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The Use of Iambic Pentameter in the Poetry of Dorothy Venturesome Women: Nineteenth-Century British Women Travel Writers and Sport by Precious McKenzie-Stearns A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of English College of Arts and Sciences University of South Florida Major Professor: Pat Rogers, Ph.D. Nancy Jane Tyson, Ph.D. Regina Hewitt, Ph.D. Carolyn Eichner, Ph.D. Date of Approval: March 30, 2007 Keywords: sport, bird, kingsley, savory, dixie © Copyright 2007 , Precious McKenzie-Stearns Dedication For Colby and Wyatt Acknowledgements I must begin by acknowledging the members of my committee: Professors Pat Rogers, Nancy Jane Tyson, Regina Hewitt and Carolyn Eichner. Dr. Rogers has given generously of his time throughout this project. He has kindly allowed me the freedom to pursue my academic interests and tackle a noncanonical topic. Dr. Tyson has introduced me to the New Women’s movement and its authors through both her phenomenal course on Victorian Literature and during our lively meetings. Her recommendations have guided the historical framework of this project. Dr. Hewitt has proven to be an invaluable mentor throughout the job search process. Her thoughtful advice has helped shape my professional identity. Dr. Eichner saw an earlier version of the chapter on Isabella Bird as part of a research project for her Gender and Imperialism course. She encouraged me to pursue Isabella Bird (and Hawaii) further. Because of her enthusiasm, I decided to focus the dissertation on women travel writers in the Age of Empire. Professors Laura Runge-Gordon, Elizabeth Hirsh, and Patricia Nickinson offered their kind guidance through my studies. Professor Joe Moxley helped me find and refine my scholarly voice. My surrogate family in the USF History Department, Dr. Kathleen Paul, Brian Keaney, and Dr. David R. Carr, have enhanced my academic journey with humor, friendship and editorial prowess. I am grateful to William Stearns; my parents, Lon and Jean McKenzie; Lesley McKenzie and Christof Jans; and Erin Leach for keeping me sane during the journey through graduate school. Their humor and love— not only for me but also for my sons, Colby and Wyatt— are appreciated beyond words. And of course, I must not forget Patty and Rascal, cheerful canines who walked with me every morning while I cleared my mind and readied myself for research. Table of Contents Abstract iii Chapter One: Introduction 1 Chapter Two: “There’s nothing Western folk admire so much as pluck in a woman:” Isabella Bird Bishop and her Adventures in Hawaii 19 The Early Christian Missionaries in the Sandwich Islands 20 The Freedom Found in Nature 26 The Women of England and Their Social Duties 36 Conclusion 40 Chapter Three: Hale and Hearty: Lady Florence Douglas Dixie 46 Destination Patagonia: Following the Romantic Tradition 49 Argentina and Britain 54 Observations Regarding Women and the Natives 61 South American Cities 64 Advice for Sporting Women 67 In the Wilderness 70 Hunting 73 Swimming 79 Leaving Patagonia 81 Conclusion: The Empire and the Hunt 83 Chapter Four: Mary Kingsley: “Set yourself to gain personal power” 92 Sport in the Jungle 97 Intellectual Pursuits as Sport 107 On Women 110 Conclusion 117 Chapter Five: “The Land of Promise:” Isabel Savory in India 123 The Indian Woman Question 127 Britain and Politics 130 Liberation Through Sport 133 Conclusion 148 Chapter Six: Conclusion: Sport, Society and the New Woman 154 Works Cited 167 i About the Author END PAGE ii Venturesome Women: Nineteenth-Century British Women Travel Writers and Sport Precious McKenzie Stearns ABSTRACT This dissertation analyzes the travel writings of Isabella Bird Bishop, Mary Kingsley, Florence Douglas Dixie, and Isabel Savory. While away from England, these women writers participated in cultural exchanges which led to reevaluations of British womanhood. British women travel writers operated not only within the power structures of gender but also within the structures of empire, class, and race. Women travel writers blazed the trail for the New Woman of the end of the century. Before cycling and cigarette smoking were allowed, daring women such as Isabella Bird Bishop and Mary Kingsley crisscrossed the globe in defiance of patriarchal tradition and in search of their own pleasure— later both hallmarks of the New Woman. Contrary to conservative hopes, women travel writers increased in popularity, inspired young women to be daring and challenged the Victorian status quo by writing of the dangerous pleasures they experienced while abroad. As inspiration for the New Women, women travel writers reveled in danger and athletics, and in time, reshaped England’s image of womanhood. Because of the positive accounts of athleticism provided by women travelers, female health became a prominent topic in society. By the early twentieth century, women had increased access and acceptability to physical pursuits. iii Chapter One: Introduction “Most people journeyed by book.” -Robert Colls, Identity of England1 England, and English people, of the nineteenth century witnessed many great changes both at home and abroad. The century experienced rapid technological expansion, an increase in urbanization and, both optimism and doubt for the future. English citizens had much to be proud of: the middle classes were prospering, overseas colonies proved profitable, Christianity and Britishness reigned supreme. It was “the bourgeois century.”2 Lofty aspirations fueled preoccupation with the self and self- improvement in the nineteenth-century.3 The Victorian period, which saw the rise of Utilitarianism, contributed to sentiments of intense individualism.4 Men and women of the nineteenth century were “remarkably conscious of the individual’s limitations; and it preached the sober doctrine of self-denial quite as persuasively as the more facile gospel of self-help.”5 Middle class values such as respectability, the importance of work, faith in progress, and religious earnestness, permeated the upper and lower classes. By the late nineteenth century, England “would indeed be set as a ‘Land of Hope and Glory.’”6 However, intense individualism generated alienation.7 As early as 1831 John Stuart Mill remarked transition seemed to be the leading characteristic of the time.8 Revolutionary democratic principles such as the Rights of Man dissolved old, fixed social structures.9 Mill encouraged English citizens to reject rigidity and instead adopt a “lasting flexibility of mind.”10 Intellectuals such as Mill encouraged alienated men and women to redefine their positions in English society. Mid-century optimism however “was based not only on economic strength but on social balance.”11 The torrential number of social movements created exhilaration and unease. Tennyson best captures the clash of intense emotions of this period. His In Memoriam (1850) portrays a doubting soul lost in a dispassionate world because of nineteenth century scientific advancements. Yet, In Memoriam reaffirms a faith based on moral order. Tennyson’s emotional struggles between disillusionment and faith reflect a “common emotional experience” of the time.12 Though each decade varied, the notion that progress was possible gave hope to many Victorian men and women. Benevolence and unselfishness fueled the English belief in progress. Reformers, missionaries and intellectuals sought not only to improve themselves but to help the poor and downtrodden as well. Novelist George Eliot stressed sympathy and tolerance in her writings. For Eliot, and others, “sympathy is fellow- feeling.”13 By 1867 a paradigm shift —from worrying over individuals to worrying about society— occurred.14 English citizens directed their attentions to the relationship between the sexes as a means in which to strive for balance and order. The English home and family became mythologized in fiction, poetry, theatre, song, sermons and advertisements. The home, imagined as warm, clean and virtuous symbolized a place of respite from the frenetic pace of the nineteenth century. More specifically, such a haven would allow a man to “recover the humanity he seemed to be losing” due to the “intense pressure of 2 competitive life,” which caused him to feel “more and more like a money-making machine, or a cog in the vast mechanism of modern business…But in the home he might escape from this inhuman world…He might feel his heart beating again in the atmosphere of domestic affection and the binding companionship of a family.”15 The home became a “temple of the hearth,” a shrine bolstered by bourgeois values.16 Victorian women were held responsible for maintaining this ideal. Women were “told to remember the needs of ‘world-weary men’ and to pray, think, strive to make a home something like a bright, serene, restful, joyful nook of heaven in an unheavenly world.”17 John Ruskin and Coventry Patmore, in their writings, praised and glorified a sweet, genuine, submissive, supportive ideal of Victorian womanhood. Radical critics of this school of thought, such as John Stuart Mill, instead emphasized individuality, freedom, education and the need for the exercise of the female mind and body. Not surprising then, during the mid to late nineteenth century, leisure and recreation began to occupy public debate. Women and children worked long hours in factories, shops, and mines; the public, as well as organized labour unions, advocated for better treatment of workers. They asked for shorter work days and more holidays. Their rationale: leisure time would build stronger families, stronger families would build a stronger, more moral society. Middle class reformers actively sought to control the leisure options of the working classes out of fear that the working classes would spend their leisure time at pubs and brothels rather than with their wives and children. Even with social reform, not all Victorians had access to large quantities of free time. This was a privilege that marked the middle and upper classes from the lower, working classes. 3 Descriptions of women’s leisure activities gleaned from travel accounts, advice manuals, as well as feature articles in magazines and periodicals broaden our understandings of nineteenth-century womanhood.
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