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This document is brought to you for free and open access by Lehigh Preserve. It has been accepted for inclusion by an authorized administrator of Lehigh Preserve. For more information, please contact [email protected]. volume 20 THE spring 2012 LEHIGH REVIEW progression and reflection editor in chief staff james suh marketing editor credits sarah strackhouse

design editor margaret griffiths

facilitator catherine burton

staff editors jane givens alyssa pasquini sheron tang cory tucker

production with help from special donald hall saladin ambar edurne portelo henri barkey sue shell anna chupa thanks kate crassons design support krista evans jason stanford ben felzer funding betsy fifer the humanities norman girardot center chaim kaufmann jackie krasas printing kevin narizny christmas city james peterson printing co., inc. brian pinaire amber rice roger simon

Rhythm Pei Pei Yang

2 the lehigh review 20

12 3

letter from the editor I am proud to present the twentieth edi- tion of The Lehigh Review: Progression and Reflection. Assembling the journal was both a pleasure and a challenge, and it could not have been possible without the hard work of our staff, featured authors, artists and the help of our faculty support- ers. Their efforts are prominent in this spe- cial twentieth anniversary edition.

Under the theme of Progression and Reflec- tion, we continued to evolve our aesthetic language while celebrating The Lehigh Review’s renowned past. Our goal was to reflect the history of the journal by includ- ing the best academic writing by Lehigh undergraduates from various fields of study while advancing our direction as respected university scholarly journal. We wanted to create an edition that el- evates our readers’ expectations of both the quality of articles and artwork as well as the aesthetics of future editions. This exceptional volume not only celebrates our twentieth mark of existence but also distinguishes the auspicious future of The Lehigh Review.

We hope these carefully selected essays

Don’t You Think I’m Beautiful Kenny Barry

5 Now in its twentieth publication, The Lehigh Review has firmly established itself as the University’s lead- 2012ing undergraduate research journal. The past twenty years have witnessed the continual growth and transformation of The Review. From monochromatic covers and experimenta- tions in humor to student art inserts and increasingly varied subject matter, The Review has undergone a persistent evolu- tion. What remains constant, however, from volumes one through twenty, is the impressive quality of student work showcased in the journal. Throughout its many iterations, The Lehigh Review has remained dedicated to publishing work which demonstrates imagination, original insight and students’ mastery of their crafts.

1992 2002 2003 2007 2011

6 the lehigh review table of contents 8 tierney gallagher Women and Unionism: How the Shirtwaist Makers Strike of 1909 Precipitated Female Organization and Unionism in the Garment Industry 16 jacob kennon Democracy in Japan: From Meiji to MacArthur

26 erika peters Flawed by Design

32 karen timmerman Understanding the Resource Curse: Why Some Get More Sick Than Others 44 gina notaro Characterization of Glycine Receptor Expression in the Avian Auditory Brainstem 54 anu paulose Adam and Eve: an Adaptation

64 stephen erbrick Economization of the Sierra Leone War

74 emily purcell Poverty, Inequality and Power Dynamics: Women and their Role in the Haitian AIDS Epidemic 81 artwork 90 about the contributors 92 endnotes

7

The New York City garment workers’ strike of 1909 was women laborers’ first effort to organize, unionize and advocate for industrial democracy. Seeking fair wages, dependable work and an end to harsh conditions, women from various social backgrounds and ethnicities WOMEN united behind this cause. These revolutionaries gained AND the attention of the press and labor leaders as well as the UNIONISM: compassion of the public, How the Shirtwaist Makers Strike of 1909 laying the foundation for Precipitated Female Organization and future labor achievements in Unionism in the Garment Industry the garment industry and for workers in the coming decade. by Tierney Gallagher

Untitled (detail) Sam Andersen

9 he fall of 1909 brought to- Europe. Upon their arrival they sought common for Jewish women and girls to gether many complex social the comforts of a familiar community and be involved in a small trade or business, and industrial circumstances were inclined to live and work amongst selling goods or services to earn money that, in their culmination, fellow Jews. Transition into an unfamiliar to fund the education of men in the fam- elicited a revolutionary re- city and adjustment to the demanding ily. Selfless and hardworking, immigrant Tsponse that has come to be known as the conditions of industrial work were eased women saw themselves as part of a bigger shirtwaist makers’ strike of 1909. Unique through the backing of ethnic environ- system: that of their family, of their ethnic to this strike were its participants, over ments. As Francoise Basch explains, community and the industrial workforce. 80% of whom were women, from differ- “Familiar landmarks and human support Evidence of this is reported by Basch, who ent social classes, ethnic backgrounds cushioned the immigrants’ head on colli- states, “…married or unmarried, almost and varying levels of industrial skill sets. sion with a foreign and hostile culture.”1 90 percent [Jewish working women] in When organized, these women produced Upon their arrival to New York, immi- New York City turned over all of their a mass movement to challenge the condi- grants flocked to the lower east side, where wages to their families.”4 The unique cul- tions of labor, the controlling tactics of they lived in near-slum conditions in tene- tural traditions of immigrant women pre- employers, and their rights as workers ment houses. The characteristics of such pared them for the thankless, harsh work and in doing so, sought the promise of dwellings included overcrowding, poor typical of the garment industry in 1909. industrial democracy. On a larger scale, construction, and inadequate sanitary and Aside from a shared culture, the major- the shirtwaist makers and their allies tran- safety conditions such as toilets, wash bins ity of the garment strikes shared another scended the divisions of class, ethnicity and fire escapes. Despite the dismal physi- unifying and dominant feature: being and traditional gender roles to advocate cal surroundings, neighborhoods were female. The gender stratification of the for the shared ideal of women’s rights. For cultural centers, fostering shared values workforce put women workers in a subor- three months, thousands of garment work- of the homeland and stability of common dinate position to their male employers. ers, mostly Jewish and Italian immigrants, tradition.2 The garment industry exploited this tradi- withstood cold, hunger, harassment and Such hardships of immigrant life often tion to a unique extreme. Women, espe- arrest and carried on their protest. Hop- plunged families into the depths of pover- cially immigrants, populated a workforce ing to achieve better hours, better wages, ty. In need of every financial contribution that employers viewed to be ignorant and dependable employments and union rec- they could earn, Jewish and Italian im- powerless. Consequently managers took ognition, garment workers were bolstered migrant women worked tirelessly for the advantage of garment working women.5 by the support of socialist leaders, socialite benefit of their families.3 Whether to send Standards of labor and employment and middle-class women and two promi- back to the home country, or to put the in 1909 focused obsessively on efficiency, nent female labor unions. The success of next meal on the table, the need for money the reduction of waste in production and this strike has been interpreted differently was never absent. Consequently, employ- maximizing profit. The conflict that arose depending on the measure of success. ees of the garment trade were driven work- between workers and employers in the Though it failed in gaining a closed shop ers. The burden of working to benefit their New York garment industry derived from garment industry, the shirtwaist maker’s families proved to be a powerful incentive the incompatibility of workers’ desired strike of 1909 made great strides in better- in tolerating the toils of industrial work. treatment and the goals of production. In- ing the conditions of work in the garment The mindset of an immigrant worker was dustrial management favored production, industry: it united women workers in also that of a vulnerable employee. When however, and the garment workers paid overcoming ethnic and class boundaries, considering that these overworked gar- the price. The garment industry, relatively effectively arming labor reformers and ment makers were mainly female, the in- new to manufacturing since the 1890s, feminists with the support and experience fluence of family patriarchy contributed to functioned as a unique system that, in its to make meaningful change in the years the custom of subservience demonstrated practice, frustrated its employees.6 Sea- to come. by working immigrant women. Jewish sonal labor, long hours, petty fines and the The marks of immigration were domi- women in particular were subject to cul- harassment of mangers were the staples nant in the lives of many garment work- tural norms that expected obedience. They of this industry and so too the complaints ers in the early twentieth century. The were excluded from religious practices and of its workers. Melvyn Dubofsky expands workforce was comprised predominantly governed by their male kin, all the while on the complexities of the garment trade of Jewish women migrants from Eastern managing domestic duties. It was not un- structure: “Diversity and instability

10 the lehigh review shaped all aspects of the garment industry. begins to indicate, the nature of garment Workers’ Union was founded in 1900 but It had almost as many separate branches as making itself instigated and perpetu- gained considerable popularity and a surge individual shops. Men’s clothing, women’s ated worker discontent and consequently in membership towards the end of the clothing, fur garments, millinery, and prompted thousands of women to rebel decade. Prior to 1909, women had been men’s caps and hats were the industry’s in opposition. Sub-contracting schemes, tentative to organize themselves; they were major sub-trades…demand factors also af- however, were not the sole source of em- accustomed to an inferior social status and fected the economic structure.”7 Common ployee complaints. Worker grievances compliance. A majority of females were though, among these divisions, was the were extensive and included unreliable also naïve; education for women was not drive for productivity and economy. work and the variability of wages. highly valued among immigrant families, Arising out of concern for efficiency The dependence on fashion trends and keeping women distant from the ideas and frugality was the garment industry’s seasonal demands further complicated the of labor organization. Often between the utilization of sub-contracting. Sub-con- garment industry. In the busy season, last- ages of sixteen and twenty-five, most gar- tracting in the garment trade consisted of ing four months of the year, women gar- ment workers viewed employment as a a large manufacturer outsourcing aspects ment workers toiled from 8:00 a.m. to 6:00 short-term situation, anticipating instead of production to a smaller manager and p.m. six days of the week often augmented the expectation of marriage that would a team of workers. The subcontractor by hours of unpaid overtime.11 It was stan- draw them from the workforce. Perceived oversaw the work of his employees in ac- dard for laborers to receive a half hour radicalism or advocating women’s em- complishing their specified task and did lunch break out of their ten-hour day, and powerment were not the traits that most so with less capital, fewer workers and in they were frequently fined for additional husbands sought in prospective wives. a smaller space under his own direction. breaks.12 Other months, work was less Believing it would hurt their chances in The original employer, therefore, profited, dependable, amounting to three or four seeking a marriage, many young girls were needing less space, fewer workers under days a week with consequent layoffs. And reluctant to join the labor movement.14 In direct supervision and less equipment and still most garment workers could expect recognizing the barriers to union member- supplies. As a result, he accomplished pro- a month of unemployment, during which ship, it is easier to understand what a great duction at a decreased personal expense.8 they received no pay. Even this routine of accomplishment the ILGWU in the 1909 The gains of the employer, however, result- work varied within the trade; laborers with strike was. In spite of familial discourage- ed in costs to the workers. The sub-con- more or less skill working on different ment, rising discontent pushed women tracting system passed the burden of cost articles of clothing were subject to differ- garment workers to new extremes of self- on until it reached the defenseless workers. ent expectations of employment and pay. determination that manifested itself in the Employees were held responsible for fund- Wages were distributed on a weekly, or on growth of unions. ing their own supplies, such as needles and a per-piece basis, a decision that was large- The ILGWU was at the forefront of thread, and if accidental damage ruined ly arbitrary based on the sub-contracting labor organization in the garment in- a product or if equipment broke, the cost manager.13 In respect to job stability and dustry; it was the primary force that best of the difference was deducted from their equality, the average garment worker in represented the employees and their needs wages. They paid for privileges that mod- 1909 could not expect much. What she in the garment industry. Structured as ern society would assume to be essentials, could count on though, was managerial a semi-industrial union, it welcomed all such as renting the chairs they sat on, or discrimination and harassment, unfair clothing trade workers, without regard for paying to store personal possessions in wages, long hours and burdensome fines. nationality, skill set or branches of cloth- a locker.9 So too, some subcontracting It was these aggravations and hardships ing production. Consequently, member- managers made deductions from pay for that served as an impetus for union mem- ship was diverse and represented many taking too long for a bathroom break, for bership among immigrant working wom- aspects of the industry. To manage this lateness or socializing with colleagues. en. Later, during the strike, the Women’s group, the International (as it was nick- As Harry Best describes, “the evils of the Trade Union League (WTUL) and the named) was arranged such that affiliates system are readily apparent, all clustering International Ladies Garment Workers were segmented into local groups which about the circumstance that it permits the Union (ILGWU) would prove to be critical were then organized dependent upon one’s irresponsible sub-contractor to drive his advocates for women’s labor and the rights sector of trade or job/skill classification.15 help under the worst possible conditions to of garment workers. It was the smaller locals, specifically those the last of their strength.”10 As this practice The International Ladies Garment of the New York shirtwaist makers, which

11 he fall of 1909 brought to- Europe. Upon their arrival they sought common for Jewish women and girls to gether many complex social the comforts of a familiar community and be involved in a small trade or business, and industrial circumstances were inclined to live and work amongst selling goods or services to earn money that, in their culmination, fellow Jews. Transition into an unfamiliar to fund the education of men in the fam- elicited a revolutionary re- city and adjustment to the demanding ily. Selfless and hardworking, immigrant Tsponse that has come to be known as the conditions of industrial work were eased women saw themselves as part of a bigger shirtwaist makers’ strike of 1909. Unique through the backing of ethnic environ- system: that of their family, of their ethnic to this strike were its participants, over ments. As Francoise Basch explains, community and the industrial workforce. 80% of whom were women, from differ- “Familiar landmarks and human support Evidence of this is reported by Basch, who ent social classes, ethnic backgrounds cushioned the immigrants’ head on colli- states, “…married or unmarried, almost and varying levels of industrial skill sets. sion with a foreign and hostile culture.”1 90 percent [Jewish working women] in When organized, these women produced Upon their arrival to New York, immi- New York City turned over all of their a mass movement to challenge the condi- grants flocked to the lower east side, where wages to their families.”4 The unique cul- tions of labor, the controlling tactics of they lived in near-slum conditions in tene- tural traditions of immigrant women pre- employers, and their rights as workers ment houses. The characteristics of such pared them for the thankless, harsh work and in doing so, sought the promise of dwellings included overcrowding, poor typical of the garment industry in 1909. industrial democracy. On a larger scale, construction, and inadequate sanitary and Aside from a shared culture, the major- the shirtwaist makers and their allies tran- safety conditions such as toilets, wash bins ity of the garment strikes shared another scended the divisions of class, ethnicity and fire escapes. Despite the dismal physi- unifying and dominant feature: being and traditional gender roles to advocate cal surroundings, neighborhoods were female. The gender stratification of the for the shared ideal of women’s rights. For cultural centers, fostering shared values workforce put women workers in a subor- three months, thousands of garment work- of the homeland and stability of common dinate position to their male employers. ers, mostly Jewish and Italian immigrants, tradition.2 The garment industry exploited this tradi- withstood cold, hunger, harassment and Such hardships of immigrant life often tion to a unique extreme. Women, espe- arrest and carried on their protest. Hop- plunged families into the depths of pover- cially immigrants, populated a workforce ing to achieve better hours, better wages, ty. In need of every financial contribution that employers viewed to be ignorant and dependable employments and union rec- they could earn, Jewish and Italian im- powerless. Consequently managers took ognition, garment workers were bolstered migrant women worked tirelessly for the advantage of garment working women.5 by the support of socialist leaders, socialite benefit of their families.3 Whether to send Standards of labor and employment and middle-class women and two promi- back to the home country, or to put the in 1909 focused obsessively on efficiency, nent female labor unions. The success of next meal on the table, the need for money the reduction of waste in production and this strike has been interpreted differently was never absent. Consequently, employ- maximizing profit. The conflict that arose depending on the measure of success. ees of the garment trade were driven work- between workers and employers in the Though it failed in gaining a closed shop ers. The burden of working to benefit their New York garment industry derived from garment industry, the shirtwaist maker’s families proved to be a powerful incentive the incompatibility of workers’ desired strike of 1909 made great strides in better- in tolerating the toils of industrial work. treatment and the goals of production. In- ing the conditions of work in the garment The mindset of an immigrant worker was dustrial management favored production, industry: it united women workers in also that of a vulnerable employee. When however, and the garment workers paid overcoming ethnic and class boundaries, considering that these overworked gar- the price. The garment industry, relatively effectively arming labor reformers and ment makers were mainly female, the in- new to manufacturing since the 1890s, feminists with the support and experience fluence of family patriarchy contributed to functioned as a unique system that, in its to make meaningful change in the years the custom of subservience demonstrated practice, frustrated its employees.6 Sea- to come. by working immigrant women. Jewish sonal labor, long hours, petty fines and the The marks of immigration were domi- women in particular were subject to cul- harassment of mangers were the staples nant in the lives of many garment work- tural norms that expected obedience. They of this industry and so too the complaints ers in the early twentieth century. The were excluded from religious practices and of its workers. Melvyn Dubofsky expands workforce was comprised predominantly governed by their male kin, all the while on the complexities of the garment trade of Jewish women migrants from Eastern managing domestic duties. It was not un- structure: “Diversity and instability

12 the lehigh review shaped all aspects of the garment industry. It had almost as many separate branches as individual shops. Men’s clothing, women’s clothing, fur garments, millinery, and men’s caps and hats were the industry’s major sub-trades…demand factors also af- fected the economic structure.”7 Common though, among these divisions, was the drive for productivity and economy. Arising out of concern for efficiency and frugality was the garment industry’s utilization of sub-contracting. Sub-con- tracting in the garment trade consisted of a large manufacturer outsourcing aspects of production to a smaller manager and a team of workers. The subcontractor oversaw the work of his employees in ac- complishing their specified task and did so with less capital, fewer workers and in a smaller space under his own direction. The original employer, therefore, profited, needing less space, fewer workers under direct supervision and less equipment and supplies. As a result, he accomplished pro- duction at a decreased personal expense.8 The gains of the employer, however, result- ed in costs to the workers. The sub-con- tracting system passed the burden of cost on until it reached the defenseless workers. Employees were held responsible for fund- ing their own supplies, such as needles and thread, and if accidental damage ruined a product or if equipment broke, the cost of the difference was deducted from their wages. They paid for privileges that mod- ern society would assume to be essentials, such as renting the chairs they sat on, or paying to store personal possessions in a locker.9 So too, some subcontracting managers made deductions from pay for taking too long for a bathroom break, for lateness or socializing with colleagues. As Harry Best describes, “the evils of the system are readily apparent, all clustering about the circumstance that it permits the irresponsible sub-contractor to drive his help under the worst possible conditions to the last of their strength.”10 As this practice Pencil, Chelsea Sheridan

13 begins to indicate, the nature of garment wages, long hours and burdensome fines. ment, rising discontent pushed women making itself instigated and perpetu- It was these aggravations and hardships garment workers to new extremes of self- ated worker discontent and consequently that served as an impetus for union mem- determination that manifested itself in the prompted thousands of women to rebel bership among immigrant working wom- growth of unions. in opposition. Sub-contracting schemes, en. Later, during the strike, the Women’s The ILGWU was at the forefront of however, were not the sole source of em- Trade Union League (WTUL) and the labor organization in the garment in- ployee complaints. Worker grievances International Ladies Garment Workers dustry; it was the primary force that best were extensive and included unreliable Union (ILGWU) would prove to be critical represented the employees and their needs work and the variability of wages. advocates for women’s labor and the rights in the garment industry. Structured as The dependence on fashion trends and of garment workers. a semi-industrial union, it welcomed all seasonal demands further complicated the The International Ladies Garment clothing trade workers, without regard for garment industry. In the busy season, last- Workers’ Union was founded in 1900 but nationality, skill set or branches of cloth- ing four months of the year, women gar- gained considerable popularity and a surge ing production. Consequently, member- ment workers toiled from 8:00 a.m. to 6:00 in membership towards the end of the ship was diverse and represented many p.m. six days of the week often augmented decade. Prior to 1909, women had been aspects of the industry. To manage this by hours of unpaid overtime.11 It was stan- tentative to organize themselves; they were group, the International (as it was nick- dard for laborers to receive a half hour accustomed to an inferior social status and named) was arranged such that affiliates lunch break out of their ten-hour day, and compliance. A majority of females were were segmented into local groups which they were frequently fined for additional also naïve; education for women was not were then organized dependent upon one’s breaks.12 Other months, work was less highly valued among immigrant families, sector of trade or job/skill classification.15 dependable, amounting to three or four keeping women distant from the ideas It was the smaller locals, specifically those days a week with consequent layoffs. And of labor organization. Often between the of the New York shirtwaist makers, which still most garment workers could expect ages of sixteen and twenty-five, most gar- spurred the great strike in November 1909 a month of unemployment, during which ment workers viewed employment as a and were responsible for the recruiting of they received no pay. Even this routine of short-term situation, anticipating instead thousands of women to the ILGWU. work varied within the trade; laborers with the expectation of marriage that would The leaders of Local 25, a New York more or less skill working on different draw them from the workforce. Perceived branch of the ILGWU, embarked upon its crusade for greater union recognition in the fall of 1909. The impetus of this move- In enduring protests, picketing and ment can be traced to the actions of the Triangle Shirtwaist Company in firing harassment the garment workers were over 100 workers for their interest in union aided by their experience in domesticity, participation. Lorwin describes the condi- tions under which the lay-off occurred: work that valued devotion, loyalty, “Some of the workers became irritated by self-sacrifice and patience. the attitude of the company. They were also affected by the general restlessness of the trade. About a hundred or more began articles of clothing were subject to differ- radicalism or advocating women’s em- to discuss the idea of joining a union…a ent expectations of employment and pay. powerment were not the traits that most few days later the Triangle Waist Company Wages were distributed on a weekly, or on husbands sought in prospective wives. singled out a number of workers whom it a per-piece basis, a decision that was large- Believing it would hurt their chances in suspected of sympathy for the union and ly arbitrary based on the sub-contracting seeking a marriage, many young girls were discharged them on the pretense of lack of manager.13 In respect to job stability and reluctant to join the labor movement.14 In work.”16 The company, however, continued equality, the average garment worker in recognizing the barriers to union member- to run advertisements calling for labor- 1909 could not expect much. What she ship, it is easier to understand what a great ers, a move that led Local 25 to proclaim could count on though, was managerial accomplishment the ILGWU in the 1909 a lockout and instigate a strike. The strike discrimination and harassment, unfair strike was. In spite of familial discourage- fizzled out with the realization that the

14 the lehigh review companies were large firms and could workers shared their grievances against week and per day, equal distribution of hold out unaffected by the strike, but the the industry.19 A passionate outburst from work between seasonal fluctuations and ideas that fueled militant labor organiza- a young, Jewish immigrant prompted the payment for materials and supplies need- tions were growing stronger and gaining strike: “I am a working girl, one of those ed.”23 What the large manufactures were notice.17 Attitudes of discontent and self- who are on strike against intolerable con- determined to refuse, however, was the advocacy among workers spread quickly, ditions. I am tired of listening to speakers long-term objective of union recognition, catching the attention of the Women’s who talk in general terms. What we are or the union control over hiring and work- Trade Union League. Capitalizing on the here for is to decide whether we shall or ing conditions. Comprised of thirty to increased popularity of this mindset, the shall not strike. I offer a resolution that a forty large companies, the Association de- WTUL embarked upon fostering unity general strike shall be declared—now!”20 veloped in response to the strike. They em- and preaching the appeal of organization Her proposal was met with roars of enthu- ployed strikebreakers, called in police to to female garment workers. The aims of siastic support, and the following morning contain picketers, relocated their factories the league were to increase awareness for of November 23, 1909, women garment or subcontracted their business to smaller the suffering of unorganized women labor- workers walked out of their shops. companies. Unable to hold out from the ers and to bring together female workers Within only a few days, 15,000 shirt- strike, non-Associated small businesses into trade unions to help make policy waist and garment workers were out of employers compromised to strikers early decisions. They embarked on a partner- shop, flocking instead to the union offices on, many of whom returned back to work ship with the ILGWU behind the cause of of Local 25. Inundated with thousands of with better conditions.24 This proclivity women garment workers.18 new conscripts, the non-working leaders, towards subcontracting destabilized the Together the ILGWU and the WTUL embarked on their campaign for public general strike, as it allowed manufactures stimulated interest in favor of organiza- support.21 The WTUL’s non-working vol- to continue production without its labor tion. Non-working reformers heading the unteers consisted of reform-minded mid- force. Consequently, the strike wore on WTUL supplied funds, volunteers and dle class women who were dedicated to for weeks. Sustained by their unity and means, garnering public compassion. La- aiding working class women, whom they militancy, the striking women garment bor leaders and women’s advocates were viewed as their “industrial sisters” in the workers were able to withstand the various disappointed in the reaction to the Tri- struggle for equality in labor conditions. hardships the striking conditions present- angle shirtwaist strike, the company’s dis- Strategic decisions were made in efforts to ed them. missal of workers’ needs and their treat- harness public sympathy for the workers; The women of the strike were primarily ment of the strikers. This event proved to it became imperative that the girls of the immigrants—55 % Russian and Eastern be the metaphorical “straw that broke the industry remain the prominent face of the Europe Jews, 35% Italian and 7% native camel’s back.” Incensed workers, suffering strike, participating in the pickets and pro- born Americans—bolstered by their inher- years of subjugation, began to contemplate tests. In conjunction with picketing and ent sense of community and camaraderie. the possibility of a general strike in the protesting, the WTUL women organized Additionally, the Russian Jewish women garment making industry. Local 25, with strikers on the basis of shop and ethnic/ proved to be prime candidates for strik- the encouragement of the WTUL, called a linguistic background, prepared strategies ers. With the history of mistreatment and general meeting of union followers on Oc- against resistance and worked with union discrimination influencing attitudes, they tober 21, 1909. Here, hundreds of women branches to develop their own unique de- identified with the social inequality and signed up for membership and leaders mands.22 were uniquely motivated to overcome it. proposed the possibility of a strike. Word The most obstinate form of resistance Their contribution to the strike gave the spread amongst garment workers that was found in the Associated Dress and movement another name in history, the the impending strike would be backed by Waist Manufactured Association, which “uprising of the 20,000” referring to Jewish the WTUL, contributing to this massive refused to concede to worker demands. women protesters. In enduring protests, growth of union membership. Planning, The immediate concerns of garment work- picketing and harassment the garment strategizing and tactics of the strike were ers, as recorded by the WTUL secretary workers were aided by their experience in formulated at this assembly. Orchestrated Helen Marot included “abolition of the domesticity, work that valued devotion, by the strike committee, a mass gathering subcontracting system, payment of wages loyalty, self-sacrifice and patience. Women was held November 22 where prominent once a week, a fifty-two-hour work week, naturally, then, were exemplary strikers labor leaders spoke and many women the limitation of overtime both in the whose strength did not go unnoticed.

15

Democracy in Japan has its roots in the international environment, rather than processes endogenous to the country itself. Prior to the 1850s, Japan’s feudal system was both shut off from the international environment and self-sustaining. Over the next several decades, however, Japanese elites initiated an intense period of modernization in response to Western imperialism, unintentionally opening the country to liberal ideas. Although Japan slid back into authoritarianism DEMOCRACY in the 1930s, the American occupation thoroughly IN JAPAN: transformed its society From Meiji to MacArthur and completed the country’s transition to democracy. by Jacob Kennon

Untitled (detail) Kathryn Stevens

17 Introduction ratized in the wake of its devastating de- by constant self-exposure to Western he transformation of Japan feat in that war without the all-important ideas. from an authoritarian im- presence of U.S. occupation forces and the Japanese elites in the 1850s and 60s perialist to a democratic total restructuring of Japanese society they struggled to decide whether or not to im- pacifist in world affairs is crafted. In this paper I argue that Japan’s port western technology and models of one of the most remarkable relationship with its external environment military organization to counter the exis- Ttransitions of the last century. Until the drove each of the country’s democratic tential threat posed by the imperial pow- middle of the nineteenth century Japanese transitions: the Meiji Restoration of 1868- ers. An inter-elite struggle over this issue society was utterly feudal, agricultural and 1912, the development of “Taisho Democ- pitted a coalition of feudal lords against decentralized. Although a military shogun racy” in the interwar years, the lapse into the shogun, the last ruler of the Tokugawa exercised a certain degree of direct control authoritarianism in the 1930s and the regime which had been in power continu- over a host of vassals and an emperor was post-war consolidation. ously since it unified the country in 1600. at least a nominal supreme ruler, most The central regime opposed building a Japanese had little exposure to the world The Transition From Feudalism national military. Arming the peasants outside the land they rented and farmed. Japan’s transition from feudalism can be would allow them be used by fiefs to chal- For such a closed, traditional society to broadly understood through a construc- lenge the government’s authority, and the radically transform itself into the mod- tivist, ideational diffusion model along peasants themselves could rebel as well. ernized, industrial war machine which the lines proposed by Weyland, wherein Both outcomes were expected to severely burst into Asia at the start of the twentieth domestic actors import external institu- destabilize the feudal structure. The op- century was a stunning accomplishment. tional structures and social norms they position, while keenly aware of the pos- Political and social upheaval underpinned find appealing. These foreign structures, sibility of peasant revolts, felt that it was a this modernization at every turn and for however, are sometimes misunderstood necessary risk given that the alternative to a time produced stirrings of democracy in by the importers or not well-suited for modernization was to succumb to western the wider current of authoritarianism. superimposition over their society. Fre- dominance. In 1868, after a civil war and Although it is tempting to explain the quently, there are unintended knock-on under the pretense of restoring power to Japanese experience with democracy prior effects with negative outcomes.3 Although the imperial throne and its occupant, the to 1945 through a simple lens of modern- Weyland focuses on the Latin American emperor Meiji, the modernizers defeated ization theory or other factors internal to experience of importing democratic in- the anciene regime, marking the start of Japanese society, those explanations fall stitutions explicitly, the core point of his what came to be known as the Meiji Resto- short.1 Japan’s feudal system was quite sta- analysis rings true for the Japanese experi- ration. The fiefs they did not defeat directly ble prior to the 1850s, when Western gun- ment in the latter half of the nineteenth they bought out, in essence striking the boat diplomacy finally forced the country century: foreign institutional structures kind of pacts one would expect to see in to open its borders to foreign trade. It was did not work as intended because domestic an O’Donnell-Schmitter-style transition.4 only in response to the overwhelming prerequisites were absent. Japanese elites As it consolidated and gained bargaining threat that the West’s modern arms and sought to import the elements of Western leverage, the new regime gradually renego- organization posed to the nation’s integ- primacy without upsetting Japan’s inter- tiated these pacts with the last representa- rity that Japanese elites instigated what nal power structure but did not pick and tives of the old order, who ceased to have Barrington Moore Jr. appropriately termed choose among them. As a consequence, an effect on politics after a final spasm in a “revolution from above.”2 Without an over time they not only imported indus- the Satsuma Rebellion of 1877.5 external impetus for change, and an exter- trialization and armament but notions of The new regime immediately initiated nal environment from which to draw new liberalism and democracy. These notions a modernization campaign, seeking to ideas and technology, Japan was unlikely were only planted in the nineteenth cen- secure Japan’s place as a sovereign state in to have experienced anything remotely tury, however; it took decades for the so- the international order, while preserving close to the modernization and social un- cial foundations, such as political liberties as much of the old feudal structure as pos- rest it went through in the seventy years and the moderation of conflict, to develop sible. The elites’ modernization program prior to the start of what Japanese call the organically. Throughout this early modern had unintended consequences, however. Fifteen-Year War (WWII). Moreover, the period (1868-1912) Japan experienced a Economic development was imported country certainly would not have democ- slow, steady erosion of the old order caused wholesale and imposed on society—the

18 the lehigh review overwhelmingly rural population began interest in foreign ideas was an influx of was the equivalent of England’s House of to move into the cities to labor in indus- the classic liberal texts of the enlighten- Lords, its seats filled by elites with heredi- try and the old, static social order came ment. The works of Mill, Locke, Spencer, tary status. This political arrangement al- under stress. Imported economic reforms Bentham and Rousseau were translated lowed for the formation of the first opposi- brought with them the same social stresses and began to circulate widely among both tion party, the Liberals, around the turn of western countries faced when they un- wealthy rural circles and the urban elite, the century, which promptly began passing derwent their own industrializations. The giving rise to the Freedom and Popular bills in the lower chamber to remove all concentration of people in the cities rede- Rights movement, which in 1880 gathered remaining restrictions on freedom of asso- fined how social classes interacted with a quarter-million signatures demanding ciation and assembly. The efforts went no- where, however: the upper chamber could see the serious challenges to aristocratic All barriers to associational life were power those measures would posses if al- lowed to snowball and exercised a de facto removed and, in a radical change, the veto over further political reform through hereditary status system was abolished legislation.8 These reforms and others, which can be and all Japanese became equal before seen as incremental steps in the process of the law. democratization, were able to take root in Japanese society for a variety of reasons. First, notions such as parliaments, and each other and a public sphere indepen- the creation of a national assembly.6 freedoms of association and assembly of- dent of the state began to develop, contain- Japanese elites had difficulty separating fered both prescriptive concreteness and ing new social groupings with their own out western industrialization from the lib- plausibility; newly minted Japanese liber- preferences. Japanese oligarchs inadver- eral norms with which it tended to come als traveled to the West and saw that the tently fed this growth by importing liberal packaged. Where they saw the physical ideas were more than just theory, they social and legal norms, assuming them means needed to challenge western pre- could work in practice, and all that was re- to be a core part of the Western recipe for eminence, growing business interests saw quired was a clear-cut set of rules. Second, success. All barriers to associational life parliamentary political processes which ordinary Japanese were increasingly liter- were removed and, in a radical change, could allow their voices to be heard in rul- ate, and the advent of newspapers offered a the hereditary status system was abolished ing circles, and a burgeoning labor move- means for rapidly transmitting new ideas and all Japanese became equal before the ment saw the possibility of unionization as across society. Third, the basic content of law. Commercial societies, educational a counterweight to the squalid conditions these reforms was universalist—ideas such academies, and common interest groups in factories and cities. The Meiji constitu- as individual liberty made no pretense of cropped up and began to give at least the tion, crafted by imperial advisers and en- being solely for Western peoples. well-to-do strata of society a social iden- acted by the Emperor in 1889 as a “gift to From 1889 to the end of the Meiji era in tity which was no longer tied up in the the people,” was a response to this growing 1912, Japan could reasonably fit into Hale’s old feudal structures. Newspapers, which pressure, despite the concept of a state conceptualization of a “hybrid regime,” had never developed under the Tokugawa organized by a written constitution being one which is neither fully authoritarian regime, exploded, and by 1889 there were itself a Western concept. The constitution nor democratic, but is relatively stable.9 647 in print, 164 of which covered current gave in to bourgeois demands for represen- While a parliament with an active opposi- events, including, critically, politics. De- tation in government by creating the Diet tion existed, important decisions were still bating societies sprang up, the most prom- (parliament) in which outsiders could gain made at the executive and cabinet levels. inent of which, the Meirokusha (Sixth Year seats and be heard, while still reserving the Moreover, participation in the democratic of Meiji Society), counted among its mem- bulk of decision making authority for the process was reserved for just a small sub- bers civil servants as well as members of Emperor and his cabinet.7 Moreover, the set of the population, only a few hundred the growing urban civil society and pub- Diet was divided into two chambers, only thousand citizens out of tens of millions.10 lished a periodical widely read by the intel- one of which was filled via elections (by a To the extent that there was real political ligentsia. One result of the elite’s newfound small subset of wealthy males). The other competition, it was confined to infight-

19 ing among elites and was not sufficient to Rice Riots of 1918 became increasingly is strengthened vis-a-vis the associational warrant classifying Japan as democratic; common in the 1920s, the government be- is directly linked to the level of demands however, given the open presence of liberal gan to crack down and impose ever stricter placed on the state to defend the integrity ideas in the public discourse of the time, controls on society.11 of the country. The more frequently the it would also be inaccurate to describe the Mark Pietrzyk, summarizing Otto state is at war, the more likely it is to be- regime as purely authoritarian. It was a Hintze, presents an applicable model for come centralized, militarized and coercive hybrid system and a relatively long-lived understanding this period of Japanese in its character. one at that. democratization.12 The model explains the This model fits Taisho Japan well. Dur- process of democratization as a struggle ing the Meiji Restoration and the early Taisho Democracy And Its Rever- between authoritarian and associational part of the twentieth century Japan had sal principles of organization, where the remained relatively at peace with its neigh- The period 1918-31, known as the Taisho former governs the military realm and bors (with the exception of the conflicts Democracy, marked Japan’s most robust the latter civil society relationships. “An noted above). As a consequence, domestic democratic experiment prior to the post- executive authority and a supporting forces unleashed by modernization and war Occupation. Industrialization had military-security bureaucracy are cre- the diffusion of liberal western ideas were spawned a growing labor movement which ated by society for purposes of successful given room to take root and began push- pressed its demands for rights and reform war-making. The executive authority must ing the government to democratize. Over through the Diet, and a growing popula- of necessity employ hierarchical and co- time, however, the pendulum began to tion, itself a byproduct of modernization, ercive methods in order to mobilize and swing the other direction. required immense resources to sustain. lead for war…,” writes Pietrzk. “At the As a country with very little arable land, same time, members of society may have The Development Of The State minerals, and other raw materials, Japan relations with each other with minimal The origins of the Japanese state as it exists increasingly had to look beyond its bor- intervention by the state.”13 According to today can be traced back to the late Meiji ders for critical resources and began to Pietrzk, a country can only move towards era, the end of the nineteenth century, and come into conflict with its better-endowed democracy if the associational principle of are best understood through the lens of neighbors. Wars against China (1894-5) organization is predominant in its social Porter’s War and the Rise of the Nation- State.14 Japan’s modernization can be seen as an induced response to the threat of Japan’s modernization can be seen as an western power, and the organization of the modern state was a parallel develop- induced response to the threat of western ment. According to Porter, we should power, and the organization of the modern expect to see countries go through roughly three phases in response to the threat of state was a parallel development. war.15 First, a kind of “proto-nationalism” takes hold, causing previously disparate and Russia (1904-5), coupled with the an- relations. Internal conditions, such as the groups within the nation to begin to see nexation of Korea (1910) placed tremen- presence and credibility of democratic themselves as part of a larger, unified pol- dous demands on industrial production ideas, the intensity of national unity, level ity. They begin to form a distinct national and imposed harsh conditions on the of economic development, the presence of identity to contrast themselves with their working class, but also began to change an independent bourgeoisie, a large middle potential enemies. The state begins to take the character of the state itself. By neces- class, or previous experience with democ- on a modern form in response to demands sity the state had to become more authori- racy have all been shown to strengthen for the institutions and bureaucracy re- tarian in its organization, and this mili- associational ties and pave the way for de- quired to wage war on a large scale. Sec- tarism spilt out into the domestic arena. mocratization. Pietrzyk argues, however, ond, military service (required or volun- Organized labor posed a threat to the that the critical permissive condition is an tary) integrates geographically dispersed state’s war making capacity, particularly external one: a country can only democra- members of society and further reinforces when its strikes and protests disrupted tize if it is at peace with its neighbors. The nationalist sentiment. In many cases there production, so as events like the massive extent to which the authoritarian principle is a call to serve a higher purpose, such as

20 the lehigh review the French Revolution’s cry for Liberté, influence. With virtually no contact with the West. For a time, this emerging state égalité, fraternité. In Porter’s final phase, the outside world, there was no need to was able to both gather authority in the nationalism boils over into aggression create the level of government bureaucracy central government even as it let some of it and the phenomenon of Total War takes required to field a modern army. Once it go into the hands of parliament, especially hold.16 This model goes a long way towards became evident that without thorough in the Taisho era. As the organizational explaining the development of the heavily modernization the country would soon be pressure of waging Total War abroad grew, centralized Japanese government which overrun by the West, the elites who came however, the state came to dominate both eventually planted the seeds of its own de- to power in 1868 embarked on the task the economy and civil society and an ero- mise in the 1930s. of creating a state capable of meeting the sion of democracy took place up through Prior to the Meiji Restoration, the challenge. Throughout the Meiji period the the 1945 surrender. Tokugawa regime was remarkably stable new state solidified, tying the once dispa- Smith provides one framework for and ran Japan by devolving most respon- rate fiefs together into a Japan with a single understanding the driver of this Japa- sibilities to the feudal lords under its national identity in opposition to that of nese expansionism when he describes

Hands, Tom McMurtrie

21 the economic order that emerged during bark on a war of conquest and accomplish liberals, socialists, and communists who the 1930s as neomercantalist. The giant that goal reform and democratization.19 opposed the ascendance of authoritarian- industrial and financial conglomerates The American initiatives in the early phase ism in the 1930s. Lack of historical insight (zaibatsu) which evolved as Japan indus- of the Occupation can be seen as direct notwithstanding, however, McArthur and trialized became increasingly interwoven intellectual descendents of Wilsonianism his circle were confident on the basics of with the state and relied on it to open up coupled with New Deal era pragmatism. what they thought had to be done to pro- foreign markets. The impressive economic At the core of Wilsonian theory is the duce enduring democracy: every person performance of this arrangement provided proposition that the most legitimate gov- who ran or profited from the war was to a way for the conservative ruling elite to ernments in the eyes of both domestic and be purged from public life and the societal interests which had pushed for expansion in the first place were to be eliminated. The Reformers in the occupation believed Occupation assumed that as long as these actors and interests existed, democracy that if they could bring Japan into the had little chance of taking hold in the long democratic club it would not only make the run. First and foremost, blame for the war region more secure but would be a noble fell on the military, and a series of tribu- thing unto itself. nals were convened as soon as the war ended. These trials were an integral part of the demilitarization of Japanese society. As claim legitimacy, even as it defended “what international audiences are those which the Americans saw it, they removed, quite appeared to be an increasingly autarchic derive their authority from the consent literally, the most egregious offenders from domestic economy.”17 Domestic liberals, of the governed. An international order the social equation. When the victor’s while they gained a measure of decision comprised of such democratic states and justice was said and done, 5,700 so-called making power via the parliament through- supported by a liberal economic regime, Class B/C “war criminals,” a new term at out the Taisho era were too weakly orga- collective security, and mutual respect for the time, were indicted, of whom roughly nized to effectively shape public opinion or the self-determination of peoples will be 920 were executed and 475 received life balance against the overwhelming influ- inherently peaceful. In such an order, any sentences.22 Of the top-level Class A crimi- ence of the state and military in domestic state which violates the sovereignty of an- nals sentenced in the Tokyo trial (widely politics. Despite their inability to pull the other necessarily commits an illegitimate, regarded as a showcase, despite meticulous country back from the warpath, however, economically damaging, and militarily attention to procedural detail on part of the liberals were hardly a fringe voice and foolish act.20 Reformers in the occupation the prosecution), seven were hanged, six- openly criticized the conservative ruling believed that if they could bring Japan teen imprisoned for life, and five died in establishment. Smith notes that as late as into the democratic club it would not only prison; however, many more were either 1936, one party received a plurality of the make the region more secure but would be paroled, or later granted clemency after vote campaigning on the slogan, “Will it a noble thing unto itself. the occupation ended.23 In addition to be parliamentary democracy or fascism?”18 The idea of democratizing Japan from purging most of the top military and civil- without, while idealistic, was not an ut- ian leadership, the Occupation eliminated The Initial Phase Of Occupation terly far-fetched proposition. As discussed the basic war material of the armed forces, With its defeat and unconditional surren- above, the country had at least modest destroying munitions, planes, tanks, and der in the fall of 1945, Japan offered itself prior experience with democracy, a fact weapons on a huge scale.24 up to the mercy of its American occupiers. which seems to have eluded the many Second on the American reform agenda What followed was one of the most auda- contemporary American “experts” on the was the economy. The landlord class, cious attempts at societal transformation Japan who were skeptical of the Occupa- which had been a key constituency aligned ever made by a victor in war. The Ameri- tion’s enterprise.21 Democracy in the inter- with the old regime, was explicitly targeted can Occupation forces under General war years served as an important histori- through an “agrarian land reform” policy McArthur were explicit in their goal: pac- cal reference point for domestic Japanese and within a few years had been almost ify Japan so that it would never again em- actors, some of whom included the very entirely disposed of its holdings, creating

22 the lehigh review a huge class of small farmers on its former the immense number of zaibatsu origi- franchise to include all men and women, estates which were presumed be more nally targeted for breakup actually ended established a clearly defined bicameral receptive to democratic governance.25 up being disintegrated.28 parliament which appointed the prime In addition, a policy of “deconcentra- Conspicuously absent from the Ameri- minister, and wrote into law a renuncia- tion” was targeted at the family-owned can reform agenda was the Japanese state tion of Japan’s sovereign right to wage war zaibatsu holding companies, which the itself, specifically the bureaucracy. Since (the world-unique Article 9). The only ves- Americans regarded as war profiteers the Meiji era the central bureaucracy had tige of the Meiji constitution of 1889 was and a primary interest group opposed to played a major role in Japanese life, man- the Emperor himself, who was relegated democratization. By the end of the war, aging everything from near-universal to a ceremonial role in the state. Despite the top ten zaibatsu had gained control education, to infrastructure, to economic much backroom protest debate from the of almost half the capital in the mining, planning. By the time of the American highest officials of the nominal Japanese machinery, shipbuilding and chemical occupation, it was an interest group unto government, the constitution was translat- industries; half of the capital in the bank- itself and could reasonably have been ac- ed into Japanese virtually verbatim from ing sector; and sixty percent of both the cused of helping to perpetrate the war. The its original English with only a few minor insurance and shipping industries.26 These Occupation forces, however, one did not amendments permitted.30 With the formal industrial-political elites had every reason conceptualize the bureaucracy as an actor adoption of the constitution in 1947, Ja- to be actively opposed to democratization in society. Working from an American pan, at least on paper, transitioned to full in the aftermath of the war. The political administrative tradition predicated on democracy. freedoms of speech, and assembly the Oc- the ideal of purely technical, command cupation put in place immediately granted and control systems of management, U.S. The Occupation’s “Reverse immense legitimacy and political cover to personal had no basis in experience for Course” the conglomerates’ domestic opponents: a understanding the central role and initia- An important theoretical lens through unionization movement, radical and mod- tive the bureaucracy had taken in Japan’s which to view the Occupation, both in its erate socialist parties, and, most threaten- earlier development. Rather, they saw it as initial and later phase, lies in the transi- ing, a newly-legal and resurgent Japanese a tool wielded by other interests, such as tions framework presented by O’Donnell Communist Party. All three had origins the emperor, military, zaibatsu, and now and Schmitter. In their model, one com- dating back to the era of Taisho Democ- the occupiers. By the time Japan formally mon route to democracy lies through racy and were either actively supported by regained its sovereignty after the Occu- defeat in an international conflict followed by occupation by a country which is itself a political democracy. A factor which en- With the formal adoption of the constitution hances the odds of a successful transition is the presence of what they refer to as a in 1947, Japan, at least on paper, “preauthoritarian legacy,” meaning the transitioned to full democracy. remnants of old institutions, political par- ties, civil society groups, and others who can help revive a prior political system. the American reformers, as was the case pation, the bureaucracy had grown sub- Factors which push against a successful with the labor movement, or were at least stantially in relative power vis-à-vis other transition to democracy include interest not initially seen as a threat in the case of domestic groups and was set to regain its groups willing to launch coups against a the latter two.27 Over time, however, the guiding role in society.29 new government, and existence of past tolerance of the Americans for the radical- The crowning achievement of the Oc- “scores to settle” between competing fac- ism of these movements grew thin, a point cupation was without a doubt the newly tions.31 O’Donnell and Schmitter cite other to be returned to below, and for a variety drafted Japanese constitution. Written by possible countervailing factors, but those of other reasons a cozier relationship de- McArthur and a close circle of advisors, shed less light on the Japanese case than veloped between the occupying forces, the it included virtually every democratic the ones mentioned. Critical, however, is zaibatsu, and the remnants of the conser- safeguard and political freedom ever their conceptualization of “pact-making” vative political establishment. By the time conceived of in the West. Among many among interest groups jockeying for posi- the Occupation ended, only a handful of things, the constitution expanded the tion during an uncertain transition.32

23 Bridge, Tom McMurtrie

As discussed above, immediately upon country would be forced to democratize States began to push aside Wilsonian the arrival of the occupiers Japan’s preau- was anyone’s guess, it became clear to aspirations for the dawn of a peaceful, thoritarian legacy was revived by leftist so- most actors early on that the political sys- democratic era in East Asia. For a number cial and labor movements eager to exercise tem was opening up. With conservatives in of reasons, the Occupation embarked on a long repressed political voices and push all areas (political, military, economic) in “reverse course,” drastically scaling down for representation. With the U.S. pushing a retreat and revived preauthoritarian, pro- the economic “deconcentration” program democratization agenda and actively gut- democratic groups in the wings, Japan’s which was set to break up the zaibatsu ting the military complex, there was little democratic consolidation seemed all but en masse and backpedaling on politi- to stand in their way. Japan faced a some- certain in the Occupation’s early years. cal liberties. First, influential American what unique situation in that there was not By 1948, however, the situation was policymakers, notably Under Secretary of the slightest chance of an anti-democratic beginning to change. The breakdown of the Army William H. Draper, Jr., began to coup taking place on the Americans’ the victorious alliance and the emergence question the wisdom of tearing down Ja- watch, so while the extent to which the of the Soviet Union as a rival to the United pan’s industrial economy and war-making

24 the lehigh review capacity in the face of the mounting Soviet reform for an industrialized, if cartelized, political liberties in the interwar years be- threat. The U.S. was not only spending Japan capable of anchoring East Asian se- ing major milestones. The pressures of war massive quantities of money aiding Japan curity; second, the Occupation authorities forged the efficient, bureaucratized state while simultaneously threatening its core quietly allowed the rehabilitation of the still present today, while at the same time industries with dismemberment, but was old-guard conservative politicians in ex- producing a backslide into totalitarian- suddenly finding itself in need of a strong change for the assurance that Japan would ism in the 1930s as the democracy’s key East Asian bulwark against communism. not succumb to domestic social move- permissive condition, peace, was removed. Second, the outbreak of the Korean war ments and drift into the communist bloc. The American Occupation explicitly en- abruptly created enormous demand for The end result was Japan which democ- gaged in a democratization process and Japanese industrial goods, at once infusing ratized only part way, retaining a sound, was quite successful, but the realities of cash into the zaibatsu and making them liberal constitution up to the present, but real politick at the dawn of the Cold War a lynchpin in the American war effort.33 never developing the kind of robust politi- necessitated a return of sovereignty to Finally, on the domestic front, ongoing cal competition characterized by frequent some of the very actors responsible for demonstrations and strikes (reminiscent turnovers of power. Up until the 1990s, a the horrors of World War II. Japan today, of Japan’s experience during World War single conservative party, the Democratic while certainly worthy of being called a I) by unions and leftists of all stripes, Party of Japan (DPJ) was in government democracy, possesses a political system including communist, pressured by the continuously. It would not be an exaggera- characterized by polyarchy and a clear lack slow pace of the post-war recovery prior to tion to say, then, that perhaps the most of institutionalized political competition. the Korean conflict, began act more mili- enduring Occupation legacy in Japan is tantly and draw the ire of the authorities. that of polyarchy; a small political and A cycle ensued, wherein each new level of economic elite cycles its members through radicalism on the left further alienated the power continuously within the confines of Americans, who then cranked up repres- an otherwise thoroughly liberal constitu- sion and became more sympathetic to the tion. remaining civilian old guard.34 As the Occupation wore on in these Conclusion later years, the Americans began to be- Japan’s modern experience with democ-

Japan today, while certainly worthy of being called a democracy, possesses a political system characterized by polyarchy and a clear lack of institutionalized political competition. have increasingly like just another interest racy has been defined at all stages by the group in the country. Yes, ultimate deci- country’s relationship with external forces. sion making power still rested at the point From its initial opening at the point of a of their guns, but the desire to extricate gun in the mid-nineteenth century, to its themselves from running the country put induced “revolution from above” in the them in the position of having to cut deals Meiji era, Japan was playing catch up to (make pacts) with other actors that would the West. As it modernized and domestic have been inconceivable in 1945. The final forces began to push for democracy, the arrangements can be characterized suc- old order started to slowly erode, with the cinctly: first, the U.S. traded economic Meiji Constitution, and the expansion of

25 26 The United States is suffering a crisis that is unavoidable under the current system. When two thirds of released prisoners return to prison within three years, the criminal justice system must be questioned. This paper examines crucial components of the problem, including: the ideology behind imprisonment; biological factors of criminals; the fallacy of trusted evidence; corruption amongst those in charge; and the role of lawyers. Clearly, the United FLAWED States criminal justice system contains inherent flaws and BY DESIGN is in dire need of radical restructuring. by Erika Peters

Lady in the Attic (1) (detail) Kenny Barry

27 “[J]ustice miscarries everyday, by dren are left without parent-figures or deemed just. It is arguably more just to use doing precisely what we ask it to.” 1 role models, and the remaining parents our resources to rehabilitate those in need, struggle alone. Massive imprisonment is transforming them into upstanding and sk a resident of white sub- causing more problems in the long run.5 active citizens in the community, prevent- urbia if the United States But once punishment is administered, will ing further crime, and benefitting a greater Criminal Justice System is a criminal forever be discouraged and number of people. Yet, the criminal justice fair and righteous. More cured? According to recidivism statistics, system is told to punish and so it does. likely than not, sixty-six percent of released prisoners Another dysfunction within the United As/he will commend the integrity of the sys- find themselves behind bars within three States Criminal Justice System which tem. Ask one of the 1,613,740 Americans years.6 This establishes that incarceration prohibits true justice from being served incarcerated in a federal or state prison is not fulfilling its goal to cure criminals. involves the usage of evidence and the the same question and you are bound to In addition to the anguish caused by the portrayal of speculation as irrefutable elicit a contradictory response.2 These are prison environment, a large amount of fact. We live in a modern society where the individuals that serve on the other side, criminals suffer from previously existing we are taught that science is truth. Any- as subordinates of the acclaimed system. psychological disorders that may have at- thing that can be observed, proved in a Some will tell you they are innocent, they tributed to their convicted offence. Studies lab, viewed with a microscope, solved with are mistakenly there and the wrong per- support this, as “neuroscience is showing an equation or supported by a myriad son has been convicted. Others will argue us that a great many crimes are committed of experiments and scholars is scientific their case is special, that the court over- out of compulsion—the offenders couldn’t and indisputable. Therefore, if scientific looked their unique circumstances and help it.”7 If criminals are impaired by evidence is presented in court, the truth is that there are better alternatives to prison. biological factors out of their control, they revealed and the jury has an easy decision Finally, an enlightened few will indicate need medical and remedial therapy that to make: an observation cannot be false, that by its very nature, the system creates alleviates their symptoms and prevents a fingerprint cannot be denied, and DNA a unilateral trajectory towards injustice. future occurrences of crime. Transferring cannot be argued. With this evidence, the Through this perspective, the United criminals in and out of prison is simply system has provided a guaranteed method States Criminal Justice System is flawed by futile compared to rehabilitation. This for evaluating a case and promoting design and fundamentally miscarries jus- proactive involvement can also be applied justice. However, lineups are vastly inac- tice, to varying degrees, on a regular basis. to those prisoners not suffering defined curate, fingerprints are subject to human A key imperfection of the criminal jus- medical conditions, but who have evident error, and there is no such thing as a DNA tice system is the value it places on a punishment-oriented ideology over that of prevention and rehabilitation. The system Through this perspective, the United does not seek to aid criminals in self- improvement nor assist them in becoming States Criminal Justice System is flawed more lawful citizens; it merely operates by design and fundamentally miscarries as a means of “deterrence and incapaci- tation.”3 This current approach asserts justice, to varying degrees, on a that the cure for crime is to “increase the regular basis. costs of criminal activity” in an effort to dissuade illegal behavior.4 Therefore, the threat of punishment is viewed as the sole behavioral problems. Those in the crimi- “match.” We ask the system to provide us means to control human conduct. While nal justice system should examine the with evidence, and it does. However, evi- detained in over-capacitated prison sys- criminals more closely. They should learn dence is not infallible. tems, many inmates report sexual assault who they are as people, find out why they Eyewitness accounts, at first thought, seem and irreparable emotional damage that do what they do, “instead of always just like an honest mode to arrive at a conclu- ultimately causes violent and antisocial locking ’em up.”8 But instead, America sion. If an eyewitness claims they are one behavior upon reentry to society. In this takes a fervent stance to be tough on hundred percent positive they know what process families are also affected, as chil- crime; and in our current system, that is they saw, a jury should be inclined to

28 the lehigh review believe them. After all, if they are certain evidence linking to a particular crime. The from their vocabulary and instead de- they know what they saw and they trust dogma of this previously regarded “unas- scribe a more accurate analysis, such as their own vision, what is not to believe? sailable symbol of truth” was in question “similar” or “could have come from” or “is Most people, especially eyewitnesses, when twenty percent of agencies in the associated with.”13 It is more precise to would be surprised to discover the inac- United States failed to identify prints cor- eliminate suspects based on DNA than it curacy of these identifications. The case rectly during an F.B.I. study.12 That being is to claim a fragment of a hair belonged of Ronald Cotton serves as an illustrative true, it is slightly alarming that finger- to individual using nuclear DNA. But even example of an eyewitness account leading prints conclusively incriminate a suspect as technology refines and develops in the to the conviction of an innocent man. Jen- on the basis of being fact. forensic labs, it is being distorted in the nifer Thomas-Cannino told the jury that Yet another form of evidence that is also criminal justice system. Lawyers tamper during her half-hour long rape she “made widely misperceived is DNA. People are with and modify evidence to serve their a very concentrated effort to pay attention led to believe that DNA is sacred in re- best interests. DNA results have been over- to the facial features” and anything else gards to proving guilt or innocence when stated in strength and frequency, omit- she could bring forth to police, pend- this is not necessarily the case. Prosecu- ted if they conflicted, tested minimally, ing her survival.9 Even with her extreme tors like to speak of a match that ties the reported as conclusive when inconclusive devotion to memorizing the appearance defendant to the crime and automatically and blatantly altered.14 Of course, this is of her attacker, she suffered from mental proposes a guilty verdict. In fact, forensic all hidden from the jury, who is only told contamination after viewing multiple sus- scientists have omitted the word match there is a match and is utterly unaware pects. Her story is not uncommon. Recent studies have recognized the unreliability Graffiti, Gina Mason of these accounts, as demonstrated in an experiment in which only fifty-four per- cent of witnesses correctly identified the perpetrator in a staged lineup.10 What if the real perpetrator is missing from the lineup? Witnesses often believe that the perpetrator is there, and so they must select someone. Realistically, a lineup is not a multiple-choice question, and the true criminal may be absent. In another staged lineup experiment, this time devoid of the perpetrator, sixty-eight percent still chose a suspect. Yet witnesses who were incorrect in their selections were just as confident as those who identified the correct suspect, and jurors believe both groups equally.11 The implications this has on the criminal justice system are massive. Eyewitness identifications, though presented as fact, are largely vul- nerable to errors and contamination and should consequently not be considered solid proof in a trial. The role of fingerprints as evidence should also be viewed with a similar caution. Fin- gerprints are analyzed with human eyes to determine if there is a fit between the fingerprints of a suspect and those left on

29 Lady in the Attic (2), Kenny Barry

30 the lehigh review of any other possibility. Jurors need to be where both sides are in active pursuit of defendants feel hopeless about winning a educated on the dependability of their evi- the truth, the fight theory system is in pur- trial and usually settle on a plea bargain dence so they are not easily swayed by law- suit of victory. The lawyers’ loyalties are to avoid a more severe punishment. These yers. We demand that the criminal justice not to justice and truth but rather to their poverty-stricken individuals are at a great system provides the jury with evidence in client for whom they must advocate zeal- disadvantage in the system. Their repre- order to make an informed decision. No ously. Lawyers following the fight theory sentation in court is unfair because of the one can accuse the system of depriving the may purposely confuse the opposition’s way the system is set up; there is evidently jury of evidence; however, their means of witnesses and make them seem hostile or a need for more public defenders. Perhaps extracting, manipulating and presenting unfavorable, and they may also refuse to once this is achieved the playing field will evidence to an uninformed jury can be allow evidence in that does not support become somewhat more level and justice accused of impeding justice. their claim.17 Lawyers will attempt to por- will miscarry a great deal less. It can be reasoned that the structure of the tray their client as worthy of sympathy by Once you begin to question whether United States Criminal Justice System is creating a completely false image. “Honest or not the United States Criminal Justice fundamentally flawed and inherently un- Abe” Dennison exemplified this tendency System is fair and righteous, continue to just. Police officers are given the mission to rouse compassion by planting a bus ask more questions. Take your pick of over to protect and serve the citizens in their ticket stub in the pocket of his Mercedes- 1.6 million incarcerated Americans and community, but certainly not all citizens owning defendant.18 Fight theory has ask what their life has been like thus far. feel this obligation is being met. Police become dangerously excessive in sabotage Was s/he a victim of a horrible childhood? officers are given authority, which for and manipulation, corrupting an ideally How many times has s/he been locked up? some leads to a sense of entitlement and just system. However, the lawyers are act- Where is his/her family now? Have those false belief that they are above the law. In ing in accordance with their roles—their in charge treated him/her harshly? Did s/ a Cook County study conducted in 1987, purpose is to win cases. he have a fair trial? Did his/her defense ninety-two percent of judges, prosecu- We do ask our criminal justice system to council even care? These are questions tors, and public defenders claimed officers provide an attorney to those who cannot the majority of white suburbia could not lie at least some of the time.15 Along with afford one. This demand, too, causes injus- answer because despite their perspective verbal immoralities, police officer coercion tices within the system. Those who need a of the system, they have never been at the has been known to take place. Criminal suspects at Area 2 in Chicago describe be- ing bagged, electroshocked and repeatedly No one can accuse the system of depriving beaten by members of the police depart- ment seeking confessions.16 Police officers the jury of evidence; however, their means are not necessarily intrinsically bad people, of extracting, manipulating and presenting but their authoritarian role within the system can evoke abusive, insensitive, and evidence to an uninformed jury can be cruel traits towards the prisoners. The accused of impeding justice. Stanford Prison Experiment exhibited this phenomenon in 1971 so extremely that it was called off before it was even halfway state-appointed Counsel are usually stuck mercy of the system. They believe in the completed. What was true in that con- with whomever they receive: “they are American doctrine that you are innocent trolled environment decades ago remains unable to buy their way out of trouble.”19 until proven guilty and that liberty and applicable. Officers meant to protect, serve Unfortunately, public defenders often have justice are truly available for all. But those and carry out justice can actually be detri- an exorbitant amount of cases at one time that have been on the other side of the mental for justice. (as many as one hundred) and can there- United States Criminal Justice System Lawyers are also asked to carry out justice, fore not devote as much of themselves to have seen the internal flaws. The system but in an adversary court system known each case as they would like.20 They have is engineered to produce inequalities and to follow the fight theory this goal may minimal time to become acclimated with injustices that are inescapable for some; be unrealistic. Unlike a criminal justice each client and construct a strong per- the United States Criminal Justice System system that functions under a truth theory, sonal defense. As a consequence, many is flawed by design.

31

UNDERSTANDING THE RESOURCE

CURSE: Countries rich in natural resources often suffer from the “resource curse”: negative effects that Why Some Get More high reserves of these resources have on economic, Sick Than Others political and social institutions. Although richness by Karen Timmerman in oil is presumed to bring national prosperity, at times it is detrimental to the country due to corruption and overdependence on petroleum revenues. This study seeks to understand how some countries manage this curse better than others by examining the varied experiences of three of the world’s largest oil-exporting countries: Venezuela, Nigeria and Kazakhstan.

Tire Gina Mason 33 “Ten years from now, twenty years wish to compare the impact of oil revenue to 87.4 million barrels a day, with the most from now, you will see: oil will dependence on each country’s economy rapid of growth occurring in developing and social and political institutions, and countries.4 The reliance on fuel of nations bring us ruin…Oil is the Devil’s I will attempt to explain the differences such as China and India to connect their excrement.” in both the severity and causes of the re- emerging markets around the world will source curse in each case. I will also pres- only increase in the years to come, putting he Venezuelan co-creator ent the steps that each country has taken, pressure on oil exporters to meet this de- of OPEC, Juan Pablo Pérez if any, in an effort to reduce and reverse mand without succumbing to the paradox Alfonzo made this statement the consequences of their overdependence of plenty. at a time when Venezuela’s on the substance that makes the world go The resource curse has several different economy was booming and round. causes and effects that each contribute in Tthe revenues were flowing in due to the different ways to the growing dependence high oil prices of 1973, and so his com- The Resource Curse on oil rents, which cause poor economic ment seemed out of place. Before analyzing its effects, the resource growth and decreases efficiency of social However, Alfonzo had made a star- curse must be defined. The increased and political institutions. The explana- tlingly accurate prediction for the future; reliance on revenues from oil exports by tions include the change in the role of the in the many decades since the first discov- countries that suffer from this paradox of government towards the market, especial- ery of oil in Titusville, Pennsylvania, to plenty is harming their economies and ly after nationalizing part or the whole of where so many had rushed for the chance populations so much that, if not checked, their oil industry and the increasing power at profiting from this new lucrative busi- it could ultimately lead to civil strife and of elites and interest groups who use the ness, the world has seen the economies war. I shall characterize the resource curse oil rents to keep their positions. These and institutions of some major oil-export- using the explanations posited by Terry changes have a number of negative effects ing countries falter and fail because of Lynn Karl, one of the forefront scholars on such as the distorted economic growth an increasing reliance on oil revenues to the idea of the paradox of plenty. She de- characterized by Dutch Disease and the run the nation. This inverse relationship fines the resource curse as the “inverse re- increasing difference in economic income between dependence on natural resource lationship between high natural resource that forces a majority of the population exports and the economic growth rate of dependence and economic growth rate.”2 into poverty. a region is known by many names, includ- In addition to examining the economics The first explanation of the resource ing the paradox of plenty, the “devil’s ex- of the resource curse, Lynn also focuses curse is the change in the role of the state crement,” and the resource curse.1 Though on the “social and political relations aris- towards the market. Revenues from oil its impacts can be devastating on the econ- ing from [the] utilization [of oil].”3 The exports are received by the state in the omies and livelihoods of oil-exporting immense wealth that oil exploitation can form of royalties and rents from foreign nations, the resource curse does not affect bring may cause the political and social companies or taxes and profits from every oil-producing country in the world. institutional structures to change in a way state-owned companies. These revenues There have been many countries through- that negatively affects the economy. The give the state less incentive to establish a out history, such as Australia and Norway, focus of this paper is on the export of the system of taxation on their people, taking who depend on the export of single-point point source nonrenewable natural re- away some accountability for government natural resources such as oil for revenues source that is oil: a black, sticky substance spending. Because the state is receiving its but have not been afflicted by the negative that went from being used as a lubricant, money directly from the oil trade, it does consequences of the resource curse. In a light source and even as a weapon in not feel the need to show budget transpar- this paper I shall examine the resource medieval wars to the liquid that has ency for the general population, as the curse and the impact it has had on three pushed globalization to a new level and money belongs to the state, which leaves of the world’s largest petroleum exporters: has opened up a vast world economy. In more room for corrupt spending. In order Venezuela, Nigeria and Kazakhstan. These an age where the demand for oil is grow- to pacify the people, the government will three nations, each the largest petroleum ing every day, large oil reserves are seen as embark on massive infrastructure projects exporter within its region, suffer from this enormous assets for the countries they are and increase social welfare, relying on oil resource curse to some extent but with found in. In 2011 global consumption had rents to fund everything. vastly different causes and consequences. I increased the most since 2004, up by 3.1% The elites and interest groups who are

34 the lehigh review in control will also use oil rents to rein- the development of other sectors of the and the increase in productivity can lead force their place in society in order to reap economy. Countries that once depended to innovation for the future. By contrast, the benefits. The state begins to exhibit upon agriculture for a large percentage of in a high rent model the profits from oil rent-seeking behavior in order to maintain their exports may suddenly find it cheaper exploitation are received and dispersed of the status quo of the regime and to accrue to import their food from another country. in large amounts very quickly in order to the short-term benefits of oil exploitation. The government may place subsidies and gain maximum short-term benefits. The This increased reliance on oil rents to fund taxes on these industries in a protectionist money is spent in frivolous and corrupt projects and fuel corruption can have attempt, but this merely serves to continue ways on costly projects and to keep the disastrous effects on a state’s economy, to decrease competitiveness and also plac- elites in the political power positions they hold. With the oil industry as capital and technologically intensive as it is, few jobs In an age where the demand for oil is are created, and poor funding for educa- tional systems leaves a population of rural growing every day, large oil reserves are laborers watching the distance between seen as enormous assets for the countries high and low income increase as foreign workers are hired by oil companies and they are found in. education is completed in foreign coun- tries. The rent-seeking sector, by making especially with the world’s fluctuating oil es an additional burden on the oil sector poor investments and not bothering to prices. to provide funds for these policies. If not correctly jumpstart the economy “cor- Due to events and wars occurring reversed, Dutch disease can become per- rodes the viability of the primary sector throughout the world, oil prices can be petuating, “provok[ing] a rapid, even dis- upon which it increasingly depends.”7 In very volatile at times, with the West Texas torted, growth of services, transportation, addition, a government may also invest Intermediate price for a barrel rising from and other non-tradeables while simultane- little back into research and innovation in $41.51 in 2004 to $99.67 in 2008, and ously discouraging industrialization and the oil industry, over time decreasing pro- then falling back down to $61.95 in 2009.5 agriculture,” which could eventually lead duction levels and efficiency. Oil exporting countries that sometimes the economy to collapse.6 The high level of foreign workers and depend on exports for up to 90% of their In addition to the dominance of oil in low domestic employment is also a result GDP can see great periods of profitability the export sector, rent-seeking behavior of the presence of foreign companies since during booms turn into economic trends causes the income gap to increase and the beginnings of a nation’s oil history. that take a turn for the worse when de- poverty levels to rise due to the capital- Most oil-exporting countries lacked the mand drops and prices fall. A government and education-intensive characteristics technical skill and capital to extract and could set its yearly budget according to of the oil industry. This can be explained refine oil from their fields, and thus out- predicted oil prices, but there is always the through the rent cycling theory. This idea side companies were awarded concessions chance that prices could fall and the previ- compares the differences between the ef- and employed their own workers to ex- ous surplus could turn into a deficit. fects of low and high oil rent revenues. In tract the precious natural resource. When The rent-seeking behavior of the state a low rent model, the incentive to create the oil industry took off, it caused a rise in can also have harmful consequences for wealth is highly prevalent because the gov- the wages of the few employed by the oil the domestic economy. A major result ernment relies less on oil rents to sustain industry which left the rest of the popula- of the social and political institutional itself and thus must invest in growing its tion out of work and watching their na- changes that the resource curse can cause economy by other means. Dutch Disease tion’s resources be controlled by foreigners. is known as “Dutch Disease.” This phe- is not affecting the competitiveness of For these reasons, especially due to poor nomenon is seen when all non-oil exports non-oil and labor-intensive manufactured economic management by the government, are rendered both domestically and inter- goods, and so the government will expand the population of an affected country may nationally non-competitive due to rising these sectors, which in turn increases the become very disgruntled with the way exchange rates. An abundance of natural diversification of the economy and de- oil rents are being spent, and this could resources gives a country easy access to creases income inequality. There will be a lead to increased violence and even war. large revenues and growth, but ignores higher demand for domestic skilled labor As the majority of the population sinks

35 into poverty and the per capita income of sector of Venezuela while neglecting racy,” which she describes as “established the country plummets, a small minority traditional domestic sectors such as the through elite bargains and compromises… reaps the benefits of the nation’s oil fields. agriculture industry. By 1950, agricultural [that] ensure their survival by selectively If the government does not become fully exports comprised of less than one-tenth meeting demands while limiting the scope accountable for their people or provide of the country’s GDP.11 of representation in order to reassure budget and revenue transparency for their In 1943, the Fifty-Fifty Agreement was traditional dominant classes that their financial transactions, the population may pushed for by Venezuela, who wanted to vital interests will be respected.”13 This rise up against the elites in the form of at- see royalties and taxes “raised to the point form of democracy impacted Venezuela’s tacks on individuals and oil infrastructure, at which the government’s take would dependence on petroleum in several ways; terrorism, and even civil wars and coups. about equal the companies’ [Royal Dutch/ rigid political institutions were produced Countries that suffer from an overde- Shell and Jersey] net profits in Venezu- that kept barriers to admittance high, so pendence on oil export revenues will see ela.”12 At the same time, the Hydrocarbons that the elites in power positions could different levels of severity of the resource Act was passed, giving the government continue to keep their place and use oil curse depending on how the country is greater control over oil revenues. This rents for their own purposes. However, run. I shall examine the effects of the re- Act established a new income tax on the large amounts of social spending occurred source curse on the countries of Venezuela, mining industry in order to fund the in order to pacify and provide jobs for Nigeria and Kazakhstan and compare many recently created state agencies. This the working class. This social spending, the three in order to explain the reasons revolutionized oil revenues for the Ven- which includes spending on education, for the variance in the intensity of the re- ezuelan government; rather than handing health, and housing among other sectors, source curse and its effects. out concessions in return for a chunk of increased from 11.4% under Jiménez to the profits the state could now determine a much higher 31.4% of total spending Venezuela how much of a cut it would take, and the in 1973.14 Despite this, by 1973 there was At the end of 2010, Venezuela was the fact that the money came from oil rather much discontent apparent in the popula- largest producer of petroleum in South than from taxing the citizens meant that tion. The political parties and government America and the ninth largest producer in the state could be a bit more secretive with were highly centralized, leaving little the world, with a 15.3% share of the total their spending. The foreign oil companies room for newcomers and limiting repre- proven world reserves.8 This country has went from the ones in control to a posi- sentation, and the economy was balanced had a long history with oil; discovered in tion in which they had to comply with the in the direct of the few wealthy elite. 1914 at the Mene Grande field, the natural national government, lest they risk being In the mid-1950s, the rises in produc- resource was first seen in production for thrown out of the business. For the next tion in the Middle East and import con- export in 1917, with Royal Dutch Shell ten years, Venezuela witnessed a surge trols in the United States led to a flooding and Standard Oil as the major players in in production while at the same time of the markets, and prices plummeted, its extraction and refinement. Oil’s share spent millions of dollars on the import along with Venezuela’s oil revenues. Juan of exports rose dramatically from 1.9% of consumer goods from countries such Pablo Pérez Alfonzo, Venezuela’s Minister to 91.2% between 1920 and 1935 and by as the United States. Pérez Jiménez, who of Mines and Hydrocarbons at the time, 1929 Venezuela was the world’s largest oil ruled Venezuela from 1948 to 1957, used had realized the imminent dangers of exporter.9 In 1926, oil had surpassed the this influx of oil to his advantage. Jiménez the resource curse; he got together with value of coffee and other agricultural com- reduced social expenditures and poured Abdullah al-Tariki of Saudi Arabia and modities to become the most important the oil revenues into projects of his own, founded the Organization of Petroleum export to the Venezuelan economy. This is causing the economy to drop due to un- Exporting Countries in 1960. OPEC was a perfect example of Dutch Disease; with necessary expenditures and overspending. an attempt by the world’s largest oil-ex- oil taking over as the major export, and a Public outrage at his poor fiscal policies porting countries to, through the imposi- lucrative one at that, by 1940 the Venezue- was increasingly mounting as Venezuela tion of export quotas, coordinate policies lan government found it cheaper to import headed towards massive debt. and keep world prices stable in such a their food rather than to rely on their once In 1958, Jimenéz was overthrown in volatile and ever-changing market. strong agricultural sector.10 The apprecia- a coup and Venezuela became a democ- The First Oil Shock in 1973, a result of tion of the bolívar in relation to the U.S. racy. Karl defines the type of democracy the fourth Arab-Israeli War and the Arab dollar encouraged a growth in the import present in Venezuela as a “pacted democ- oil embargo, sent oil prices skyrocketing,

36 the lehigh review increasing Venezuela’s fiscal income per barrel of exported oil from $1.65 to $9.68 between 1972 and 1975. This led to mas- sive increases in government spending.15 When Carlos Andrés Pérez of the Acción Democratica party won Presidency in 1973, he began to implement his plans for La Gran Venezuela, which consisted of income increases and job creation along with a push to diversify exports through the expansion and nationalization of other industries. However, most of the jobs cre- ated were for the national government, which doubled in the first five years of his rule, calling for an increase in petrodol- lars to fund their wages. Pérez also called for the nationalism of the oil industry and succeeded in 1976 when the newly cre- ated state-owned oil company known as Petróleos de Venezuela S.A. (PDVSA) took over concessions of foreign companies.16 At this time in history, Venezuela and the other OPEC and non-OPEC countries were profiting greatly from the high prices of the first oil shock. Carlos Pérez seized this moment to complete his vision of a modern and industrialized Venezuela fueled by the large amounts of incoming oil rents. There was also a rise in wages and new employment opportunities in oil-exporting countries, which increased consumption at a rate of 7% between 1970 and 1979. Despite the expulsion of Backlit, Gina Mason most foreign workers from Venezuela’s oil industry however, only about 37,000 In 1974, the Venezuelan Investment increased to 53% of GNP from 9% as a jobs were provided to the domestic labor Fund was created to accumulate oil result of poor fiscal policies in Perez’s gov- force.17 By the late 1970s, on the eve of the revenue and foreign exchange reserves. ernment.20 The increased revenues of the coming oil glut, the surpluses turned into However, the government also saw the oil booms of the 1970s were used to fund deficits. Spending has grown out of con- fund as a bank for their large public sector social spending and massive infrastruc- trol, and during the 1980s oil glut, a result projects. Although the Fund did accrue a ture projects that had been budgeted poor- of declining consumption due to the high modest amount of income, rather than be- ly and ended up being enormous wastes of prices of the oil shocks and over-quota ing used fully to improve the economy and petrodollars. Wanting to increase spend- production from OPEC countries, prices lives of Venezuela’s citizens, the Fund was ing come election season but faced with a dropped to $13.00 per barrel in 1986 and “an executor of the government’s plans and lack of funds due to debt, the Pérez gov- Venezuela’s oil revenues fell with them, wishes,” meaning that oil was still being ernment relied upon floating debt, which putting Venezuela into massive debt, with used for wasteful projects and corrup- did not have to be recorded in any official “the ratio of debt to GNP reach[ing]… [a] tion.19 manner. This allowed for an augmentation high of 65.3 percent” in 1987.18 Between 1970 and 1994, foreign debt in government spending, for which float-

37 ing loans accounted for $10 billion. These The effects of the resource curse in Ven- cy. However, symptoms of Dutch Disease short-term, high-interest loans, combined ezuela seem to be caused by rent-seeking were beginning to present themselves as with increasing interest rates and a falter- behavior and poor government spending agriculture’s share of GDP dropped form ing economy, catapulted Venezuela’s debt of oil rents. Dutch Disease is rampant, 68% in 1965 to 35% in 1981 while the gov- to 69.7% of GNP by 1989.21 In exchange with the once flourishing agricultural ernment invested heavily in services and for new loans, the Venezuelan government sector taking a back seat to oil exports. Al- manufacturing.24 In addition, government eliminated many non-tariff barriers, cut though the Venezuelan government seems investment in the manufacturing sector subsidies and increased the domestic price to put a lot of revenue into public spending demonstrated a waste of at least two-thirds of petroleum. This caused an uprising by projects, many end up being ineffective of oil revenues, with only 35% of capacity the people of Venezuela, who rioted in and costly. Venezuela’s case of the resource utilization in manufacturing investment the capitol of Caracas in February of 1989. curse needs to be cured before it spins fur- in the mid-1980s.25 Pérez’s plan backfired; wages dropped ther out of control. In 1984 a series of military coups began as unemployment and inflation rose to again, leaving the Nigerian government unprecedented levels, ushering in an at- Nigeria open to much corruption until 1999, when tempted coup in 1992. Nigeria is a country that in this day is free presidential elections led to a victory Hugo Chávez was elected President in filled with poverty, disease and violence for General Olusegun Obasanjo, who was 1998 and three years later passed a series that upon closer inspection can point to committed to eliminating corruption and of laws aimed at strengthening govern- the resource curse as a large factor in these promoting democracy in Nigeria. ment control over PDVSA. This was met negative aspects. The Movement for the Survival of the with a great amount of resistance and Nigeria gained independence from Brit- Ogoni People, led by Nigerian activist Ken in April 2002 PDVSA employee went ain in 1960 and the new government had Saro-Wiwa protested against the govern- on strike, to which Chávez responded the role of unifying a nation that had over ment and Royal Dutch/Shell in the 1990s by firing executives and cleaning house. 250 ethnic and linguistic groups. In 1966 a because of the lack of benefits from oil rev- Production levels decreased and the oil military coup put Colonel Yakubu Gowon enues given to the Ogoni people and the industry was producing at one-third of in power, which caused Christian Ibos in massive environmental damage caused by its normal levels. Violence struck in 2002 the east to declare independence from Ni- oil extraction. In 1992 the Movement de- when an attempted forty-eight-hour coup geria, sparking a civil war in 1967. In 1975, manded over $10 billion in previous royal- occurred, and although Chávez quickly another coup put Army Brig. Muritala ties and damages from Shell, Chevron and came back to power, protests in Miraflores Mohammad in charge and civilian lead- the Nigerian National Petroleum Country as well as rioted in the streets, causing oil production to slow to 10,000 bbl/d as Shell While Nigeria has had the potential to removed all employees from Ogoniland. In 1994, four Ogoni chiefs were murdered drastically improve its economy and living and the Nigerian government placed the situation by taking advantage of revenues blame on Ken Saro-Wiwa and eight oth- ers, executing them in 1995 to the protests from petroleum exports, it instead has of the international community. In 2009, neglected the majority of the people. Shell reached a $15.5 million settlement with the relatives of the Ogoni nine, who claimed that the oil company had aided left nineteen dead and many more injured, ership was put into control in 1979, with and collaborated with the Nigerian gov- and it has since been suspected that pro- Alhaji Shehu Shagari elected as president. ernment in the murder of Saro-Wiwa.26 Chávez forces may be to blame.22 Because of the variation of regimes in such The Movement for the Emancipation The GINI index, which measures income a short time, the economy of Nigeria did of the Niger Delta (MEND) is one of the inequality on a scale of 0 to 100, with 0 not fare well. largest insurgent groups in the area and representing prefect equality, gave Venezu- Into the oil booms of the 1970s and the in 2006 was involved in the kidnapping ela a 41 in 2009, down from 49.5 in 1998, early 1980s, Nigeria enjoyed an improving of foreign oil workers. The group has con- which is still a very negative rating.23 economy and the push for more democra- tinued to kidnap and stage attacks on oil

38 the lehigh review pipelines in order to protest the lack of de- try’s rulers, which is equivalent to the total from the exploitation of the oil fields in velopment and distribution of oil revenues aid sent to Africa in this time period.30 their land. The insurgent groups fighting to the Delta region as well as the immense While Nigeria has had the potential to the government and international oil com- environmental degradation caused by oil drastically improve its economy and living panies only exacerbate the ethical and re- exploitation. A 2007 report by the Coun- situation by taking advantage of revenues ligious tensions in this diverse nation, and cil on Foreign Relations found that “in from petroleum exports, it instead has attacks on pipelines and workers threaten 2003, some 70 percent of oil revenues was neglected the majority of the people. Only oil production. In order to reach optimal stolen or wasted, according to an estimate 36% of the Nigerian population is esti- production in this world of increasing de- by the head of Nigeria’s anticorruption mated to have access to electricity, while mand, the Nigerian government must real- agency.”27 In retaliation, militant groups the rest generate it themselves or live with- ize that their citizens are in desperate need such as MEND engage in kidnapping and out.31 Like Venezuela, Nigeria has no need of a change. This nation can no longer run oil bunkering, in which they tap pipelines for much human capital as the oil industry for the few at the expense of many. and steal crude oil to sell on the market. is very technically intensive. It is ranked The group insists that the government give 91st in Newsweek’s study of the World’s Kazakhstan 50% of the oil revenues from the Niger Best Countries, with a dismal grade of Unlike the previous two countries, Ka- Delta back to its people and declare they 65.54 in education, and also ranks around zakhstan has exhibited much more pru- will not stop attacks until this happens. the 90s in health, quality of life, economic dent behavior when it comes to the oil President Goodluck Jonathan took over dynamism, and political environment.32 revenues it accrues. Kazakhstan has the in 2010 after his predecessor died and won Wikileaks released a summary on both the second-largest reserves and pro- again in 2011. As Vice President in 2008, Nigeria’s governmental corruption and duction capacity in all of the former Soviet he was quoted as saying that “the over- the health of the president as reported by Republics.34 With the development of its dependence on oil has put an unpleasant Shell’s executive vice president for Africa three largest fields, Tengiz, Karachaganak bracket in [Nigeria’s] national economic Ann Pickard. She spoke of the increasing and Kashsgan, Kazakhstan has the poten- freedom.”28 Currently, Nigeria is the larg- problems Shell had hiring oil tankers, as in tial to become one of the world’s top five est oil producer in Africa and the tenth 2009 there were eighty incidents of piracy producers. At the end of 2010, Kazakhstan largest in the world, with the oil sector in Nigeria. Piracy has become a huge prob- had proven reserves of 38.9 thousand mil- compromising 78% of total revenues, lem in the Niger Delta, with an oil tanker lion barrels at 2.9% of the world total and while the non-oil sector holds only 15%. being seized a little over a month ago so 9th in ranking.35 The Tengiz, which lies From 1990 to 2000, Nigeria’s annual per- attackers could take its oil. She reported along the northeast chores of the Caspian centage growth of GDP was a mere 2.4%, instances of oil buyers paying members of Sea, was discovered in 1979 and is Ka- worse even than Ghana, who had averaged the National Petroleum Corporation and zakhstan’s largest producing field. It pro- 4.3%. The GINI index gave Nigeria a score the Nigeria government bribes to lift oil.33 duced 492,000 bbl/d of crude oil in 2009 of 43.7 in 2011, down from a high of 50.6 Oil rents have had a large impact on and has been in development since 1993, in 2006.29 the Nigerian economy and livelihood of when a forty-year joint venture between In 1999, President Obasanjo set up two its people and out of those studied in this Chevron and the state-owned KazMunay- agencies in order to increase transparency paper, this country seems to suffer the Gas was created that later became known and reduce corruption. The first was the worst from the resource curse. The govern- as Tengizchevroil when it expanded into Independent Corrupt Practices and the ment is clearly deeply involved in the oil a four-company consortium in 1997. Its Related Offences Commission, the duty industry, using revenues for corrupt prac- sister field, Kashagan, is an offshore field of which was to receive and investigate tices and eliminating anyone that stands found in the north of the Caspian Sea. It is complaints, taking legal action if neces- in their way. The suspicious execution of being developed by an international con- sary. The second agency was the Economic the Ogoni nine and Shell’s later settle- sortium called North Caspian Operating and Financial Crimes Commission, which ment with their families shows how the Company and has estimated reserves of was established with the purpose of root- Nigerian government and oil companies eleven billion barrels of oil.36 ing out corruption among the government will take extreme measures to secure their Before it declared its independence in and elites in Nigeria. The EFCC estimates interests in the area. The people of the Ni- 1991, Kazakhstan had spent the majority that between 1960 and 1999 over $400 bil- ger Delta live in extreme poverty and see of the twentieth century as a republic of lion was stolen in oil revenues by the coun- none of the benefits and solely the damage the Soviet Union. Its industrial sector con-

39 Sea Foam, Gina Mason

40 the lehigh review sisted of large enterprises that were inter- rights to purchase shares in any energy about 79% of revenues to the Fund. In dependent with businesses in other USSR project, allowing the state to legitimately the mid-2000s, Kazakhstan began us- regions, and the breakup of the Soviet purchase part of British Gas’s share in ing the development funds to improve Union left much of Kazakhstan’s industry Kashagan production and bid for 33% of infrastructure and support agricultural useless. After the collapse of the USSR, the Canadian-based PetroKazakhstan. development in an attempt to boost the newly elected President Nursultan Naz- This gave KazMunaiGaz a larger role in economy. Many national funds were cre- arbayev focused much of the state’s efforts the participation of the state-owned com- ated, including the National Innovative on developing the economy of Kazakhstan. pany as both an investor and a partner.37 Fund and the Small Business Develop- Due to Kazakhstan’s marginalized role In 2007 President Nazarbayev amended ment Fund, in an attempt to diversify the in the economy of the Soviet Union, this the “Law on Subsoil and Subsoil Use,” giv- economy. At this time tax reforms took new country was left with an underde- ing the government the right to change or place, which reduced taxes for the non-oil veloped economy. However, Kazakhstan revoke national resource contracts if they industries in an attempt to diversify the had a resource that could potentially push were deemed to be a threat to national se- economy. High oil prices towards the end the economy skyward or drive it into the curity. In 2008, Tax Codes were proposed of the decade meant that 86% of revenues ground: oil. that replaced royalties with a mineral ex- could go to the Fund with a large chunk Even though Kazakhstan’s oil fields had traction tax, rent taxes with export duties, of profits going towards investments in opened up to the world in a time when and announced that there would be no education and welfare. Indeed, in the 2010 the majority of oil companies were state- future production-sharing agreements.38 study by Newsweek of the world’s best owned due to the 50-50 Agreements of the However, the bulk of future oil production countries, Kazakhstan received a 91.35 in past, this Caspian Sea country had priva- predicted for the future would take place education, ranking 14th on earth.40 The tized much of the petroleum sector and in fields under production-sharing agree- National Fund of Kazakhstan is one fac- opened up its fields to foreign investors. ments, such as those in Kashagan and Ka- tor in the fight against the resource curse; This was due to the lack of another source rachagnak. by saving the majority of oil revenues as of export revenues beside oil and the lack In 2001 the National Fund for the Re- public assets and using approved transfers of technical and managerial skills needed public of Kazakhstan was created with for non-oil economic developments, Ka- to develop the oil industry, which ush- the purpose of negating the impact of zakhstan largely avoided the symptoms of ered in the joint venture of Chevron and volatile oil prices on the economy and to Dutch Disease and did not suffer the large KazMunaiGaz to manage the Tengiz field. save a significant chunk of the oil revenues income inequality that can clearly be seen The country also signed two production- for future generations. It is owned by the in Venezuela and Nigeria. sharing agreements with international Ministry of Finance and is managed by In 2006, the Kazyna Sustainable De- companies to develop the Kashagan oil the National Bank of Kazakhstan, who velopment Fund was created with the aim deposit and Karachagnak field, with the keeps 75% of the Fund’s assets in a sta- of increasing industrial competition and state-owned company KazMunaiGaz bilization portfolio in the form of liquid diversity through innovative economic holding shares in each. assets and 25% in savings in the form of development. The Samruk State Holding At the turn of the twenty-first century, high return long-term securities.39 All Company was also created at this time in the Kazakh government began to venture revenues from oil exports first go to this order to enhance the accountability and towards a more protective stance towards fund, and from there a specified amount efficiency of asset management by the state. the energy sector. Rising oil prices had known as the annual guaranteed transfer The two joined together in 2008 to become spurred economic growth, and the gov- is put into the state budget. In order to Samruk-Kazyna Welfare Fund, a 100% ernment of Kazakhstan was ready to take avoid sucking the Fund dry, it is stipu- state-owned holding company that con- on a larger role in the petroleum indus- lated that no more than one-third of the solidates the majority of the state-owned try. In 2004 it changed its tax structure, Fund’s total assets may be withdrawn at enterprises in Kazakhstan.41 The creation increasing the government’s share of oil once and that the budget must be used for of this Fund was required as a result of revenues to 65-85% by including an excess development projects. Between 2001 and the 2007 financial crisis and its impact on profit tax and imposing a new tax on im- 2008, the National Fund grew to $13.7 bil- the Kazakh economy. In the mid-2000s, ports and limiting foreign companies to a lion from $1.345 billion. In the early years Kazakh banks began to excessively invest maximum of 50% participation in projects. of the decade, Kazakhstan was running abroad due to the favorable credit ratings The new tax laws also gave the government under a very tight fiscal policy, diverting of banks caused by high commodity prices

41 and the lack of local funding. During mid-1990s to secret bank accounts man- resource on a lesser degree than Venezuela the financial crisis, the quality of banks aged by both President Nazarbayev and and Nigeria could be the country’s late assets was questioned and Kazakhstan’s Nurlan Balgimbaev, the former prime arrival to the oil trade. Kazakhstan did economy was threatened with a recession; minister and oil minister of Kazakhstan.43 not fully become an oil-exporting country thus the Samruk-Kazyna Fund was cre- However, Giffen’s defense claims that in until its independence in 1991. This means ated in order to avoid a crisis in the nation. his job as economic advisor the President that it had the time to observe other oil This Fund issued securities that were sold Nazarbayev the American was working exporting countries’ strategies of the pre- to the National Fund in order to increase under the approval of senior officials in vious century and perhaps avoid the same domestic investment and reduce reliance Washington. Although both the Ameri- economic and political mistakes that had on foreign funds. can government and the oil companies send others spiraling down through the Unlike the other two nations studied in have denied any connection to Giffen’s paradox of plenty. this paper, Kazakhstan has been experi- illegal dealings, this case shows that the encing pronounced economic growth due corruption in Kazakhstan is caused by oil Finding an Antidote to economic reform and foreign invest- revenues and demonstrates the possibility When looking to the future, it is impera- ment concentrated in the energy sector. of corruption in foreign nations.44 Years tive that these countries quickly learn The majority of this growth has occurred later in 2007, UK banker Robert Kissin to better manage oil revenues with full starting at the turn of the twenty-first was accused of playing the part of the transparency and accountability in order century. In 2003, the GINI Index gave Ka- middleman who helped Texas oil service to keep up with increasing world demand zakhstan a score of 31.5, which improved company Baker Hughes pay $4 million in without falling victim to the resource to reach 26.7 in 2009, relatively low rates bribes to the Kazakhstani government in curse. A measure that would be effective at compared to Venzuela’s 41 and Nigeria’s exchange for an oil contract.45 keeping the resource curse at bay would be 43.7.42 Kazakhstan has suffered the least from managerial independence for state-owned Despite the avoidance of the economic the paradox of plenty. For the most part oil companies. Today, many of the mem- effects of the resource curse, Kazakhstan it has had positive economic growth and bers of the oil industry are also govern- has still fallen victim to the corruption the government has invested heavily in the ment officials; in fact, the head of Venezu- that can be caused by the massive rev- welfare of its population. The creation of ela’s PDVSA is also the Minister of Energy enues oil exploitation brings in. James the National Fund has shown to be very and Petroleum.46 This encourages rent- Giffen is an American merchant banker effective at saving rents for the future and seeking behavior, as there is easier access for the government to oil revenues because of close political connections. By eliminat- The largest problem that Kazakhstan ing the clear governmental influence in the oil industry, rent-seeking behavior will suffers from is the corruption present in decrease, as the oil rents will then be part both its government and the international of a private industry with commercial in- terests. Hiring should be merit-based and oil companies operating in the area market-driven to encourage true competi- tion for recognition in the industry. who in 2003 was accused of overseeing the demonstrates long-term thinking, rather There are also many international issue of bribes from oil companies such than the short-term rent seeking behavior organizations that have been formed in as Exxon Mobil, BP, and ConocoPhillips of the previous two countries examined. order to encourage transparency and bet- to the Kazakhstan government in return The largest problem that Kazakhstan suf- ter economic management of revenues by for access to oil reserves. In violation of fers from is the corruption present in both oil-exporting countries. One such group the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act of 1977, its government and the international oil is the Extractive Industries Transparency Mr. Giffen was alleged to have been paid companies operating in the area, with Initiative, or EITI, which was launched tens of millions of dollars for negotiating much evidence of bribes being given to in 2002 at the World Summit for Sus- deals between the American oil compa- officials and even President Nazarbayev for tainable Development and is the major nies and the Kazakh government and lucrative concession contracts. One reason international force behind the urging for also transmitted over $60 million in the that Kazakhstan has suffered from the transparency in revenues and government

42 the lehigh review accountability from the extractive indus- tries.47 The principles of this organization When looking to the future, it is imperative promote the use of “natural resource wealth [as] an important engine for sus- that these countries quickly learn to better tainable economic growth that contributes manage oil revenues with full transparency to sustainable development and poverty reduction.”48 One may become a candidate and accountability in order to keep up with country by fulfilling five requirements increasing world demand without falling including implementation of EITI ideals, and may become a compliant country after victim to the resource curse. a validation period. Out of the nations studied in this paper, so far Nigeria is the only compliant country, but Kazakhstan is before any of these nations can reach full twined with the politics of the oil industry. on its way, having become a candidate in production capacity, they must overcome There exist huge gaps between the living 2010. the resource curse. This will be slightly situations of the rich and the poor, which easier for Kazakhstan, who has learned the falling economies and the intense gov- Conclusion from those before it and seems to suffer ernment control over the oil industry only Venezuela, Nigeria and Kazakhstan have from elite corruption rather than the nega- worsens. These countries must reconcile much to look to in the future. All three of tive economic growth and inequalities their aspirations to reap the benefits of oil these countries are currently among the seen in Venezuela and Nigeria. The latter wealth with the sensible ideals of profit highest world exporters and producers of two represent more extreme cases; Vene- maximization if they are to rid themselves oil and their output has the potential to zuela and Nigeria have both been victim to of the resource curse. increase in the decades to come. However, many coups and riots that have been inter-

Striations Gina Mason

43

The ability of an animal to locate a sound in space requires complex neural computation. In this study, we investigated the role of the inhibitory neurotransmitter glycine in the sound localization circuitry of avians. Glycine receptor expression was examined at different Characterization of Glycine Receptor pre- and post-hatch ages in Expression in the the main nuclei of this circuit. Our preliminary data indicate AVIAN that there is a decrease in glycine receptor expression in AUDITORY the auditory nuclei NM and NL during avian development, BRAINSTEM which is opposite to the developmental shift observed by Gina Notaro in mammals. for the lab of R. Michael Burger

Untitled Jessica Johansson, Julia Klitzke, Kathryn Stevens

45 Introduction neuron in the array receives input axons AVCN and LNTB are glycinergic.5 nimals, including humans, of different lengths originating from both More recent studies have uncovered a possess elegant auditory ears, known as delay lines. An individual shift in the inhibitory neurotransmitter circuitry that endows them neuron is activated only when it receives input onto the MSO throughout develop- with the capability of locat- simultaneous converging input from each ment. During the early post-natal period, ing sound sources in space. ear. The convergence onto a single neuron mixed GABAergic and glycinergic signal- SoundA inputs are conveyed to auditory thus encodes the time difference in order ing is present.6 A shift in balance of these nuclei within the brainstem and are pro- to determine from which side of the head neurotransmitters occurs throughout de- cessed via both excitatory and inhibitory the sound originates, as each cell is tuned velopment, resulting in the predominance signals. Inhibition in the auditory circuit to a spatially-restricted receptive field.3 The of quicker glycinergic signaling by adult- allows for improved computation of the sharpening of ITDs through inhibition hood.7 This developmental shift has only sound input and plays an important role allows for more accurate localization of a been shown in the mammalian system, in all species studied to date. The two most larger range of stimuli.4 but may also be present analogously in the commonly studied auditory circuits in- In order to draw generalizations about auditory nuclei of birds. Conversely, we clude the mammalian and avian systems. the auditory circuit, the systems of dif- found in this study that the shift present Despite numerous studies on the avian au- ferent species need to be considered. Our in chicks is the reverse of the mammalian ditory system, many questions still remain current work is concerned with inhibition system for at least two nuclei, showing a regarding how this circuit is modulated by within the avian system, but understand- decrease in glycine receptor expression inhibition. Previous experiments in mam- ing how this function is performed analo- over time. mals have determined that both GABAer- gously in other species yields insight into The avian auditory circuit conveys gic and glycinergic signaling are sources what features may be conserved in the sound information through different nu- of auditory inhibition,1 but only recently system. In mammals, the medial superior clei than in the mammal, although some has glycine been studied within the avian olive (MSO) of the brainstem contains the features of the system are conserved. This auditory circuit.2 Therefore, we sought to characterize the expression of this inhibi- tory neurotransmitter within the avian Our current work is concerned with brainstem circuit. We did so through glycine receptor detection at various ages inhibition within the avian system, but in order to increase our knowledge of the understanding how this function is avian sound localization circuit through development. From our tissue, we deter- performed analogously in other species mined that there is a potential decrease in yields insight into what features may be glycine receptor expression in two of the auditory nuclei as the chick matures. conserved in the system. Sound input is initially transduced by the hair cells, or mechanoreceptors, of the coincidence-detecting neurons used in brainstem circuit consists of four bilateral- ear. This input is then conveyed to the au- sound localization. Contralaterally-evoked ly represented, interconnected nuclei: nu- ditory nuclei in the brainstem via the audi- inhibitory input onto the coincidence- cleus magnocellularis (NM), nucleus an- tory nerve (nVIII). The difference in the detecting neurons of the MSO arises gularis (NA), nucleus laminaris (NL), and arrival time of the input between each ear from projections of the ipsilateral medial the superior olivary nucleus (SON) (Figure is one feature an organism uses to localize nucleus of the trapezoid body (MNTB). 2). Once nVIII enters the avian brainstem, sounds. These binaural acoustic cues are The MNTB receives input from the antero- it bifurcates onto NM and NA. NM pre- referred to as interaural time differences ventral cochlear nucleus (AVCN), which serves the incoming sound information (ITDs) and are modulated by inhibitory project onto the contralateral MSO. The through a specialized synaptic connection signaling. An animal is able to process ipsilaterally-evoked inhibitory input on before it reaches the coincidence-detecting ITDs through a series of coincidence de- the MSO arises from the lateral nucleus neurons of NL. NM projects ipsilater- tecting neurons, as represented by the Jef- of the trapezoid body (LNTB). These two ally to NL, which receives input axons fress model (Figures 1a & 1b). Each bipolar inhibitory projections into the MSO by the of equal lengths. The axons of NM also

46 the lehigh review provide the gradient of delay lines into the However, glycinergic signaling has not on NM, NL and NA.14 Glycine terminals contralateral NL for detection of ITDs, as been thoroughly studied in the avian audi- were only present on the cell bodies and depicted by the Jeffress model (Figures 1 tory system as it has for the mammalian not the dendrites of the auditory nuclei, & 2).8 Analogy to the mammalian system circuit. Therefore, it is possible that glycine while GABA terminals were found on both is present in the avian NL, which contains is also responsible for the observed inhibi- of these structures.15 the coincidence-detecting neurons similar tion. A more recent study suggests that to the MSO of the mammalian circuit. Recent experiments indicate the pres- glycine acts in NA as quick inhibition in Additionally, the AVCN shares common ence of glycinergic signaling within the addition to inhibition by GABA, though functionality with nucleus magnocellu- avian auditory circuit. The first study on the source of the glycinergic inputs is un- laris (NM) of the avian auditory circuit. As glycinergic signaling determined that known.16 Recent experiments in our lab there are commonalities between the two glycine terminal expression in the chick have supported the finding that glycinergic circuits, other features, such as inhibitory is developmentally dependent.12 Glycine signaling is present in the avian auditory neurotransmitters, may also be conserved was detected within the auditory nuclei circuit.17 SON cell responses were found between the circuits of mammals and of both embryonic and post-hatch chicks to be modified by both GABAergic and chicks. using glycine terminal immunoreactiv- glycinergic inputs. Additionally, GABA In all systems studied to date, integra- ity. These terminals were most abundant and glycine were found to be co-released tion of excitatory and inhibitory signaling in the embryonic tissue, while post-hatch within these neurons. Using the glycine are required for proper functioning of the chicks lost some of this signaling.13 Only receptor antagonist strychnine, inhibition auditory circuit. The avian SON provides a small number of glycine terminals were within the SON was decreased similar to the primary inhibitory inputs into the ipsi- found synapsing onto the cell bodies of the seen when restricting GABAergic signal- lateral NA, NL, and NM. NL receives in- NM and rarely onto NL and NA. The gly- ing.18 Since little is known regarding the hibition from both NM and the ipsilateral cine terminals present in NL were located function of glycinergic inputs in the avian SON.9 The SON receives excitatory input on the cell bodies of the neurons but not auditory system, further experiments are from NA and NL, but receives inhibitory found on the dendrites of the NL neurons. needed to characterize this novel finding. input from the contralateral SON.10 Previ- GABA terminal labeling seemed to show We will attempt to address this question ous studies have determined that the pri- a contrasting pattern to that of glycine, as by targeting the glycine receptor on the mary signal for inhibition is GABAergic.11 many GABAergic terminals were present cells of the auditory circuit.

Figure 1. The Jeffress model. The location of the sound input (a) determines which neuron in the Figure 2. Neural circuitry of the avian auditory coincidence detecting array is activated (b). The activation of a neuron is dependent on the signal system, located within the brainstem. nVIII reaching the body of the neuron from each ear’s delay line simultaneously (Jeffress 1949, Burger et innervates the ipsilateral nucleus magnocellu- al., 2008). laris (NM) and nucleus angularis (NA), which are interconnected to the other nuclei (see text for details), nucleus laminaris (NL) and the superior olivary nucleus (SON) (Jeffress 1949, Burger et al., 2008).

47 To identify the expression pattern of NM SON glycinergic signaling in the avian auditory system, we will use immunohistochem- istry to detect the glycine receptor. The NL glycine receptor is an ionotropic, ligand- gated chloride channel and is composed of five subunits- α1-α4 and one β-subunit.19 Detection of the glycine receptor will show us which cells receive glycinergic input within the nuclei. In future experiments, we will attempt to unveil the source of the glycinergic input, as it is unclear where this inhibition arises from. Removal of the ii cochlea did not affect the glycine terminals onto NM, suggesting that it does not pro- SON vide this input.20 i Detection of these glycine receptors NL and the source of glycinergic input within the auditory nuclei will allow for a greater understanding of the role of inhibition NM within the chick avian system. Further characterization of glycine receptor dis- tribution within these nuclei at varying ages will show us whether a developmental downshift actually occurs in the signaling system used in sound localization, as our preliminary data show. Comparison of the auditory system between birds and mam- mals will also allow us to determine the functionality of glycinergic signaling and iv its importance within the auditory circuit. Methods iii Animals and Tissue Extraction All protocols for animal use have been approved by the Lehigh University Institu- Figure 3. A 25μm cross-section of the avian tional Animal Care and Use Committee. auditory brainstem for an E12 chick is shown White Leghorn chickens of ages spanning in panel i (4x). Magnified images of chroma- embryonic day twelve (E12) to post-hatch gen-stained glycine receptors in the SON (ii), day eight (p8) were used in our study. The NM (iii), and NL (iv) are also displayed. fertilized eggs for both embryonic and Individual cells were hard to distinguish be- post-hatch chicks were obtained from tween at the young age (20x; 25μm section Moyer’s Chicks (Quakertown, PA). Phos- using cryostat). phate buffer saline (PBS, pH 7.3) and 4% paraformaldehyde (4% PFA) in PBS was prepared and used during perfusion to fix the tissue. Embryonic tissue was collected from these

48 the lehigh review eggs at the appropriate ages (E12, E16 & were placed in 30% sucrose after fixation E19). The tissue was obtained through rap- and flash frozen using cold methanol id decapitation, extraction of the brain and (chilled in freezer). The brains were stored fixation in 4% PFA. The following day, the until sectioning at -80°C. brains were transferred into a solution of 30% sucrose in PBS. After the brains sunk Gel-Coated Slide Preparation to the bottom of the sucrose solution, they Gel-coated slides allow for better adhe- were flash-frozen in OCT compound using sion of the tissue to the slide and thus were cold methanol (from freezer) and stored prepared for use. First, 600mL of distilled until sectioning at -80°C. H2O was heated to 60°C. To the water, 3.0g The post-hatch tissue (p8) was obtained of gelatin and 0.30g of chromium potas- from perfusion of the chicks raised at Le- sium sulfate was added and dissolved. high University’s central animal facility. After mixing thoroughly, the solution was Ketamine (Ketaset, Fort Dodge Animal, cooled to about 30°C, and frosted slides i 146 Health, Fort Dodge, IA) at 80 mg/kg were dipped into the solution to coat them. and pentobarbital (Sigma-Aldrich, Saint The slides were allowed to dry for at least a Louis, MO) were used to anaesthetize the day before use. chickens prior to perfusions. Additional NM pentobarbital was administered if the Tissue Sectioning and chick did not fully lose consciousness fol- Immunohistochemistry lowing the first round of injections. Once The frozen brains were sectioned into the perfusion was performed, the dissected 25μm slices using the cryostat on Chromi- brain was then placed in 4% PFA over- um-Gelatin coated slides. The brains fixed night. Both vibratome and cryosection- using 4% PFA were sectioned at 50μm ing methods could then be implemented. using the vibratome. Each step below When using the vibratome (50μm), the required 400-500ul of the prepared solu- tissue was rinsed the following day in PBS. tion. The tissue sections were placed on For cryostat sectioning (25μm), the brains the rotator for all the steps except the extra ii Detection of these glycine receptors and the source of glycinergic input within the NL auditory nuclei will allow for a greater understanding of the role of inhibition within the chick avian system.

Figure 4. Fainter staining is seen in NL and NM of E16 tissue in panel I compared to the E12 tissue (4x, SON not present). Magnification of NL (ii) and NM (iii) in the E16 chick shows more definably stained individual cells than in the E12 tissue, despite lighter staining (20x; iii 25μm section using cryostat).

49 in the secondary solution for two hours NL in the dark by covering with aluminum foil. After the incubation period, the tissue NL was rinsed three times, for ten minutes each in PBS. Next, the tissue was mounted on gel-coated slides and was dried before cover-slipping using Glycergel. The slides were dried and stored in the dark to avoid NM degradation of the fluorescence.

II) Chromagen Labeling The sectioned tissue was rinsed for five minutes, a total of three times, in PBS. i ii After the rinse, the endogenous peroxi- dases were quenched with a solution of 1% H2O2 and 10% methanol in PBS for thirty fixation and the antibody steps. Two dif- minutes on the rotator. The tissue was then NM ferent staining methods are implemented rinsed in PBS for ten minutes, three times. because the fluorescent staining degrades An extra fixation step was implemented more easily, while the chromagen staining in 95:5 methanol/acetic acid at -20°C for is less sensitive to light and thus has a lon- ten minutes. The tissue was rinsed again ger shelf-life. for five minutes three times in PBS. After the rinses, three drops of blocking normal I) Fluorescent Labeling horse serum were added (VECTASTAIN The sectioned tissue was rinsed in PBS for ABC Mouse IgG Kit, Vector Laboratories) five minutes, three cycles. An extra fixa- to every 10 mLs of PBS for an hour. The tion stage was implemented in a solution primary antibody solution (anti-glycine of 95:5 methanol/acetic acid. The treated receptor) was prepared in 0.3% Triton-X tissue was placed in the -20°C freezer for in PBS, at 1:1000 for the 50μm slices and iii ten minutes. The primary glycine recep- 1:500 for the cryosectioned tissue. Control tor antibody (Mouse, Synaptic Systems, sections were prepared without the use of Figure 5. A 4x view of E19 auditory nuclei Gottingen, Germany, Lot #146011/13) was primary antibody. The antibody was in- NL and NM (i). The E19 tissue shows the least prepped in a solution of 5% normal goat cubated with the sections overnight in the prominent staining in NM (ii) and NL (iii) of serum (Invitrogen) and 0.3% Triton-X in 4°C fridge using humidifying chambers. the embryonic ages observed. The SON and PBS, at a concentration of 1:1000. Several The following day, the primary antibody NA were not viewable in any of our sections sections were prepared in the same solu- was rinsed off for ten minutes in PBS, (20x; 25μm section using cryostat). tion without the primary antibody as a total of three times. The biotinylated control tissue. The tissue was incubated antibody was prepared by adding three in the primary antibody overnight in the drops of normal horse blocking serum refrigerator. (VECTASTAIN ABC Mouse IgG Kit, Vec- The following day, the tissue was rinsed tor Laboratories) and one drop biotinyl- three times for ten minutes each in PBS. ated antibody stock (VECTASTAIN ABC The secondary antibody (goat anti-mouse Mouse IgG Kit, Vector Laboratories) to IgG (H+C), 2mg/mL, Alexa Fluor 488; every 10 mLs of PBS. The tissue was then Invitrogen; Eugene, Oregon) was prepared incubated in this solution for two hours. at a 1:200 concentration in PBS, and was During the last thirty minutes of this step, stored in the dark for thirty minutes be- the ABC reagent was prepared. The ABC fore use. The tissue was then incubated reagent was made by adding two drops

50 the lehigh review reagent A and two drops of reagent B to (Figure 5) tissue. The SON was not visible parisons to the embryonic tissue. NM, NL every 5 mLs of 0.3% PBS (VECTASTAIN in all tissue sectioned, therefore a com- and NA are all visible and stained (Figure ABC Mouse IgG Kit, Vector Laboratories). parison between ages for these nuclei was 6A). The staining is darkest in the cells At the end of the incubation step, the tis- not yet possible. The NA was undetectable of NM, but is also visible in portions of sue was rinsed for five minutes in PBS and in any of the tissue, potentially due to poor NA and along the midline of NL. Only a was placed in the prepared ABC solution quality tissue sections. For each embryonic few cells near the periphery of NA seem for two hours on the rotator. The stain- age, NM and NL showed consistency in to be heavily stained, while others within ing solution was prepared by adding three stain strength, but differed across ages. the nucleus are stained less prominently. drops of the chromagen solution (VEC- The auditory E12 tissue is shown at 4x The SON (Figure 6B) also contains darkly TOR SG Chromagen Peroxidase Substrate zoom to illustrate all of the nuclei (Figure stained cells, which appear smaller than Kit, Vector Laboratories) to every 5 mLs 3i). A scale bar is shown on each image. the cells of the other nuclei. Panel C shows of PBS. The tissue was then placed in the All nuclei appear to be stained a similar a close-up of NM cell staining (Figure 6C). chromagen solution for five to ten min- strength per age, and showed fairly even The staining appears the same strength utes, until the labeling was visible and distribution on the cell somas. In some tis- throughout each stained cell, except for a reached the appropriate darkness. Before sue, a lighter void was visible in the middle circular void in the center presumed to be coverslipping with Permount, the vibra- of the cells, presumed to be the nucleus each cell’s nucleus. tome p8 tissue was cleared in 95% ethanol (Figures 4ii, 4iii, 5ii and 5iii). Magnifica- Figure 7 was produced recently by our for five minutes twice, and then twice in tion at 20x shows chromagen-stained lab.21 This figure shows glycine receptor -la 100% ethanol. The cryostat embryonic glycine receptors in the SON, NM, and NL beling (green) using anti-glycine receptor tissue used a ladder method, clearing for (iv) (Figure 3ii-iv). Fainter labelinging is primary antibody and cell nuclei detection four minutes in 30% Ethanol, four min- seen in NL and NM of E16 tissue at a 4x (red) using Nissl stain in a post-hatch day utes in 50% Ethanol, four minutes in 70% view (Figure 4i). NL and NM in the E16 7 (p7) chick. The SON is outlined in panel Ethanol, four minutes in 95% Ethanol, and chick shows more definably stained cell B, showing intense staining within this then four minutes in 100% Ethanol. The somas than in the E12 tissue at 20x, po- nucleus. Panel C shows the Nissl nuclei coverslipped slides were set aside to dry for tentially due to smaller cells (Figure 4ii-iii, labeling alone, in the absence of glycine a minimum of a day before imaging. Figure 3). A 4x view of the E19 auditory receptor primary antibody. nuclei shows very light staining on the cell Microscopy & Imaging somas within the nuclei (Figure 5i). The Discussion Images were taken of the stained tissue at E19 tissue shows the least prominent stain- Our data potentially indicates a gradual 4x and 20x (See Figures 3-5) using a Nikon ing in NM and NL at 20x magnification decrease in glycine receptor expression Eclipse E800 and SPOT software (Model 7.2, Diagnostic Instruments). Scale bars were added to the images by photograph- Our data potentially indicates a gradual ing a ruler at the appropriate magnifica- tion, and then superimposing the length decrease in glycine receptor expression onto the images using Adobe Photoshop. throughout development in NM and NL, Nuclei were outlined and labeled using the drawing feature of Microsoft Word. opposite to the shift observed in mammals.

Results (Figure 5ii-iii). Of our slides, only the E12 throughout development in NM and NL, Images of the avian auditory brainstem tissue showed a clearly stained SON. The opposite to the shift observed in mam- nuclei are outlined for embryonic day 12 SON was not locatable in the E16 or E19 mals.22 This decrease in glycinergic ex- (Figure 3), embryonic day 16 (Figure 4), tissue. pression was first detected by Code and and embryonic day 19 (Figure 5). Intense Post-hatch day 8 (p8) tissue is also Rubel,23 and our findings serve to support somatic staining of glycine receptors shown (Figure 6). This tissue was obtained their claim. Of the visible nuclei, this (chromagen) in NL and NM is present using the vibratome (50μm sections) as decline in receptor expression is most ap- (Figure 3), but declines markedly with de- opposed to the cryostat (25μm sections), parent in NL and NM (Figures 3, 4 & 5). velopmental age in E16 (Figure 4) and E19 and thus cannot be used for staining com- Contrary to previous findings stating that

51 NM NA

NL a

Figure 6. An image of NM, NL and NA in a NM post-hatch day 8 (p8) chick (a). Of these nuclei, dark staining is most prominent in NM, but SON is also seen along the midline of NL and the outer portions of NA to a lesser extent. Smaller, darkly stained cells are observable within the SON (b). Glycine receptor staining appears widespread throughout the cells of NM (c). Cell nuclei likely appear as a void in the cellular stain (50μm section using vibratome).

b c

Figure 7. Cells within the SON stained for gly- cine receptors (green) using the glycine recep- tor antibody (a). An image of the entire SON (outlined in white) containing stained glycine receptors in green (b). Nissl stain was used to detect cell nuclei in the absence of primary -antibody (red) as the control. (Scale bars: A=50 μm; B=200 μm; C=50 μm) (Coleman, et al., 2011)

52 the lehigh review expression of glycine receptors in NL is ment in the SON of the chick in order for trigger the decrease in receptor density sparser,24 we found more prominent label- the contralateral SON to provide quick throughout development. ing in NL than expected for the embryonic inhibition to the opposite circuit. This We are still working to improve our tissue (Figures 3, 4 & 5). The staining of may allow for compensation for the long methods for optimal visualization of NL was about equal to that of NM at each distance between the two SONs. The pres- glycine receptor expression in the audi- embryonic age. The SON was only vis- ence of glycine receptors within NM and tory nuclei of the brainstem throughout ible in our E12 and p8 tissue, but stained NL may regions in immediate projections development. This will allow for further similarly to the other nuclei. We have been from the SON,26 or possibly other nuclei comparison of pre- and post-hearing onset yet unable to determine a pattern for NA within the circuit, are required to integrate glycine receptor expression within the nu- and SON tissue, as these structures were a response. clei. Once gathered, these data will provide not represented across the different ages. The glycine receptors in the auditory additional support in determining the de- Additional tissue needs to be collected nuclei were present in our tissue on the velopmental pattern of glycinergic signal- in order to obtain a larger n-value for the cell somas of the nuclei as previously de- ing in the avian auditory nuclei. observed effects in glycine receptor ex- termined, and were also less abundant in Future experiments will be not only to pression. These data will allow us to draw the post-hatch brains than the embryonic continue our current methods but also to more definitive conclusions regarding the tissue.27 Additionally, based on the fluo- identify the source of the glycinergic sig- overall developmental shift of glycinergic rescent image (Figure 7) it appears there naling in the system. Glycinergic signaling signaling within the chick circuit. also may be slight staining on the cell pro- seemed prominent within the SON in both Most auditory structure and function jections, as green fluorescent puncta are the E12 and p8 tissue, possibly due to great is mature by E19, therefore we expect to observed within the auditory nuclei, indi- innervation by the contralateral SON (Fig- see similar faint labeling in the post-hatch cating the presence of receptors. If these ures 3 and 6). There is always the possibili- tissue as shown by our E19 tissue (Fig- puncta are not simply background, this ty, however, that inhibition originates from ure 5). Conversely, fluorescently-labeled may indicate the need for some glycinergic other sources. For example, developmental post-hatch chick tissue (p7) from our lab signaling on the dendrites to reduce the cues from other parts of the brain could be showed prominent glycinergic labeling in input of an excitatory signal. using glycinergic signaling to establish the the SON (Figure 7),25 as well as post-hatch One possible explanation for the ob- map of the brain quickly in order for the tissue stained with chromagen (Figure 6). served down-regulation is that the recep- chicken to have a functional auditory sys- The density of SON staining shown in this tors become internalized throughout de- tem by the time it hatches. Evolutionarily, fluorescent image is similar to that of the velopment in order to regulate glycinergic it would be favorable to have the system SON tissue observed using the chromagen activity. It seems as the tissue ages, circular developed prenatally in order for better stain for glycine receptors. Dark SON la- voids within the cells become more promi- survival. Retrograde tracing is one method beling is observed even in the embryonic nent, suggesting a decrease in density of that could be implemented to discover the day twelve tissue (Figure 3). Therefore, it receptors on the cell surfaces. These voids source of the signaling, in both embry- is possible that this down-regulation does are presumed to be the cell nuclei and are onic and post-hatch chicks. A comparison not occur in the cells of the SON. How- visible in NM of the post-hatch chick (Fig- between neurotransmitter staining and ever, as the SON is not visible in our em- ure 6c, Figure 7a). Cell nuclei seem to be receptor staining patterns may also yield bryonic tissue, we have not yet been able less prominent in the younger, embryonic insight on the role of glycine in this au- to compare the developmental expression tissue but seem to become more visible ditory circuit. The source of glycinergic pattern of glycine receptors in the SON. with developmental age (Figures 3, 4 & 5). signaling may reveal more about the con- Functional Significance of GlyR develop- If the receptors were coating the outside of nections of the nuclei in this circuit, along ment the cells, their nuclei should not be clearly with the function of such inhibition. This Down-regulation of fast-acting, glycine visible as they appear in the older tissue. information will serve to broaden our transmission may reflect the lack of need Higher magnification of these cells via understanding of the sound localization for fast-acting inhibition in the various electron microscopy may help determine circuitry in the avian system. nuclei, and thus a “weeding out” of recep- whether the glycine receptors become in- tors might occur throughout maturation. ternalized during aging. If internalization Glycine receptor expression may be stabi- of receptors is occurring, further research lized or up-regulated throughout develop- may be needed to uncover which proteins

53

This paper seeks to reject the immutability of the written word for the changeability of oral storytelling by acknowledging that the biblical creation myth of Adam and Eve is itself a product of centuries’ worth of oral adaptation. The paper culminates with the author’s own adaptation of the Adam and Eve myth: this rewriting inhabits a less sexist perspective and deviates from ADAM the biblical text by celebrating free will and humankind’s AND EVE: potential for greatness, rather An Adaptation than mourning the loss of the paradisiacal Garden of Eden. by Anu Paulose

Radiant (detail) Stephen Kuschman

55 Introduction: Adam and Eve through scholarly research to be the prod- thus inciting her fury. Ninhursaja rejects hile the secular study uct of eons of oral storytelling, then what Enki as retaliation for eating the forbidden of the Bible is contro- is to keep us from continuing the tradition plants, stating that, “Until his dying day, I versial in some circles, of reworking religious mythology to suit will never look upon him with life-giving the product of this the times? It is with this thought in mind eye.”2 Her anger at Enki parallels God’s research is essential that I began to write an adaptation of the anger when Adam & Eve eat from the Wto understanding the origins of the Judeo- Adam and Eve creation myth. forbidden tree of knowledge. Because he Christian faith as well as its future. Many Most of us are aware of the Judeo- ate the forbidden plants, Enki feels pain in religious conservatives will argue that Christian creation story. According to the eight parts of his body including his ti, a Biblical texts should be taken literally. Yet story as written in Genesis 1, God creates Sumerian word meaning both “rib” and is it proper not to subject scripture written the universe in six days, constructing man “life.” Here, Enki faces the same punish- millenniums ago to academic criticism and woman on the last. Eve is created ment as Adam and Eve. For his transgres- when the religious texts of the Greeks and from Adam’s rib to be a helpmate to Adam sion, he faces losing his immortality. How- Romans are taken and treated as mythol- and the two live together in mutual hap- ever, unlike God who casts Adam and Eve ogy? Does defining ourselves as Jewish or piness in the paradisiacal Garden of Eden. out into the wilderness with only the dis- Christian truly mean that we cannot asso- Their stay is ruined by the fallen angel tant promise that one day mankind might ciate these religious texts with mythology? Lucifer, who convinces Eve to eat the fruit earn eternal life once again, Ninhursaja To answer this question, we must look at from the forbidden tree of knowledge. Eve is quick to forgive Enki. She heals him by the art of storytelling itself for indeed the in turn convinces Adam to eat from the giving birth to eight new goddesses to heal Bible has its origins in oral storytelling. tree. As punishment for their disobedience the eight parts of Enki’s body that have Transmitted from one person to the next, to God, Adam and Eve are cast out from been cursed. One of the new goddesses is passed down from generation to genera- the Garden of Eden and forced to live in named Ninti. The etymology of the name tion and modified at each retelling, the re- the wilderness. The story is memorable in Ninti is interesting for Nin means lady and ligious stories of the early Hebrew people, its simplicity. Clear dual oppositions are ti means both rib and life. Thus Ninti can like all other forms of folklore, are sure to set throughout the story, good versus evil, be translated as both “Lady of the Living” have been adapted repeatedly to fit the at- God versus Satan and even man versus and “Lady of the Rib.” Consequently, Ninti, titudes of the changing times before enter- woman. It is a story that is clearly derived who is created to help heal Enki, shares a ing the literary world where they suddenly from a culture that relies on order and hi- link with the Eve of the Judeo-Christian became treated as immutable. In “Folklore erarchical structure. creation myth, who is created from Ad- and Literature,” Vladimir Propp argues Now let us take a look at the tale of am’s rib to be his helpmate. that consciously or unconsciously, oral Enki and Ninhursaja, the Sumerian While there are many similarities storytellers are bound to introduce chang- predecessor of the Adam and Eve myth. between these two tales, the differences es into a story. He claims that, “Everything Sumerian literature is thought to have are also thought-provoking. For instance, that is out-of-date and incongruous with influenced the Hebrew people through while the relationship between Enki and new attitudes, tastes, and ideology will be the Canaanites who lived in Palestine Ninhursaja is quarrelsome, it also seems discarded. These new tastes will affect not before the Hebrew people. Indeed, there to present a much more realistic depiction only what will be discarded but also what are many parallels between the Sumerian of marriage than the seemingly tranquil will be reworked and supplemented.”1 If and Judeo-Christian creation myths. In relationship between Adam and Eve. religious stories were continuously altered the Sumerian myth, the Goddess Nin- Furthermore, it is interesting that in the over centuries (if not millennia) before hursaja creates a beautiful garden called Sumerian tale it is Enki, the husband, and being written down and treated as immu- Edinu in Dilmun, the Sumerian earthly not his wife who eats the forbidden plant. table, then shouldn’t the discovery of their paradise. Ninhursaja then asks her hus- In the Adam and Eve myth, the story of origins and any variants of the stories be band Enki to guard her garden against how Eve succumbs to temptation serves to cherished for providing us with a closer wild animals which might destroy it just justify the patriarchal order by portraying look at the foundations and motivations as God places Adam in charge of the Gar- woman as more weak-minded and fickle of a particular faith? Furthermore, if the den of Eden. But rather than protecting than men. What purpose is served by a written stories of at least some of the ear- her Garden, Enki becomes famished and Sumerian tale about a man’s disobedience lier books in the Old Testament are proven eats eight plants that his wife had planted, to his wife? To answer this question, we

56 the lehigh review must take a closer look at this Sumerian as the perfect revenge for his previous creation stories are of a Great Mother myth. One important detail about the Su- actions against women by reversing the because in the early cradles of civiliza- merian myth not yet discussed is that the trend and forcing him to live out the pain tion, the “feminine power to give and plants that Enki ate were actually created he caused them. After humbling her hus- sustain life, the power incarnated in the by Ninhursaja from Enki’s own seed. By band in this manner, Ninhursaja is quick body of woman” was the highest power.3 consuming his own seed, Enki in effect to forgive and save him. This lack of per- According to Eisler, the story of the Fall impregnates himself without having the manent consequences is a significant dif- of Man in the Garden of Eden illustrates ability to give birth. Ninhursaja saves Enki ference between the Sumerian myth and major shifts in society: from equality of by taking his seed into her own body and the Adam and Eve myth. Adam and Eve genders in partnership societies to male dominance and from hunting and gather- ing to agriculture and settlement during Sumerian literature is thought to have the Neolithic Revolution. It marks the end of an era where man and woman lived in influenced the Hebrew people through the harmony with one another and nature and Canaanites who lived in Palestine before the beginning of an era of warfare and hierarchic social structure. the Hebrew people. Indeed, there are Yet we must question the extent to many parallels between the Sumerian and which this transition from a female creat- rix to a male creator was successful. In Judeo-Christian creation myths. her essay “Depatriarchalizing in Biblical Interpretation,” Phyllis Trible attempts to giving birth to eight goddesses who can are not as fortunate as Enki and for their reread and translate Biblical faith without heal him. These details of the Sumerian transgression they must live out a mortal the sexism that many assume is inher- myth suggest that this story is a caution- life in the wilderness rather than enjoying ent within it. By refusing to assume that ary tale about the dangers of womb envy immortal life in the Garden of Eden. The the Bible is written from a completely and the dire consequences that men risk lack of permanent consequences for Enki’s patriarchal view, Trible was able to find when they try to usurp women’s reproduc- actions underlines the fact that this is not subversive elements throughout the Old tive capabilities. a tale about female supremacy but rather a Testament. One of Trible’s most notewor- There are also other ways in which this tale about cooperation and the importance thy findings from her perusal of the Bible tale emphasizes the importance of respect- of maintaining a balance between male is the discovery that while we tend to view ing women. In the beginning of the tale, and female powers. Despite the major dif- the Old Testament God Yahweh as a stern Enki disrespects his wife by engaging in ferences between the two tales, the resem- father figure, “feminine imagery for God an incestuous affair with his daughter blances between them suggest the possibil- is more prevalent in the Old Testament that culminates with him abandoning ity that the Adam and Eve creation myth than we usually acknowledge.”4 Accord- her after she becomes pregnant. To add was created by adding a patriarchal veneer ing to Trible, Yahweh actually “embraces insult to this injury, Enki then engages in to this older Sumerian tale. To suit the ide- and transcends both sexes” and it is not another incestuous affair with his grand- als of the patriarchal Israelites, a female unusual for him to take up feminine as daughter, the very product of his affair Goddess’s wrath against her husband is well as masculine roles.5 Thus it is not with his daughter. This process is repeated replaced with a male God’s wrath against atypical for Yahweh to be portrayed as a over and over throughout the tale with his creations, leading to the formation of provider of life sustaining nourishment or Enki consistently choosing to abandon a myth that explains the cause of human as a seamstress who provides clothes for his pregnant daughters, seemingly un- suffering while simultaneously providing her children. Even gynomorphic speech concerned by the anguish he is causing hope for a better future. is associated with Yahweh: he speaks of them. Ironically, Enki’s accidental self- The replacement of a female Goddess birth pangs, compares himself to a nurs- impregnation culminates with his wife with a male God is not surprising. As ing mother, acts as a comforting maternal choosing to abandon him in the same way Riane Eisler argues in her essay “The presence and is even associated with mid- that he had abandoned his daughters after Goddess of Nature & Spirituality: An Eco- wifes like many fertility goddesses of the impregnating them. This situation serves manifesto,” many of the earliest known past.

57 Other subversive elements within the patriarchal viewpoints while ignoring ac- is created from Adam’s rib expounds on Old Testament also indicate that some counts that are favorable to woman. Of other subversive elements within the Adam of the stories within it did not originate course the existence of these dual accounts and Eve myth. For instance, Trible notes in patriarchal cultures. For example, the of the creation of mankind could not be that “ambiguity characterizes the meaning creation story itself provides contradic- ignored. Indeed, the first version of the of `adham in Genesis 2-3.”8 She questions tory views of the creation of mankind. creation story, which indicates that man whether the term `adham is a term that The contradiction exists because Genesis and woman were created simultaneously, stands for male or a term that stands for actually contains dual versions of the was simply too dangerous to the patri- humankind in general. Trible argues that creation of man and woman. In the first archal order to be ignored. In what was if `adham is a generic term for humankind, version of the creation of mankind, found probably an attempt to explain away this then before the differentiation of male and in Genesis 1, it is stated, “So God created version, Jewish theologians speculated that female in Genesis 2: 21-23, `adham is an- man in his own image, in the image of Eve was not the first woman. This led to drogynous. If Adam really is androgynous God created he him; male and female cre- the formation of the myth of Lilith, who until the creation of Eve, then man and ated he them.”6 This version indicates that is said to have preceded Eve. Unlike Eve, woman are created simultaneously in both man and woman were actually created Lilith was not created from Adam’s rib the first and the second version of the cre- simultaneously. In the second version of but simultaneously with him. In Jewish ation of mankind. Thus, neither man nor the creation of mankind, found in Gen- folklore, Lilith claims equality with Adam woman can argue supremacy over the other. esis 2, it is stated, “And the rib, which the because they were created in the same way. Critical analysis of the Adam and Eve Lord God had taken from man, made he She leaves Adam because she refuses to myth reveals subversive elements within a woman, and brought her unto the man. be subservient to him and obey his com- this patriarchal tale while critical analysis of its Sumerian predecessor reveals this Judeo-Christian creation story’s non- Through Lilith, the first version of the patriarchal origins. Both sources provide historical justification for a less sexist inter- creation of mankind can be interpreted in pretation of the Adam and Eve myth while a way that demonizes women who seek to also providing interesting material for an adaptation of the myth. Some might argue exist outside the patriarchal order. that adapting this religious myth into a story that more closely reflects my own in- And Adam said, This is now bone of my mands. For her rejection of the patriarchal terpretations about the Fall of Mankind is bones, and flesh of my flesh: she shall be order, Lilith is demonized in many tales. an exercise in futility, as it fails to disprove called Woman, because she was taken out She is depicted as a child-killing witch, a the sexism which is inherent within the of Man.”7 In contrast to the first version female demon, an incarnation of lust who original myth. But the purpose of this work of the creation of mankind, in this second leads men astray, the mother of demonic is not to deny that sexism is inherent within version not only is Eve created from Adam offspring who spread chaos throughout the tale. Rather, this work is simply meant but she is also named by him. Thus she is the world, the serpent who tempted Eve to illustrate that the tale did not always placed on the same level as the animals of and even the consort of Lucifer. Through contain sexist elements and that the patri- the Garden of Eden who Adam was also Lilith, the first version of the creation of archal order for all its efforts was not able to responsible for naming. This degrading mankind can be interpreted in a way that completely suppress elements of subversion position indicates her subservience to demonizes women who seek to exist out- within the tale. My adaptation of the story Adam. side the patriarchal order. By stereotyping has only one other purpose: to reject the Unsurprisingly, this second version such women as monstrous and unnatural, immutability of the literary work in favor of of the creation of mankind which claims the patriarchal order is able to control the the changeability of oral storytelling. After that woman was created from man is more behavior of women while also suppressing all, the Judeo-Christian faith has its origins widely known because it supports the subversive elements within their sacred in the ever-adaptive art of oral storytelling. beliefs of the patriarchal order. What this texts. Reworking mythology to better suit the suggests is that traditional readings of the Trible’s discussion of the second ver- beliefs of one’s own setting and time period Bible tend to favor accounts that support sion of the creation of mankind where Eve was a standard religious practice in ancient

58 the lehigh review times when literacy levels were low; it was Adam And Eve: An Adaptation Heavenly Realm rather than standing here a practice which kept mythologies relevant Chapter One: Meeting upon this world that was but a pale reflec- to the lives of the people who revered As he gazed upon His favorite son with be- tion of its predecessor. Only Lucifer was them. In my opinion, it is better to adapt musement in His eyes, Elohim wondered unpredictable. Only Lucifer acted on sen- our religious myths to our times than to what could have prompted Lucifer to timents seemingly uninspired by Divine reject them altogether because they no come down to the lower realm of all places. Will. His Will. True, Lucifer had never longer reflect our ideals. Thus, my adapta- Though indulgent with His creations, He been forbidden to enter the lower world. tion of the Adam and Eve myth reflects could not help but question the inclina- Indeed, none of the angels were forbidden a less sexist relationship between Adam, tions of this particular subject. After all, to enter Earth. And yet none of the others Lilith and Eve while recognizing the limi- no other angel left the Heavens unless it ever came down here unbidden. Only Lu- tations of human relationships. Further- was on His orders. None of them seemed cifer. Only Lucifer seemed to act on such more, rather than mourning the loss of the to feel any of the fascination that Lucifer strange impulses. paradisiacal Garden of Eden, it celebrates held for this world. And why would they And so Elohim was left to wonder once the gift of free will and humankind’s po- when they knew full well that nothing again what it was that inspired Lucifer to tential for greatness. which existed below the heavens could act so differently from his compatriots. match those things which the Supreme Be- Not that Lucifer’s actions had ever been ing deemed worthy to be enshrined within the cause of any displeasure. On the con- “That which is spoken by God-the- his higher realm. trary, this peculiarity was the very trait Sun is life; that which is spoken by If Lucifer were any other angel, he which made him Elohim’s favorite and the Devil is death; Abraxas speaketh would be basking in the glory of God’s indeed a favorite among all the angels. that hallowed and accursed word, Abin, JC Eckstine-Gomez which is life and death at the same time. Abraxas begetteth truth and lying, good and evil, light and darkness in the same word and in the same act. Wherefore is Abraxas terrible.” –Carl Jung, Seven Sermons to the Dead, 3rd Sermon (1916)

“The bird fights its way out of the egg. The egg is the world. Who would be born must first destroy a world. The bird flies to God. The God’s name is Abraxas… Our god’s name is Abraxas and he is God and Satan and he contains both the luminous and the dark world.” –Herman Hesse, Demian (1919)

59 Most of the time, his originality was an sentimental desires to place them on equal fruition of all His careful planning, Elo- appealing quality. Indeed, his capabilities footing with His elect. No matter how He him’s face had radiated with victory while had wrought such admiration amongst loved them, He kept them in their place the angels watched with astonished eyes his peers that even his elders amongst the where they belonged. the delivery of the first young of their kind. archangels more often than not deferred And yet this was not precisely true. For God created his angels in a fully mature to him. And yet there were other times as there was one creation which He could state and since they did not reproduce, well when it was worrisome to see the in- not bear to surrender to such a fate: man- there had been no youthful progeny of dividualism that was his most prominent kind, the crown of His creation, at least on their own kind to grace the halls of Heav- characteristic; times when Elohim feared Earth, made to reflect the corporal image en. But now these undeveloped forms lay that this unnatural tendency to act with- of Elohim and His angels above. Their cre- sleeping contentedly in the arms of their out prompt would drive him too far away ation was an endeavor that spanned eons, proud creator-mother, looking identical to from his proper place beside his Father. but the final result proved well worth the the corporal forms that their angelic for- And as he watched His son now, Elohim effort, so beautiful was the product. And bears occasionally took save for the repro- felt that this was one of those times. For yet for all their external beauty, Elohim ductive organs which made one male and Lucifer was watching Eden from the peak was saddened to realize that they were the other female and set them apart from of Mount Moriah with an emotion akin to not so perfect as He had first assumed. the androgynous celestial beings on which jealousy. No, they were not like His perfect angels they had been based. whom He had based them on, for they did The years in which their young forms Chapter Two: Decay not understand His will. had tottered across the Heavenly Realm The lower world created for His lower Mankind had been created, unlike had been the most delightful years to ever creations; the corporal world which could the angels, with a spiritual core that was grace those venerated halls. And the day only mirror the perfections of the spiritual bonded completely to their corporal when Elohim had realized the flaw in what world above. Everything in this world, bodies rather than to Him. Though still he’d then considered his greatest creation though imbued with life from above, was connected to their Maker, the source of had been the grimmest day to ever mar also destined to decay. The beings that their spiritual existence, mankind did not the Heavens. It was with pain that Elohim were left to this disquieting landscape seem to possess that intuitive perception made the decision to throw these innocent were His weaker creations, the ones that of His desires that all His elect possessed. but imperfect creatures out of His sight. failed in some way to do what they were Consequently, they could not obey for they And yet when it came down to it, He could intended to do. But Elohim had found that could not know what He wanted. He had not abandon their infantile forms to the though they failed to meet His expecta- intended them for the Heavenly Kingdom, miserable Earth. For only two fates await- tions, they were simply too beautiful for but with such a flaw, how could He ever ed them upon the decaying Earth: to die Him to completely abandon. While He allow them right of entry? And yet, He swiftly from exposure to the elements or could not in good conscience allow them could not bear to resign them to such a to survive only to grow farther and farther entrance into his Heavenly Kingdom, nei- thwarted existence as that which existed away from him. And since He could not ther could He bring Himself to feel noth- in the lower realm. And so Elohim made decide which of these two destinies was ing for them. Why else would they be so a compromise. While He did not admit worse, He chose neither. well-cared for? Why else would He have these beautifully imperfect creatures to With great swiftness, Elohim embarked endowed them with the gift of procreation His Heavenly Realm, neither did He place on a journey to Earth with His two sleep- so that even as they died new life would them within the terrestrial sphere. Instead, ing charges and created for them a world spring up, engulfing them in a cycle of He created for them the Garden of Eden, so indistinguishable from Heaven that it death and renewal that allowed for at least a veritable Heaven on Earth. And in this would forever be remembered as God’s some illusion of permanence even in the beautiful paradise, they were safe from the paradise on Earth. He justified Himself ever changing landscape of the Earthly deterioration which marred the surface of with his firm belief that for now the flaw Kingdom? Yes, though He loved His lower the rest of the Earth, existing perfectly in a which marred His Adam and Eve was progeny and allowed them the ability to state of eternal childhood. so small as to be unnoticeable. The only procreate as a balm to soothe the bleak- measure that needed to be taken to avoid ness which characterized their existence, Chapter Three: Flawed this deterioration and preserve their per- Elohim had not given into any of His When He had first gazed upon the final fect forms was to prevent their continued

60 the lehigh review growth. Only in a state of eternal child- and Eve, there were no outside influences of Elohim’s archangels. Being termed an hood could they exist in perfection and that could corrupt his spiritual core and archangel simply indicates that one has without risk of endangerment. The angels fracture his connection to his Lord and more functions attached to his identity watched the departure with grief-stricken Master. Any imperfections that marred than the other angels. In reality, they had but determined eyes, their cheeks flush his existence had to be those arising from no skills or traits that made them inher- with the same frantic worry that charac- God Himself. And God had no imperfec- ently better than the other angels though terized their Lord and creator. Only one tions, just as He had no doubts and felt no they were a bit more complex because of angel watched these doings with dawning hesitation. So Elohim turned to face His the extra functions they served. God cre- horror and the beginnings of a newfound son with complete trust in His eyes. ated the archangels only sporadically as anger at His creator. need arose. So the archangels were neither Chapter Five: Doubt his oldest nor his youngest creations. Lu- Chapter Four: Trust Lucifer remembered when he had felt the cifer, however, turned out to be different Elohim continued to gaze upon His son. first stirrings of doubt in his creator. It from his fellow archangels. For as God’s Both were lost in introspection and felt was probably the first moment that God creations become more complex and He no need to acknowledge one another. He had felt doubt in Himself. Angels in their incorporated them within Himself, He marveled at how similar His favorite son most basic forms are but extensions of himself grew more complex. was to the flawed creations enshrined be- God’s own will, the embodiment of his In the end, perhaps it was Earth that low in the Garden of Eden before firmly own imaginative powers. Though they was His undoing. For how could a being so crushing the traitorous thought. To say have consciousness beyond that of God’s completely devoted to life and creation in- that Lucifer sometimes acted without the will and can make decisions outside of corporate that which reeked of death and inspiration of His Divine Will was not His orders, they exist primarily to enact decay within Himself? It only followed the same as to say that he was not in ac- his desires. Angels lack true identities for that some great contradiction would arise cordance with that Will. Lucifer was the they do not have personalities of their own. within His being to mar the simplicity of eighth archangel, the youngest and last Instead of an identity composed of actual his prior existence. Lucifer was God’s last of His archangels, and in many ways the personality traits, an angel’s identity is archangel, the youngest of the eight, cre- best. Practice had only perfected the skill equal to its functions. Even the archangels ated in the wake of the creation of Earth through which Elohim created other be- who command the other angels are no dif- itself, as if God in His bewilderment at ings. God had grown with His creations ferent. For though angels might obey the creating something so opposite to Himself and so it was only logical that some of His orders of other angels who are higher in had tried to cast out from his sight the paradoxical image of death and renewal which haunted Him with its puzzling exis- And the day when Elohim had realized tence. Thus, it was only natural that Luci- fer, his last creation, born amongst all this the flaw in what he’d then considered his self-turmoil, would be the embodiment greatest creation had been the grimmest of this contradiction and a contradiction himself since he, as all the other angels, day to ever mar the Heavens. also embodies God’s will. It was only natural that along with God’s will, Lucifer later creations often outshined the earlier the hierarchy, there is no sense of status also attuned with that growing part of ones with their originality and ingenious- between angels. Thus, there is also no jeal- God that dissented with Himself, that part ness. A more complex creator made for ousy among angels nor is there pride with- which no one else save Lucifer could hear a more complex creation. So it should in them for their own accomplishments. or respond to. And because he holds that have come as no surprise that Lucifer was Only joy existed. Joy in serving the will of part of God which disagrees with Himself, perhaps the closest Elohim could come God and meeting His desires. Once upon it was inevitable that he would eventually to making a replica of His own self. This a time, Lucifer had felt that joy too before begin to feel complex desires not bound to God knew and so how could He doubt His his growing cynicism began to slowly God’s Divine Will. It was inevitable that son? He was but a mirror reflection of His whittle away at that simple pleasure. he should become the first to practice free creator-father, was he not? Unlike Adam But don’t think that this was true of all will and further that he would appreciate

61 Satellites, JC Eckstine-Gomez

Adam and Eve not in spite of their imper- The brooding girl crinkled her brow in was content to sit motionless. Motionless, fection but because of it, for Lucifer was a thought. except for her eyes, those beautiful green person who could appreciate the imperfec- “Adam will not be pleased,” she mut- eyes that were forever shifting around so tion and contradiction that characterizes tered under her breath with just a hint of eager to understand the world around her humanity. indecision. and to solve the mystery of her own exis- No, Adam wouldn’t. Wasn’t that why tence. How often had he seen her stare at Chapter Six: Lilith he’d chosen her in the first place? They her own reflection for hours upon hours? “Well then… which shall it be?” were two halves of the same whole, created He knew it was not out of vanity, though Lucifer looked at the young girl be- from the same egg. And so it only followed she certainly had cause to be vain, but a fore him, a blossoming rose that put the that they would be polar opposites in be- true desire to comprehend what she was. flowers surrounding her in this Edenic havior, Adam favoring his tie to the living Some might wonder why Lucifer would paradise to shame. The thought that this Earth beneath him while Lilith was more find her self-contemplation so arresting. rose would never be allowed to come into inclined towards the mystical aspects of But for a creature who never questioned full bloom was too agonizing to be borne. life. She was the one who missed the celes- his own existence, her wonderment made There was a part of him that wanted to tial realm for she possessed the closer tie for a beguiling picture that he never quite take the apple in his hand and force it to the divine aspect of their being while he, tired of watching. He had known then that down her slender throat. But he wouldn’t. who was more closely tied to his corporal if either of them could comprehend what If freedom was to be had, she must choose form, was happier in this Earthly paradise he was trying to offer them then it would it herself. He owed her that much at least. than in its heavenly counterpart. Adam be her. Yes, Adam would be upset. But he “Will you eat of the apple of the tree of frolicked merrily in his beautiful new play- would accept it. For first and foremost, he knowledge?” ground as boys are wont to do while Lilith belonged to her as she belonged to him. If

62 the lehigh review she went, he would follow. he would eat of the forbidden tree. The “And yet they did not do as you wished “But he will bear it. For you, he will question was whether or not he could live them. They did not stay together as they bear it. And when he sees what the two of with the consequences. should have. You gave them choice and you can be together away from this mock- A scream rose up within him only to they chose wrong.” ery of a paradise, he will not look back.” die soundlessly within his throat as he was “I will admit this turn of events was With surprisingly steady hands, she wrenched from the Earth beneath him; the most unexpected. But perhaps I should grasped the apple firmly with her fingers living, breathing Earth that was pulling at have expected it. They were made to be and ate of the tree of knowledge. something at the very center of his being, perfect for each other, to complement each Lucifer smiled. refusing to let go. Could he live with it? As other in every way. And yet how could it turned out, the question didn’t matter. they truly be together when Lilith’s soul Chapter Seven: The Prodigal Son For as Lilith felt him breaking apart next yearns upwards while Adam’s remains Elohim watched the son He couldn’t to her, so close and yet so far away, she below? A contradiction is what they are, understand with sadness in His eyes. He found that it was she who couldn’t live for you gave them everything they needed looked past him at the two captives locked with it. to be together except a world that could in the paradise below only to double back The Earth didn’t pull at her the way it encompass both of their desires.” in shock. did him, yet she felt his pain nonetheless. “Perhaps that is so. But can you truly “What have you done?” And at the same time as she felt it pierce say that this new path that you have set “Only what you wanted me to do.” her heart, she also felt herself relent. She them on is better than the life that I had Elohim watched the scene playing out in felt herself begin to do that which they had planned so carefully for them? Lilith is the garden below with mounting horror. always sworn they would never do to each alone now as she was never meant to be other. She felt herself let go. For one brief while Adam remains on his beloved Earth Chapter Eight: The Temptation Of Adam moment, she resisted her own impulse where he and his Eve will surely die with Eons ago, when Elohim had first left them and then she realized she had no choice. the Garden that they have polluted. With there, He gave His two children free reign She couldn’t go back even if she wanted to. Lilith separated from them, the beauty over the Garden to do with it as they And to take him with her would be far cru- that encompassed humanity will be lost pleased. Only one edict did He give them eler than to leave him. So she did the only forever.” to follow. Only one thing was forbidden thing she could do for him. She took the “But can you not see? The purpose to them: the fruit of the tree of knowledge. fruit of the tree of knowledge from within of life is death. If you cannot die, then The fruit that could reverse the halting of him, the very fruit which she had offered you cannot be called living. That is the their growth, created only to be consumed him only moment ago, pulling some of his contradiction of the living Earth beneath once the flaw had been eradicated and they own life essence out with it. To this she us, death and renewal tied so closely that could become subservient to His Divine added a portion of her own spirit. you cannot tell them apart. And that is Will like the angels before them. When he woke up, a pale beauty lay why humanity will be the envy of even “Lilith, you cannot truly mean to—” beside him, a blossoming rose that put the the angels, for they can live in a way that “It is already done Adam. And now you flowers surrounding her in their Edenic we with our immortal lives cannot. As must choose. Will you eat of the apple of paradise to shame. But she wasn’t Lilith. for Lilith, she is with them even now. For the tree of knowledge? Will you come with Eve is of both her and Adam, a careful me or will you stay here?” Chapter Ten: Contradiction balance of the two. With the death of the “With you . . . of course I go with you.” Elohim looks at His son and perhaps it is Garden also comes the possibility of new Adam grasped the apple with trembling the first time that He truly sees him. Luci- life and through Eve the progeny of Adam hands and ate of the tree of knowledge. fer is still smiling. will never be lost to you. They will always “What was this meant to accomplish? If yearn for you even as they cling to earthly Chapter Nine: Eve you had but left them alone in Eden, they life. You will see. They may not do what Of course Adam accepted the apple. They would have remained flawless eternally.” they were originally intended to do and were two halves of the same whole, were “And that’s precisely why I didn’t leave they may never be able to truly understand they not? Where she went, of course he them alone… couldn’t leave them alone. I you, but they will help you to understand would follow. What she ate, he must eat couldn’t bear to watch them lead such a the Earth beneath us, the contradiction of too. It wasn’t a question of whether or not futile existence. Could you?” this aberration called life.”

63

ECONOMIZATION OF THE In the Sierra Leone Civil War, politically and SIERRA militarily counterproductive actions were commonplace and atrocities were committed LEONE against those who offered support. Despite efforts of external powers to broker peace agreements, WAR the various factions continued fighting. This study seeks to answer why the RUF was successful despite inferior numbers and strategies anathema to by Stephen Erbrick modern counterinsurgency doctrines. It analyzes how war legitimizes crime and the suppression of democratic politics, adding to the growing body of research on intrastate conflict and the political economy of civil war.

Halflife (detail) E’lana Lemon

65 “We fought ten years for nothing.” nomic, political, and military objectives of states that are also suffering from brutal –Gibril Massaquoi, spokesman for the RUF the opposing sides—the RUF and the SLA intrastate war that is caused and sustained high command (Sierra Leone Army)—and also how they by primarily economic factors and not real achieved their goals. Thus, I ask several or perceived ethnic divisions. subsidiary questions: what role did the initial political, social and economic con- Background “Conflict can create war economies, ditions play in inviting the RUF interven- The Political History of Sierra Leone often in regions controlled by tion? Was the RUF primarily concerned Upon the death of Sierra Leone’s first rebels or warlords and linked to with the exploitation of Sierra Leone’s prime minister in 1964, politics in the alluvial diamond mines or did the RUF country became increasingly character- international trading networks; have real political aspirations as well? How ized by corruption, mismanagement and members of armed gangs can benefit did diamonds—of little or no value to electoral violence that ultimately led to a from looting; and regimes can ordinary Sierra Leoneans other than their weak and cynical civil society, the collapse attraction to foreigners—help finance the of the education system and a generation use violence to deflect opposition, decade-long conflict? Even more impor- of dissatisfied youth who would eventu- reward supporters, or maintain their tantly, did control of alluvial diamonds ally become the RUF.3 When President access to resources. Under these provide an incentive for the SLA and Siaka Stevens entered into politics in 1968 the RUF to tacitly collude to indefinitely Sierra Leone was a constitutional democ- circumstances, ending civil wars prolong the civil war so that they could racy.4 When he stepped down—seventeen becomes difficult. Winning may not maintain their unique access to Sierra Le- years later—Sierra Leone was a one-party be desirable: the point of war may one’s lucrative mineral wealth? And lastly, state with a lower GDP than both Somalia was the presence of the alluvial diamond and Rwanda.5 Steven’s rule, sometimes be precisely the legitimacy which it mines and unprotected villages a major called “the seventeen year plague of lo- confers on actions that in peacetime determinant of the RUF’s and the SLA’s custs,” saw the destruction and perversion 6 would be punishable as crimes.” sordid behavior towards non-combatants? of every state institution. Parliament was In Sierra Leone, the civil war legiti- undermined, judges were bribed and the –David Keen, The Economic Functions of mized various kinds of crime and the sup- treasury was bankrupted to finance per- Civil Wars, 1998 pression of democratic politics that served sonal projects that funneled millions of a multiplicity of local and individual goals. dollars to insiders.7 When Stevens failed Introduction Importantly, this report examines if local to coopt his opponents, he often resorted his report challenges the and individual elements had a strong in- to state sanctioned executions or exile. In assumption that the aim centive to indefinitely prolong the civil war 1985, Stevens stepped down and handed of war is to win. During to maintain their economic and political the nation’s preeminent position to Major the Sierra Leone Civil War benefits and even their lives. In support General Joseph Momoh, a notoriously in- (SLCW), politically and of this claim, it took a determined inter- ept leader who maintained the status quo.8 Tmilitarily counterproductive actions were national force to tip the balance of power During his seven year tenure, Momoh wel- commonplace, enemies routinely col- of the local interests and end the ten year comed the spread of unchecked corruption laborated, and atrocities were committed long civil war.2 But, what are the impli- and complete economic collapse. Unable against the same population from which cations of the RUF’s success? Does the to pay its civil servants, those desperate both sides should have sought support.1 protracted and seemingly unending na- enough ransacked and looted government The primary question that this report will ture of the SLCW provide any lessons for offices and property.9 But the government attempt to resolve is why the RUF (Revo- structuring peace agreements when easily hit rock bottom when the treasury could lutionary United Front) was so successful accessible natural resources are present? no longer afford to pay schoolteachers and despite inferior numbers and barbarous Many of the conditions illustrated in this the education system collapsed.10 Because behavior that rebuked modern counter- report are not unique to Sierra Leone. Al- only wealthy families could afford to pay insurgency doctrines. In order to address though Sierra Leone was especially ripe private tutors during the late 1980s, the my primary question, I must examine the for conflict, the implications gleaned from bulk of Sierra Leone’s youth roamed the origins of the conflict as well as the eco- this report may be applicable to other streets aimlessly. Corruption and mis-

66 the lehigh review rule by Momoh and Stevens left ordinary unemployed youths.17 But it is important structure and its members were trained citizens with nothing. The most pressing to note that the local civilians referred to in the use of modern weaponry.27 The issues for these citizens were (and arguably many of these new soldiers as “sobels” or Kamajors clashed with both government still are) basic: land, shelter and justice. “soldiers by day, rebels by night” because of and RUF forces and was instrumental in their close ties to the RUF.18 With morale countering government soldiers and rebels Major Actors low and rations even lower, many SLA that were looting villages.28 The success of Revolutionary United Front (RUF) soldiers discovered that they could do the Kamajors raised calls for its expansion, Organized in Liberia under the guidance better by joining with the rebels in loot- and members of street gangs and deserters and leadership of both Charles Taylor and ing civilians in the countryside instead of were also co-opted into the organization.29 Foday Sankoh, this rebel group during fighting against them.19 By mid-1993, the However, the Kamajors became corrupt the spring of 1991 intervened in Sierra two opposing sides became virtually indis- and deeply involved in extortion, murder Leone in an attempt to overthrow the tinguishable.20 and kidnappings by the end of the Momoh government and sparked a grue- conflict.30 some ten year civil war that enveloped the Executive Outcomes (EO) entire country and left 50,000 dead.11 The For $1.8 million per month (financed ECOMOG RUF had several objectives in addition primarily by the IMF), EO, a paramilitary The military branch of the Economic to financing and equipping its forces, but group from South Africa, was paid to ac- Community of West African States, this three were most important: crippling the complish three goals: return the diamond force intervened in the first days of the government’s commercial and industrial mines to the government, locate and de- conflict and was most significant following activities, undermining the physical se- stroy the RUF’s headquarters and operate the Armed Forces Revolutionary Council curity of the state and attracting interna- a successful propaganda program that (AFCR) coup.31 Condemning the AFRC tional publicity to their cause.12 The main would encourage local Sierra Leoneans to coup, ECOMOG forces demanded that the political goals of the RUF called were for support the GoSL.21 EO’s military force new junta return power peacefully to the the overthrow of the Momoh regime, the consisted of 500 military advisors and Kabbah government or risk sanctions and establishment of a multiparty democracy 3,000 highly trained and well equipped increased military presence.32 and an end to economic exploitation.13 combat ready soldiers backed by tactical Although the RUF used populist rhetoric air support and transport.22 Executive Geography and People to legitimize its initial rebellion and at- Outcomes employed black Angolans and Sierra Leone is a small state—approxi- tract supporters, it continuously failed to Namibians from Apartheid South Africa’s mately the size of North Carolina—and articulate a coherent political agenda other old 32nd Battalion, with an officer corps of lies on the West African coast.33 It is sur- than criticism that highlighted the short- white South Africans.23 Harper’s Magazine rounded by its larger neighbors: Guinea comings of the constantly changing gov- described this controversial unit as a col- to the north and east, and both Liberia to ernment.14 It is conceivable that the RUF’s lection of former spies, assassins and crack the southeast and the Atlantic Ocean form initial rebellion was in part motivated by bush guerrillas, most of whom had served its western border. Of the fourteen ethnic the shortcomings of the government of for fifteen to twenty years in South Africa’s groups that settled in Sierra Leone, three Sierra Leone (GoSL), however as the war most notorious counter insurgency units.24 groups—the Mende, Temne and Limba— progressed, the RUF became increasingly are the numerically the largest.34 Although enamored with the cumulative benefits of Civil Defense Force (Kamajors) real and imagined ethnic divisions have Sierra Leone’s profitable natural resources A grassroots irregular force, the Kamajors influenced political contests and military and not political power.15 operated invisibly in familiar territory and recruitment in the past, the SLCW was not was a significant impediment to maraud- characterized by ethnic strife.35 Sierra Leone Army (SLA) ing government and RUF troops.25 For Originally a weak and rag-tag group, the displaced and unprotected Sierra Leonans, The Demographics of RUF Recruitment SLA was largely impotent during the first the Kamajors was a means of taking up As a result of the Liberian Civil War, year of the war.16 Within four years, how- arms to defend family and home due to 80,000 refugees fled neighboring Liberia ever, the SLA had grown from under 4,000 the SLA’s perceived incompetence and ac- for the Sierra Leone-Liberian border.36 to over 17,000 troops by recruiting impris- tive collusion with the rebel enemy.26 The This displaced population, composed oned criminals and also by dragooning Kamajors had a well-organized command almost entirely of children, would prove

67 an invaluable asset to the invading rebel ence of diamonds in Sierra Leone invited thousands of civilians were expelled and armies because the refugee and detention and fed the civil war in several important kept away from these important economic centers, populated first by displaced Libe- ways. First, the highly unequal benefits centers.45 rians and later by Sierra Leoneans, helped incurred from diamond mining made Although diamonds were a significant provide the manpower for the RUF’s in- ordinary Sierra Leoneans frustrated. For motivating and sustaining factor, there surgency.37 Abandoned, starving and in instance, the National Diamond Mining were other means of profiting from the dire need of medical attention, the RUF Corporation (NDMC)—DeBeer’s venture civil war. For instance, gold mining was took advantage of the refugees poor condi- during the Steven’s government—was used prominent in some regions.46 Even more tion by promising food, shelter, medical to fund luxurious personal construction common was cash crop farming through care and whatever profits they gleaned projects and extravagant salaries for gov- the use of forced labor.47 Looting during from looting and mining in return for ernment elites.42 With the RUF incursion, the Sierra Leone Civil War was not limited their support.38 When this method of the formal diamond mining industry col- to diamonds, but also included that of recruitment failed, as it often did for the lapsed; government sponsored diamond currency, household items, food, livestock, RUF, youths were then coerced at the bar- exports declined significantly during the cars, and international aid shipments.48 rel of a gun to join the ranks. After being civil war while Liberia, a state with very For Sierra Leoneans who lacked access to forced to join, many child soldiers learned few diamond reserves, exported more arable land, joining the rebel cause was that the complete lack of law—as a result than $2 billion worth of diamonds to Bel- an opportunity to seize property through of the civil war—provided a unique op- gium.43 This figure suggests that the profits the use of deadly force. But the most im- portunity for self-empowerment through garnered from the diamond trade with Li- portant reason why the civil war should violence and thus continued to support beria and other international clients were not be entirely attributed to conflict over the rebel cause.39 instrumental in financing both the RUF’s the economic benefits incurred from the and even Charles Taylor’s war efforts in alluvial diamond mines is that the pre-war frustrations and grievances did not just concern that of the diamond sector. Con- But the most important reason why the trary to some notable political economists, the root cause of SLCW was poor gover- civil war should not be entirely attributed nance, poverty, and corruption, and the to conflict over the economic benefits failure to create institutions that protected 49 incurred from the alluvial diamond the freedoms of individual citizens. mines is that the pre-war frustrations and The Sierra Leone Civil War (March 23, 1991 to January 11, 2002) grievances did not just concern that of the On March 23, 1991, The RUF, with support from the special forces of Charles Taylor’s diamond sector. revolutionary army, the National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL), invaded East- Diamonds – The Natural Resource Curse neighboring Liberia. ern Sierra Leone.50 As the armies moved The Eastern and Southern districts in The RUF used funds harvested from towards the interior of the country they Sierra Leone, most notably the Kono and the alluvial diamond mines to purchase looted, raped, and murdered innocent the Koido districts, are rich in alluvial dia- weapons and ammunition from neighbor- civilians causing a massive refugee move- monds, and more importantly, are easily ing Guinea, Liberia and even SLA sol- ment into the neighboring countries of Li- accessible by anyone with a shovel, sieve, diers.44 Furthermore, the lack of external beria and Guinea.51 The village of Koindo and transport.40 Since their discovery in support made the control of the alluvial was a key target for the rebels during the the early 1930s, diamonds have been criti- diamond mines that much more impor- initial incursion because it was an impor- cal in financing the continuing pattern of tant. Most significantly, the presence of tant staging point for smuggling between corruption and personal aggrandizement easily extractable diamonds provided an Sierra Leone and Liberia.52 at the expense of needed public services, incentive for violence. To maintain control The initial rebellion could have easily institutions and infrastructure.41 The pres- of important mining districts like Kono, been quelled in the first half of 1991.53 But

68 the lehigh review the RUF—despite being both numerically inferior and extremely brutal against civil- ians—controlled two-thirds of Sierra Le- one by the year’s end.54 The SLA’s equally poor behavior made this outcome possible. Often afraid to directly confront or un- able to locate the elusive RUF, government soldiers were brutal and indiscriminate in their search for rebels or sympathiz- ers among the civilian population.55 After retaking captured towns, the SLA would perform a “mopping up” operation in which the townspeople were transported to concentration camp styled “strategic hamlets” far from their homes in Eastern and Southern Sierra Leone under the pre- tense of separating the population from the insurgents. However in many cases, this was followed by much looting and theft after the people were evacuated. This inevitably led to the alienation of many ci- vilians and pushed some Sierra Leoneans to join the rebel cause. For these reasons, civilians increasingly relied on the Kama- jors for their protection. Within one year of fighting the RUF offensive had stalled, but it still remained in control of large territories in Eastern and Southern Sierra Leone, leaving many villages unprotected while also disrupting food and government diamond produc- tion.56 Soon the government was unable to pay both its civil servants and the SLA.57 As a result, the Momoh regime lost all remaining credibility and a group of disgruntled junior officers led by Captain Valentine Strasser overthrew the govern- ment on April 29, 1992.58 Strasser justified the coup and the establishment of the Na- tional Provisional Ruling Council (NPRC) by referencing the corrupt Momoh regime and its inability to resuscitate the economy, provide for the people of Sierra Leone and repel the rebel invaders.59 The NPRC’s coup was largely popular because it prom- ised to bring peace to Sierra Leone.60 But the NPRC’s promise would prove to be African Cheetah, Linh Do short-lived.

69 In March of 1993, with much help from capital at Freetown.67 and widespread food and ammunition ECOMOG troops provided by Nigeria, In March 1995, the South African mer- shortages, many rebels still did not sur- the SLA recaptured the Koidu and Kono cenary group EO arrived in Sierra Leone render because they were extremely fearful diamond districts and pushed the RUF when the RUF was within twenty miles of of retribution from the now ruling Kab- to the Sierra Leone-Liberia border. The Freetown.68 As a military force, EO was bah regime and the Kamajor. In January RUF was facing supply problems as the extremely skilled and conducted a highly of 1997, the new democratically elected United Liberation Movement of Liberia for successful counter insurgency against government of Sierra Leone—beset by Democracy (ULIMO) gains inside Liberia the RUF. In just seven months, EO, with demands to reduce expenditures by the were restricting Charles Taylor’s NPFL’s support from loyal SLA and the Kamajors IMF—ordered Executive Outcomes (EO) ability to trade with the RUF.61 By the end battalions, recaptured the diamond min- to leave the country, even though a neutral of 1993, many observers thought that the ing districts and the Kangari Hills, a major monitoring force had yet to arrive.74 The war would soon be over because for the RUF stronghold.69 A second offensive embryonic peace process began to collapse first time, the SLA was able to establish captured the provincial capital and the almost as soon as Abidjan was signed be- itself in the Eastern and the Southern min- largest city in Sierra Leone and destroyed cause of renewed Kamajor attacks and the ing districts.62 the RUF’s main base of operations near fear of punitive tribunals following demo- However, with senior government of- Bo, finally forcing the RUF to admit de- bilization kept many rebels in the bush ficials neglectful of the poor conditions feat and sign the Abidjan Peace Accord.70 despite their dire situation. faced by SLA soldiers, front line soldiers The hiring of EO seems to demonstrates On March 25, 1997, a group of dis- became resentful and began helping that some elements within the National gruntled SLA officers freed and armed themselves to Sierra Leone’s rich natural Provisional Ruling Council still wanted to 600 prisoners from the Pademba Road resources. This included alluvial diamonds repel the RUF invasion. Another explana- prison in Freetown.75 One of the prison- as well as looting and “sell game,” a tactic tion is that the NPRC simply desired to ers, Major Johnny Paul Koroma, emerged in which government forces would with- protect the capital (and themselves) while as the leader of the coup and the Armed draw from a town but not before leaving regaining control of the profitable mining Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC)— arms and ammunition for the roving reb- districts. In short, the efforts of EO forced the new GoSL.76 After blessing from the els in return for cash.63 Abraham suggests Sankoh to cut his losses and enter into a captured and imprisoned Foday Sankoh, that both sides not only had an interest in ceasefire and peace process. This period of RUF fighters—who were supposedly on looting for personal enrichment, but also relative peace also allowed the country to their last legs—were ordered out of the had a reason to collude so that the strained hold elections during which the military bush to participate in the coup.77 Without RUF could remain a formidable fighting junta handed power over to the democrati- hesitation and encountering only light re- force, prolonging the war to the benefit of cally elected President Ahmad Tejan Kab- sistance from SLA loyalists, 5,000 rag-tag both parties. Renegade SLA soldiers even bah in March of 1996.71 rebel fighters marched one hundred miles clashed with Kamajor units on a number The Abidjan Peace Agreement was and overran the capital.78 Without fear or of occasions when Kamajors intervened signed on November 30, 1996.72 Abidjan reluctance, RUF and SLA dissidents then to halt looting and mining.64 Furthermore, mandated that EO was to pull out in five proceeded to parade peacefully together. an end to the fighting would have made weeks after the arrival of a neutral peace- In short, the coup had been planned in elections a certainty, ending the benefits keeping force. However, it soon became conjunction with the RUF leadership.79 that the NPRC military elites gained clear Sankoh and other hardline elements Koroma then invited Sankoh to join his from holding office.65 Instead of working within the RUF did not want peace. The government, and appointed him Deputy towards ending the war, SLA soldiers and main stumbling block that prevented Charirman of Mining after appealing to NPRC elites appeared to be acting to pro- Sankoh from signing the agreement soon- Nigeria (where he was imprisoned) for his long it.66 The war dragged on as a low in- er was the number and type of peacekeep- release.80 The joint AFCR/RUF leadership tensity conflict until January of 1995 when ers that were to monitor the ceasefire.73 then proclaimed that the war had been RUF forces and dissident SLA elements Had the RUF leadership legitimately want- won, and a great wave of looting and re- seized the Sierromco and Sierra Rutile dia- ed to end the conflict, they would have prisals against civilians in Freetown under mond mines in the South West, furthering requested more, not fewer, peacekeepers. the auspice of: ‘Operation Pay Yourself’ the government’s economic struggles and Despite the RUF’s loss of strongholds in followed.81 President Kabbah, surrounded enabling a renewed RUF advance on the the Kangari hills and Kailahun districts only by his bodyguards, left by helicopter

70 the lehigh review for exile in nearby Guinea. Lome Peace Agreement was not particu- patron-client relationships allowed the Condemning the AFRC coup, ECO- larly popular with the people of Sierra GoSL to exclude almost all of society from MOG forces demanded that the new junta Leone because Sankoh, the commander of any tangible economic development or return power peacefully to the Kabbah the unimaginably brutal and treasonous political representation.94 In societies that government or risk sanctions and in- RUF, was now handed the second most are organized along patron-client lines, creased military presence.82 Starting at the powerful position in the country and even the state still extracts and distributes Lungi aiport, ECOMOG forces formed more importantly, control over all of Si- resources, however the extraction and a three-pronged attack that surrounded erra Leone’s lucrative diamond mines. distribution is privatized and therefore the the capital of Freetown.83 Overcoming en- Following the Lome Peace Agreement, interests of the society suffer immensely at the hands of small but powerful individual and group interests.95 In political systems The Sierra Leone Civil War was the that are typified by entrenched patron- client relationships, politics becomes a result of decades of state neglect and business because political power controls exploitation. the distribution of economic resources.96 Thus, politics becomes economics. Con- sequently, life during the SLCW became a trenched AFCR positions, the ECOMOG several renegade elements within the RUF, competition for the distribution of already forces retook the capital and reinstated the like the “West Side Boys,” would require scarce resources and had disastrous conse- Kabbah government but let the rebels flee not only a 17,500 man UN intervention quences.97 without further harassment.84 However, but also a British intervention to finally tip A history typified by underdevelop- the regions lying just beyond Freetown the balance of power and end the war de- ment, single party rule, and widespread proved much more difficult to pacify.85 cisively on January 11, 2002.90 By most es- corruption generated a yearning for revo- In summation, ECOMOG’s intervention timates, over 50,000 people lost their lives lutionary change—especially amongst the in Sierra Leone brought a tentative peace in the Sierra Leone Civil War.91 Countless youth of Sierra Leone.98 Anger at the exist- that also reestablished the Kabbah regime more fell victim to the reprehensible and ing political system was pervasive, and through negotiated talks with the RUF/ perverse behavior of the combatants. That many youths concluded that the unfair AFCR rebels.86 Unable to push the AFCR/ May, hundreds of thousands of Sierra system of exploitation justified their often RUF rebels from South and Eastern Sierra Leoneans reelected President Kabbah, and violent attempts at obtaining prosperity. Leone, the Kabbah regime was forced to the RUF failed to gain a single seat in par- But most importantly, this great divide be- make serious concessions in the coming liament.92 A victor was never proclaimed, tween the “haves” and the “have-nots” of year. and it is evident that all parties involved Sierra Leone made the country particular- Given that Nigeria was due to recall its in the Sierra Leone Civil War had gained ly receptive to the RUF’s 1991 invasion.99 ECOMOG forces without achieving a tac- little in the end. The RUF’s initial rebellion was an attempt tical victory over the RUF, the internation- to address the grievances of those at the al community intervened diplomatically Analysis bottom of a political system that failed to to promote negotiations between the RUF/ Patrimonial System of Rule provide even basic state services. It was AFRC rebels and the newly reinstated Kab- The Sierra Leone Civil War was the result only in this environment of utter state col- bah regime.87 The Lome Peace Agreement, of decades of state neglect and exploita- lapse that such levels of sustained violence signed on July 7, 1999 is controversial in tion. To better understand the civil war, it could be maintained. that Sankoh was pardoned for treason, is paramount to remember the decades of granted official status at the Vice President, political collapse that enabled a dysfunc- The Economization of the Sierra Leone and made chairman of the commission tional state system to perpetuate a pat- Civil War that oversaw the entirety of Sierra Leone’s rimonial system of rule. In Sierra Leone, While political rationality is difficult to diamond mines.88 In return, the RUF patron-client relationships have extended find in the rebels’ and the government’s of- was ordered to demobilize and disarm its well past the time of colonial rule and have ten counterproductive tactics, some sem- armies through a process of disarmament, become commonplace in the modern po- blance of economic rationality was more demobilization, and reintegration.89 The litical system.93 This system of entrenched evident throughout the conflict. If one

71 takes a narrow conception of rationality as the conflict indefinitely so that they could independent operations. This fragmenta- pursing ones interests by the most efficient extend their presence in these remote tion was such that some rebels had little means possible, then making money at the areas. The RUF, and the SLA to a lesser or no connection to that of Sankoh’s RUF, expense of unarmed civilians while avoid- extent, relied heavily on mining and loot- as demonstrated by the renegade elements ing open confrontation with other armed ing to sustain their operations.102 Through within the RUF that were reluctant to groups becomes perfectly rational. This the illegal diamond trade with neighbor- demobilize following Lome even when does not mean that the rebels or govern- ing Liberia, the RUF generated $75 million Sankoh was awarded the Vice Presidency ment dissidents were primarily motivated annually which was then used to purchase and control of the country’s alluvial dia- by greed instead of grievance. Grievances arms, ammunition and equipment.103 In mond mines. Both the RUF and the SLA stemming from Sierra Leone’s low level of a weak state like Sierra Leone, control of fragmented once in contact with the rich development—e.g. perpetual poverty, poor the political center was not necessarily the alluvial diamond mines. These rogue ele- healthcare and non-existent education most efficient means of achieving wealth ments within the RUF, like that of the system—invited and sustained the RUF and power. For the impoverished and “West Side Boys,” even fought against RUF invasion. Thus, one of the RUF’s motivat- under-educated youth that constituted the forces during the late 1990s.107

Brutalization of Civilizations In our perverse world, civilians are The economic opportunities provided by the civil war coupled with the fragmenta- sometimes feared simply because they tion in the chain of command allowed are representative of some unknown and groups on both sides to brutalize citizens with little recourse.108 During the SLCW, therefore possibly dangerous element. low ranking SLA and RUF soldiers com- mitted violent atrocities against non-com- ing factors in intervening in Sierra Leone RUF, the alluvial diamonds mines were an batants, because they did not have to fight was the desire to overthrow the neglectful, easy means of improving one’s well-being. for the support of the local population authoritarian and self-interested Momoh For the RUF, warfare for expropriation when the economic benefits derived from regime.But Sierra Leone’s rich natural became its raison d’etre. It is conceivable mining and looting increasingly replaced resources and easily lootable commodities that if the RUF failed to maintain control their desire for political control.109 But also invited the RUF invasion and pro- of the alluvial diamond mines or refrained even when political control was desired as longed the conflict. from theft and robbery, then the conflict in the case of RUF elites like Sankoh, the would have likely fizzled out by the end profits earned from the diamond trade Protracted Nature of Conflict of the year given forceful government op- could be used to achieve political office Although reformist or revenge based mo- position.104 through bribery or violent insurrection. tivations motivatedinvited the rebel inva- Furthermore, the SLA could loot and sion to some extent, the attainment of the Fragmentation of Warring Parties pillage because it could rely on external alluvial diamonds mines and material re- In other intrastate conflicts that did not powers like ECOMOG, UNAMSIL, or sources from looting and theft increasingly involve a wealth of natural resources, only the British to protect the political center. became the overarching motivation for a small number of warring parties openly With actors on both sides less reliant on prolonging the insurgency.100 This does not confront each other because only a few the civilian population for support be- mean that the rebel forces did not wish to groups are capable of financing the war cause of profits earned from the diamond overthrow the government, but rather that effort.105 But the SLCW is different from trade, the belligerents’ main rational from the rebel factions wanted to gain political other intrastate conflicts in that the oppos- refraining from egregious acts of violence control as a means of maintaining their ing factions were fragmented and numer- was essentially marginalized. Moreover, as access to the vital economic resources.101 ous.106 In Sierra Leone, the rich benefits the civil war progressed, groups from both The alluvial diamond mines and raids on that could be reaped from the alluvial sides increasingly recruited criminals and villages were very real means of economic diamond fields and unprotected villages, derelicts to join their respective ranks.110 advancement for both sides in the civil war towns and cities enabled numerous actors This, coupled with independent factions and were powerful incentives to prolong to emerge because they could finance their that were able to operate free of the cen-

72 the lehigh review tralized chain of command, led to abuses against civilians during the SLCW that were high relative to counter counterinsur- gency doctrine. But both economic and political moti- vations are sometimes inadequate justifi- cations for the RUF’s and the SLA’s simply barbaric and unnecessary level of violence. According to Human Rights Watch, 7,635 corpses were buried as a result of the January 1999 incursion into Freetown.111 Keen suggests that the AFCR/RUF rebels feared civilians and their militias because they stood beyond the system of collusion and therefore posed a substantial threat to their security.112 By passing or harbor- ing important information, civilians can hurt or betray, particularly because civil- ian women and children are not usually suspected. In our perverse world, civilians are sometimes feared simply because they are representative of some unknown and therefore possibly dangerous element. The A Tinge of Summer, Lihn Do ever increasing effectiveness of the CDFs Kamajors also added to the RUF’s fear of the civilian population. Given that the the economic motivation to continue the differ greatly from other intrastate con- Kamajors could not easily be targeted, in- insurgency. Sadly, the fragmentation of flict in which economic motivations play discriminate and gruesome attacks against the warring parties and economic ben- little role. civilians became common as the Kamajors efits gained from criminal and extractive Although the focus of this report has grew in strength. efforts facilitated the brutalization of the concerned itself with only the SLCW, civilian population because the lower this analysis has similar implications Conclusions and Implications ranks within the warring parties increas- for other cases in which the actors have All in all, access to Sierra Leone’s rich ingly lost interest in political control. access to valuable natural resources and natural and material resources—the allu- When the primary motivation of sustain- real and imagined ethnic divisions are vial diamond mines and unprotected vil- ing the war is the extraction of resources negligible. Importantly, these findings lages—enabled both sides to finance a war for personal enrichment, then it is more may improve our understanding of how that was increasing fought for economic likely that both sides would be less to prevent civil war and also how to re- motivations. The great wealth reaped from inhibited to commit atrocities against solve them successfully. But even more the vital economic centers had three pri- civilians.113 Coupled with an increasing importantly, if the actors in the Sierra mary effects. First, it enabled the fragmen- number of criminals and thugs that con- Leone Civil War had access to economic tation of both sides, because the individual stituted the armies of both sides, the civil and political advancement through other detachments could break away from their war took a barbaric turn. When civil war means than just civil war, then the exist- former leadership and still fund their mili- is no longer framed as a political contest ing conditions that invited the invasion tary campaigns with the income that they for control of the state, but instead de- would largely be marginalized and thus generated from mining and looting. Addi- volves into an economic contest between there would be little reason for conflict. tionally, the diamond mines and material individual, local and foreign elements, goods gained from theft were often used then it can be assumed that the manner for personal enrichment thus reinforcing in which the civil war will be fought will

73

Most countries in the Western Hemisphere have reduced their incidence rates of HIV/ AIDS, but Haiti continues to experience alarming increases in diagnosed cases. This paper examines how political turmoil, poverty, violence and gender inequality contribute to the threat of HIV/AIDS throughout this region, and in particular, how POVERTY, gendered societal constraints make women especially INEQUALITY vulnerable by compelling them to prioritize economically- AND POWER beneficial sexual unions over personal health. Only when DYNAMICS: societal and economic factors Women and their Role in the Haitian are identified can a global AIDS Epidemic eradication of the disease become possible. by Emily Purcell

Winged Orange (detail) Heather K. Salwach

75 The Haitian AIDS Epidemic: The disease has shifted from prevalence in to the early years when cases of AIDS were An Introduction one gender to another. “By the end of 2007, observed almost exclusively in men, HIV he AIDS pandemic has 53 per cent of all reported cases of HIV in infection in today’s society has now shifted caused great alarm across the country were among women aged 15 to women and children.”7 When the first the globe in the past thirty to 49 years old.”5 The expansion of AIDS cases of the epidemic reached the village years. Initially, research ef- throughout Haiti is fuelled by poverty, of Do Kay, the people infected were inter- forts were launched in an at- various types of sexual union, violence viewed. Out of all the natives of Do Kay, Ttempt to control the spread of the disease: and power dynamics between genders—all “None of the first four villagers diagnosed However, the infection spread rapidly. No of which are factors involved in gender with AIDS had a history of transfusion longer just the disease of Caucasian ho- inequality. Societal expectations and limi- with blood or blood products; none used mosexual men, AIDS has expanded to en- tations for women draw the focus away illicit drugs, and none had a history of ho- compass people of all races, sexual orienta- from personal health and protection and mosexual contact or other ‘risk factors’ as tions, and genders. The shift from distinct towards economic support and stability. designated by the CDC.”8 All four natives risk groups to an entire global population Although dynamics within society did share one characteristic, though—they humbled all prevention efforts. Recent and between genders drive the majority all lived in severe poverty. Many women prevention efforts have resulted in reduced of the AIDS epidemic, women’s biologi- who contracted HIV, like those in Do Kay, or leveled rates of HIV/AIDS incidents in cal vulnerability plays a small role in their were blamed to be sexually promiscu- countries such as such as North and Latin increased infection. HIV is transmitted ous. However, in a cross-sectional study America. Unfortunately, not all regions more easily from men to women than from conducted on pregnant women attending are experiencing such favorable results. women to men. This is because the virus prenatal care in a hospital in Descha- According to the Central Asian Regional “is more highly concentrated in semen pelles, Haiti, “participants were primarily Economic Corporation (CAREC), “The than in vaginal secretions; male ejaculate monogamous, with 61% reporting only Caribbean remains the only region in the is orders of magnitude larger than that of one partner in their entire life…How- Western Hemisphere with steadily increas- females; anatomic considerations clearly ever, despite the monogamous behavior ing rates of HIV.”1 Areas within the Carib- favor viral penetration of the vagina (or by the women, 61% of women reported bean, including the Republic of Haiti, have rectum), in which infected ejaculate may that they perceived their primary partner been struggling to control the disease due easily pool.”6 Although this biological dis- had another partner.”9 Therefore, women to a long history of poverty and political advantage is not the underlying cause of were more at risk not because of their own turbulence. Just before the arrival of HIV/ the epidemic in Haiti, it does highlight the sexual promiscuity, but because of their AIDS, there was a sizeable interval of overall theme of female vulnerability. partners’ activity. Women with only a few political and social turmoil.2 This chaos partners still risked contraction of HIV. undermined preventative efforts, and was The Transition: The Risk Group Subsequent research conducted in the a catalyst for the rapid integration of AIDS Shift impoverished regions of Port-au-Prince into all aspects of Haitian society. Today, When AIDS first emerged in Haiti, the concluded that the “high seropositivity about six percent of Haiti’s adult popula- high risk groups, such as gay men, drug rate (8%) found in pregnant women 14 to tion is infected with HIV (the highest rate users and prostitutes, were blamed for the 19 years of age suggests that women [in of infection in the western hemisphere) spread of the disease. However, as the epi- Cite Soleil] appear to acquire HIV infec- and approximately 30,000 Haitians die demic progressed, it shifted to encompass tion soon after becoming sexually active. from the disease each year.3 Risk of HIV heterosexual couples and genders. It was Moreover, this age group is the only one infection spread from distinct groups, clear in the early phases of the AIDS epi- in which a higher seropositive rate is not such as sex workers and homosexual men, demic that the focus of the prevention pro- associated with a greater number of sexual to encompass the entire Republic of Haiti. grams was prostitutes and their customers. partners. Women with only one sexual Not only was the entire region affected, This was because the destitute conditions partner in the year prior to pregnancy but the demographics of the illness shifted. of Haiti drove women to sell their bodies actually have a slightly higher prevalence Eighty-eight percent of initial cases of to earn enough to survive. However, “the rate…This suggests that they were infected AIDS in Haiti were among men, but by epidemic moved out from these primary by their first and only partner.”10 This 1983, women accounted for about a quar- risk groups to Haitians not at first re- research discounts the former belief that ter to a third of all cases of the disease.4 garded as populations at risk. In contrast sex workers were the ones at highest risk

76 the lehigh review for contracting HIV. Because of this sig- in rural areas. Searching for conjugal al- around and saw how poor [they] all were nificant seropositivity rate, marriage and liances with men with salaries, such as …It was a way out, that’s how I saw it.’”15 sexual unions are now included in the risk soldiers or truck drivers, suggests women’s Acephie follows the trend of young, rural factors for women along with prostitution economic dependence on men for finan- Haitian women entering sexual unions and drug use. cial security.13 These unions with salaried in exchange for monetary support. Ac- men are an indicator of poverty, one of the cording to Farmer et al., Acephie is by no The Exodus Towards the Cities strongest causes for the increase in infec- means a unique story: “In fact, in each Haiti has experienced a significant amount tion rates in Haiti. case of AIDS diagnosed in Do Kay, young of political unrest, among other tumultu- adults were driven to Port-au-Prince by ous conditions. The spread of the AIDS Poverty, Inequality, and Sexual the lure of an escape from the harshest epidemic is fueled not only by poverty and Unions poverty…women were straightforward economic instability, but also by political Poverty has been an issue in Haiti ever about the non-voluntary aspect of their crisis. This is due to the fact that “anarchy since colonists started producing sugar sexual unions: in their opinions, they had and violence are likely to lead to higher cane as a cash crop. Foreigners exploited been driven into unfavorable unions by rates of rape, and women in isolated areas the countryside and its inhabitants, and poverty.”16 Unfortunately, because many who have no access to food for their fami- Haiti was left impoverished and desolate. of these sexual unions are nonbinding, the lies might be driven to form partnerships Numerous political upheavals and a his- men are free to leave the women without with soldiers or truckers.”11 Because of the tory of political unrest have encumbered consequence at any point in the relation- political unrest, the economy of Haiti is Haiti with massive losses in unemploy- ship. According to marriage laws in Haiti, dwindling. People who live in the rural ment, education, and health care. These a husband is obligated to support his wife Haitian countryside travel to cities such issues affect all inhabitants of Haiti, but and children. However, “less than 25 as the capital Port-au-Prince in search “women pay the greatest price in terms of percent of Haitian men and women aged of better economic opportunity. Because low income, low literacy, high infertility, fifteen to forty-nine are married.”17 Many of societal expectations and restrictions and high infant and maternal mortality.”14 Haitian citizens simply cannot afford mar- that come into play with gender, women However, despite their disadvantages in riage, so many women are involved in re- are often forced into unions with men for almost every aspect of society, Haitian lationships lacking compulsory economic economic support. Women look to men, women are expected to find ways to sup- support. If a Haitian woman who par- often soldiers and truck drivers, for a port themselves and their families. Many ticipates in a nonbinding union contracts steady economic income. In a case-control Haitian women turn to men as a source HIV/AIDS, her sexual partner may leave her without consequence from the law. She will have to fend for the wellbeing of Because of societal expectations and herself and her children. For many women in this scenario, finding another partner is restrictions that come into play with their only option. This cycle contributes to gender, women are often forced into the expanding practice of serial polyandry, another contributor to the spread of HIV/ unions with men for economic support. AIDS in Haiti. Gender inequality in Haiti drives the study of AIDS in rural Haitian women it of fiscal stability. One young Haitian phenomenon of serial polyandry. This sur- was found that “the chief risk factors in woman profiled in Farmer et al., Acephie vival strategy occurs when a woman has this small cohort seemed to involve not Joseph, is from the rural village of Do Kay. “a succession of partners, each one provid- number of partners, but rather the profes- Acephie began to follow her mother to ing her with one or more children, along sions of these partners. Fully eight of the the market to carry produce to help raise with the hope that the father may offer women with AIDS/ARC had histories of money for her family. On one of her trips some support.”18 This phenomenon fuels sexual contact with soldiers or truck driv- to the market, “she met a soldier, formerly the AIDS epidemic because sex becomes ers.”12 The issue is that the men working stationed in Port-au-Prince, who began the only commodity that women can offer. in these professions have a higher risk for to make overtures to the striking young The chain of consecutive marriages begins contracting HIV than do peasants living woman from Do Kay. Acephie …‘looked early for women, where cultural tradition

77 promotes early sexual behavior. Accord- boyfriend, Acephie returned to Do Kay.”22 abuse. According to the Ministry of Wom- ing to a study conducted on Haitian street Instead of providing her with a stable part- en’s Affairs and Women’s Rights in Haiti, children, “adolescent girls are two to three ner, Acephie’s pregnancy made her even thirty percent of women living in Haiti times more likely to be HIV or syphilis- more economically unstable and reliable suffer physical, emotional or sexual vio- infected compared to boys of the same on finding a man for support. lence from their partners. Tanya, a young age due to sex with older men.”19 As with Both Acephie and Guylene spent their Haitian woman, recounts being abused Acephie, young Haitian women cannot lives in search of a stable relationship. “In by one of her partners. When she did not afford to refuse the sexual advances of a country in which few couples legally want to have sex, her partner “imposed older men. As related in Farmer, a young marry, bearing a man’s child (and hence himself upon [her] …He blamed [her] lack woman named Guylene from Savanette, putting oneself at further risk for HIV) of affection and even imagined that [she] Haiti, agreed to plasaj, a nonbinding union is one of the few ways in which a woman was having an affair with another man. with a man twenty years her senior.20 After can legitimize her relationship with a Finally, [she] had to let him do it.”27 This the man left Guylene with two children, man.”23 The practice of plasaj, or nonbind- psychological abuse degraded Tanya until she met another man who offered a union ing union, outnumbers marriages in Haiti she agreed to have sex with her partner. once more. After three years, Guylene was three to one.24 Plasaj is understood to be Violence, such as in Tanya’s relationship, is diagnosed with HIV. After her positive polygamous, for men can have multiple one of the many reasons for a lack of con- diagnosis, Guylene reacted to the advances standing unions at once. This multi-part- dom use throughout Haiti. Although there have been significant increases in HIV knowledge, technology, Many women in Haiti are aware of the and treatment around the world, there has been little change in condom use and risks of unprotected sex but fear the protection from sexually transmitted in- consequences of asking their partners to fections in countries such as Haiti.28 Part of the reason for the unchanging practice use protection more than contracting HIV. of unprotected sex is due to lack of educa- tion. “Of a national study conducted in of another interested soldier, who had a ner system encourages the spread of infec- Haiti…24% of women and 14% of men wife and two children.21 Guylene’s story tion. However, the sexual relations are not believed that HIV could not be prevented. is full of poverty and death, and she ends always willing on the part of the woman. Furthermore, 35% of women…surveyed up with HIV infection at a young age. knew that HIV could be prevented, but However, despite her disease, Guylene con- Sexual Violence: The Fear of Re- could not name any method of preven- ceives another child. In doing so, she most taliation tion.”29 However, the majority of the ex- likely infects her partner, who goes home The patterns of sexual unions in Haiti are planation for the lack of adaptation in con- and infects his wife. This necessity to find driven by the necessity of women to find traception use is due to gender inequality a partner drives the AIDS epidemic in stability, in economic and social terms. and relationship dynamics in Haiti. Many Haiti. Although Guylene understood that These economic power differentials make women in Haiti are aware of the risks of she was infected with AIDS, she had little it difficult for women to exercise control unprotected sex but fear the consequences choice but to find someone to support her. in contraceptive decisions.25 According of asking their partners to use protection In the end, however, she was left relying on to Devieux et al., “A study among women more than contracting HIV. According her elders to care for her remaining chil- in rural Haiti found that 54% of women to a Yolette Gentil, a woman who assists a dren. This vicious cycle continues until reported forced sex. Factors related to eco- program for female victims of sexual vio- the woman finds a stable partner or death. nomic vulnerability … as well as a younger lence in Haiti, “One very common practice The act of acquiring a man and bearing age and having STD-related symptoms is that of women being beaten for having his children can drive a woman further were associated with forced sex.”26 Vio- demanded the use of condoms from their into poverty. For instance, Acephie worked lence against women, such as forced sexual male partner.”30 However, the fear reaches in the city until she discovered that she relations, promotes the spread of HIV beyond just physical violence. According was pregnant: “This displeased both her infection. Forms of such violence include to Millord Dexai, Coordinator of the Col- partner and employer. Sans job and sans psychological violence as well as physical lectif des Feminises Universitaires, many

78 the lehigh review women do not ask their partners to use condoms because they are afraid of being accused of disloyalty.31 By being accused of infidelity, they are afraid “of jeopardiz- ing a relationship in the building of which they have invested energy, emotion and many years of their life.”32 Many women are afraid of losing their economic stabil- ity if they ask to use protection. To some women, this fear of losing support is more imperative than the fear of contracting HIV. Women’s fear of retaliation is one factor relating to the lack of condom use. An- other is the cultural belief system, where gender inequality is supported by cultural convictions. For instance, some Haitian women believe that a woman is only right to ask her partner to use a condom when she is certain that he is being unfaithful; otherwise, she has no right to ask for pro- tection during sexual intercourse.33 Hai- tian society drives the insubordination of women economically and sexually so that they have little say when it comes to pro- tection from sexually transmitted diseases.

Gender Power Dynamics All of the factors driving the spread of HIV infection deal with the dynamics of power between genders. Employing pro- tective methods, such as condoms during sex depends entirely on the influence that each partner has within the relationship. Australian sociologist Raewyn Connell is the author of the theory of gender and power, which is comprised of three major categories: the sexual division of labor, structure of cathexis, and the sexual di- vision of power.34 The sexual division of labor deals with control of money and economic stability. The structure of ca- thexis deals with gender differences in the investment of emotional energy in the relationship. The sexual division of power deals with the dynamics of power between the genders within the relationship, which often reflect the forces of power between Turning the Corner, Tom McMurtrie

79 genders within society. These three sec- he will then carry back to the woman at Conclusion tions are vital in understanding the forces home. Women tend to agree that refusing Haiti has always experienced poverty behind the AIDS epidemic. For instance, sex amounts to less than a death warrant and inequality. With each successive the sexual division of labor dictates in- for themselves.”38 For this reason, toying political coup, poverty, violence and dis- come and economic consistency, which with sexual power is a dangerous game. ease have wracked the struggling nation. influences sexual risk behaviors taken by The forces of power within relationships Therefore, it was no surprise that AIDS Haitian women in search of economic sup- and society as a whole drive the insecurity emerged as a notable sexually transmit- port. The sexual division of power “seems of women, the lack of attention to contra- ted infection. However, the spread of the particularly relevant to the social and eco- ceptive measures, and therefore, the AIDS infection from risk groups in the cities, nomic environment of rural Haiti…Lack epidemic. such as prostitutes and homosexuals, to of economic resources, especially among heterosexual couples across the coun- women, can reduce decision-making pow- Pregnancy and AIDS tryside was a disconcerting dilemma. er and has been linked to increases in HIV A significant impact that serial polyandry Stigma and discrimination shrouded the and STI risk.”35 Women who are involved has on the AIDS epidemic is through cases disease as researchers and anthropolo- in relationships with power discrepancies of AIDS in children. In 1987, 3.6 percent gists searched for an explanation. Finally, often experience inferiority when it comes of all cases of AIDS in Haiti were pediatric gender inequality emerged as a culprit of to decisions relating to contraceptives. Ac- cases; just two years later, that statistic had the spread of infection. The disparity be- cording to the Bulletin of the Pan Ameri- risen to 6.6 percent.39 This statistic would tween genders determines “the extent to can Health Organization, in 1993 “61% of be even higher, but most of the children which sexism will mark the course of HIV Haitian women felt it was exclusively the who are infected die before their HIV disease. In highly sexist settings, the dis- males’ right to choose whether or not to develops into full-blown AIDS. Also, closure of HIV infection is more likely to use a condom.”36 The power dynamics of because of infrequent medical care, many provoke stigma and threat of domestic vio- gender dictate women’s access to personal mothers are not aware that they are in- lence than in environments where women health and protection. The authority of the fected with HIV until they visit the hospi- enjoy gender equity.”43 Domestic violence men in Haiti dominates that of the women tals for prenatal care. They most likely will is a consequence of the power discrepancy in many aspects of the relationship. When pass their infection on to their children, within relationships. Fears of retaliation sexual power is not shared equally be- who die from complications during the or abandonment promote habits of unpro- tween the two genders, decisions involving first years of development. Based on data tected sex and exposure to HIV. Societal sexual interaction lead to a lack of protec- collected by various research groups, “ap- expectations drive women into unwilling tion from sexually transmitted diseases proximately seventy thousand seropositive unions and, perhaps, even deeper poverty: like HIV/AIDS. women in Haiti will give birth to between Women bear children to legitimize their The unbalanced power within a rela- twenty-eight hundred and forty-five hun- relationships, and are often left without tionship is a catalyst for the spread of HIV dred HIV-infected infants a year, or an av- a partner for support. All of these fac- infection. While men often have author- erage of eight to twelve new cases a day.”40 tors driving the spread of HIV infection ity over women, women can also wield Also, based on data from the Centers for are connected in a complicated system of power over men. Many women refer to Disease Control and the World Health stigma, expectation and culture. By finally their sexuality as “‘my property’ or ‘my Organization, HIV infection, rather than understanding the underlying causes of capital,’ thus defining sex in terms of a malnutrition, was found to be the biggest the AIDS epidemic in Haiti, prevention marketable commodity.”37 This commod- contributor to child mortality in Haiti.41 efforts can be better directed and perhaps ity gives women the power to seek out an This figure is noteworthy, considering level the increasing number of AIDS cases. economically supportive relationship. This Haiti ranked above India and Sudan in Global eradication of the disease is a fan- influence, however, is fickle. Refusing to under-five child mortality in 2000.42 Soci- tastical goal. Nevertheless, understanding partake in sexual relations is not an option etal expectations compel women to have the causes of disease proliferation is a vital that many women feel they possess. Wom- children, and women spread HIV infec- step in the complex battle against HIV/ en fear that, by refusing sex to their part- tion through childbirth: this cycle is one of AIDS. ners, “they will send the man back out to many that perpetuates the AIDS epidemic the streets to find a more compliant wom- in Haiti. an who will infect him with HIV, which

80 the lehigh review ARTWORK

alexandra white Crusta Mechanica

81 sarah wing The Peaceful Warrior 82 the lehigh review hannah han My Sister

83 logan mcgee Surface

max gilbert Crayo-yos 84 the lehigh review hana harrison Blue Nest Events bluenestevents.com

erin fox Blonde

85 emily strackhouse Window View

86 the lehigh review hannah cochran Dot Window Display

linh do Never Let Me Go

87 michael w. moore Desk 88 the lehigh review heather k. salwach Trinity

michael w. moore Desk 89 Sam Andersen Erin Fox Sam Andersen is an art history and Erin Fox is a senior at Lehigh from Pitts- graphic design double major in her third burgh, PA. She has a major in graphic de- year. She is drawn to an aesthetic of “clean sign and minor in art history with a about imperfections” in that she incorporates passion for whimsical illustrations. hand drawn details in her graphic work. The focus of this project was to mimic the Tierney Gallagher the photorealism of Chuck Close. I am a junior history major working to- ward my Masters in Education as part of Kenny Barry the five-year program, with plans to be- contributors I am a junior architecture and economics come a history teacher. double major from Scottsdale, AZ. It is my intention to strike a nerve within the Max Gilbert viewer of my work; a nerve which triggers Max Gilbert is a senior in the Lehigh Uni- a memory, even if only for a moment. versity design Arts Program, majoring in product design. Following his graduation Hannah Cochran in the spring of 2012, Max plans to intern I am from Fair Oaks, CA. I am a senior as a creative professional for a number de- comprehensive design major. I played var- sign agencies before returning to graduate sity soccer all four years and I’m working school and receiving his masters in design. at Lilly Pulitzer as a junior store designer near Philadelphia, post graduation. Hannah Han Hannah is a freshman architecture major JC Eckstine-Gomez and would possibly double in fine arts. JC Eckstine-Gomez is a senior graphic design major and entrepreneurship mi- Hana Harrison nor. Originally trained as a fine artist, he I was born and raised in El Paso, TX be- has actively explored the field of graphic fore making the trek to Pennsylvania. As design since the age of 14. JC adheres to a Lehigh senior, I am studying graphic his philosophy that the simplest and most design and computer science. Next year, basic designs can often best communicate I plan to stay at Lehigh to pursue a Com- an idea or message. puter science masters degree so that I can continue to foster my interest in web and Stephen Erbrick software development. Stephen Erbrick is a graduate of Lehigh University. He currently lives in Washing- Jessica Johansson ton D.C. Jessica Johansson is a third year architec- ture student. Linh Do Linh Do is a senior international relations Jacob Kennon major and a former photo editor for The Jacob Kennon is a senior economics and Brown and White. She is from Hanoi, Viet- international relations major and is pursu- nam and has also lived in Eastern Africa ing a career in public service. He grew up for half a year. Her photography works in Seattle, WA. focus on nature, people, and the delicate connection between reality, vision, and imagination.

90 the lehigh review Julia Klitzke Gina Notaro Chelsea Sheridan Julia is a junior majoring in architecture Gina Notaro is a senior majoring in behav- Chelsea Sheridan is a graphic design and civil engineering. She is in the ioral neuroscience. Next year, she will be senior. She is graduating in May and is ex- Eckhardts program and is a member of the attending graduate school to study cited to pursue her career in graphic Phi Sigma Pi honors fraternity. She is cur- biomedical engineering. design wherever it may lead! rently studying abroad in Denmark. Anu Paulose Kathryn Stevens Stephen Kuschman Anu Paulose is an avid lover of literature I am currently a junior partaking in the Stephen Kuschman is a senior architecture who double majored in English and his- IDEAS program at Lehigh. I have concen- major with a minor in engineering from tory at Lehigh University. Among Anu’s trations in both architecture and environ- Westchester NY. achievements include her acceptance into mental engineering and I am hoping to ap- Phi Beta Kappa, obtaining departmental ply environmental sustainability concepts E’lana Lemon honors in English, and being rewarded the to architecture. I am a double major in English and art. I George D. Harmon Memorial Award for love creating portrait art, design, photog- Academic Excellence in History. She hopes Emily Strackhouse raphy and watercolor works. to one day pursue a degree in law. I’m a finance major and psychology minor and I play for the Varsity Women’s Soccer Gina Mason Erika M. Peters Team. I’ve always had a strong interest in Gina Mason is a senior English major hail- Erika M. Peters is a double major in politi- photography and this picture is an outside ing from Wilson Borough, Pennsylvania. cal science and global studies, with spe- view of the Stockton Inn’s tavern bar. After receiving her Bachelor of Arts in cific interests in comparative politics and English in May ‘12, Gina plans to stay at current events. Upon her completion of a Karen Timmerman Lehigh as a President’s Scholar to complete Masters degree in Political Science from Karen Timmerman is a graduating senior her Master of Education and teacher certi- Lehigh University, she intends to continue majoring in international relations with a fication in secondary education. her education at law school. minor in Biology. She enjoyed doing the research for this paper very much and Logan McGee Emily Purcell is fascinated by the interdependence the Logan McGee is a design major with con- I am a biology and anthropology double global community has with oil. centrations in both product and graphic major with a health, medicine and society design. He is also pursuing an engineering minor from Bethesda, Maryland (although Alexandra White minor, which heavily influences his de- my heart belongs to Washington, D.C.). Alexandra White is a senior architecture signs and other creative artwork. After graduation, I hope to work in the student. field of public health, preferably with inter- Tom McMurtrie national disease prevention and treatment. Sara Wing Tom McMurtrie studies architecture and I am grateful for the opportunity to have “My name is Sara Wing and I am a senior experiments with photography, much of my work shared with the Lehigh commu- architecture major with a minor in engi- which derives from his travels in China, nity. neering. I enjoy using art as a medium of Japan, and Finland. His work focuses on personal expression and communication themes such as rituals in the built environ- Heather K. Salwach and hope to pursue a higher degree in ment and materiality. Heather K. Salwach is a senior major- design in my hometown of Chicago after ing in graphic and product design. “My graduation.” Michael W. Moore idea of modern design is one of profound Michael W. Moore is a senior IDEAS transdisciplinarity; a synthesis of disparate Pei Pei Yang major with concentrations in mechani- elements and various spheres of knowledge Pei Pei Yang studies architecture and civil cal engineering and design. He enjoys the into a grand, united, and altogether incom- engineering. She seeks to capture poetic tactility of working with wood and other parable whole.” After graduation, she will qualities in mundane industrial subjects materials, and strives to bring those feel- pursue a career in design in the Philadel- with an emphasis on space, order, ings into the pieces he designs. phia metropolitan area. and light.

91 Women and Unionism: How the 31 “Girl Strikers go to City Hall,” The New York Shirtwaist Makers Strike of 1909 Times, December 4, 1909. Precipitated Female Organization and 32 Ibid., 31. Unionism in the Garment Industry 33 Lorwin, The Women’s Garment Workers, 164. 34 Ibid., 25. 1 Franciose Basch, “The Shirtwaist Strike in His- 35 Merot, “A Woman’s Strike,” 127-28. endnotes tory and Myth,” in The Diary of a Shirtwaist 36 Dubofsky, When Workers Organize, 56-57. maker, by Theresa S. Malkeil (Ithaca, ILR Press 37 Ibid., 57. Cornell University, 1990), 5. 38 Basch, “Shirtwaist History and Myth,” 47. 2 Ibid., 7-8. 39 Lorwin, The Women’s Garment Workers, 166. 3 Ibid., 10. 40 Dubofsky, When Workers Organize, 58. 4 Ibid., 13. 41 Best, “Organization in Women’s Garment 5 Ibid., 1 Workers,” 782. 6 Lewis Levitski Lorwin, The Women’s Garment Workers (New York: Arno and the New York Democracy in Japan: from Meiji to Times, 1969), 145. MacArthur 7 Melvyn Dubofsky, When Workers Organize: 1 On modernization, see for instance, R. Ingle- New York City in the Progressive Era (Amherst, hart and C. Welzel, “How Development Leads MA: University of Massachusetts P, 1968), 43. to Democracy,” Foreign Affairs 88.2 (2009). 8 Harry Best, “Extent of Organization in the 2 Barrington Moore, Jr., Social Origins of Dic- Women’s Garment Making Industries of New tatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant York,” The American Economic Review 9 (Dec in the Making of the Modern World (Boston: 1919): 779, accessed October 25, 2011, http:// Beacon Press, 1966), 246. www.jstor.org/stable/1813168. 3 Kurt Weyland, “Institutional Change in Latin 9 Basch,“Shirtwaist History and Myth,” 15. America: External Models and their Unintend- 10 Best, “Organization in Women’s Garment ed Consequences,” Journal of Politics in Latin Workers,” 779. America 1.1 (2009): 44-6. 11 Ibid., 9. 4 G. O’Donnell and P.C. Schmitter, Transitions 12 Lorwin, The Women’s Garment Workers, 146. from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclu- 13 Basch, “Shirtwaist History and Myth,” 16. sions about Uncertain Democracies (Baltimore: 14 Ibid., 19-20. John Hopkins University Press, 1986), 37-9. 15 Dubofsky, When Workers Organize, 48. 5 Moore, Jr. Social Origins, 248-50. 16 Lorwin, The Women’s Garment Workers, 151. 6 S. Garon, “From Meiji to Heisei: The State and 17 Ibid., 16. Civil Society in Japan,” in The State of Civil 18 Dubofksy, When Workers Organize, 51. Society in Japan, ed. F. J. Schwartz and S. J. 19 Ibid., 18. Pharr (Boston: Cambridge University Press, 20 Basch, “Shirtwaist History and Myth,” 31. 2003), 46-48. 21 Lorwin, The Women’s Garment Workers, 154. 7 H. Borton, “Past Limitations and the Future of 22 Basch, “Shirtwaist in History and Myth,” 33. Democracy in Japan,” Political Science Quar- 23 Helen Marot, “A Woman’s Strike: An Apprecia- terly 70.3 (1955): 410-11. tion of the Shirtwaist Makers of New York,” 8 Garon, “From Meiji,” 48. Proceedings of the Academy of the Political 9 See Henry E. Hale, “Hybrid Regimes: When Science in the City of New York 1(Oct. 1910): Democracy and Autocracy Mix,” in The Dy- 125, accessed October 21, 2011, http://www. namics of Democratization: Dictatorship, De- jstor.org/stable/1171703. velopment, and Diffusion, ed. Nathan J. Brown 24 Ibid., 22. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 25 Marot, “A Woman’s Stike,” 126. 2011: 23-45. 26 Dubofsky, When Workers Organize, 53. 10 Moore, Jr., Social Origins, 258. 27 Gaylord S. White, Michael M. Davis Jr., John 11 S. A. Minichiello, ed., Japan’s Competing Mo- L. Elliot, Thomas C. Hall, Edwin R.A. Selig- dernities: Issues in Culture and Democracy, man, Mary K. Simkhovitch, Ida M. Tarbell and 1900-1930 (Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Lillian D. Wald, “Accuse the Police: Neighbor- Press, 1998), 8. hood Workers Say the Shirtwaist Strikers are 12 Mark E. Pietrzyk, International Order and Oppressed,” The New York Times, December Individual Liberty: Effect s of War and Peace 20, 1909. on the Development of Governments (Lanham: 28 Ibid., 26. University Press of America, 2002): 55-77. 29 Dubofsky, When Workers Organize, 54. 13 Ibid., 58. 30 Basch, “Shirtwaist History and Myth,” 36. 14 Bruce D. Porter, War and the Rise of the State:

92 the lehigh review The Military Foundations of Modern Politics 1952 (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 4 BP, “Statistical Review of World Energy 2011,” (New York: Free Press, 1994, 121-45. 1989), 169-94. June 2011, 5. 15 Porter names five, but the main distinctions are 34 Dower, Embracing Defeat, 271-73. 5 EIA, “Petroleum and Other Liquids,” U.S. En- captured in the three broader phases listed. ergy Information Administration, http://www. 16 Ibid., 213-14. Flawed by Design eia.gov. 17 Tony Smith, America’s Mission: The United 1 Steve Bogira, Courtroom 302 (New York: Vin- 6 Karl, Paradox, 5. States and the Worldwide Struggle for De- tage Books, 2005), 22. 7 Richard M. Auty, “Natural resource rent- mocracy in the Twentieth Century (Princeton: 2 “Correctional Populations in the United States, cycling outcomes in Botswana, Indonesia, and Princeton University Press, 1994), 149. 2009,” Bureau of Justice Statistics, accessed Venezuela,” in From Curse to Blessing? Using 18 Ibid., 150. March 3, 2011, http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/ Natural Resources to Fuel Sustainable Develop- 19 Ibid., 154. pub/pdf/cpus09.pdf. ment, ed. Irakli Khodeli (UNESCO, 2009): 35. 20 Ibid., 87. 3 Travis C. Pratt, “The Politics of Punishment in 8 BP, “Statistical Review,” 8, 12. 21 See J. W. Dower, Embracing Defeat: Japan the United States,” in Addicted to Incarceration 9 Karl, Paradox, 80. in the Wake of World War II (New York: W. (Thousand Oaks, Ca: Sage, 2009), 24. 10 Kimberly Morse and Elizabeth Nichols, Ven- W. Norton, 1999), 217-24. Many influential 4 Ibid., 24. ezuela (California: ABC-CLIO, 2010), 123. American “experts” on Japan took as an article 5 Jeffrey H. Reiman, “Crime Control in Ameri- 11 Karl, Paradox, 81. of faith the notion that the Japanese were in- ca,” in Taking Sides, 8th ed., ed. Thomas Hickey 12 Daniel Yergin, The Prize: The Epic Quest for herently incapable of self-governance. In fact, (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2008), 30-31. Oil, Money, and Power (New York: Free Press, given that they spent their time exclusively in 6 Class notes, Political Science 240, Brian 1992), 417. elite circles of Japanese society, these pessimists Pinaire, February 10, 2011. 13 Karl, Paradox, 93. were merely restating the biases those elites 7 John Seabrook, “Suffering Souls,” The New 14 Ibid., 104. themselves had towards the masses. The drive Yorker, November 10, 2008, 73. 15 Ibid., 118. for democratization came from other experts 8 Bogira, Courtroom 302, 48. 16 Kim Faud, “Venezuela’s Role in OPEC,” in who either argued that democratic aspirations 9 Jennifer Thompson-Cannino and Ronald Cot- Contemporary Venezuela and Its Role in Inter- were universal or that at the very least the Japa- ton, Picking Cotton: Our Memoir of Injustice national Affairs, ed. Robert Bond (New York: nese could be taught democracy. and Redemption (New York: St. Martin’s Press, Council on Foreign Relations, 1977), 136. 22 Dower, Embracing Defeat, 447. 2009), 279. 17 Pedro-Pablo Kuczynski, “The Economic Devel- 23 Ibid., 450. 10 Atul Gawande, “Under Suspicion,” The New opment of Venezuela,” in Contemporary Ven- 24 Ibid., 78-79. Yorker, January 8, 2010, 51. ezuela and Its Role in International Affairs, ed. 25 Ibid., 82. 11 Ibid., 50-51. Robert Bond (New York: Council on Foreign 26 Dower, Embracing Defeat, 530-33. Interest- 12 Michael Specter, “Do Fingerprints Lie?” The Relations, 1977), 49. ingly, the zaibatsu themselves at first welcomed New Yorker, May 27, 2002, 96-98. 18 Karl, Paradox, 32. the occupiers, having come to see the war as a 13 Jeffrey Toobin, “The CSI Effect,” The New 19 Kuczynski, “Economic Development,” 58. battle for survival against domestic militarism Yorker, May 7, 2007, 31. 20 Karl, Paradox, 172. and an overreaching state bureaucracy. Indus- 14 American Bar Association (Criminal Justice 21 Ibid., 173. trial elites assumed the occupiers would be the Section), “Executive Summary,” in Achieving 22 Gregory Wilpert, “The Venezuelan Coup Revis- same “conservative businessmen and clubbish Justice: Freeing the Innocent, Convicting the ited: Silencing the Evidence,” in The Silence and diplomats they had known before the war” and Guilty, ed. Paul Gianelli and Myrna Raeder the Scorpion: The Coup against Chavez and the would leave after mild reform of the state and (Washington, D.C.: American Bar Association, Making of Modern Venezuela, ed. Brian Nelson military. When instead the conglomerates were 2006), xxi. (Nation Books, 2009), 3. confronted with “New Deal-style reformism 15 Bogira, Courtroom 302, 181. 23 Central Intelligence Agency, “GINI Index,” The and trust busting” they were quite taken aback. 16 Ibid., 175. World Factbook, http://www.CIA.gov/library/ 27 Ibid., 254-67 17 Jerome Frank, Courts on Trial (Princeton: publications/the-world-factbook. 28 Ibid., 533. Princeton University Press, 1949), 351-353. 24 Xavier Sali-i-Martin and Arvind Subramanian, 29 T. J. Pempel, “The Tar Baby Target: ‘Reform’ of 18 Richard Zitrin and Carol M. Langford, The “Addressing the Natural Resource Curse: An the Japanese Bureaucracy,” in Democratizing Moral Compass of the American Lawyer (New Illustration from Nigeria,” in National Bureau Japan: The Allied Occupation, ed. R. E. Ward York: Ballantine Books, 1999), 143. of Economic Research (June 2003): 15. and S. Yoshikazi (Honolulu, HI: University of 19 Bogira, Courtroom 302, 67. 25 Ibid., 13. Hawaii Press, 1987), 157-67. 20 Ibid., 124. 26 Ed Pilkington, “Shell pays out $15.5m over 30 T. Hideo, “The Conflict Between Two Legal Sary-Wiwa killing,” The Guardian, http://www. Traditions in Making the Constitution of Ja- Understanding the Resource Curse: guardian.co.uk. pan,” in Democratizing Japan: The Allied Oc- Why Some Get More Sick Than Others 27 Stephanie Hanson, “MEND: The Niger Delta’s cupation, ed. R. E. Ward and S. Yoshikazi (Ho- 1 Terry Lynn Karl, “Understanding the Resource Umbrella Militant Group,” Council on Foreign nolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press, 1987). Curse,” in Covering Oil, ed. Svetlana Tsalik Relations, accessed on March 22, 2007, http:// 31 O’Donnell and Schmitter, Transitions, 15-25. (Open Society Institute, 2005): 23. www.cfr.org/nigeria/mend. 32 Ibid., 37-38. 2 Ibid., 23. 28 Carmen Gentil, “Analysis: Nigeria’s Resource 33 Howard B. Schonberger, Aftermath of War: 3 Terry Lynn Karl, The Paradox of Plenty (CA: Curse,” United Press International, accessed Americans and the Remaking of Japan, 1945- University of California P, 1997), 6. December 6, 2011, http://www.UPI.com.

93 29 CIA, “GINI Index.” Characterization of Glycine Receptor 15 Ibid. 30 Alex Parry, “Africa’s Oil Dreams,” Time, ac- Expression in the Avian Auditory 16 Kuo et al., “Heterogeneous.” cessed May 31, 2007, http://www.time.com. Brainstem 17 Coleman et al., “GABAergic.” 31 Agwara Onyeukwu, “Resource Curse in Ni- 18 Ibid. 1 M. Burger and E. W. Rubel, “Encoding of Inte- geria: Perception and Challenges,” Central 19 J. W. Lynch, “Molecular Structure and Function raural Timing for Sound Localization,” in The European University Center for Policy Studies of the Glycine Receptor Chloride Channel,” Senses: A Comprehensive Reference, Audition, (December 2007): 15. Physiological Reviews 84 (2004): 1051-95. ed. R. Hoy, P. Dallos and D. Oertel (Elsevier 32 Newsweek, “The World’s Best Countries,” The 20 Code and Rubel, “Glycine-immunoreactivity.” Inc., 2008) and V. C. Kotak et al., “A Develop- Daily Beast, August 2010, http://www.thedaily- 21 Coleman et al., “GABAergic.” mental Shift from GABAergic to Glycinergic beast.com/newsweek/2010. 22 J. Nabekura et al., “Developmental” and Kotak Transmission in the Central Auditory System,” 33 USWikileaks, “Wikileaks on Nigeria’s corrupt et al., “A Developmental Shift.” Journal of Neuroscience 18 (1998): 4646-55. oil sales at NNPC, Shell, US Ambassador, and 23 Code and Rubel, “Glycine-immunoreactivity.” 2 S. P. Kuo et al., “Heterogeneous Kinetics and health of Nigeria’s President,” USAfricaOnline, 24 Ibid. Pharmacology of Synaptic Inhibition in the December 2010, http://www.usafricaonline. 25 Coleman et al., “GABAergic.” Chick Auditory Brainstem,” Journal of Neuro- com. 26 Burger and Rubel, “Encoding.” science 29 (2009): 9625-34; R. A. Code and E. 34 BP, “Statistical Review,” 8. 27 Code and Rubel, “Glycine-immunoreactivity.” W. Rubel, “Glycine-immunoreactivity in the 35 Ibid., 8. Auditory Brain Stem of the Chick,” Hearing 36 Central Intelligence Agency, “Proven Oil Re- Adam and Eve: An Adaptation Research 40 (1989): 167-72; and Coleman et al., serves,” The World Factbook, http://www.CIA. 1 Vladimir Propp, “Folklore and Literature,” in “GABAergic and Glycinergic Inhibition Modu- gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook. The Classic Fairy Tales, ed. Maria Tatar (New late Monaural Auditory Response Properties in 37 Peter Smit, “Natural Resource Abundance and York: W.W. Norton and Co., 1999), 378-81. the Avian Superior Olivary Nucleus,” Journal of the Resource Curse: The Case of Kazakhstan,” 380-81. Neurophysiology 105 (2011): 2405-20. University of Amsterdam (Summer 2008): 81. 2 “Enki and Ninhursaja,” in The Electronic Text 3 L. Jeffress, “A Place Theory of Sound Localiza- 38 Akram Esanov, “Ricardian Curse of the Corpus of Sumerian Literature, ed. J.A. Black tion,” Journal of Comparative and Physiologi- Resource Boom: The Case of Kazakhstan et. al., Faculty of Oriental Studies, University cal Psychology 41 (1949): 35-39 and Burger and 2000-2008,” Department of Economics, Ox- of Oxford, 2006, accessed April 29, 2011, http:// Rubel, “Encoding.” ford Centre for the Analysis of Resource Rich etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/. Lines 220-27. 4 Burger and Rubel, “Encoding.” Economies (December 2008): 15. 3 Riane Eisler, “The Goddess of Nature and 5 Ibid., and N. Kuwabara and J. M. Zook, “Pro- 39 Ibid., 22. Spirituality: An Ecomanifesto,” in In All Her jections to the Medial Superior Olive from the 40 Newsweek, “The World’s Best.” Names: Explorations of the Divine Feminine, Medial and Lateral Nuclei of the Trapezoid 41 Esanov, “Ricardian Curse,” 27. ed. Joseph Campbell and Charles Muses (New Body in Rodents and Bats,” Journal of Com- 42 CIA, “GINI Index.” York: Harper Collins, 1991), 4. parative Neurology 324 (1992): 522-38. 43 Louise Shelley, “Corrupt Oil Practices Implicate 4 Phyllis Trible, “Depatriarchalizing in Biblical 6 Magnusson et al., “Maturation of Glycinergic President Nazarbayev,” Central Asia-Caucasus Interpretation,” Journal of the American Acad- Inhibition in the Gerbil Medial Superior Olive Institute, July 19, 2000. emy of Religion 41.1 (1973), 30-48. 32. after Hearing Onset,” Journal of Physiology 568 44 Ron Stodghill, “Kazakhstan: Oil, Cash, and 5 Ibid., 34. (2005): 497-512. Corruption,” CorpWatch, November 5, 2006, 6 Genesis 1: 27. 7 Nabekura et al., “Developmental Switch from http://www.corpwatch.org. 7 Genesis 2: 22-23. GABA to Glycine Release in Single Central 45 David Leigh, “Wikileaks cables name UK 8 Trible, “Depatriarchalizing,” 38. Synaptic Terminals,” Nature Neuroscience 7 banker as middleman in Kazakh corruption (2004): 17-23. ring,” The Guardian, December 12, 2010, http:// Poverty, Inequality, and Power 8 Jeffress, “A Place Theory,” and Burger and Ru- www.guardian.co.uk. Dynamics: Women and their Role in the bel, “Encoding.” 46 Jenik Radon and Julius Thaler, “Resolving con- Haitian AIDS Epidemic 9 Burger and Rubel, “Encoding.” flicts of interest in state-owned enterprises,” 10 L. Yang et al., “The Superior Olivary Nucleus 1 Jessy Devieux et al., “Reducing Health Dispari- in From Curse to Blessing? Using Natural Re- and Its Influence on Nucleus Laminaris: A ties Through Culturally Sensitive Treatment for sources to Fuel Sustainable Development, ed. Source of Inhibitory Feedback for Coincidence HIV+ Adults in Haiti,” in National Institute of Irakli Khodeli (UNESCO, 2009): 19. Detection in the Avian Auditory Brainstem,” Public Health, 2004, accessed April 29, 2011, 47 Irakli Khodeli, “Introduction,” in From Curse Journal of Neuroscience 19 (1999): 2313-25. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ to Blessing? Using Natural Resources to Fuel 11 R. M. Burger et al., “Expression of GABA(B) PMC2605017, 109-15. Sustainable Development, ed. Irakli Khodeli Receptor in the Avian Auditory Brainstem: 2 Paul Farmer, Infections and Inequalities: The (UNESCO, 2009): 8. Ontogeny, Afferent Deprivation, and Ultra- Modern Plagues (Berkley: University of Cali- 48 EITI, “The EITI Principles and Criteria,” Ex- structure,” Journal of Comparative Neurology fornia Press, 1999), 143. tractive Industries Transparency Initiative, 489 (2005): 11-22 and Burger and Rubel, “En- 3 Erika Check, “Doctors Battle to Contain AIDS http://eiti.org/eiti/principles. coding,” 2008. Epidemic as Unrest Engulfs Haiti,” Nature, March 4, 2004, accessed April 29, 2011, http:// 12 Code and Rubel, “Glycine-immunoreactivity.” 13 Ibid. www.nature.com/nature/journal/v428/n6978/ full/428003a.html, 428. 14 Ibid.

94 the lehigh review 4 Paul Farmer, “AIDS and Accusation: Haiti, 17 (1993): 341-45. 25 David Bergner, In the Land of Magic Soldiers: Haitians, and the Geography of Blame,” in Cul- 40 Ulin, Cayemittes and Gringle, “Bargaining,” 92. A Story of White and Black in Africa (New ture and AIDS, ed. Douglas A. Feldman (New 41 Pape and Johnson, “AIDS in Haiti,” 341-345. York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2003), 94. York: Praeger, 1990). 42 “The State of the World’s Children,” UNICEF, 26 P. Richards, “To Fight or to Farm? Agrarian 5 Natacha Clerge, “Violence against Women and 2000, accessed April 29, 2011, http://www.uni- Dimensions of the Mano River Conflicts (Libe- the AIDS Epidemic in Haiti,” Contemporary cef.org/sowc00/stat2.htm ria and Sierra Leone),” African Affairs 104.417 Review 291.1695 (2009): 424-26. 43 Arachu Castro and Paul Farmer, “Understand- (2005): 577. 6 Paul Farmer, Shirley Lindenbaum, and Mary-Jo ing and Addressing AIDS-Related Stigma: 27 Hirsch, Sierra Leone, 99. Delvecchio Good, “Women, Poverty, and AIDS: From Anthropological Theory to Clinical 28 Ibid., 103. An Introduction,” Culture, Medicine, and Psy- Practice in Haiti,” American Journal of Public 29 J. M. Weinstein, “Resources and the Informa- chiatry 17.4 (1993): 387-97. Health 95.1 (2005): 55. tion Problem in Rebel Recruitment,” Journal of 7 Priscilla R. Ulin et al., “Bargaining for Life: Conflict Resolution 49.4 (2005): 615. Women and the AIDS Epidemic in Haiti,” in The Economization of the 30 Ibid., 615. Women’s Experiences with HIV/AIDS: An Sierra Leone War 31 Keen, Conflict, 84. International Perspective, ed. Lynellyn D. Long 1 David Keen, Conflict and Collusion in Sierra 32 Gberie, A Dirty War, 127. and E. Maxine Ankrah (New York: Columbia Leone (Oxford: James Currey, 2005), 255. 33 Hirsch, Sierra Leone, 6. University Press, 1996), 91. 2 John L. Hirsch, Sierra Leone: Diamonds and 34 Gberie, A Dirty War, 33. 8 Farmer, Lindenbaum and Good, “Women,” the Struggle for Democracy (Boulder, CO: L. 35 Keen, Conflict, 41. 387-97. Rienner, 2001), 100. 36 Bergner, In the Land, 15. 9 Trace S. Kershaw et al., “The Influence of Power 3 Keen, Conflict, 10. 37 Hirsch, Sierra Leone, 53. As cited in Keen (Con- on HIV Risk Among Pregnant Women in Rural 4 Lansana Gberie, A Dirty War in West Africa: flict, 12), according to the most recent census Haiti,” AIDS and Behavior 10.3 (2006): 309-15. The RUF and the Destruction of Sierra Leone in 1985, approximately 50% of Sierra Leone’s 10 Farmer, Lindenbaum and Good, “Women,” (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, population was under the age of eighteen. 387-397. 2005), 22. 38 Weinstein, “Resources,” 600. 11 Check, “Doctors Battle,” 428. 5 Ibid., 22. 39 Gberie, A Dirty War, 74. 12 Farmer, Lindenbaum and Good, “Women,” 6 Hirsch, Sierra Leone, 20. 40 Abdullah, Between Democracy, 100. 387-397. 7 Ibid., 24. 41 Lujala, “A Diamond Curse?,” 540. 13 Ibid. 8 Gberie, A Dirty War, 36. 42 Keen, Conflict, 42. 14 Ulin et al., “Bargaining,” 92. 9 Ibid., 37-38. 43 Keen, Conflict, 55. Prior to 1994, Liberia had 15 Farmer, Lindenbaum and Good, “Women,” 10 Ibid. never exported more than $10 million worth of 387-397. 11 Ibid., 14. The leadership of the RUF was not diamonds. 16 Ibid. monolithic and power was initially shared by 44 Hirsch, Sierra Leone, 56. 17 Ulin et al., “Bargaining,” 92. both Charles Taylor and Faday Sankoh. After 45 Abdullah, Between Democracy, 111. 18 Ibid., 93. tense relations, the two factions split and Taylor 46 Keen, Conflict, 55. 19 Devieux et al., “Reducing,” 109-115. took his NFPL forces back to Liberia. 47 Ibid., 56-57. 20 Farmer, “AIDS and Accusation,” 67. 12 Greg Campbell, Blood Diamonds: Tracing 48 Ibid. 21 Ibid., 71. the Deadly Path of the World’s Most Precious 49 Ibid., 36. 22 Farmer, Lindenbaum and Good, “Women,” Stones (Boulder, CO: Westview, 2002), 30. 50 Abdullah, Between Democracy, 34. 387-397. 13 Ibid., 30. 51 “Sierra Leone//Amnesty International,” Am- 23 Devieux et al., “Reducing,” 109-115. 14 Gberie, A Dirty War, 46. nesty International//Working to Protect Hu- 24 Farmer, “AIDS and Accusation,” 139. 15 P. Lujala, “A Diamond Curse?: Civil War and a man Rights, accessed December 3, 3010, http:// 25 Kershaw et al., “The Influence,” 309-315. Lootable Resource,” Journal of Conflict Resolu- www.amnesty.org/en/region/sierra-leone. 26 Devieux et al., “Reducing,” 109-115. tion 49.4 (2005): 543. 52 Keen, Conflict, 82. 27 Clerge, “Violence,” 424-426. 16 Gberie, A Dirty War, 52. 53 Gberie, A Dirty War, 15. 28 Kershaw et al., “The Influence,” 309-315. 17 Ibid., 52. 54 “Sierra Leone//Amnesty International.” 29 Devieux et al., “Reducing,” 109-115. 18 Macartan Humphreys and Jeremy M. Wein- 55 Ibid. 30 Clerge, “Violence,” 424-426. stein, “Handling and Manhandling Civilians in 56 Alfred B. Zack-Williams, “Sierra Leone: the 31 Ibid. Civil War,” American Political Science Review Political Economy of Civil War, 1991-98,” Third 32 Ibid. 100.3 (2006): 433. World Quarterly 20.1 (1999): 154. 33 Ulin, Cayemittes and Gringle, “Bargaining,” 98. 19 Ibrahim Abdullah, Between Democracy and 57 Ibid. 34 As cited in Kershaw et al., “The Influence,” Terror the Sierra Leone Civil War (Dakar: 58 Bergner, In the Land, 83. 309-315. Council for the Development of Social Sciences 59 Gberie, A Dirty War, 102. 35 Ibid. Research in Africa, 2004), 40. 60 Ibid. 36 Ibid. 20 Keen, Conflict, 89. 61 ULIMO was a rebel group that participated in 37 Ulin, Cayemittes and Gringle, “Bargaining,” 93. 21 Hirsch, Sierra Leone, 96. the first Liberian Civil War in support of Presi- 38 Ibid., 101. 22 Keen, Conflict, 115. dent Doe. 39 Jean Pape and Warren D. Johnson, Jr., “AIDS in 23 Gberie, A Dirty War, 91. 62 “Sierra Leone//Amnesty International.” Haiti: 1982-1992,” Clinical Infectious Diseases 24 Ibid., 93. 63 Keen, Conflict, 107.

95 64 Keen, Conflict, 140. 65 Ibid., 143. 66 Ibid., 150. 67 Ibid., 160. 68 Ibid., 49. 69 Gberie, A Dirty War, 74. 70 Keen, Conflict, 131. Full images 71 Hirsch, Sierra Leone, 48. of artwork 72 Ibid., 54. 73 Keen, Conflict, 201. that were not 74 Abdullah, Between Democracy, 150. 75 Gberie, A Dirty War, 97. displayed in 76 Keen, Conflict,207. 77 Gberie, A Dirty War, 101. their entirety 78 Ibid., 102. 79 Campbell, Blood Diamonds, 100. 80 Keen, Conflict, 197. 81 Gberie, A Dirty War, 200. 82 Hirsch, Sierra Leone, 66. 83 Ibid., 68. 84 Gberie, A Dirty War, 215. 85 Ibid. 86 Keen, Conflict, 219. 87 Hirsch, Sierra Leone, 65. 88 Gberie, A Dirty War, 161. 89 Keen, Conflict, 216. 90 Ibid., 248-55. 91 Campbell, Blood Diamonds, 2. 92 Keen, Conflict, 267. 93 Ibid., 16. 94 Monika Huepel and Bernhard Zangl, “On the Transformation of Warfare: A Plausibility Probe of the New War Thesis,” Journal of International Relations and Development 13.2 (2010), 39. 95 Morten Boas, “Liberia and Sierra Leone Dead Ringers? The Logic of Neopatrimonial Rule,” Third World Quarterly 22.5 (2001): 703. 96 Ibid., 704. 97 Zack-Williams, “Sierra Leone,” 154. 98 Keen, Conflict, 56. 99 Ibid., 56. 100 Ibid. 101 Ibid. 102 Zack-Williams, “Sierra Leone,” 146. 103 Lujala, “A Diamond Curse?,” 540. 104 Keen, Conflict,106. 105 Huepel and Zangl, “On the Transformation,” 37. 106 Keen, Conflict,254. 107 Huepel and Zangl, “On the Transformation,” 46. 108 Ibid., 43. 109 Zack-Williams, “Sierra Leone,” 147. 110 Richards, “To Fight,” 580. 111 “Sierra Leone//Amnesty International.” 112 Keen, Conflict, 195. 113 Huepel and Zangl, “On the Transformation,” 24.

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