Reduc in Ction of Nternat F Drough E Ional Re Ht Vulne

INTERNATIONAL RELIEF AND DEVELOPMENT

REDUCTION OF DROUGHT VULNERABILITIES IN SOUTHERN SWAZILAND 2009‐2012

ENDLINE SURVEY REPORT

JUNE 2012

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Demographic characteristics of the household ...... 6 Figure 2. Demographic characteristics of the household ...... 7 Figure 4. Use of CA principles ...... 8 Figure 3. Reasons for using CA principles ...... 8 Figure 4. Use of CA principles ...... 8 Figure 5. Percentage of crop produced ...... 8 Figure 6. Cereal availability from own harvest from April 2011to April 2012 ...... 9 Figure 8. Main sources of income of the household endline compared to baseline ...... 10 Figure 8.Main sources of income of the household during the previous 12 months ...... 10 Figure 9. Sources of water in the dry and rainy season ...... 11 Figure 10. Problems Sources of water in the dry and rainy ...... 12 Figure 11. Water treatments methods ...... 13 Figure 12. Water point maintenance fund ...... 13 Figure 13. Functions of a water committee ...... 14 Figure 14. Time and reason of washing hands ...... 14 Figure 15. Main reasons for latrine use ...... 15 Figure 16. Disease caused by water ...... 15 Figure 17. Management of diarrhea ...... 16

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Total number of HH selected by tinkhundla ...... 4 Table 2. Average estimated 2011/12 yields compared to the 2010/2011 actual yields ...... 9

TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES ...... i LIST OF TABLES ...... ii ACRONYMS ...... iv EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... v 1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Background ...... 1 1.2 Objectives of the survey ...... 2 2. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ...... 3 2.1 Selection of study area ...... 3 2.2 Study design and methods ...... 3 2.3 Research instrument ...... 4 2.4 Data management and analysis ...... 5 2.5 Data Limitations ...... 5 2.6 Ethical consideration ...... 5 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ...... 6 3.1 Demographic characteristics and Household composition of HH ...... 6 3.2 Crop production 2011/2012 agricultural season ...... 7 3.3 Food Access and availability 2010/2011 to 2012/2012 agricultural season...... 9 3.4 Gardening activities ...... 10 3.5 Livelihood activities ...... 10 3.6 Water availability ...... 11 3.7 Water collection, storage and use ...... 12 3.8 Water quality and treatment ...... 13 3.9 Water Point Management Committees ...... 13 3.10 Hygiene and Sanitation ...... 14 3.11 HIV/AIDS awareness ...... 16 4. CONCLUSION ...... 17

iii

ACRONYMS

CA Conservation Agriculture

DHS Demographic Health Survey

EOP End of Project (endline survey)

HH Household

IRD International Relief and Development

MT Metric Tonne

OFDA Office for Foreign Disaster Assistance

SPSS Statistical Package for Social Scientists

UN United Nations

UNDAF United Nations Development Assistance Framework

USAID US Agency for International Development

VAC Vulnerability Assessment Committee

WFP World Food Programme

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The Kingdom of Swaziland is a lower-middle-income country. Its Gini coefficient of 0.61 is one of the highest in the world, indicating wide disparities in household income. Sixty-three percent of the population subsists on less than US $1.25 per day.1 Swaziland has made some improvements in the past three decades; however, one of its greatest challenges is an HIV prevalence of 26 percent among 15–49 year olds—the highest in the world.

Swaziland has been historically a net importer of food, rarely achieving production of more than 49% of annual consumption. Up until 2000, Swaziland was routinely harvesting 100.000 MT of maize, Swaziland main staple food. Production during the last 5 years dropped to an average of 61.000 MT. Southern Swaziland is confronted with recurrent droughts, high prevalence of HIV and high food prices. The United Nations World Food Programme (WFP) is forced to reduce the numbers of its beneficiaries under its General Food Distribution activity, while production from subsistence farmers is dropping.

The Reduction of Drought Vulnerabilities in Southern Swaziland was initiated in Swaziland in 2009 with the overall goal of “Reducing vulnerability to drought of households and communities in southern Swaziland”. The objectives of the project were (1) To improve agricultural practices under drought conditions and (2) To improve hygiene practices and expand access to safe water for multiple uses. To realize these objectives IRD helped communities to mitigate drought in two provinces— Shiselweni and Lubombo, through a project funded by USAID/OFDA. The project aimed to enhance food security by building capacity of farmers, through training (Conservation Agriculture (CA) and Livestock development) and minimum input support (drought resistant and soil improving crops).

A Baseline Survey was carried out between September and December 2009 to obtain the benchmark information using a quantitative approach. The overall objective of this study was to collect endline information on impacts, knowledge and practices related to agriculture and food security and water, sanitation and hygiene among the vulnerable communities in 9 tinkhundla, in Shiselweni and Lubombo district so as to compare with selected indicators utilized in the baseline. A systematic random sampling was followed to select the required sample population from the purposefully selected tinkhundla. A total of 430 HH were included in the sample.

Key findings

Characteristics of the HH

Seventy three percent of the HH were females reflecting the general country demographic profile and IRD beneficiary profile, where there are more females than males. The majorities (49%) of the HH interviewed in the End-line survey were mature beneficiaries; above 55 years of age and 23% were between 46-55 years of age. The reason attributed to having more mature respondents is that, the majority of the young adults are working in the sugar estates, some have left to work in the mines and there is also a lot of deaths affecting the age group. Sixty three percent were married and 32 % were widowed. The level of education of the HH was low indicating high illiteracy, with 36 % having never attended any formal education and 34 % with some primary (Grade 1-6) education. The average household size was 9 with 51 % of the HH with

6-10 HH members and 26% with less than 5 HH members. Eighty two percent of the HH were beneficiaries of conservation agriculture, where as 58 % benefitted from water, sanitation and hygiene activities. Only 1% benefitted from livestock development activities reflecting IRD targeting criteria.

Increase in number of months of food self-sufficiency due to distributed agricultural inputs to beneficiaries

The mean arable land available for the HH was 2.43 ha with 1.56 ha being put under cultivation in the 2011/2012 season. The majority of the HH (71%) used both CA and conventional planting methods in their field, whereas 21% used the conventional methods. Fifty seven percent of the HH consumed cereals from their 2010/11 season harvest as part of their daily meals between April and December 2011 with 60 % consuming from their harvests in between April and May 2012. Compared to the baseline 8.1 % had cereals (staple) available for 1 month and 11.1 % for 2 months. The average number of months of food self-sufficiency due to distributed agricultural inputs was 5.9, an increase of 3.4 months from the baseline which averaged 2.6 months.

Percentage of target population with access to safe water

The baseline survey indicated that 62 % and 83.4 % of the HH had access to safe and improved water source between the dry and rainy season respectively. There significant improvements to access of water in the dry season with 65% accessing water from improved water source as compared to 81% in the rainy season. This indicated a 3% increase in the dry season compared to a 2.6% decrease in the wet season. The major sources of water in the rainy were boreholes, 30% (13% accessing Blue pump and 17 %Afridev) and 41% surface rain water harvesting. In the dry season borehole water usage was 51% (24% accessing Blue pump and 27% Afridev) whereas 26 % used water from streams and springs.

Average water usage of target population in liters per person

The average water usage based on the sphere standards was less with 6.3 liters being used per person compared to 15 Liters standard. Compared to the baseline, where 42.6 % analyzed at a HH size of 6, had access to 15 liters a day, the endline survey indicated that 76% had access to less than 15liters of water per person per day for the average HH of 8.3. This indicated a 31 % increase based on year 1 baseline results.

Percent population demonstrating good hand washing practices

The present End-line survey results show that awareness about good hand washing among the HH was high with 88% washing hands before eating, 67% after latrine use and 44% when hands are visibly dirty. While 82% had soap in the house, 59% washed hands with soap. .

Percent of target population demonstrating correct water usage and storage

collected (74.4%) and stored (73%) their water in jerry cans with lids or tops whereas 53 % and 50 % collected and stored their water in closed plastic buckets respectively. The endline survey results indicated that less that 1% of the HH collected and stored their water in open containers. Considering that the majority of the HH used borehole water only 15% treated water before use with the majority using it as is. The increase in borehole water usage has led to the decrease in water treatment (chlorination) from 29 % baseline to 11% in the endline. The majority (96%) of the HH washed their containers before use, with 60 % washing their containers daily when they go to collect water. Water only was the main medium for cleaning the container with 82 %using it in isolation, 57% using water and soap, and 43 % using water, mud and sand.

Percent of community members tested for HIV/AIDS

There are a lot of HIV/AIDS awareness activities occurring in the target area with 89 % of the HH having being exposed to the messages. The Government of Swaziland through the Ministry of Health was the major provider of HIV/AIDS awareness messaging. The endline survey results showed that 79 % of the HH went for testing at least once a year.

Changes brought about by the program

The types of changes brought about by the program were encouraging. A 31 % increase in water usage in liters. This also led to reduction in water treatment because households were mostly accessing water from boreholes than other water sources. With the adoption of conservation agriculture, there were significant improvements in cereal yields which relatively increased the number of months households consumed cereals from their own harvest.

vii

1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background The underlying challenges facing the Kingdom of Swaziland are a weak economy, widespread poverty, and high prevalence of HIV and AIDS. With a population of 1,370,424 (July 2011 est.), Swaziland is besieged with the highest HIV and AIDS prevalence in the world at 26% of the adult population being infected. Currently the incidence rate is estimated at 2.8% per year (DHS 2006-2007). Life expectancy is the second lowest in the world at 40.9 years. The epidemic has been fuelled by poverty, unemployment, high population, conservative religious and traditional beliefs that advocate against condom use and promote polygamy, and multiple concurrent sexual partners.

The combined effects of persistent drought and the impact of HIV and AIDS, reduced industrial and agricultural production capacity, following the high input prices, as well as the impact on economic meltdown (reduced SACU1 receipts coupled with lower internal revenues, high levels of corruption, low GDP, high labor turnover), has resulted in a significant decline in the economy and agriculture sector and led to a critical food security situation over the past years. Swaziland continues to import food despite the government’s efforts to promote diversification and commercialization of the agriculture sector.

International Relief and Development (IRD) implemented a three year program to reduce vulnerability to drought of households and communities in twelve tinkhundla2 in two regions— Shiselweni and Lubombo, through a program funded by USAID/OFDA. This project helped to improve food security by building capacity of farmers, through training (Conservation Agriculture (CA) and Livestock development) and minimum input support (drought resistant and soil improving crops). A total of 4845 farmers were trained, 2,337 farmers from a target of 2,050 adopted conservation agriculture techniques where they are producing Maize, Sorghum and Cowpeas. Farmers have established keyhole (backyard) gardens and community gardens where they produced vegetables, such as spinach, tomatoes, beets, onions, lettuce, cabbages, and carrots, for sale and for home consumption. Farmers have been trained on keeping livestock numbers manageable to prevent overgrazing and reduce livestock deaths during drought years. Through this they have established protected grazing fields and are practicing rotational grazing.

Provision of water supply, promotion of sanitation and hygiene in primary schools, and improving on community based management of services was a big component of the program. IRD replaced broken down Afridev pumps with deep well hand pumps for depths up to 100m. The pump installation/ repair was done in concurrent with construction of cattle troughs within the vicinity of the water point, to feed on the waste water from the borehole, and to keep the animals from contaminating the water source. Seventy two broken Afridev pumps were replaced by Blue pumps. Well heads and cattle troughs were constructed for each replacement sites. Forty two boreholes were drilled for community gardens where 15 electric pumps were installed for the commercialized gardens and 27 blue pumps for the individual gardens. IRD improved

1 The Southern African Customs Union (SACU) under the Agreement of 2002 by the Governments of Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, South Africa and Swaziland, as an international legal entity to promote common policies that support industrial development, trade facilitation and deeper regional economic integration. 2 administrative subdivision smaller than district

water supply, sanitation and hygiene in schools through installation of 28 rooftop water harvesting (RWH) systems and construction of latrines benefitting 12,633 students and teachers. Training was also provided on sanitation, hygiene and management of services for the beneficiaries.

1.2 Objectives of the survey In order to ensure that the outcome of this project is verifiable with high accountability and accuracy, and that recommendations are detailed and useful, two evaluative events were conducted during the life of project, Baseline Assessment and, Midterm Review. A final internal end of project survey (endline survey) was conducted in May 2012 with the objective of:

 Measuring change and the impacts on Food Security and Water, Sanitation and Hygiene, of IRD interventions in the 12 tinkhundla (constituencies) from the Baseline survey, Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices surveys and other IRD baseline data. The endline survey will.

2. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

2.1 Selection of study area The End of project survey was conducted in two regions of Shiselweni and Lubombo covering 9 (Sigwe, Somtongo, Lubuli, Mpolonjeni, Matsanjeni, Nkilongo, Sithobela, Hosea and Ngudzeni) of 12 tinkhundla where IRD operated between 2009 and 2012. Three tinkhundla, Hlane, Dvokodvweni and Shiselweni 1 were omitted because IRD has only implemented programs in them for one year, 2012, as such the treatments were different from the other tinkhundla.

2.2 Study design and methods Quantitative study The quantitative component of the study was a survey of IRD project beneficiaries. The survey was conducted through face-to-face personal interviews using a structured questionnaire. The questionnaire solicited information pertaining food security and WASH indicators. The structured interviews were directed towards the beneficiary and non-beneficiaries of IRD interventions. The questionnaires will be administered by IRD extension officers who were trained on survey data collection techniques

Sampling Frame and Size The survey instrument was designed by IRD staff with experience in experimental design and analysis. Consideration was made with regard to the baseline survey, impact indicators on the project design, and OFDA indicators. The HH in the survey were composed of beneficiaries of IRD activities in the target area. The survey utilized purposive and random sampling in selecting the HH. From IRD agriculture database, a 17% sample was selected (430 interviews to combined agriculture and WASH beneficiaries, and WASH beneficiaries who were not part of agriculture interventions (Illustration1).) proportionally based on the number of beneficiaries by Inkhundla (Table 1) and by chiefdom. Sampling of WASH beneficiaries who were not part of any agricultural interventions was done to done to ensure representation of all components of the program in the sample.

Agriculture 30 WASH

beneficiaries 400 Combined beneficiaries

beneficiaries

Illustration 1. Selection of beneficiary This meant the tinkhundla with the highest number of beneficiaries had a larger sample size. This sample size allowed for a result that had a 95% confidence interval at a 5 % level of error and a response distribution of 50%.

Table 1. Total number of HH selected by tinkhundla

Name of Total # Sample of combined Sample of WASH Total HHs that Inkhundla Beneficiaries beneficiaries interviewed beneficiaries only were interviewed Hosea 450 74 7 81 Lubuli 238 40 14 54 Matsanjeni 292 47 3 50 Mpolonjeni 207 38 2 40 Ngudzeni 250 41 0 41 Nkilongo 146 19 1 20 Sigwe 350 57 0 57 Sithobela 265 43 2 45 Somtongo 271 42 42 Total 2469 400 30 430

Within the chiefdoms, the beneficiary lists were randomized and selection of the beneficiary was done using probability proportional to size (PPS) sampling technique. This method was chosen at this level because the sampling units vary considerably in size as such the technique assures that those in larger sites have the same probability of getting into the sample as those in smaller sites, and vice versa. To get the number of beneficiaries to be sampled per each chiefdom, the below formula was used.

Sample size per chiefdom = (Total # of beneficiaries for the chiefdom) divided by (Total # of beneficiaries in the Inkhundla) multiplied by Total HHs that were to be interviewed in the entire in Inkhundla

At chiefdom level, based on required sample size, the respondents were randomly selected from the beneficiary list using excel. There were 115 male and 315 female HH respectively.

2.3 Research instrument The structured questionnaire was developed on the lines of the Baseline survey questionnaire modifications. Questions making up the survey were divided into the following areas: - Basic demographic information about the households and the HH - Household wealth - Household food production- - Household Food Consumption. - Household Water supply situation - Household Hygiene practices - Household Sanitation practices and situation - Household Coping Strategies - Household HIV/AIDS awareness.

2.4 Data management and analysis The fieldwork was simultaneously launched in the two regions from 16th of May to 22nd of May 2012 with each enumerator administering 5-8 questionnaires per day depending on the distance between household. Data was collected mainly from the head of house, regardless of age (in cases of child headed households. All completed questionnaires were manually coded and data entry validity checks were performed for all the questionnaires. After cleaning, data was analyzed using SPSS for Windows 17.0. Frequency and cross tabulations are the main quantitative outputs for the analysis. Descriptive statistics including cross tabulation and frequencies formed the main output for analysis. Baseline survey data where possible, was compared with the End of project survey results to compare the project outcomes and achievements.

2.5 Data Limitations The survey instrument and the sampling frame used in the endline was not exactly the same as that of the baseline. Changes were made to effectively respond to the project indicators as well as respond to the limitations of the baseline. As such, the results of the baseline and the endline in some instances cannot be objectively comparable.

2.6 Ethical consideration All participants involved in the study were fully informed about the objectives of the study. They were also assured of the confidentiality of interviews. Only those participants giving verbal informed consent voluntarily were interviewed. The HH were told that they could skip any questions they did not wish to answer

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1 Demographic characteristics and Household composition of HH Age distribution Almost half of the HH (49%) were aged over 55 years with 73 % being women. Those aged between 36 and 55 years comprised a significant proportion (41%). The district-wise comparison of End-line survey figures shows that Shiselweni region had a higher representation of females than Lubombo. This is also reflected in beneficiary numbers. There are more beneficiaries in Shiselweni than Lubombo although; all regions are in the Lowveld. It is perceived that there are more livelihood opportunities in Lubombo than in Shiselweni region.

Marital status The majority of the households (63%) head were married and 32% were widowed with only 3% being single household heads. Of the widowed HH heads, the majority were females. Despite 63% of the HH being married, the participating in development activities is biased towards women than the males. Males seek formal activities more than community activities.

Education status According to a UN, 2012, UNDAF 2011-2015 statistics, the literacy rate in Swaziland stands at 89%. The End-line survey however showed, the majority, (63%) of the HH was illiterate and 34% had low level of education (up to 6 years of primary education). The district wise distribution shows that the low level of illiteracy was higher in Shiselweni than in Lubombo. Only 6 % of the HH had completed secondary school

Household Composition The mean HH size according to a World Bank, 2011 0.4 report on Swaziland, based on the Demographic 1.5 Under 5 Health Survey 2006-2007 (DHS) is 5. However, the 5‐18 endline survey indicated the average HH size 8 with Shiselweni region having larger HH sizes than 3.4 19‐60 Lubombo. In each household the largest age group >60 was the19-60 years with a mean of 1.68, majority 3.2 being women (mean=1.78) compared to men (mean=1.59). The increase in HH size is attributed to the change in the family dynamics resulting from the impact of the HIV/AIDS epidemic. More families are taking the responsibility of looking after orphans. Figure 1. Demographic characteristics of the Each HH had at least an orphan (mean=0.75) and an household elderly (mean =0.22). Age dependency ratio (% of working-age population) in 2008 was 76 % according the Word bank report. However, the survey indicated at most times (school periods), the dependency ratio was 55% meaning only half the HH at any given time is able to contribute to HH labor. An average of 5 members of the HH normally contribute to agricultural labor however at least 1 member (mean =1.4) was reported to have failed to contribute to agriculture labor due to sickness, being away attending school. Considering sick member in the HH it also means the labor requirements of the HH are usually compromised.

3.2 Crop production 2011/2012 agricultural season Agriculture is the backbone of the Swazi Kingdom’s economy. Almost three-quarters of the working population depend on agriculture for their income and livelihood. It has the potential to lead the process of growth in the country, but at the same time leaves many people vulnerable due to adverse factors.

Extension services and training About 78% of the HH in Shiselweni and Lubombo regions indicated that they received extension services in the past three years with 91% receiving extension services courtesy of IRD. Very few said they received extension support from government (5%) and other NGOs (4%). The majority of HH (43%) which were IRD beneficiaries indicated that they received an extension visit at least once a week with 37% of the respondent’s receiving a visit once every two weeks. The limited availability of government extension workers can have an impact on sustainability of projects. This is because in the event of development partners leaving the area, the communities lack backup support. According the Swaziland vulnerability assessment report of 2009, aces to agriculture extension was 17% of the vulnerable HH and 21% for the better off HH. The level of satisfaction of the services was 2%. The reasons attributed to the low levels of satisfaction were that of poor service and limited staff. In the same report it was highlighted that access to services was higher in Lubombo (32%) than Shiselweni (16%) region.

Land Ownership and Use Each household from 50 40 40 Shiselweni and Lubombo region 30 26 could be able to access at least 20.7 19.5 21 18 Baseline 20 13 15.3 2.4ha of land for agriculture. 8.4 EOP Percentage 10 1 0 0.7 However, the average land 0 utilized in the current season of

seed labor was 1.4ha, meaning an average

of Lack of

draught Lack

fertilizer

Not of about 0.87ha of land was left knowldge of power

Lack Lack

uncultivated by 57% of the HH. interested/be… Lack The reasons land was not fully Figure 2. Demographic characteristics of the household utilized were multiple (Figure2), 21% (baseline=40%) highlighted that they lacked seed, 20% lacked adequate labor and 15% lacked draught power. There was no HH that indicated to have failed to utilize all their land because of lack of knowledge and only 1% indicated that they were no longer interested in production because of the persistent failures that they have been experiencing. Only 3% did not plant their land at all compared to 23% in the baseline. There was a significant increase in land area planted with the endline survey showing 66% of the HH planting over 1ha compared to 27% in the baseline. Of the 1.4ha of land allocated for agriculture, an average of 1.26ha was allocated to maize production whereas cotton and sorghum were allocated 0.16ha and 0.107ha respectively. Other crops like jugo (round nuts) beans, cowpea, sugar beans, pigeon pea and groundnuts occupied an average of 0.01ha.

80 73.3 45 39.3 70 40 35 60 30 24.7 22.6 50 25 20.2 40 20 28.9 27.7 30 15 Reasons Percentage Percentage 10 6 3.7 for use 20 5 2.1 10 0 by… 0 yields Other

weeds

planting harvests

moisture…

the advised

early poor

increase

Was to improve

manage

many

To enable

To To Too Hoping

Figure 3. Use of CA principles Figure 4. Reasons for using CA principles

Method of crop production

IRD promoted conservation agriculture; however, farmers were advised based on land availability and resources to have a comparison plot, where results from CA can be compared to the conventional methods of production. The majority (71%) of the HH used a combination of CA and conventional practices in their fields. Only 8% of the HH indicated that they used only CA only and 21% used conventional methods only. The use of all the CA principles was varied, with the majority (73%) of the HH having practiced minimum soil disturbance through the use of seed (planting basins), 29 % (Figure 3) having permanent soil cover through the use of mulch and cover crops such as legumes. About 28% of the HH practiced crop rotations/ associations through intercropping 120 and crop rotating crops of different 100 76 families across seasons. When 80 probed on the reasons they used 97 60 EOP CA, multiple reasons were 58 40 25 highlighted, the majority of the HH 21 Baseline Percentage 20 11 10 14 9 5 4 2 (39%) hoping the use of CA 0 principles would improve higher yields, 25 % (Figure 4) wanted to be able to plant early, early planting. The influence and importance of the Crop extension officers as tool in Figure 5. Percentage of crop produced assisting communities in making decisions was also observed.

Interestingly, 20 % of the HH adopted CA because of the advice they were provided by the extension officers on the benefits of the techniques. It therefore appears that the main reasons for adopting CA was the realization that their yields were low and inadequate for HH needs and that through CA yields can be improved.

The main crop planted was maize with a 21 % increase from the baseline. Sorghum was planted by 58 % of the HH (Figure 5), a 48 % increase from the baseline. Sorghum uptake is on the increase; however, the increase is slow. Considering the climatic variations there is need of more adoption of the small grains that are more tolerable to the drought conditions. Compared to the baseline, cowpea, sugar bean and groundnut production decreased. The main source of seed crops for maize, and sorghum was found to be IRD 49.1%, and 53.5% respectively. It was also observed that 31 % and 3% of maize and sorghum respectively were obtained through purchase whereas 14 % of maize and 0% of sorghum was retained from the previous harvest

Table 2. Average estimated 2011/12 yields compared to the 2010/2011 actual yields

Crop Estimated Yield T ha‐1 endline Yield T ha‐1 IRD Annual Year 2 report survey Maize 0.47* 0.46 Sorghum 0.31 0.38 Cotton 0.02 0 *Estimate based on the actual harvested and potential to be harvest (survey conducted before harvesting was complete)

Data collected on estimated 2011/2012 yields indicated there is a potential of a yield increase compared to the 2010/2011 season for sorghum (Table 2) whereas sorghum yield per hectare is expected to decrease. The potential increase in maize is significant because there has been a continuous increase from the 2008/2009 season where an IRD quarterly report indicated maize yielded an average of 0.2T ha-1. This means with the continuous use of CA HH will be able to increase yield overtime as the benefits of CA start to appear after 2 years or more.

3.3 Food Access and availability 2010/2011 to 2012/2012 agricultural season Cereal availability between after the 80 2010/2011 season varied during the 70 consumption up until the 20100/2012 60 Percent eating from their own harvest harvesting season. The majority of the 50 (Baseline) HH (81%) had cereal soon after 40 harvesting with only 20% (Figure 6) of 30 the HH having cereal from their own Percentage 20 Percent eating from their own harvest harvest in January 2012. Comparing 10 (Endline) 0 to the baseline where only 10 % of the 1 2‐4 5‐6 > 7 households harvested enough to last month Monthsmonthsmonths them five to six months, the endline survey showed that in the 2010/11 Months of food availability from own production Figure 6. Cereal availability from own harvest from April 2011to April 9 2012 season 54% of the HH had enough to last them 5 months. The average number of months of food self- sufficiency due to distributed agricultural inputs was 5.9, an increase of 3.4 months from the baseline which averaged 2.6 months. In the endline, there was more food availability. This can be attributed to the good rains and improved farming practices adopted by the farmers. However, it should also be noted that the baseline year had experienced severe drought conditions unlike the endline year.,

3.4 Gardening activities It was observed that 56% of the HH have gardens, 18% of them being are ordinary backyard gardens, 14% were hand pump community gardens and 7% had commercialized community gardens. The main water source (54%) for gardening was boreholes with hand pumps, with 19% of the HH sourcing water from a perennial river. The majority (67%) of the HH produces vegetables for household consumption, 26.5% for both household consumption and sale and only 6.7% said they produce mainly for sale. About 53% of those who sold their produce in 2011 revealed that they collected an average revenue of E101- E500Emalangeni ($15-67), with only 2.6% collecting revenue above Emalangeni 1000 Emalangeni($135).

3.5 Livelihood activities

Petty trading/ informal business and production and sale of vegetables were the dominant source of income for females with 46 % of the females engaging in these activities. Cash for work the dominant activity for males with 20% of the males engaging in cash for work activities. Women had more livelihood activities than men with 73% of the women engaging in livelihood activities compared to 26% males. Government

10 Figure 7. Main sources of income of the Figure 8. Main sources of income of the household household during the previous 12 months endline compared to baseline grants (elderly pension) contributes significantly to the income sources for females more than the males, with 39% of the females receiving elderly pension.

When compared to the baseline the livelihood activities increased during the project implementation period. In the baseline, the majority of HH did not rely on agriculture as their main source of income as only 14% of HH received income from agricultural sales and that only 6.5% of all households had agricultural sales compared to 55 % and 49 % (Figure 7) in the endline survey respectively. Remittances were received by 31% of the HH in the endline survey indicating no significant difference with the baseline. Elderly pensions were low (25%) in the baseline and increased to 57% in the endline survey. NGO assistance/cash transfers were high in baseline 11% and decreased to 2% in the endline survey results.

3.6 Water availability Access to quality water both during rainy 45 41 40 and dry seasons is still very low in the 35 rural areas of Swaziland. For the 2009 30 27 26 VAC assessment, the percentage of the 24 25 population with access to quality water 20 17 Rainy stood at 54.9% on rainy season, and 13 13 15 12 season 52.6% on dry season. The baseline Percentage 10 5 10 survey indicated that 62% and 83 % of 3 2 Dry season 5 2 2 1 the HH had access to safe and improved 1 water source between the dry and rainy

well season respectively. There significant

Other pump

Afridev surface

fountain improvements to access of water in the reservoir

Blue or

with dry season with 65% accessing water from

3 with

from improved water source as Dam Unprotected compared to 81 in the rainy season. This Borehole faucet/tap collecting

indicated a 2% increase in the dry season Borehole River/Lake/Stream/Spring compared to a 3% decrease in the wet Public water season. The major sources of water in

Rain Source of water the rainy were boreholes, 30% (13% Figure 9 Sources of water in the dry and rainy season accessing Blue pump and 17 % accessing Afridev) and 41 % (Figure 9) surface rain water harvesting. The high percentage of HH collecting water from rain water harvesting systems is attributed to the fact that most households do have at least one house that is roofed with corrugated iron so the rain water collection becomes easy. In the dry season usage of borehole water increased to 51 % (24 % accessing Blue pump and 27% accessing Afridev) whereas 26 % used water from streams and springs.

3 Boreholes with blue pump, and Afridev pump, and Rain water harvesting systems

More than half (57%) of the HH revealed 33 35 that in the past 12 months their water 30 27 sources never gave them problems unlike 25 in the baseline where 69% of the 20 17 15 14 14 respondents said that they experienced 15 EOP Percentage 8 7 some kind of problem with their main 10 Baseline 5 source of drinking water in the six months preceding the survey. The most common problems were related to insufficient quantity of water in the sources, with almost 33% (Figure 10) of HH identifying this problem in the baseline compared to 15% in the endline survey. Bad water quality was also identified by almost 27% Problems with drinking water in the baseline as compared to 17% in the Figure 10 Problems Sources of water in the dry and rainy endline survey.

Those who used hand pump supported boreholes as their main water sources, 45 % of the HH had a pump breakdown once in the last 12months, whereas 33% had 2 or more breakdowns and 21 % did not experience any breakdown at all. The time taken to access a water point varied with the majority (30%) taking 15-30 minutes to and fro to the water point and back to their homesteads. Four percent of the HH had water on their premise and 14% of the HH had to spend more than 1 hour trying to access water. Seventy two percent of the water points had water available for 8-12months in a year with only 2% having water for only 2 months in a year. In the baseline, HH spent a lot of time walking to water source, waiting in queues or for the water in the source to be replenished, and returning to their homesteads. On average, time spent walking to the water source and back was 50 minutes and spending another 20 minutes waiting at the source.

3.7 Water collection, storage and use The average water usage based on the sphere standards was less with 6.3 liters being used per person compared to 15 Liters required. Compared to the baseline, where 43 % analyzed at a HH size of 6, had access to 15 liters a day, the endline survey indicated that 76% had access to less than 15liters of water per person per day for the average HH of 8. This indicated a 31 % increase based on year 1 baseline results. The average amount of drinking water households fetch was found to be 70L per 1.4 days and those they fetch for washing, bathing and other purposes was found to 72L per 1.2 days. This means an average household (household of 8 people) fetches about 50L drinking and about 60L of water for washing, bathing and other purposes per day. When the HH were further probed on whether the quantities they fetch was enough for their households in a day, 71% said it was enough, and only 26% said it was not enough. The most predominant reason (14%) why most of the households were not fetching enough water was the long distances to the water point.

There were no marked differences in behavioral characteristics of the households between the baseline and endline survey with regard to correct water collection, usage and storage. The majority of the HH collected (74%) and stored (73%) their water in jerry cans with lids or tops whereas 53 % and 50 % collected and stored their water in closed plastic buckets respectively. The endline survey results indicated that less that 1% of the HH collected and stored their water in open containers. Considering that the majority of the HH used borehole water only 15% treated water before use with the majority using it as is. The increase in borehole water usage has led to the decrease in water treatment (chlorination) from 29 % baseline to 11% in the endline

3.8 Water quality and treatment About 45% of the households revealed that the .2 .7 3.5 water they access for especially for drinking and Nothing, its safe cooking taste good and 33% also said that the Boiling water is sparkling clear. However 43 % of the 16.7 Chlorination HH indicated that the water they drink is salty. 10.9 Filtration Eighty four percent of the HH do not do anything Sedimentation to improve the quality of water. For those that Use ash treat water before drinking water, 11 % use 6.0 chlorine (Figure 11) and 6 % boil the water

before use. Figure 11 Water treatments methods

3.9 Water Point Management Committees A majority (62%) of the communities have committees for their respective water points Yes cash compared to 75% in the baseline. The maintenance of a high percentage of water point 5.3 Yes in kind committees is an attribute of good community 16.8 mobilization since three years ago when baseline survey was conducted water Yes with both cash committees were mostly available only where and in‐kind 10.5 IRD was had already started implemented 66.3 none projects. In other areas, committees were there 1.1 but not fully functional. More than half (66%) of the made monetary contributions towards the Not requested maintenance of the water point in the month before the survey. This in comparison to the baseline is higher. Only 47% of the HH in the Figure 12 Water point maintenance fund baseline contributed to the wash committee. Only 17% (Figure 12) indicated they did not

13 make any contributions whilst 5% said they were never requested to make any contributions. The idea of contributing as a water point user is for ensuring a well sustained water point since with the contributions some breakages could be fixed. The main roles of the committees were perceived by the HH to be, to hold meetings (43%), manage finances (40%) (Figure 13) and some hardware maintenance of Mobilizing the water point (24%). 1.4 cleaning of the water point 20 Hardware 43 maintenance of More than three quarters of the HH (78%) i.e. the waterpoint 24 those who have water committees, said the Maintain records on operations of water point committees are active and well- waterpoint functioning. Fifty percent of the HH in the 19 Manage water baseline indicated that their water committee 40 point finances were functioning, with 20% indicated that Hold meetings committees were in existence but not functioning very well.

Figure 13. Functions of a water committee 3.10 Hygiene and Sanitation The majority (96%) of the HH washed their containers Before eating before use, with 60 % 44.2 After eating washing their containers 6.0 daily when they go to 88.1 Before breastfeeding or collect water. Water only feeding a child was the main medium for Before cooking or preparing food cleaning the container with 67.4 After defecation/urination 82 %using it in isolation, 57% using water and soap, After cleaning a child that has and 43 % using water, mud 39.1 defecated and sand. About 60% of 28.8 When my hands are dirty the HH indicated that they 1.9 washed their containers daily before use whereas Figure 14. Time and reason of washing hands 18%wash after every two days.

The present End-line survey results showed that awareness about good hand washing among the HH was high with 88% washing hands before eating, 67% after latrine use and 44% when hands are visibly dirty. While 82% had soap in the house, 59% (Baseline=50%) washed hands with soap.

In the baseline it was observed that a majority of HH did not have an improved sanitation facility, 40% of households defecated in the bushes or streams without any sanitation measures whereas 22% HH rely on traditional pit latrines. Only 37% of households have an improved sanitation facility. In the endline survey, improved latrine use was 73% whilst 23% used open pits with no slabs. Compared to the baseline, 35% of the HH are still using the bush/ fields to defecate.

The majority of the HH that had latrines did not share them with For better health any other families with 100 99.6 only 12 % sharing with Privacy another family. The major reasons for Persuaded by NGO or latrines use were others perceived to be 19.8 Social status The main reason for

100 having and using a latrine were attributed to privacy by 20% of whereas the majority Figure 15. Main reasons for latrine use highlighted that they were encouraged by NGO staff, having a 90 81 latrine improved your 80 70 image in society and it also improved your 60 51 health. The majority 50 Water 40 borne (38%) of the latrines Percentage 30 diseases were >30 m form the 15 20 HH with 29.7 less than 6 7 10 2 3 10 m from the main houses. Fever Worms Malaria Cholera At least 88 % of the Bilharzia Diarrhea infection

infections HH knew that water Skin Eye Cold/Infuenza can be a source of Figure 16. Disease caused by water diseases. The type of water borne diseases possible were perceived to be malaria indicated by 18% (Figure 16) of the HH, diarrhea (82%) and 6% skin infection.

A month preceding the survey only 19% of the HH indicated that their under 5 children had suffered from diarrhea. If their children are suffering from diarrhea, the majority (57%) of the HH indicated that they usually prepare oral rehydration salt as the first mode and main treatment followed by 37% (Figure 17) visiting a health center.

3.11 HIV/AIDS awareness The majority (90%) of the HH indicated 1.6 .5 Nothing that they received HIV/AIDS Go to traditional healer awareness messages in the last 3 years with the majority (78%) coming Visit a health centre 36.7 from the government, Ministry of Health and Child Welfare, 27% from Make traditional NGOs, 10% from media and 2 % from 57.2 remedy relatives. In the last 3 years, 79% of Give extra clean water the HH indicated that they were tested to drink 2.6 for HIV with the majority being tested at Prepare salt and sugar least 3 times in that period 1.4 solution

Figure 17. Management of diarrhea

4. CONCLUSION

Increase in agricultural productivity and adoption of new technologies-a. The average yield per hectare maize and sorghum increased some very significantly such as doubling of maize yields from 2008/09 season. Though the yields are still very low, the facts that most farmers have mostly practiced conservation agriculture for a few seasons, gives hope that the continuation of the practice will result in further yield increases overtime. .

Increase in crop diversity-The major crops that were grown when the program was started were maize which was dominant, cowpeas and sorghum at very low levels. However, sorghum production and consumption has slightly increased which is a positive sign, however, more efforts still need to be put to increase the production coverage and consumption levels. Sweet potato production was produced at low levels and sweet potato vine availability was a challenge. However, through the sweet potato multiplication pilot program has increased availability of the cuttings and production levels are on the increase.

Increase in household revenue-The HH revenue has slightly increased with the expansion of vegetables activities. Households are able to attain between $15-135 per year depending on the type of garden they have. Those that are members of commercial group gardens earn more than those who just have keyhole garden or ordinary backyard gardens. However, the vegetable sales have provided them with revenue that they would not have acquired from any other source.

Increase in number of months of food self-sufficiency due to distributed agricultural inputs to beneficiaries-With the increased land put under maize and other crops and the improved yields of both maize and sorghum, fifty seven percent of the HH consumed cereals from their 2010/11 season harvest as part of their daily meals between April and December 2011 with 60 % consuming from their harvests in between April and May 2012. Those shows a great improvement compared to the baseline where 10 % had cereals (staple) available for 1 month and 11.1 % for 2 months.

Percentage of target population with access to safe water-There were significant improvements to access of water in the dry season indicating a 2 % increase compared to the baseline.

Average water usage of target population in liters per person. There was a 31 % increase in average water usage which indicated increase water access and availability..

Percent population demonstrating good hand washing practices-The present End-line survey results show that awareness about good hand washing among the HH was high with 88% washing hands before eating, 67% after latrine use and 44% when hands are visibly dirty.

Percent of target population demonstrating correct water usage and storage-There were no marked differences in behavioral characteristics of the households between the baseline and endline survey with regard to correct water collection, usage and storage. The majority of the HH collected and stored their water in jerry cans with lids or tops and in closed plastic buckets.

Percent of community members tested for HIV/AIDS-There are a lot of HIV/AIDS awareness activities occurring in the target area with 89 % of the HH having being exposed to the messages. The Government

of Swaziland through the Ministry of Health was the major provider of HIV/AIDS awareness messaging. The endline survey results showed that 79 % of the HH went for testing at least once a year.

Overall the study has shown that the project has been successful in achieving it objectives despite its short duration of the project. The study suggests for replication with further improvement in other where IRD will be working in.