were required for mining and processing mineral c~odi­ ties. Approximately 82 percent of the total for the State was required in processing sand and gravel; metal mines and mills and nonmetal mines, quarries, and mills each used about 9 percent of the total requirements; processing requirements for coal were less than 1 percent of the total. It is estimated that the fraction of the total water requirement for mineral processing in the Puget Sound Region that is used in sand and gravel processing is considerably greater than the 82 percent for the State as a whole.

In the Puget Sound study area recirculating procedures accounted for 427.6 million gallons (8.7 percent) of total water requirements, and new makeup water totaled about 4 .5 billion gallons (91.3 percent). Approximately 95 percent (4.2 billion gallons) of the new makeup water was returned to the source; only 227 million gallons (about 5 percent of new makeup water) was consumed in the product or evaporated during

133 processing. Water use in the mineral industry in the Puget Sound study area in 1962 is shown in table 37.

For the State as a whole, nonmetal mining and milling operations (excluding sand and gravel operations) utilized extensive water recir­ culating techniques; approximately 97 percent of the water requirements in nonmetal mining. and milling were from recirculated water .

1/ TABLE 37. - Mineral industry water us e 1 1962 1 Puget Sound area, a ll commodities - (Gallons) Water used in petrol'eum and Dischar~ed Consumed na tural 2as Counties New Recirculated Total Ce nt ra l 35,88o,OCO - 669,200,000 39,700,000 708,900,000 633,320,000 - ~ 3,000,000 46 , 100,000 41, 100,000 2,000,000 Ki t sap 43., 100,000 173,434,000 - 3,448,924,425 20,000,000 3,468,924,425 3.,275,490,425 Pierce 468,769,923. 115,067,923 6,550,000 - Snohomish 121,617,923 347,152,000 217,864,000 Total 4,282,842,348 409,852,000 4,692,694,;48 4 ,064,978,348 -

Nor t h 252,000 2,340,000 26,100,000 22,570,000 1, 190,000 -"wand 23,76o,OOO - - - San Juan - - - 40,410,000 9 ,3.60,000 49,770,000 38,410,000 2,000,000 - e Skagi t 11 ,900,000 6oo,OOO - Wha tcom 12,500,000 - 12,500,000 72,88o,OOO 3,790,000 252,000 Total 76,670,000 11 ,700,000 88,370,000 West - 800,000 - aoo,ooo 800,000 - ---"ciallam - - - - Jefferson - - 250,000 - 5,500,000 - 5,500,000 5,250,000 Mason 96 ,653.,000 5,082,000 - Thurston 101,735 ,000 6,000,000 107,735,000 5,33.2 ,000 - To ta l 108,035,000 6 ,000,000 114,c3.5,ooo 102,703,000 - 4,240,561,348 252,000 Puge t Sound area t ot al 4,467,547,348 427,552,000 4,895,099,348 226 '986 '000 JJ Excludes smelter s, refineries , and cement plant s.

LAND NEEDS FOR MINERALS DEVELOPMENT

In the Puget Sound study area, as in the United States as a whole, the per-capita growth in demand for mineral resources during the past 50 years has been rapid. In contrast, the per-capita growth ln demand for agricultural products has been slight, and the per-capita demand for wood products has declined. This, combined with the projected popu­ lation growth in the Region, emphasizes the need for more minerals .

Although the amount of land that is presently occupied by mines or will be needed for future minerals industries is extremely small, the need for land for these industries is extremely critical. This critical need for land is the result of two factors : (1) mineral resources themselves are absolutely essential to each and every human e activity. Without an adequate supply of minerals at reasonable costs, \

134 all activities of all kinds would grind to a halt, not only in the Puget Sound study area but in the whole nation; (2) mineral deposits are like "needles in a haystack"--that is, they are very small and very anomalous conditions in the earth. Deposits that are good enough to produce minerals that will meet the strict specifications of the con­ sumers and that are large enough, pure enough, clos~ enough to markets, and that meet all the other requirements so that they can be mined at a profit are very difficult to find. They must be mined where they are found; they cannot be legislated or zoned into existence by any land-use management agency.

It has been estimated that in the approximately 115 years since mining first started in the Puget Sound area, with the opening of a coal mine in the Bellingham area in the 1850's, a total of about 3,070 acres of land has been disturbed by surface mining activities. An additional, but probably smaller, amount of land has been occupied by the surface plants that were built to service the underground mines that have produced in the region in this period of time. Table 38 shows a breakdown of the amounts of land disturbed by surface mining by mineral products and by counties. Thus, it is clear that the few thousands of acres of land needed for mineral-resource exploitation is a very small amount as compared with the large amounts needed for intensive use development and the several million acres needed for agriculture, forest products, game management, and recreational uses. However, the mineral-resource need, which is small in terms of acres, is large in terms of dollar value of prQduct, and, as stated previously, the need is critical.

TABLE l8. - Land in Puget Sound aru diat.urbed by aurface.-miniog activities, lSS0-1965 (by county)

Clollom Island Jefferson Kitsap King Muon Pierc6 San Juan Skagit Snohomish Thurston Whatcom Total (ocres) (ocres) (acres) (ocres) (ocres) (ocres) (acres) {acres) (acres) (acres) (acres) (acres) (acres)

Cool (bituminous) 20 10 30

Cloys 3 5 90 20 20 20 15 173

Gold e (placer) 5 10 10 10 10 45

.VOngonese 5 5

Peot 30 160 10 10 80 50 340

Olivine 10 10

Sond and grovel 240 25 120 170 375 125 300 20 150 350 150 100 2,125

Stone (limestone) 20 40 20 15 60 155

Stone (other) 10 2 20 25 5 10 2 ,10 100 5 189 ./

TOTAL 263 25 122 225 700 140 350 60 212 485 300 190 3,072

135 Much of the land that is needed for mineral development is in areas where the land-use competition is keenest. Many metallic ore deposits are found in the high Cascades, where increasing demands are being made for single-use management exclusively for recreation. Unfortunately, the view is widely held that mining developments and recreation must be mutually exclusive. Quite the contrary is actually true. The scars on the landscape that result from mining are very, very small as compared with scars made by other activities which are either no more essential or are much less essential, such as clearings for powerline rights of way and for ski resort developments. The access roads necessary for mineral exploration and development are very valuable outdoor recreation assets. Many of the finest scenic areas in the Cascade Mountains are accessible by roads built by mineral explorers and producers.

Of even more concern is the acceleration of the "urban sprawl" that is rapidly effectively destroying the limited supplies of sand, gravel, and stone in the very areas where they are most needed . When a house, commercial building, or industrial plant is built on land that is under­ lain by sand and gravel that could have been excavated and sold, these valuable mineral resources are for all practical purposes destroyed. They are removed from possible use--a waste we can ill afford. Land-use plan­ ning and zoning laws and regulations that permit this type of waste are obviously inadequate and should be modified.

With respect to land needs for minerals development as related to water management, careful consideration should be given to the locations of mineral deposits that might be flooded by reservoirs behind any pro­ posed dams on the rivers in the Region. Many of the most valuable deposits of sand and gravel in particular are situated in and near the beds of the rivers in the area.

Because of the high cost of transportation in relation to the total sale price of such mineral products as sand, gravel, and stone, it is. important that every effort be made to protect the known sources of these products, especially in reservoir areas and in urban areas where the demands for the products are greatest.

FUTURE NEEDS FOR MINERALS IN THE PUGET SOUND STUDY AREA

Proj ec tions

The projections are made on the basis of least squares fits of both linear and logarithmic curves of data. Standard regression techniques are used, and two or more curves are fit to most data. The equations of the curves used are in the form Y •a+ bx and log Y •a+ bx. The correlation coefficients (r2) of most fits were computed, and the best fitting curve selected. The accuracy of the projections varies greatly. The expected statistical error of regression techniques is not formally presented, but it is related to the size·of the correlation ~

136 2.2 C 0 en '- Q) a. 2.0 '- Q) a. en - 1.8 ....Q) .... 0 ..0

~ z 1.6 0 I- <.!) 2 1.4 I (/)

I .0 I .2 I .4 I .6 I .8 2.0 UNITED STATES, barrels per person FIGURE 15 .-Washing ton Versus United States per Capita Cement Consumption, 1940-64. •••••

137 coefficient. The nearer the correlation coefficient approaches 1.00, the better confidence assumed in the projection.

Estimated production of certain minerals in the Puget Sound area from 1980 to 2020 is shown in table 39. Individual discussions are given for expected requirements of each commodity listed in the table. A division analysis is given for common construction materials, such as cement, sand and gravel, and stone, since consumption of the materials is dependent to a great extent upon population growth.

TABLE 39. - Estimated mineral production in Puget Sound area 1980-2020

1964 1G8o 2000 2020

Cement (million barrels) • .. . . • • • • 4.3 5.5 9.0 14.o Clay ( thousand tons) ... '° • • ••• • •• • 107 125 150 175

Lime O ~ a ••• D d O • •••••• ••• • • • ••••• •• .!/47 70 100 175

Peat . . o# • " • • do • . . , ...... Qi •• •• 35 50 60 70 Sand and gravel (million tons) • .• 12.4 15 25 35 s tone O • • • a • • • •• • • ,> • • • d O O .... ., ••• 0 ,f • 3.5 5 8 10 J./ Estimated consumption.

Cement Per-capita consumption of cement in Washington, ranging from a low of 1.01 barrels in 1945 to a high of 2.36 barrels in 1958, has been higher than the United States average throughout the period 1940-60, figure 15. In 1961, the State per-capita usage (1.85 barrels) dropped below the. United States average (1.92 barrels) and remained below it through 1964. The reason the State figures have been higher than the national average for many years has been due to large quantities of cement used at dam construction projects in Washington.

A correlation was prepared comparing Washington cement usage with that of the United States over the· period 1950-64, but the test was not significant for prediction purposes. The derived trend line formula (Y • 2.42 - 0.27x) over the period indicates a downward trend in per­ capita requirements for Washington compared to the United States total. It is not reasonable to expect the downward trend to continue, but Washington per-capita requirements probably will remain below or equal to the United States figure.

The future estimates of cement production in the Puget Sound area are based on an average annual increase of 2 . 5 percent, which is the figure derived for the commerci~l sa~d and gravel production trend in e

138 the area appearing later in this report. The average annual production increase of 2.5 percent indicates per-capita consumption requirements of about 2 barrels of cement in the Puget Sound area throughout the period of this study, or per-capita requirements of 1.96 barrels in 1980, 2.05 barrels in 2000, and 1.97 barrels by 2020.

The trend in the Puget Sound area is toward reducing labor costs and cement prices by installing larger capacity 1>lants and production machinery combined with centralized controls with electronic or auto­ matic equipment. Firm commitments to install highly efficient cement­ producing capacity of 8.5 million barrels annually have been made by companies operating in the Puget Sound area. This proposed additional capacity will be sufficient to fulfill needs of the area until 2000 and possibly to 2020, if some existing plants in the study area remain in operation. However, as new capacity is completed, some older, obsolescent high-cost production plants will be deactivated or revamped with automated equipment.

Estimated consumption of portland cement by economic division in the Puget Sound area from 1980 to 2020 is shown in table 40.

TABLE 40. - Estimated consumption of portland cement by economic division, 1980-2020 (Millions of Barrels)

Economic Division 1980 2000 2020

I 4.8 .1.9 12.4 II 0.4 0.6 0.9 III .3 .s .7

Total Puget Sound area 5.5 9.0 14.0

The trend of clay production in the Paget Sound area for the period 1948-64 (fig. 16) is increasing at an average annual rate of 3 percent. However, since 1957, output in the area has declined sharply because of clay imports from California. Growth estimates based on the regression trend line log Y • 1.9896 + x (.0076) of clay production for the Puget Sound area, therefore, are unrealistic. Future clay output in the study area is predicated upon anticipated brick consumption in the Pacific Northwest, increasing annually at a rate of 0.4 percent to 1985, ~ coupled with expected coDSumption of clay in manufacturing cement.

Predictions of total clay output in the area imply an average annual increase of about 1 percent, or 175,000 tons, by 2020.

139 - v, 80 C -0 -~ 60 0 ..c . V, r<) 0 4 0 .___...... ____.__....._...... ___...._....._...... ____.__....._--'--_.__.....___.______.__...... __...... 1948 1952 1956 1960 1964 FIGURE 16-Clay Production in the Puget

Sound Area, 1948-64 · 101 -

140 Lime

Based on per-capita lime consumption figures for the State of Washington, consumption of primary open-market lime in the Puget Sound area could more than double over present consumption, or reach 100,000 tons by 2000 • . Additional lime plant capacity possibly will be installed by the time to fufill consumption trends. Advantages the Puget Sound area holds for additional lime-producing facilities are nearness to high­ calcium limestone deposits at Texada Island, British Columbia; nearness to major markets in the State, and tidewater location of transportation facilities. Estimates of primary open-market lime consumption in the Puget Sound area to 2020 are based on per-capita requirements of 0.025 ton.

Peat

The outlook ~or the peat industry is expected to be one of continued growth. Since.1945, the number of producers in the United States has more than doubled, and domestic output has increased more than fivefold. Consumption in the Puget Sound area should continue upward, because peat is in demand by homeowners, landscape gardeners, nurseries, and greenhouses in most parts of the Puget Sound area, particularly in urban and suburban areas. Future output, expected to reach 50 ,000 tons by 1980, is projected from past production trends and implies reserve requirements of the magnitude of about 3.5 million tons by 2020 .

Sand and Gravel and Stone

Per-capita consumption of aggregatea in Washington, ranging from a low of 3.5 tons in 1943 to a high of 13.7 tons in 1964, is compared from 1940 to 1964 with United States figures, which have ranged from a low of 2.6 to11& in 1944 to a high of 8.3 tons in 1964 (fig. 17). The reason that Washington per capita figures are higher than the national average is that the ratio of sand and gravel from Government-and-contrac­ tor operations in Washington is greater than the national figure. The ratio of sand and gravel going into road construction and at dam building projects is greater for Washington than the national average. For the State, the percentage of sand and gravel from Govermnent­ and-contractor operations, ranging from 31 to 54 percent of total out­ put during the period 1950-64, has been much higher than the United States average, table.41. In Washington, the average annual sand and gravel output from Government-and-contractor operations over the 14-year period was 50 percent of total output. The percentage of sand and gravel produced by Government-and-contractor operations in the Puget Sound area has ranged from 20 to 46 percent of total output, and the 13-year average from 1951-64 is 30 percent of the total. It is expected that this trend will continue in future years, and output by Govermnent-and-contractor

141 14 .60 64•

g 12 59 (/) 5a.J "- l3 Q) C. 55• 17 I is2 "- Q) 10 C. /\i5 ~I (/) A56 C 0 A54 - 8 Z · 0 I- 48 • 511 ~ ·7 • 50 • 53 z 6 40 47·•-49 I • ~42 en 45•• 46 <( 44A A41 3: 4 A43

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 UNITED STATES, tons per person FI GU RE ;17 - W a s h i n g ton Ve rs us U n it e d States per Capita Sand and Gravel and Stone Production, 1940-64. ··-··

142 operations is estimated to be 30 percent of total output in predicted estimates. The ratio follows the United States trend as the average annual output from 1950-64 from national Government-and-contractor sand and gravel operations, ranging from 26 to 31 percent, was 30 percent of total domestic production. Data are not available for the period 1950-63 at stone opera­ tions in the area, but in 1964, Government-and-contractor operations accounted fo; 24 percent of total stone output. It is assumed that future production of stone will follow the trend of 30 percent from Government-and-contractor operations.

TABLE 41. - Percent of total sand and gravel production from Government-and-contractor operations

Year Puget Sound Washington United States

1950 NA 50 30 1951 36 38 29 1952 31 48 31 1953 26 47 30 1954 27 31 29 1955 28 54 29 1956 33 48 25 1957 46 51 26 1958 35 52 29 1959 32 47 27 1960 22 57 26 1961 32 40 28 1962 34 35 27 1963 24 46 28 1964 20 54 28 Average annual percentage 1950-64 30 50 30 NA Not available.

The projections for aggregates are based on the trend of commercial sand and gravel output in the Puget Sound area over the period 1951-64 (fig. 18). The time series coa:-elation was significant at the 5-percent level of statistical inference, and the trend line Y • 3 + 0 .4x implies a 2. 5-percent average annual rate of growth for the period of study, or until 2020. Projections for aggregates are made by assuming that this trend accounts for 70 percent of total production or the output from commercial firms. An additional adjustment of 30 percent compensates for production at Govermnent-and-contractor ,operations.

143 (I) C 0

(0- 8 0 .. _J w y = 3 + ~4x"- c:7" > 6 1950 1954 1958 1962 FIGURE 18-Sand and Gravel Produced By Commercial Firms in the Puget Sound Area, 1951-64

144 Estimated per-capita requirements for aggregates in the Puget Sound area for the projected period of this study are shown in table 42 . The per-capita requirements for sand and gravel range from about 5 to 5.75 tons, and per-capita consumption of stone ranges from about 1.5 to 1. 75 tons. The predictions from 1980 to 2020 of sand and gravel production by economic division are shown in table 43. Estimates of stone production from 1980 to 2020 by economic division are shown in table 44 . Stone requirements are adjusted upward by 1 million tons in Division II to account for anticipated cement plant requirements for limestone.

TABLE 42 . - Estimated per-capita requirements for aggregates in the Puget Sound area, 1980-2020 (tons)

Year Sand and Gravel Stone e 1980 5.85 1. 79 2000 5.69 1.82 2020 4.93 1.41

TABLE 43. - Estimated production (consumption) of sand and gravel by economic subdivision, 1980-2020 (million tons)

.. Economic Divisions 1980 2000 2020

I 13.0 21.9 30.9 II 1.1 1.8 2.4 III 0.9 1.3 1. 7

Total Area 15.0 25.0 35.0

145 TABLE 44. - Estimated production (consumption) of stone by economic division, 1980-2020 (million tons)

Economic Divisions 1980 2000 2020

I 3.3 6.0 7.8 II ·1.4 1.6 1. 7 III 0.3 0 . 4 0.5

Total Area 5.0 8.0 10.0

Miscellaneous Minerals

Impressive quantities of coal have been produced in the Puget Sound area in the past, but the high cost of coal production in the area, co4pled with competitive coal sources surrounding the area and the State, have led to sharp declines in output in recent years. Employment at coal operations in the area in 1964 was less than·so men .

Projections have been made for expected future production of coal and employment by the industry in the Pacific Northwest. (W The maximum range of the projections is based on a high level of productivity that possibly could not be attained in the steeply pitching coalbeds of the Puget Sound area. Whereas in 1964, coal output in the Puget Sound area was about 5.5 tons per employee, the projections imply output of about 30 tons per man by 1985. Minimum growth predicted in the study assumes productivity of about 7 tons per man for all future years; therefore, the minimum predictions for coal output are near current production in the Pacific Northwest. In. the absence of depend­ able information to the contrary, it is assumed that demand for coal and coal output in the Puget Sound area will remain constant to the year ·2020 .

Important, but small quantities of olivine, siliceous materials, strontium, and talc are produced annually in the Puget Sound area. Employment at all mines and plants producing the materials is less than 100 men . Competition makes the future mine production of the materials uncertain.

In the case of olivine, the resource has not been developed to its maximum potential. Many foundry applications for olivine remain to be discovered, and the refractory potential of olivine deserves much more research and development than has been carried out. Olivine from the Twin Sisters area will maintain increased rates of production as the many potential requirements for the mineral are expanded in the future.

One of the few commercial strontium deposits in the United States, and the only one in the Northwest , is on Fidalgo Island, Skagit County, near La Conne.r. The deposit contains the two strontium minerals,

146 celestite and strontianite, in approximately equal amounts. In past years, ore was mined intennittently by both underground and open-pit methods, and was processed by the operating company, Manufacturers Minerals Co. The crude material was ground to consumer specifications at the company plant in Seattle and marketed locally as a chemical material. Copper; lead, zinc, gold, silver, chromitei iron ore, manganese, mercury, and molybdenum have been produced intermittently in small quantities. In 1964, only a small quantity of gold was produced, and employment at all metallic mining operations in the Puget Sound area during the year was less than 50 me~. Curtailment of gold-mining opera­ tions during World War II, owing to manpower shortages and the war effort, has hampered development of gold resources. Although the high cost of rehabilitation has prevented many mines from reopening after World War II, a gold subsidy program could possibly result in some mines in the area reopening for further development. ·

Government restraint, such as wilderness legislation, could prevent development of these mineral resources in the Puget Sound area, as the metallic mineral resources have not been delimited sufficiently to ascertain maximum or potential growth.

MEANS TO SATISFY MINERAL NEEDS

There is an obvious need for planning and land-use management so as to provide a continuing supply of the essential mineral commodities required by the expanding economy of the Puget Sound area.

The very small amount of land needed, coupled with the scarcity of the mineral products being sought, the inflexibility with regard to sources of mineral resources, and the very great flexibility as to sources and large supply of land suitable for almost all other land uses, all point to the need· for assigning a high priority -to the mineral-resource use of land.

Mineral resources occur in the Puget Sound area in sufficient quantities to supply most of the anticipated needs of the area to the year 2020.

Past experience has shown that, given the opportunity to do so, private industry can supply the mineral needs of the Puget Sound area.

The key to the means for satisfying the mineral needs of the Puget Sound area is the word "opportunity". Opportunity in this case will be limited in the largest degree by the wisdom or lack.of wisdom exercised in designing and applying the principles of land-use management.

If the ·local zoning laws and federal land management laws and regulations are designed and administered so as to encourage rather than prohibit mineral production, a large per cent of the mineral needs of the area may be supplied from within the Puget Sound area.

147 LIST OF REFERENCES

1. Ahearn, Vincent P., Jr. Land-Use Planning and the Sand and Gravel Producer. National Sand and Gravel Association, Silver Springs, Md., .1964, 30 PP• 2. Averitt, Paul. Coal Reserves of the United States . USGS Bull. 1136, 1960, 116 pp.

3. Beikman, Helen M. , Howard D. Gower, and Toni A. M. Dana . Coal Reserves of Washington. State Div. of Mines and Geol. Bull. 47, 1961, 115 pp.

4. Bergstrom, John H. Metallurgical Processes Pay. Rock Products, v . 65, No. 5, May 1962, pp. 172, 174, 176.

5. Blomber, Stan. Advantages of Olivine in the Shell Process. Foundry, v . 92, No. 5, May 1964, p. 166.

6. Davis, Robert E. Magnesium Resources of the. United States -- A Geologic Summary and Annotated Bibliography to 1953 . OSGS Bull. 1019-E, 1957, 515 pp. 7. Engel, A. E. J., and L.A. Wright. Talc and Soapstone. AIME Industrial Minerals and Rocks, 3rd ed., 1960, pp. 835-850.

8. Federal Trade Commission. Price Basis Inquiry, The Basing-Point Formula and Cement Prices. March 1932, 219 pp .

9. · Glover , Sheldon L. Oil and Gas Exploration in Washington. Div. of Mines and Geol. Inf. Circ. No. 15, 1947, 49 pp.

10 . Gould, Herbert E. Olivine in the Ferrous Foundry. Foundry, v. 91, No. 10 , October 1963, pp. 84-89. 11. Green, Stephen H. Manganese Deposits of the Olympic Peninsula, Washington. Division of Mines and Mining, Rept. of Inv. No. 7, 1945, 45 pp.

12. Gwinn, G. R. Olivine. BuMines Inf. Circ. 7239, 1943, 11 pp. 13. Hale, W. N., and N. S. Petersen. Sulfur Consumption in the Pacific Northwest. Report prepared for Bonneville Power Administration, Portland, Oreg., 1965, 51 pp. 14 . Hunter, c. E. Forsterite Olivine Deposits of North Carolina. Dept. of Convervation and Development. Division of Mineral Resources Bull. 41, 1941, 114 pp .

148 15. Kelly, Hal J., Karle G. Strandberg, and James I. Mueller. Ceramic Industry Development and Raw Material Resources of Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and Montana. BuMines Inf. Circ. 7752, 1956, 77 pp.

16. Kingston, Gary A. The Steel Industry of the Columbia Basin. A report for the Bonneville Power Administration, Portland, Oreg., 1962, 58 pp.

17. Knostman, Richard W., and Gary A. Kingston. Copper, Lead, and Zinc Industries in the Pacific Northwest. A report for the Bonneville Power Administration, Portland, Oreg . , 1966, pp. 87-94.

18. Livingston, Vaughn E., Jr. Oil and G.as Exploration in Washington, 1900-57. Div. of Mines and Geol. Inf. Circ. No. 29, 1958, 61 pp.

18a. Magill, E. A. Manganese deposits of the Olympic Peninsula, Washington·. U. S. Bur. Mines Rept. of Inv. 5530, 1960, 82 pp.

19. Moment, Samuel. The Aluminum Industry of the Pacific Northwest • Ivan Bloch & Associates. A report for the Bonneville Power • Administration, Portland, Oreg., Appendix "A", p. 3. 20. MonteVerda, Vince J. Shell Sands. Foundry, v. 92, No. 5, May 1964, p. 166.

21. National Sand and Gravel Association. Engineering Problems of Sand and Grav.el Production. NSGA Circ. No. 88, Silver Springs, Md., 1962, 34 pp.

22. Oil Paint & Drug Reporter. Salt Cake Industry Witnessing an Intensification of Competition. V. 182, No. 26, Dec. 24. 1962, p. 4. 23. Oil Paint & Drug Reporter. Special Report on Sodium Sulfate. V. 176, No. 15, Oct. 5, 1959, p. 3.

24. Perry, H., Max R. Geer, C. R. Gentile, and H.F. Jones, H. Zinder & Associates. Potential for the Coal Industry in the Pacific Northwest. Report prepared for the Bonneville Power Administration, 1965, 203 pp.

25. Pit & Quarry, v. 58, No. 5, November 1965, pp. 125, 126, 138.

26. Ragan, Donal M. Emplacement of the Twin Sisters Dunite, Washington. Am. Jour. of Science, v. 261, June 1963, pp. 549-565.

27 . Rigg, George B. Peat Resources of Washington. State of Washington Div. of Mines and Geol. Bull. No. 44, 1958, 266 pp .

149 28. Rivisto, Michael A. An Economic Feasibility Study of Sodium Sulfate and Other Saline Resources on the Colville Indian Reservation. May 1963, p. 28.

29. U.S. Department of Commerce. Raw Materials in the United States Economy: 1900-1961. Bur. Census Working Paper 6, 1964, 139 pp.

30. Yancey, H.F., Joseph Daniels, E. R. McMillan, and M. R. Geer. Byproduct Coke-Oven Tests of Washington Coals. BuMines Rept. of Inv. 3717, 1943, 46 pp.

150