Persistence of Chagas Disease Active Transmission Among Dogs in Venezuela Rural Community

Rev Costarr Salud Pública 2011; 20: 97-101 N.° 2– Vol. 20 – Julio-Diciembre 2011 Original Breve

Persistence of Chagas Persistencia de la disease active enfermedad de Chagas transmission among y trasmisión activa entre dogs in Venezuela rural perros en una comunidad community rural de Venezuela

Claudina del Carmen Rodríguez-Bonfante1, María Elena Rojas2, Elis Aldana3, Juan Luis Concepción4, Rafael Armando Bonfante-Cabarcas5 1 MD MSc Medicina Tropical, Unidad de Investigaciones en Parasitología Médica, UCLA, [email protected] 2 MD, Medicina Integral del Medio Urbano, Universidad Centro-Occidental “Lisandro Alvarado” (UCLA), Barquisimeto, Estado Lara, [email protected]; 3 PhD Biology, Laboratorio de Entomología “Herman Lent”, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Los Andes (ULA), Mérida, Estado Mérida, [email protected]; 4 PhD Fundamental Medicine, Laboratorio de Enzimología de Parásitos, CIGEN, ULA, [email protected]; 5MD PhD Science, Unidad de Bioquímica, UCLA, [email protected]. Received 25 noviembre 2011 Accepted 15 december 2011

ABSTRACT RESUMEN Objective: To determine human and canine seroprevalence, Objetivo: Determinar la seroprevalencia humana y canina del entomologic indexes and risk factors for Chagas’ disease índice entomológico y factores de riesgo para la transmisión transmission in a rural community. de la enfermedad de Chagas en una comunidad rural. Method: 48 houses, 162 people, and 55 canines were Materiales y Método: Se incluyeron 48 casas, 162 personas, sampled. Serum anti-Trypanosoma cruzi antibodies were y se tomaron muestras de 55 caninos. se determinaron determined by means of ELISA and MABA techniques anticuerpos séricos anti-Trypanosoma cruzi mediante técnicas using recombinant antigens. Triatomine collection were de ELISA y MABA, utilizando antígenos recombinantes. La carried out by passive search by community and an active/ recolección de triatominos se llevó a cabo mediante búsqueda systematic house, T. cruzi infection was determined by pasiva sistemática en la comunidad y casas. La infección por direct microcopy. T. cruzi se determinó mediante microscopia directa. Results: 2,47% of the humans and 18.18% of the canines Resultados: El 2,47 % de los humanos y 18,18 % de los were positive to serum anti-T.cruzi antibodies. The triatomine caninos fueron positivos al suero anti-T.cruzi. Los triatominos bugs found was 98.24% and 1.76% Eratyrus mucronatus. encontrados fueron T. maculata (98,24 %) y Eratyrus Vector’s indexes were: 0 % vector infection, 18.75% indoor mucronatus (1,76%). No hubo infección vectorial, el 18,75 house infestation, 25% outdoor house infestation, 0% indoor % de infestación intradomiciliaria, 25 % de infestación house colonization, 83.33 % outdoor house colonization and extradomiciliaria, no hubo colonización intradomiciliar, el 4.16% house co-infestation. We obtained an association 83,33 % de colonización extradomiciliar y el 4,16 % de between house triatomine infestation and visualization of infestación intradomiciliar. Se obtuvo una asociación entre wild animals in the house. infestación intradomiciliar por triatominos y la visualización de Discussion: there are not vector transmission of Chagas los animales en la casa. disease in the community, however, high dog’s prevalence Discusión: No se observo transmisión vectorial de la is related to their biological habits and behavior. enfermedad de Chagas en la comunidad, sin embargo, la Key words: Chagas disease, Trypanosomiasis, alta prevalencia en perros está relacionada con sus hábitos Seroepidemiologic Studies, Dog disease, Venezuela. biológicos y el comportamiento. (source: MeSh, NLM) Palabras clave: Enfermedad de Chagas, Tripanosomiasis, Estudios seroepidemiológicos, Canis familiaris, Venezuela. (fuente: DeCS, BIREME) REVISTA COSTARRICENSE DE SALUD PUBLICA © ACOSAP. Asociación Costarricense de Salud Pública Rev Costarr Salud Pública 2011, Vol. 20, N.° 2 Revista Fundada en 1992 97 ISSN versión impresa: 1409-1429

COMITÉ EDITORIAL Editor Amada Aparicio Llanos

Co-Editor Azalea Espinoza Aguirre

Editores asociados Ricardo Morales Vargas Ministerio de Salud, Costa Rica Henry Wasserman Teitelbaum Ministerio de Salud, Costa Rica Jeffrey E. Harris Massachusetts Institute of Technology, EUA María E. Villalobos Hernández Ministerio de Salud, Costa Rica María D. Fiuza Pérez Sociedad Canaria de Salud Pública, España

Comité Administrativo Omar Arce Cedeño

Comité Consultivo 2009-2010 Germán Cedeño Volkmar Universidad de Costa Rica Patricia Barber Pérez Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, España Olga Segura Cárdenas Ministerio de Salud, Costa Rica María Carmen Oconitrillo Gamboa Ministerio de Salud, Costa Rica Isabel Sing Bennet Universidad Latina, Costa Rica Melvin Morera Salas Caja Costarricense del Seguro Social Juan Rafael Vargas Universidad de Costa Rica Federico Paredes Valverde Ministerio de Salud, Costa Rica José Pablo Molina Velázquez Ministerio de Salud, Costa Rica

Rev Costarr Salud Pública 2009, Vol. 18, N.° 1 I Rodríguez-Bonfante C, et al.

n Venezuela, there has been a decline in prevalence MATERIALS AND METHODS rates for Chagas disease, from 44,5 % in the decade The study was conducted in the community of El Paso I1950 to 1960(1), to 9,2 % in the year 1990(2) and de Baragua, parish Xaguas, Urdaneta Municipality, 8,3 % in the year 2000(3). These results have been the Lara State, Venezuela, located at latitude N 10°36’40’’, result of replacement of dwellings by houses, vector longitude 70°22’12’’, 425 meters above sea level, elimination through residual insecticide spraying, with a seasonal continental climate with temperatures blood screening and prevention programs in endemic ranging between 27 °C and 39 °C, with xerosol soils, areas (2) and have led to a significant decrease in ht e 527,8 ml four years rainfall and thorn vegetation. rate of house’s infestation by Rhodnius prolixus (2), Human activities are agriculture and goat breeding. the principal vector in the transmission of Chagas’ Most common crops are melon, onion, sorghum, disease in Venezuela. As a consequence of this fact, paprika and aloe. secondary vectors are gradually occupying areas left Sampling unit was the house. Houses were selected by free by R. prolixus. stratified cluster on updated area maps. We assumed Infestation and/or colonization of human houses 99 % confidence level, 2,03 % maximum error and a by Panstrongylus geniculatu s(4-6), Triatoma prevalence of Chagas’ disease assumed as 5 %. maculate (7) and Eratyrus mucronatus (7,8) has Sample was represented by 48 houses. Inclusion been documented in Venezuela. T. maculata is a wild criteria were the following: permanent residents of the species found naturally infected with T. cruzi, also it housing, no discrimination of sex or age and a voluntary has been frequently observed in the peridomicile (9), it written consent. We included canines that were docile is often found in coastal and xerophilous regions; it is enough to allow medical procedures. In total 162 considered primarily ornithophily, especially associated people were studied, 68 males and 94 females and with chickens and pigeons in the peridomicile (10). 55 dogs, 48 males and 7 females. Project and written Recently, our team working in a neighbor area observed consent was approved by Health Science School T. maculata as predominant vector, with ability to Ethics Committee at the Universidad Centrocidental infest (16,4 % infestation index) and colonize (39,1 “Lisandro Alvarado”. % colonization rate) human dwellings. The presence of T. maculata in the domicile and peridomicile was Serological diagnosis and entomological studies associated with the presence of hens, disorder in the Determination of serum anti-T.cruzi antibodies was surroundings, goats, poultry and/or domicile miss performed by ELISA and MABA and collection of distribution; achieving 1,57 % and 6,36 % of human’s triatomines was carried out through a passive search and dog’s seroprevalences, respectively (7). by inhabitants and by active and systematic review of Demonstration of active transmission requires the domicile and peridomicile by two members of the diagnosis of acute disease in the population and/or research team. Content of the insect’s distal intestine demonstration of seropositivity in infants, however, portion was diluted in saline 0,9 % and was studied by in most cases acute phase is unapparent and social optical microscopy in search of T. cruzi. For details see improvements that have occurred in communities Rojas et al, 2008 (7). at endemic areas has led to a effective protection Data are presented in absolute values, percentages or of children against vector contact. Therefore, numerical indexes. In order to evaluate relationships seroepidemiology studies in humans have limited between Chagas’ disease epidemiological risk factors significance to demonstrate active transmission. with house infestation or human seropositivity, we did By contrast, in endemic areas dogs are highly a binary logistic regression analysis, using version exposed to triatominos, because of their dynamic 11.0.1 SPSS program. It was accepted as significant behavior; sometimes sleep, hunt and feed on wild a p<0,05. animals infected meat, while it live in the house in a direct contact with humans. On the other hand, their RESULTS short life make it sentinels for Chagas’ disease active Of the 162 people surveyed, 4 individuals were found transmission (11, 12). Therefore, in the present paper to have anti-T.cruzi antibodies, representing a 2,47 % we conducted a seroepidemiologic study to determine overall prevalence; three females and one male, their active transmission of Chagas’ disease in T. maculata ages were 77, 86, 99 and 27 years old, respectively. infested area. Of the 55 dogs sampled, 10 were seropositive, given an overall prevalence of 18,18%; all were males, the REVISTA COSTARRICENSE DE SALUD PUBLICA © ACOSAP. Asociación Costarricense de Salud Pública Revista Fundada en 1992 Rev Costarr Salud Pública 2011, Vol. 20, N.° 2 ISSN98 versión impresa: 1409-1429

COMITÉ EDITORIAL Editor Amada Aparicio Llanos

Co-Editor Azalea Espinoza Aguirre

Comité Administrativo Omar Arce Cedeño

Rev Costarr Salud Pública 2009, Vol. 18, N.° 1 I Persistence of Chagas disease active transmission among dogs in Venezuela rural community

youngest was 8 months old and the oldest 7 years old, When performing statistical analysis, we found an while the remaining were distributed as follow: age 3 association between observation of armadillo and years (n=3), 2 years (n=2), 5 years (n=2) and 6 years opossum in and around the house with peridomicile and old (n=2). domicile infestation, respectively (see table 2 and 3). A total of 114 triatomines were captured, of which 112 Table 2. Binary logistic regression analysis related to indoor infestation (98,24 %) belonged to T. maculata specie: 81 caught TableTable 2. 2. Binary Binary logisticlogistic regression regression analysis analysis related to relatedindoor infestation to in the peridomicile (35 adults and 46 nymphs) and 31 indoor infestation 95% C.I.for EXP(B) were captured in the domicile (all adults). Two (1,75 Variable B S.E. Wald df Sig. Exp(B) 95% C.I.for EXP(B) Variable B S.E. Wald df Sig. Exp(B) Lower Upper %) of the specimens corresponded to E. mucronatus Hens -0,924 1,122 0,679 1 0,410 0,397 Lower0,044 Upper3,576 Hens -0,924 1,122 0,679 1 0,410 0,397 0,044 3,576 adults caught in the domicile. Dogs -0,795 1,266 0,395 1 0,530 0,451 0,038 5,396 Of the 48 households surveyed, in 9 (18,75 %) Dogs -0,795 1,266 0,395 1 0,530 0,451 0,038 5,396 CatsCats 0,2750,275 1,0941,094 0,063 0,063 1 10,8010,801 1,3171,317 0,1540,154 11,23611,236 triatomines were found in the domicile and in 12 (25 %) GoatsGoats and and Sheeps Sheeps -1,385 -1,385 0,981 0,981 1,992 1,992 1 10,1580,158 0,2500,250 0,0370,037 1,713 1,713 bugs were found in the peridomicile. In 11 (91,66 %) MiceMice and and Rats Rats -0,012-0,012 0,987 0,987 0,000 0,000 1 10,9900,990 0,9880,988 0,1430,143 6,8346,834 peridomiciles we have collected nymphs, eggs and/ OpessumsOpessums 2,3552,355 1,2471,247 3,568 3,568 1 10,0590,059 10,537 10,537 0,9150,915 121,326 121,326 or nymphal exosqueletons. In 2 (4,16 %) household ArmadillosArmadillos -0,107-0,107 1,141 1,141 0,009 0,009 1 10,9250,925 0,8990,899 0,0960,096 8,4138,413 BatsBats 0,1200,120 1,0221,022 0,014 0,014 1 10,9070,907 1,1271,127 0,1520,152 8,359 8,359 two triatomine species cohabited. Microscopic ConstantConstant -0,490-0,490 1,241 1,241 0,156 0,156 1 10,6930,693 0,6120,612 analysis of T maculata and E mucronatus dejections Table represents the first step of the regression analyses, after the last showed no presence of parasitic flagellarf orms similar step opossum remain as the only significant variable (B = 1,674; S.E.= to T. cruzi. Of the 11 communities studied, in 10 (90,91 0.835; Wald = 4,015; df=1; Sig = 0.045; Exp(B) = 5,333; 95% CI for Exp (B) = 1,037-27,422). %) we found triatomines. When interviewing individuals, 90,9% reported to know Table 3. Binary logistic regression analysis related to peridomicile infestation vector, 91,82% recognized it from a vector’s sample, TableTable 3. 3. BinaryBinary logistic logistic regression regression analysis analysis related to peridomicilerelated to infestation peridomicile infestation 100% recognized T. maculata and 4,95% recognized 95% C.I.for 2 other vectors. Variable B S.E. Wald Df Sig. Exp(B) EXP(B)95% C.I.for Human individual risk factors most frequently observed Variable B S.E. Wald Df Sig. Exp(B)Lower EXP(B) Upper and risk factors associated with housing are displayed Opossums -0,528 1,075 0,241 1 0,623 0,590 0,072Lower 4,848 Upper in table 1. HensOpossums 1,612-0,528 1,113 1,075 2,096 0,241 1 10,1480,623 5,0120,590 0,5650,072 44,436 4,848 DogsHens -0,2731,612 1,073 1,113 0,065 2,096 1 10,7990,148 0,7615,012 0,0930,565 6,237 44,436 -0,914 1,199 0,581 1 0,446 0,401 0,038 4,205 Table 1. Risk factor associated to house infestation by CatsDogs -0,273 1,073 0,065 1 0,799 0,761 0,093 6,237 TableTable 1.Table Risk 1.Table RiskTable 1.factor Risk1.factor 1.Risk associated Riskfactor associated factor factor associated associatedto associated houseto house to infestation houseto infestationto house house infestation infestation by infestation byChagas’ Chagas’ by byChagas’ diseaseby Chagas’ diseaseChagas’ diseasevectors. diseasevectors. disease vectors. vectors. vectors.GoatsCats and Sheep -1,073-0,914 1,021 1,199 1,104 0,581 1 10,2930,446 0,3420,401 0,0460,038 2,530 4,205 Chagas’ disease vectors. Mice and Rats 0,155 ,880 0,031 1 0,860 1,168 0,208 6,551 InfestedInfested Infested InfestedInfested Not Not infested infestedNotNot infestedNot infested infested Risk Risk RiskGoatsRisk Risk and Sheep -1,073 1,021 1,104 1 0,293 0,342 0,046 2,530 HousesHouses Houses HousesHouses Armadillos 2,520 1,004 6,296 1 0,012 12,432 1,736 89,021 HousesHouses Houses HousesHouses Houses Houses Houses HousesHouses Index Index Index MiceIndexIndex and Rats 0,155 ,880 0,031 1 0,860 1,168 0,208 6,551 RiskRisk factor factorRisk Risk factorRisk factor factor Bats 0,295 0,873 0,114 1 0,735 1,343 0,243 7,438 %IH%IH / %IH/ Armadillos%IH /%IH / / 2,520 1,004 6,296 1 0,012 12,432 1,736 89,021 n n %n %n n %n %n% %n %n n % n%%n n %n %n % %% Constant -2,066 1,414 2,133 1 0,144 0,127 %NIH%NIH %NIH Bats%NIH%NIH 0,295 0,873 0,114 1 0,735 1,343 0,243 7,438 DogsDogs Dogs Dogs Dogs 35 35 76,0935 76,09 3535 76,09 12 76,09 12 76,09 70,59 12 70,59 12 12 70,59 70,59 23 70,59 23 23 79,31 23 79,31 23 79,31 0,89 79,31 79,31 0,89 0,89Constant 0,89 0,89 -2,066 1,414 2,133 1 0,144 0,127 HensHens HensHens Hens 32 32 69,573269,57 3232 69,57 13 69,57 13 69,57 76,47 13 76,47 13 13 76,47 76,4719 76,47 19 1965,52 1965,5219 65,52 1,1765,52 65,521,17 1,171,17 1,17 Table represents the first step of the regression analyses, after the last MudMud House MudHouse Mud HouseMud House House 31 31 67,3931 67,39 3131 67,39 10 67,39 10 67,39 58,82 10 58,82 10 10 58,82 58,82 21 58,82 21 21 72,41 21 72,41 21 72,41 0,81 72,41 72,41 0,81 0,81step 0,81 armadillos 0,81 remains as the only significant variable (B = 1,877; S.E.= SheepsSheeps andSheeps and GoatsSheepsSheeps Goats and and Goats and Goats Goats 31 31 67,393167,39 3131 67,39 10 67,39 10 67,39 58,82 10 58,82 10 10 58,82 58,8221 58,82 21 2172,41 2172,4121 72,41 0,8172,41 72,410,81 0,810.738;0,81 0,81 Wald = 6,461; df=1; Sig = 0.011; Exp(B) = 6.533; 95% CI for Exp staB staB staB staB staB 03 03 ,56 03 22 ,56 03 22 03 ,56 21 22 ,56 21 22,56 22 21 95,07 21 95,07 21 95,07 81 95,07 81 95,07 81 81 70,26 81 70,26 70,26 41,1 70,26 41,1 70,26 (B)41,1 = 1,537-27,776).41,1 41,1 PoultryPoultry yardsPoultry yardsPoultry Poultry yards yards yards 28 28 60,872860,87 2828 60,87 11 60,87 11 60,87 64,71 11 64,71 11 11 64,71 64,7117 64,71 17 1758,62 1758,6217 58,62 1,1058,62 58,621,10 1,101,10 1,10 RatsRats and and RatsMice RatsMice andRats and Mice and Mice Mice 26 26 56,5226 56,52 2626 56,52 9 56,52 56,52 9 52,94 9 52,94 9 9 52,94 52,94 17 52,94 17 17 58,62 17 58,62 17 58,62 0,90 58,62 58,62 0,90 0,90DISCUSSION 0,90 0,90 CatsCats CatsCats Cats 23 23 50,002350,00 2323 50,00 850,00 50,008 47,06 8 47,068 847,06 47,0615 47,06 15 1551,72 1551,7215 51,72 0,9151,72 51,720,91 0,91In 0,91this 0,91 paper, we report T. maculata house infestation CujiCuji tree tree Cuji Cuji treeCuji tree tree 22 22 47,8322 47,83 2222 47,83 10 47,83 10 47,83 58,82 10 58,82 10 10 58,82 58,82 12 58,82 12 12 41,38 12 41,38 12 41,38 1,42 41,38 41,38 1,42 1,42index 1,42 1,42 above infestation indexes observed in the 60’s IndoorIndoor messIndoor messIndoor Indoor mess mess mess 20 20 43,482043,48 2020 43,48 843,48 43,488 47,06 8 47,068 847,06 47,0612 47,06 12 1241,38 1241,3812 41,38 1,1441,38 41,381,14 1,141,14 1,14 OutdoorOutdoor Outdoormess Outdoormess Outdoor mess mess mess 19 19 41,301941,30 1919 41,30 741,30 41,307 41,18 7 41,187 741,18 41,1812 41,18 12 1241,38 1241,3812 41,38 1,0041,38 41,381,00 1,00and1,00 1,0070’s decades in Venezuela (9), similar results have PeridomicilePeridomicilePeridomicilePeridomicile toolsPeridomicile tools deposit toolsdeposit tools deposittools 15 deposit deposit15 32,61 1532,61 1515 32,61 432,61 32,614 23,53 4 23,534 423,53 23,5311 23,53 11 1137,93 1137,9311 37,93 0,6237,93 37,930,62 0,62been0,62 0,62 reported recently in neighborhood communities MudMud house Mudhouse annexesMud houseMud annexes house house annexes annexes annexes 15 15 32,611532,61 1515 32,61 532,61 32,615 29,41 5 29,415 529,41 29,4110 29,41 10 1034,48 1034,4810 34,48 0,8534,48 34,480,85 0,85at 0,85 Xaguas0,85 parish (7). These results indicate that T. CactusCactus Cactus CactusCactus 15 15 32,611532,61 1515 32,61 532,61 32,615 29,41 5 29,415 529,41 29,4110 29,41 10 1034,48 1034,4810 34,48 0,8534,48 34,480,85 0,85maculata0,85 0,85 populations able to infest houses have IHIDIHID IHID IHID IHID 13 13 28,261328,26 1313 28,26 528,26 28,265 29,41 5 29,415 529,41 29,418 29,418 827,59827,598 27,59 1,0727,59 27,591,07 1,07experienced1,07 1,07 an increase in recent decades, as a result IHODIHOD IHOD IHODIHOD 13 13 28,261328,26 1313 28,26 428,26 28,264 23,53 4 23,534 423,53 23,539 23,539 931,03931,039 31,03 0,7631,03 31,030,76 0,76of 0,76ecosystem 0,76 changes because human forest invasion ArmadillosArmadillosArmadillos ArmadillosArmadillos 13 13 28,261328,26 1313 28,26 728,26 28,267 41,18 7 41,187 741,18 41,186 41,186 620,69620,696 20,69 1,9920,69 20,691,99 1,991,99 1,99 and lack of triatomino natural food sources. OpossumsOpossumsOpossums Opossums Opossums 10 10 21,741021,74 1010 21,74 521,74 21,745 29,41 5 29,415 529,41 29,415 29,415 517,24517,245 17,24 1,7117,24 17,241,71 1,711,71 1,71 sgiP sgiP sgiP sgiP sgiP 8 8 893,71 893,71 8 3 93,71 3 93,71 93,71 3 56,71 3 3 56,71 56,71 5 56,71 5 56,71 5 5 42,71 5 42,71 42,71 20,1 42,71 20,1 42,71 However,20,1 20,1 20,1 in this study we did not observe house IHID: Inadequate house Indoor distribution; IHOD: Inadequate house colonization, which coincides with results observed in outdoor distribution; Roraima Brazil (13). These results contrast with the IH: infested house; NIH: Not infested house. REVISTA COSTARRICENSE DE SALUD PUBLICA © ACOSAP. Asociación Costarricense de Salud Pública Rev Costarr Salud Pública 2011, Vol. 20, N.° 2 Revista Fundada en 1992 99 ISSN versión impresa: 1409-1429

COMITÉ EDITORIAL Editor Amada Aparicio Llanos

Co-Editor Azalea Espinoza Aguirre

Comité Administrativo Omar Arce Cedeño

Rev Costarr Salud Pública 2009, Vol. 18, N.° 1 I Rodríguez-Bonfante C, et al.

reported in neighborhood communities at Xaguas elements of T. cruzi transmission cycle, presages a parish and in Colombian rural community, where resurgence of human disease transmission in the it were observed 39,1 % and 38,3 % colonization short term. This would require an adaptation of T. indexes, respectively (7,10). maculata to have as food sources domestic mammals Soto et al. (14) studied specimens of T. maculata that behave as efficient reservoirs. collected in a same region and they did not found any significant differences between specimens from KNOWLEDGMENTS domicile and peridomicile, indicating that both vector Study funded by the Urdaneta Municipality Hall (Lara populations are similar, therefore this specie has not State, Venezuela) and by FONACIT, Project No yet developed adaptive mechanisms to domiciliation. 2007001425. However, high rates of household infestation reported in other parts as Xaguas parish and in Colombian rural REFERENCES community, suggest that populations of T. maculata are 1. Aché A. Programa de Control de la Enfermedad de at different stages of adaptation to human dwellings and Chagas en Venezuela. Bol Dir Mal San Amb. 1993; 33:11- the ability of T. maculata to domiciliate might depend 22 on the ecological and environmental characteristics. 2. Aché A, Matos AJ. Interrupting Chagas’ disease transmisión in Venezuela. Rev Inst Med Trop São Paulo This work confirms h t e presence of E. mucronatus 2001; 43:37- 43. in the domicile at Urdaneta municipaly. Domicile 3. Organización Panamericana de la Salud / Organización infestation by E. Mucronatus has been documented in Mundial de la Salud. Análisis preliminar de la situación de Venezuela (7, 8), suggesting a change in wild vector salud de Venezuela. Disponible en:http://www.ops-oms.org. behavior. ve/site/venezuela/ven-sit-salud-nuevo.htm. Consultado 05/ In this study seroprevalence of anti-T.cruzi antibodies junio 2007). in dogs was superior to human, indicating that T. cruzi 4. Rodríguez-Bonfante C, Amaro A, García M, Mejías L, transmission dynamics in dogs is different from that Chacón P, García R et al. Epidemiología de la Enfermedad of humans. Low triatomine infection index observed in de Chagas en el Municipio Andrés Eloy Blanco, Lara, this study questions transmission vector, however, by Venezuela: Infestación triatomínica y seroprevalencia en humanos. Cad. Saúde Pública, Río de Janeiro, 2007; observing dog’s habits, we were able to observe that 23(5):1133-1140. most ate raw meat and were hunters, indicating oral 5. Reyes-Lugo M, Rodríguez-Acosta B. Domiciliation of the route as the most feasible to explain high seropositivity selvatic Chagas disease vector Panstrongylus geniculatus rates. Latreille, 1811 (Triatominae: Reduviidae) in Venezuela. Dog’s prevalence observed in this study was higher Trans Royal Soc Med Hyg 2000; 94: 508. than that observed in studies conducted in Venezuela 6. Feliciangeli D, Carrasco H, Patterson J, Suarez B, (6,36 %) (7), Costa Rica (5,2 % to 9,9 %) (15, 16) and Martínez C, Medina M. Mixed domestic infestation by United States (3,6 % to 7,5 %) (17, 18), notwithstanding, Rhodnius prolixus Stäl, 1859 and Panstrongylus geniculatus higher prevalences have been reported in rural areas Latreille, 1811, vector incrimination, and seroprevalence for of Venezuela (67,6 %) (19) and Argentina (40 %) (20). Trypanosoma cruzi among inhabitants in El Guamito, Lara State, Venezuela. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2004; 71: 501-505. High Chagas dog’s disease prevalence had been 7. Rojas ME, et al. Estudio seroepidemiológico y related to the presence of acute cases (19) and high entomológico sobre la enfermedad de Chagas en un área prevalence of infected inhabitants, both associated infestada por Triatoma maculata (Erichson 1848) en el with high levels of triatomine infection (20); these centro-occidente de Venezuela. Cad Saude Publica. 2008; phenomena were not observed in this study, indicating 24:2323-2333. that source of dog’s infection is outside house. 8. Soto A, Barazarte H, Molina D. Primer registro de We report an association between triatomine’s house Eratyrus mucronatus, Stäl 1959 (Hemíptera, Reduvidae) infestation and the presence of armadillos and opossum en el ambiente domiciliario en Venezuela. Entomotrópico, around the house. This phenomenon is related to the Boletin de Entomología Venezolano 2001; 16: 215-217. wild characteristics of the community and because 9. Tonn R, Otero M, Mora E, Espinola H, Carcavallo R. Aspectos biológicos, ecológicos y distribución geográfica vector migration is happening from the selvatic area de Triatoma maculata (Erichson 1848), (Hemiptera, to house, acting wild mammals as triatomine carriers. Reduviidae), en Venezuela. Bol Dir Mal San Amb 1978; 18: A high frequency of risk factors related to Chagas’ 16-24. disease, which are evenly distributed in the community, 10. Luitgards-Moura J, Borges-Pereira J, Costa J, Zauza P, which together with the presence in the area of all Rosa-Freitas M. On the possibility of autochthonous Chagas REVISTA COSTARRICENSE DE SALUD PUBLICA © ACOSAP. Asociación Costarricense de Salud Pública Revista Fundada en 1992 Rev Costarr Salud Pública 2011, Vol. 20, N.° 2 ISSN100 versión impresa: 1409-1429

COMITÉ EDITORIAL Editor Amada Aparicio Llanos

Co-Editor Azalea Espinoza Aguirre

Comité Administrativo Omar Arce Cedeño

Rev Costarr Salud Pública 2009, Vol. 18, N.° 1 I Persistence of Chagas disease active transmission among dogs in Venezuela rural community disease in Roraima, Amazon region, Brazil, 2000-2001. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 2005; 47(1):45-54. 11. Cortés L, Suárez H. Triatominos (Reduviidae: Triatominae) en un foco de enfermedad de Chagas en Talaigua Nuevo (Bolívar, Colombia). Biomédica (Bogotá) 2004; 25: 568-574. 12. Castañera MB, Lauricella MA, Chuit R, Gurtler RE. Evaluation of dogs as sentinels of the transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi in a rural area of north-western Argentina. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 1998; 92: 671-683. 13. Cardinal M, Castañera M, Lauricella M, Cecere M, Ceballos L, Vázquez-Prokopec G et al. A prospective study of the effects of sustained vector surveillance following community-wide insecticide application on Trypanosoma cruzi infection of dogs and cats in rural northwestern Argentina. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2006; 75: 753-761. 14. Soto Vivas A, Rodríguez C, Bonfante-Cabarca, R y Aldana E. Morfometría geométrica de Triatoma maculata (Erichson, 1848) de ambientes doméstico y peridoméstico, Estado Lara, Venezuela. Boletín de Malariología y Salud Ambiental. 2007. XLVII: 231-235. 15. Reyes L, Silescky E, Cerdas C, Chinchilla M, Guerrero O, Presencia de anticuerpos contra Trypanosoma cruzi en perros de Costa Rica. Parasit. Lat 2002; 57: 66-68. 16. Zeledón R, Solano G, Burstin L, Swartzwelder JC Epidemiological pattern of Chagas’ disease in an endemic area of Costa Rica Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1975; 24:214-225. 17. Beard CB, Pye G, Steurer FJ, Rodriguez R, Campman R, Peterson AT, et al. Chagas disease in a domestic transmission cycle, southern Texas, USA. Emerg Infect Dis. 2003; 9:103-105. 18. Bradley KK, Bergman DK, Woods JP, Crutcher JM, Kirchhoff LV. Prevalence of American trypanosomiasis (Chagas disease) among dogs in Oklahoma. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc 2000; 217:1853-1857. 19. Crisante G, Rojas A, Teixeira MM, Añez N. Infected dogs as a risk factor in the transmission of human Trypanosoma cruzi infection in western Venezuela. Acta Trop. 2006; 98:247-254. 20. Gürtler RE, Cécere MC, Rubel DN, Petersen RM, Schweigmann NJ, Lauricella MA et al. Chagas disease in north-west Argentina: infected dogs as a risk factor for the domestic transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1991; 85:741-745.

REVISTA COSTARRICENSE DE SALUD PUBLICA © ACOSAP. Asociación Costarricense de Salud Pública Rev Costarr Salud Pública 2011, Vol. 20, N.° 2 Revista Fundada en 1992 101 ISSN versión impresa: 1409-1429

COMITÉ EDITORIAL Editor Amada Aparicio Llanos

Co-Editor Azalea Espinoza Aguirre

Comité Administrativo Omar Arce Cedeño

Rev Costarr Salud Pública 2009, Vol. 18, N.° 1 I