Entrepreneurship in Public Management: The Case of Sri Lanka Administrative Service
Lalitha Fernando, University of Sri Jayawerdenepura, Sri Lanka
Abstract. The role of entrepreneurship in public management remains in debate. Despite the debatable arguments to regarding public entrepreneurship, this paper argues that the concept still has validity of utilizing as a tool for improving the effectiveness and efficiency of public service. By using Hunter’s reputational snowballing technique to identify public entrepreneurs among Sri Lanka’s administrative service, this study presents the preliminary findings based on a recent empirical study and examines their administrative and decision-making roles towards desired changes in the public service in Sri Lanka. During the period of October 2002 and March 2003, the study gathered the data through in-depth interviews of 25 officers in the Sri Lanka Administrative Service. The results of the study indicate that public managers’ motivation to achieve and their leadership skills, goal clarity, managerial autonomy, performance-based reward system, citizen participation and public support represent major factors contributing to public entrepreneurship in the Sri Lanka Administrative Service. This study also finds that there are entrepreneurs in the Sri Lanka public service. Also the paper argues that there are opportunities and potential in the service to work as entrepreneurs who are innovative, proactive and willing to take some risks beyond their work responsibilities. Further, the author argues that there are significant benefits when the entrepreneurship is applied to public management. Therefore the necessary reforms are needed to sustain such initiatives of public entrepreneurs towards more effectiveness and efficiency of public service.
oor performance of the public sector is reported better service for the same monetary unit. There is a in most developing countries and Sri Lanka is general criticism that bureaucracies have less money P no exception. In this context, entrepreneurial due to fraud, abuse, and inefficiency. In this context, in behavior of public managers seems to have potential. order to move toward better government services and There is considerable evidence that an entrepreneurial efficient use of resources, the entrepreneurial behavior management style is common to successful business of public managers could be seen as an alternative organizations. Similar to a business organization, many option. By definition, entrepreneurs are innovative, experts argue that public managers could behave as proactive and willing to take risks in what they are entrepreneurs to serve the citizens’ needs despite limited doing. In a modern world, especially under a market resources handled. Entrepreneurship is presented as one economy system, the central government cannot fulfill answer to the perennial problem of failing public all aspects in the public service; thus the private sector services (Llewellyn and Jones, 2003). has to do the other part. Under the current situation of After the work of Osborne and Gaebler (1992) financial constraints and difficulties, the passive entitled Reinventing Government: How the behavior of officials would not permit higher Entrepreneurial Spirit is Transforming the Public Sector performance of the government. Thus in order to the term, public entrepreneurship has been given focal respond to the peoples’ demands under the conditions of attention. These authors see entrepreneurship as a third scarcity of resources, the roles of the managers in the option for coping with inadequate government public sector need to be changed in an innovative and performance. Those authors see that cutting service and proactive way to improve the performance of the increasing taxes are the first and the second options. government. Instead of traditional public administration, in the This research focuses on the utility of the modern era “Managerialism” and “Entrepreneurial concept of public entrepreneurship in government Government” is emerging, in which public managers organizations in Sri Lanka and analyzes the qualitative have to play an innovative role for delivering public data gathered through the in-depth interviews. The first service and the accomplishment has to be congruent part of this paper discusses about the Sri Lanka with citizen satisfaction, efficiency and effectiveness. Administrative Service in terms of its nature, evolution, Despite the limited resource base in the public sector, and administrative positions. The second part of the peoples’ aspirations have to be fulfilled. In this context, section of this paper discusses the interviews and entrepreneurial behavior could be seen as an alternative presents verification of claims of entrepreneurship and way to cope with such difficulties. characteristics of the selected purposive sample. Then, As Osborne and Gaebler (1992) argued, citizens the officials’ attitudes and behavior related to the three do not like to have less education, less health care but dimensions (innovativeness, willingness to take risks
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and proactiveness) of entrepreneurship are discussed. including managerial staff, technical, clerical, and minor Several entrepreneurial activities of the officials are grades. The main role of the public service is to ensure presented as case studies, along with the results of the better delivery of service to the people. in-depth interviews. Finally the paper presents its The present structure of the public service in findings based on the in-depth interviews. Sri Lanka includes three main groups of public servants. Those are public officers in the central government, Public Service of Sri Lanka provincial governments and semi-government sectors. Public Services refers to all organizations and activities According to the data, the majority of employees work financed out of public revenue, and the services under the central administration. The following figures provided by government (Warnapala, 1995). Public reveal the structure of the public service in the year Service includes all the branches of the administration 2002.
Table 1.1 The Distribution of Employees by Sectors of Sri Lanka
Sector Number of Employees (percentage)
State Sector 329,297 (36.2) Provincial Public Service 308,375 (33.9) Semi- Government Sector 271,988 (29.9) Total 909, 660 (100)
Source: Central Bank of Sri Lanka, 2002
Public servants in the central government serve Sri Lanka Administrative Service in the ministries, government departments, district, and For understanding the nature and basic characteristics of divisional secretariats. Provincial public servants serve the service, it may be useful to examine the evolution of in the provincial ministries, its departments, and other the service which can be divided into two periods: local government institutions. Public servants in the before independence and after independence. semi–government sector serve organizations such as public corporations and statutory boards. The Sri Lanka Evolution of the Sri Lanka Administrative Service Administrative Service represents nearly two percent of Before Independence the entire public service. The public servants serve the Civil Service means higher administrative service following main categories of public services. (Warnapala, 1995). Under the Crown Colony, the service was named Ceylon Civil Service. The British Main Categories of Public Services colonial government ruled Ceylon for 150 years through • Sri Lanka Administrative Service (this is an all- this bureaucracy in which all effective powers were island service) vested (Leonard, 1962). The chief “Service” was the • Combined Services (such as general clerical “Ceylon Civil Service,” founded in 1802 on a very small service, typists service, store keepers service) scale by Governor Frederick North with eight members • Sri Lanka Educational Services (Leonard, 1962). Thus it was the premier service and • Sri Lanka Medical Service the oldest. According to the official diary of Leonard in • Sri Lanka Police Forces 1962, (the diary was maintained by an assistant • Civilian Staff of Armed Forces government agent under the colonial administration of Sri Lanka), civil servants were administrators par • Sri Lanka Engineers Service excellence who were entrusted with the most • Government Accountants Service responsible posts in the government in all departments. • Planning Service It is said that the members of the civil service
were specially selected and had special training, special As the main concern of this study is related to pay and the exclusive right to hold the most influential the Sri Lanka Administrative Service, the next part of and powerful positions in government. The civil service this chapter discusses the nature and evolution of the was the virtual ruler of Ceylon from 1802, when the service and the profile of administrative positions in service was established up to 1931. From 1802, the civil detail. service was entrusted not only with executive functions,
but also with legislative and judicial functions (Leonard, 1962). The diary further added that the powers of the civil service were thus supreme; they were the chief exactors, the chief legislators and the chief judicial
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officers. The only person above the civil service was Administrative Studies in 1966 to provide public service the Governor who was appointed by the Sovereign and induction and training in all aspects of administration who was responsible to the British parliament for the and management. good government of the country. A significant reform took place in 1972 with a Under the colonial government, the civil new constitution. The new constitution vested the service constituted an elitist group in the society, which responsibility for appointments, transfers, dismissal and was considered as the basis of bureaucratic disciplinary control of state officers in the cabinet of administration. The majority of early appointees were in ministers. Earlier there was an independent public the age group of 16-20 because it was assumed that the service commission to handle those matters to maintain younger men would stay a longer period (Warnapala, the public service free from political interference. After 1995). At the time of independence (in 1948), the public this change, political inputs became dominant in the administration system was in operation through the bureaucracy. Since 1972, the service has been called the centrally controlled ministerial mechanism, government Sri Lanka Administrative Service. departments, and district based Kachcheri system. In 1977, with the newly appointed Officers of Ceylon Civil Service (which continued till government, another constitutional reform took place, 1963) managed the public service. which continues to the present. In 1990, the Academy At the beginning, all the officials of civil of Administrative Studies was named the Sri Lanka servants were Englishmen; gradually, because of the Institute of Development Administration, to play a vital demands of nationalists, the opportunities were opened role in public administration through training and to local people for entering the service. This was known consultancy. as the Ceylonization of the Civil Service (Warnapala: The 1977 Constitution did not have much 1995). The colonial administrative system was a simple impact on the public service. Under the 1977 one and remained comparatively unchanged in its Constitution; however, the powers of the Cabinet in essentials from the beginning of British rule in 1796, to respect of the public service remained, except that a new the inauguration of the Donoughmore constitution in Public Service Commission replaced the two State 1931 (Leonard, 1962). Advisory Boards (Nadarajah, 1997). There is a separate Under the Donoughmore constitution in 1931, chapter on “Fundamental Rights” in the Constitution; the civil service became more professional and more public servants, however, could apply for some relief local (Warnapala, 1995). During this period, the role of through the courts, if any wrongful acts were committed the civil service was expanded in terms of both shaping by the politicians. Several trade unions have lost faith the policy and carrying it out. With the granting of in these changes and have demanded a return to the independence in 1948, the government of Ceylon began Independent Public Service Commission. The 1994 to assume responsibility for a wide range of economic government and also the present government (came to and social activities by creating new perspectives for the power in 2001) have promised to restore it, but it has not bureaucracy. materialized yet. Thus the formation of an independent public Service Commission is now very essential for The Sri Lanka Administrative Service after better working governance through the Sri Lanka Independence Administrative Service. With independence in 1948, the new constitution sought to preserve the independence of the public service by Profile of Administrative Positions setting up an independent public service commission. This section discusses eligibility for the service, method After independence, the Ceylon Civil Service had to of recruitment, training, and method of career paths undertake more complex tasks in national development. towards the higher grades. The general election held in 1956 brought to power a new political leadership, which demanded several Method of Recruitment radical reforms and a new bureaucracy (Warnapala, In order to recruit the most capable people to the 1995). One such change was the dramatic growth of the service, there exists a highly competitive process. bureaucracy. In 1948 the size of the public service was Under this process, a candidate will normally be less than 110,000 employees; by 1958 this figure had recruited to the lowest grade (Class 11 Grade 11) by grown to 225,000 employees. Of this, administrative open or limited competitive examination. Also he/she officers constituted only slightly more than one percent must pass the interview held by the Secretary of (Warnapala, 1995). Ministry of Public Administration. The written In 1963 the service was named Ceylon examination consists of two parts. Part one includes Administrative Service. The abolition of the Ceylon compulsory subjects (comprehension, intelligence test, Civil Service and the establishment of the Ceylon and general paper) and 150 marks are allocated for each Administrative Service (CAS) in 1963 was one of the three-hour paper. Only those who have attained a first measures of bureaucratic reforms. (Gunawardene, satisfactory standard in part one will be permitted to 1989). Another significant dimension of administrative proceed to sit papers in part two, which includes various reform was the establishment of the Academy of optional subjects. A candidate must take four papers
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(100 marks and three hours for each.). Another 100 Ministry of Public Administration will be made on the marks will be allocated for the interview. Thus, in order result of limited competitive examination. A person will to join the Sri Lanka Administrative Service, one should be eligible to sit the limited competitive examination if obtain higher marks from the written examination he/ she: (which is considered highly competitive) should pass (1) (a) is a confirmed public officer in the public the interview as well. service of the following services or grades. There are two types of examinations for (Those grades and services are: General recruiting to the lowest grade (Class11, Grade 11) in the Clerical Service, Stenographer Service, Sri Lanka Administrative Service. Those are: Typists’ Service, Bookkeepers’ Service, and 1) Open Competitive Examination Translators’ Service); 2) Limited Competitive Examination (b) has not less than 10 years continuous permanent service; and/or Eligibility for Open Competitive Examination (2) (a) is a confirmed public officer in the above Nearly 80 percent of the vacancies in Class 11 Grade 11 mentioned services/grades; and of the service will be filled by the Secretary of the (b) has obtained a degree of recognized university Ministry of Public Administration based on the results or has passed a professional examination; of an open competitive examination. A person will be (c) has not less than five years continuous eligible to sit the open competitive examination if permanent employment in the public service he/she: mentioned above.
a) is a citizen of Sri Lanka; The limited competitive examination, thus, is b) has obtained a degree from a recognized university set for recruiting mature and experienced public or has passed a professional examination; servants who are capable with required knowledge c) has attained the age of 22 years and not attained working in the clerical and other supportive services. It the age of 26 years; and is also open to both degree holders and non-degree d) is of excellent moral character, of sound holders. Candidates entering the Sri Lanka constitution and good eyesight. (He/she will be Administrative service through limited competition required to undergo a medical examination if must undergo the same examination and interview selected for appointment). process as open competition candidates.
In addition, no person shall sit the limited Competitive Structure and Cadres Examination on more than three occasions. The service consists of three main levels of structure, Thus, the open competitive examination is set which include: (1) Class 1, (2) Class 11 Grade 1, (3) for recruiting fresh, capable graduates from any Class 11 Grade 11. The lowest cadre is Class 11 Grade recognized university for the lowest grade positions of 11 and the highest one is Class 1. Appointments to the the Sri Lanka Administrative Service. higher grades will be based on seniority and merit. The present structure of the Sri Lanka Administrative Eligibility for Limited Competitive Examination Service is as follows: Appointment to not more than 20 percent of the vacancies in Class 11 Grade 11, Secretary of the
Table 1.2 Structure of Cadres of the Sri Lanka Administrative Service
Cadres Number of Cadres
Class 1 719 Class 11 Grade 1 342 Class 11 Grade 11 733 Total 1794
Source: Ministry of Public Administration of Sri Lanka , 2002.
Promotion second language and general management course A confirmed officer who has completed 10 years conducted by the Sri Lanka Institute of Development satisfactory service in Class 11 Grade 11 in the Sri Administration, earned all the eligible increments, and Lanka Administrative Service will be promoted to the has not been subject to any disciplinary punishment. If next level (Class 11 Grade 1), if she/he has passed the the officer has satisfied those requirements, the Head of first and the second efficiency bar examinations, the the Department should forward with his/her
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recommendations through the Secretary to the Ministry Administrative Service remains the most powerful concerned. segment within the Island’s bureaucracy. It now The syllabus of the first efficiency bar represents nearly two percent of the entire public examination consists of Law, Finance, Administration, service. Economics/Sociology and English. The syllabus of the The next section describes the method of the second efficiency bar examination consists of Economic selection of the research sample and the data collection and Social Policy, Development Administration and method of this study. Management and Organization. Thus, for promotion to this level, both seniority and merit (measured by the Interviews and Verification of Claims knowledge through examinations) will be considered. For this qualitative analysis, 25 officials were The criteria for promotion to this grade seems somewhat interviewed using Hunter’s reputational snowballing specific and clear. technique to identify public entrepreneurs (Bogaards, Appointments to vacancies in Class 1 of the 1997: 1) among the Sri Lanka Administrative Service. service will be made by promotion by the Secretary of Interviews were conducted during the period from the respective Ministry. Recommendations for November 2002 to February 2003. The start was appointments to this class will be made after an provided by a list of three names of officials in the Sri interview by a board consisting of the Secretary and two Lanka Administrative Service, who have earned good other Secretaries appointed by him. It is mentioned that reputations, obtained from a senior academician in the the board shall base their recommendations on seniority field of Public Administration at a local university. and merit. However, to measure merit for going to the Before the interview date, a confirmation for discussion highest grade as promotions, there seem to be no clear was made via telephone. After the end of each and specific indicators. interview, the respondent was asked to name other officials that fit the description of public entrepreneur Transfer according to the research definition; the respective It is mentioned in the Minutes of the Sri Lanka official usually revealed two or three names. Most Administrative Service that an officer is transferable and respondents were interviewed just once and interviews is liable to be posted to any part of the Island. When took around two to three hours to complete. transferring or posting an officer, it is also mentioned All the interviews were held at the interviewee’s that the appropriate authority will take into workplace during office hours. In some cases, the consideration any specialized knowledge, training and researcher had to wait nearly four hours to get all the experience of an officer in a particular field with a view required information, as the officials were very busy to making the best use of such knowledge, training and with their working schedule and they engaged in experience. The Secretary of the respective ministry will continued and long telephone discussions during the make a transfer between ministries and between process of the in-depth interview. If more information departments within the same ministry. The Head of the was required, a second visit was made. For some cases, department will make a transfer within the same if the second visit was not possible, telephone department. The Cabinet of Ministers or the Secretary, discussions were held. If some points were not cleared however, reserves the right to appoint any public officer for some cases, clarification also was obtained through to any of the posts (The Minute of the Sri Lanka e-mail. The researcher conducted all the interviews Administrative Service, 1988). herself, in order to maintain accuracy of information and The above discussion indicates that the to reduce biases. officials of the Sri Lanka Administrative service display Having identified respondents, it had to be a remarkable ability, and also have both power and verified whether they were indeed public entrepreneurs. recognition. The service is not only the most powerful To accomplish this, the researcher asked about their part of the Island’s bureaucratic set up, but also a experiences with open-ended questions (Bogaards, tremendously influential pressure group. Its prestige is 1997). Fortunately most of them were qualified as partly derived from the old civil service (Warnapala, public entrepreneurs as their answers fit the research 1995). definition of public entrepreneur. At the interview, the It seems, however, that after independence, the researcher used a set of guidelines for conducting those reputation of the service has been reduced slightly. Also in-depth interviews. The officials were also given a the power and autonomy, which were experienced under chance to talk freely. Most officials provided good the colonial administration, has been reduced examples that indicated their innovative work; some considerably as politicians are the supreme power and others provided confidential information asking not to have power to interfere with the officials’ activities. mention their names. For this reason, the sources of This is mainly due to the 1972 Constitution, which some quotes are not identified to respect confidentiality. vested the responsibility for appointments, transfers, dismissal and disciplinary control of state officers to the Cabinet of Ministers. Even though the reputation and power has been reduced to some extent, the Sri Lanka
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Characteristics of the Purposive Sample those officials admitted personal risks in accomplishing Among the selected 25 officials, three of them were the broader interest of society. Secretaries, eight were Additional Secretaries, three “Yes, still I take the risk, as my job is always were Senior Assistant Secretaries, four were Directors, related to bringing in changes. The way I cope with risk three were Deputy Directors and one was a Deputy is before introducing the change, I make all my staff Commissioner of Ministry under the Central aware and familiar with the change and give necessary Administration. Another three were Divisional training to them. I tell them that if we are to implement Secretaries working in Field Administration. Among it, that will be our overall responsibility.” Most of the these 25 officials, seven officials have 25-34 years of officials noted that they were not feeling any kind of working experience and are in the highest grade (Class risk if the job is properly done and if they have honest 1). Two officials have 15-21 years of the service and are intention to do something for the people. “We are not in the same highest grade (Class I) and the rest of the afraid about risks, if it we are doing what people want.” officials (16 officials) are in the second highest grade Some others mentioned that the risk involving a new (Class 1, Grade 11) having 9-15 years of working task would be reduced, if we are able to get everybody’s experience in the service. The reputational snowballing assistance, especially the higher authorities. The technique did not select lower grade officials as public common idea related to coping with risk taking entrepreneurs. That might be one of the limitations of behaviors is that if officials have more confidence in this method, as officials named only peers that are themselves regarding their abilities, are skilled enough, known to them and are in the same grade. Thus all have good attitudes, operate with transparency, have officials are regarded as the most senior level managers more experience, and get support from others, then there in the Sri Lanka Administrative Service. Among the is no need to think about the risk. sample, only three of them are female and rest of the officials are male managers. Except for one Muslim Proactiveness in Their Work official, all of them are Sinhalese, which is the majority Proactiveness is another dimension of entrepreneurship. ethnic group. “It is the opposite of reactive and could be defined as the initiation or engagement of action rather than Entrepreneurial Activities of Officials in the Sri activity as a reaction to an occurrence” (Salazar, 1997). Lanka Administrative Service “Being proactive is getting ready before the situation This research is mainly focused to find out whether occurs. It involves thinking about potential problems entrepreneurial behavior is possible in the bureaucracy and all the associated issues beforehand and finding in public sector organizations. The definition of public remedies and alternatives. The best way is to draw the entrepreneurs “create or profoundly elaborate a public job graphically and think of all the impacts and organization so as to alter greatly the existing pattern of consequences.” allocation of scarce public resources, identify new Most officials confirmed that they work missions or programs for their organizations or help to according to their plans, which facilitate them to be propel dynamic policy or political change in the proactive. For example, in the planning cycle, potential community ”(Lewis, 1980). Those entrepreneurs do not problems that might be faced in the future would be start new businesses, but seek instead to improve the forecasted. Some argued, however, that for some cases bureaucracies where they work (Kanter, 1993). Also it is proactive activities could not be practiced due to sudden mentioned that entrepreneurship involves mainly three political involvement in the public service. Similar to dimensions: innovativeness, willingness to take that view, some officials revealed that for some cases, responsibility (risk) for their work, and proactiveness. unanticipated problems might occur, especially through With reference to the in-depth interviews, these three the political authority, where conflicts of interest exist. dimensions will be discussed as follows: Then reactive measures have to be taken to handle those issues. Willingness to Take Risks at Work Another official explained that proactive As Berman and Jonathan (1998) note, current behavior is possible when handling issues of the general management reforms require increased risk-taking by public. However, some issues related to staff were not managers. Salazar (1997) reveals that risk-taking evident beforehand and at the same time, proactive involves the willingness of management to commit activities are impossible with the issues that are coming significant resources to opportunities having a from the political authority. “If we had advisory reasonable chance of failure. The author notes that capacity with required knowledge of the subject, if we responsibility is stressed as an important factor in taking could guide the respective politician, then proactive risks. The examples presented below indicate that those behavior would be possible in the issues of political innovative changes involved risks to some extent. On authority.” the other hand, it could be argued that without taking the responsibility for what they doing, no innovative work Innovative Behavior and Attitudes at Work would be possible in the public sector. It seems that Innovation in the public service means, “a repackaging of existing concepts to create new realities” (Keys, 1988:
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62). The focus is not on invention or creation but on found that some people in his division had engaged in different combinations of existing goods and services illegal activities (such as taking out sand from the beach and grasping the opportunities (Keys, 1988; Davis, et al., (coastal area) for a business purpose). That kind of 1988. Quoted in Salazar, 1997). Most of the officials in work had led to environmental degradation and also the sample have mentioned that there are considerable caused severe damage to the scenic beauty. “I initiated opportunities and freedom to introduce and implement peoples’ groups to monitor the coastal area of my innovative ideas and activities within the service. Some division and prevent those illegal activities. Thereafter, officials have mentioned that if there is a purpose, then it became those unions’ responsibility to protect their considerable opportunities could be found to introduce environment, which helped to increase the effectiveness innovative and new ideas in their work. “Innovation in of the public service towards meeting the peoples’ delivery of services is bringing in new methods and aspirations.” Those activities helped to prevent such ideas to the public sector. This usually happens with the illegal activities and also protected the environment. employees, who think of ways of doing their work more That improvement, however, involved no extra budget easily.” from the government. In support of the literature on public entrepreneurship, the work of those officials Example Four: Introducing a New Place for interviewed, indicated the entrepreneurial style. Most Marketing officials stated that there are opportunities for Another official mentioned that when he was working as innovation. Also, the interviews indicated that public an Assistant Government Agent, he introduced a new entrepreneurs found in this study are willing to take place to market food and necessary items for the people responsibility for their work and, in addition, indicated in his division. Before introducing this market facility, proactive behavior. Thus the conditions for public the system was monopolized by a single businessman entrepreneurship in the Sri Lanka Administrative who had earned big and (illegal) income from the Service are promising. Respondents’ experiences business activities through the market. By introducing a indicated innovative behaviors and also ways of coping new place that opened more opportunities for many with risk when introducing innovative ideas or changes people to engage in business activities, the official was at work. able to increase the government income through the Some examples of entrepreneurial behavior sales tax from the respective area. and activities of the officials are presented below: The same official mentioned that when he was working in a corporation, in order to increase the Example One: Introducing New Programs for effectiveness and efficiency of the service, he changed Students the existing file system which helped to reduce long “I introduced and implemented a new program for delays in responding to the peoples’ demands. students to learn Information Technology in government schools. Within a very short time period (within 6 Example Five: Initiating a System for the Poor to months) I, along with my staff (with the assistance of Save Money consultants) developed a new curriculum for the course The same official mentioned that when he worked as a and established workable machinery to implement the Divisional Secretary, he, with the help of his Assistant program throughout the country. ” “Ordinarily,” the Divisional Secretary, introduced a new concept for a official said, “the procedure would take two-years time poverty reduction program (Jana Saviya (Peoples’ to finish.” Strength) Program), which had been implemented several years before. In order to increase the Example Two: Reducing the Cost of Postage effectiveness of the existing poverty reduction policy, “I, Expenses with my assistant, introduced a special bank system Another official, working in a corporation, revealed that (called Jana Sakthi (Peoples’ Strength) Bank). Having before he was assigned as a head of that institution, acknowledged the respective Minister, (for overcoming posted letters reached the office at 13.00 - 14.00 hours beneficiaries’ complaints in advance, otherwise it may daily. It cost RS. 20,000 to RS. 30,000 per month. cause unnecessary problems for their work), we had “After my assignment to the office, I was able to reduce stopped one installment to be distributed to the poor for the postage expenses by up to RS. 4000 to RS. 5000 and one month. Then it was deposited as compulsory thereafter the letters normally reached the office twice a savings in the newly formed bank in the names of the day. (At 9.00 a.m. and at 12.00 noon).” As the head of poor people. At present, the bank owns millions of the institution, the respective official had introduced a savings. The poor own those assets of Jana Sakthi new method to reduce the cost and also to increase the Banks.” According to the respondent, many poor people efficiency of the service. are now benefiting from the bank by borrowing money at a very low interest rate when compared to the market Example Three: Initiating Peoples’ Group rates. This system has proved that the poor also could The same official mentioned that when he was working save money! in a divisional secretariat as a Divisional Secretary, he
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Example Six: Initiating E -Governmental Concept voluntarily. It was usually their first appointment and Another official was able to introduce and was compulsory service. implement an E-Governmental Concept with the After the officer was assigned to the office as assistance of the junior staff. Beginning in 2001, they a divisional secretary, the atmosphere gradually changed were able to send all the necessary circulars through e- within three years. One of his innovative ideas was to mail and Internet to all other ministries and institutions. reduce peoples’ continuous complaints. In order to Earlier there was no system like this. “I introduced the improve the productivity of the public service, the distribution of all Public Administration circulars by e- respective officer, with the staff, has introduced and mail to peripheral offices and stored all circulars on our implemented the following new changes to their work: web site. We used to send circulars to 3254 public sector • New programs for staff training, recipients by mail. I also introduced e-mail for internal • Well-planned productivity improvement communication as every branch has e-mail. It has also programs, become my sole responsibility to implement internal e- • For every two weeks, staff discussions at mail correspondence.” 3.05 p.m. (to discuss difficulties and problems of their work), Example Seven: Initiating a New Method for • Every three months, a news bulletin is Consumer Protection published, (the aim of this bulletin is to This story is related to an official working as a improve the skills and capabilities and commissioner of Consumer Protection. “I introduced a change the attitudes of the staff), system to acknowledge and publicize peoples’ • Field trips were organized for the staff, complaints related to consumption of goods and services. • Seminars, workshops and discussions were By getting assistance of the national newspapers and conducted for the staff, several staff that have knowledge with consumer law, I • Competitions among the staff were publicized the consumers’ complaints in a special conducted, and column in national newspapers.” Thus, by getting • Motivation strategies were introduced for assistance from another public agency, the new system the staff. helped to protect consumers in an efficient and effective
manner. After having implemented these programs in
1997, the Divisional Secretariat was awarded as the best Example Eight: Initiating a Web Site for Applying office in the District. Also it is accepted unofficially that for Visas and Passports the respective office became the best divisional Another official who works in the Emigration and secretariat in the island in the same year. It is interesting Immigration Department revealed that he introduced to note that all improvements and changes were and implemented a new system, which led to a reduction achieved without having any extra budget allocation in the delay in issuing new passports and visas. “With from the central government. the assistance of my staff, I introduced a web site so that
customers, even living abroad, could get the necessary Example Ten: Introducing Kitchen Development information and download the facility to apply or to Model renew their passports and visas. The new system also A secretary from an institution under the Rural promoted the tourism industry in Sri Lanka.” Development Ministry described how he introduced a In addition to that, “in order to increase the new system in order to document peoples’ experiences efficiency of the internal administration and to maintain in the area of rural development. Thereafter, those ideas and manage all the personnel files (for instance, leaves, were considered in the planning of rural development. It loans) activities were computerized and a form was seems that this is a kind of mechanism related to citizen designed to apply for leaves, increments, short- leaves, participation. The official named the program “Kitchen etc.” Thus the system led to an increase in the efficiency Development Model” and was based on a small-group of the public service as it reduced the time and other system. Under this concept, 1,000 home gardens were resources such as paper work and involvement of promoted; then the best five home gardens were selected several personnel to do such activities. and the owners sent to India to learn new technology
and gain more experience related to the field. After Example Nine: Introducing a Productivity returning, workshops were arranged for them to share Improvement System their knowledge and experience with the rest of the This is related to an official who worked in a divisional villagers and the staff. This was very interesting, in that secretariat. Before the official was assigned to the office, normally, public officials arrange foreign trips for it was regarded as the most poorly managed, themselves. But in this case, the reverse happened. This underdeveloped divisional secretariat in Galle district. system has helped the public service work more closely Officials who were transferred to this divisional with the villagers. secretariat regarded it as a demotion or punishment. The
majority of the staff had not come to this office
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Example Eleven: Introducing Land Productivity estates in a geographical base, which facilitated easy Improvement Farmer Groups (LPIFG) monitoring and supervision. The officials who inspected An official who worked in the Department of Highland the estates in the field were paid extra as incentives. Development, Central Hill Division, has made several Thus, the streamlined process only took 30 days to attempts to change the existing planning and working deliver all the required service.” system. According to the respondent, there are various institutions under the department and each of them Example Fourteen: Initiating A Method For specialized in promoting only one crop. “After my Achieving Targets assignment to the office as head of the department, I Another official, when he was working as a divisional diversified the system. Thereafter, my staff were sent to secretariat, stated that they had achieved significant lands and asked to meet farmers. Then, the farmers were improvement in their work. In order to achieve this asked to make decisions and plans for themselves (such success, they followed a flow of procedure that had not as what crops to be grown on their lands rather than been used before: given instruction about what to grow). My staff helped the farmers develop their lands as a joint exercise. We • Setting targets for their work, named this new system as the “Land Productivity • Evaluating their performance by using pre- Improvement Farmer Groups (LPIFG).” According to determined indicators, the official’s records, within a very short time period, • Charting the achievements and performance on this program became very successful. graphs, • Arranging staff discussions based on these graphs. Example Twelve: Introducing Multi-Facilities Center Another respondent, who works in the Ministry of Because of their success, the respective minister named Public Utilities, explained his new concept, which was and awarded the office as one of the best divisional introduced recently. “I selected several urban areas in secretariats on the island in that year. Colombo District to develop what I termed as a “Multi- By providing the above examples, the Facilities Center.” Thus the youth who are in lower- respondents have confirmed that minimizing delays, income groups and unemployed could have access to expenditure, duplication of work, and waste can facilities such as indoor sports practice, skill enhance productivity and are some areas where development, and career guidance. It is normally an innovative action is possible in the public service. accepted fact that most of the unemployed youth in Those examples indicate that it is possible to introduce urban sectors, especially in Colombo district, are various ideas, methods, programs that are quite different involved in illegal activities. Thus, the project helps from the existing systems. Those new methods, ideas, them find suitable jobs as they can get necessary and programs have led to increases in the speed of the training and other kind of skills from these centers. With service, or reductions of delay, increases in government the assistance of non-governmental organizations, these income, and improvements in the physical environment projects were implemented. without extra cost. All of the above examples can be Similarly, in order to get involvement of considered entrepreneurial activities. The ultimate women in the urban sector, as a pilot project, some outcome of these entrepreneurial activities is increased uneducated housewives were selected and encouraged to effectiveness of the public service by getting closer to save money; they also received guidance on income peoples’ demands. generation activities. The next section examines the conducive factors that Example Thirteen: Streamlining the Procedure prompt administrators to behave in an entrepreneurial Another official explained that when he worked in the manner. Small Tea Estate Authority, he was able to pay the required subsidies within only one month. Earlier, the Determinants of Public Entrepreneurship process had taken nearly two years. Under the existing Motivation to Achieve system, after tea cultivation, farmers had to inform the The hallmark of entrepreneurs, according to authority, requesting subsidies. The necessary McClelland, is their high need for achievement, and information was passed to the farmers and several certainly public entrepreneurs share this quality with rounds of information had to be exchanged with farmers private entrepreneurs (Ramamurti, 1986). Both public and the officials. All the communication had been done and private entrepreneurs are very similar as both of through postal letters. Then, the required amounts of them try to get the jobs done. When compared to their subsidies were paid to the farmers. Normally, this main motives, however, it was reported elsewhere that process took two to three years to finish. the private entrepreneur needs to earn higher profits “Under the new system, I streamlined the whereas his counterpart, the public entrepreneur, does procedure. I asked my staff to visit tea estates rather not have the same motive. Having a higher salary is also than forcing the farmers to come to the offices as not a motivating factor; rather, officials indicated some required under the earlier system. I aggregated nearly 14 non-economic motives to achieve.
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Most officials have replied that they need to do is said that normally, human beings are resistant to something for the country. Some officials replied that change. Under such a situation, getting compliance for they wanted to solve the country’s problems. According innovative work from subordinates is somewhat of a to the field data, even though they are paid a somewhat challenging task. Some officials have emphasized that lower salary when compared to the private sector, negotiating abilities, bargaining skills and ability to nobody prioritized having a higher salary as a maintain a friendly environment within the work are motivating factor. But being a good public servant, and also very useful, especially when implementing gaining recognition and respect from their citizens and innovative ideas. political bosses seems very important to them. Most of Other respondents have mentioned that the officials replied that they need to feel the satisfaction communication skills are also very useful when they of “serving the country.” “I have been offered a higher introduce new changes to the system. In order to managerial post in the private sector with a very good maintain good interpersonal relations and better public salary, but I do not want to leave public service.” As this relations, the officials’ language abilities (especially in official said, the public service is a place where more English language) seem useful. Similarly, writing diversified work can be done when compared to the abilities in both Sinhala and English language are also private sector. Similarly, when working in the Sri Lanka very useful when communicating with the staff and Administrative Service, they use their jobs to build other relevant agencies. At the introduction and constituencies of support among politicians, other implementation of new programs and ideas, the staff, higher-level public officials, non-government beneficiaries, and politicians have to be acknowledged. organizations, and the private sector and the general Thus, ability to conduct awareness programs and hold public as well. In that way, some of officials gain more well-managed meetings are other aspects of skills that power and reputation within the service. In addition, it seem very useful. Another aspect of communication is said that the Sri Lanka Administrative Service is skills, the ability to conduct effective meetings with considered a highly respectable profession in the good presentation skills is also useful, as is country. Thus, some officials mentioned the need to acknowledging the junior staff for their new ideas. achieve higher prestige within this respectable profession. Conceptual Skills Most officials revealed that, as the Sri Lanka Leadership Skills Administrative Service is a higher managerial level, Leadership skills were found to be another contributing both decision- making and implementation abilities are factor to public entrepreneurship. Indeed, it indicated very important to perform not only as an entrepreneur the various types of leadership qualities required for but also as a manager. Apart from policy analysis skills, planning and managing the public service effectively. capabilities in planning and strategic thinking, ability to According to officials’ responses, the required skills make quick and correct decisions, and diagnostic skills could be classified as follows: are also very useful when introducing and implementing innovative ideas at work. Some officials have revealed Technical Skills that for long-term planning, one needs the ability to Most officials replied that there should be good think holistically. The conceptual skills seem more knowledge about the field. In order to do the job useful for them to introduce and implement new ideas properly and also to experiment in various ways to do and programs at work. the same job, the subject knowledge is very essential. In this regard, educational level is a distinctive Goal Clarity characteristic. Most officials in the purposive sample Most respondents revealed that if they had a clear have completed Master’s degrees and possessed the mission and goals, then different activities and programs subject knowledge in their field. Apart from that, all could be introduced to achieve clearly set targets. Some respondents have 15-34 years of work experience, officials realized that perfectly clear goals would not be which indicated that they have acquired the required possible. However, if the goals are not clear enough, subject knowledge. It should also be noted that several they did not want to consult their political bosses for of the examples of implementation of innovative ideas perfection, as it would create unproductive conflicts. involved the use of computer technology, which implies Several respondents have mentioned that they had the that the implementer had some degree of technical skill opportunity to set missions and goals for their in that area. organization and in such a situation more innovative ideas and methods could be implemented more easily. Human Skills Other officials have revealed that some times, mission Human skills are another important attribute of and goals may change according to the public demands, leadership skills. Most officials have mentioned that and then existing goals and objectives had to be human relations capabilities and skills with public diversified. According to Ramamurti (1986) public relations and interpersonal relations are essential and entrepreneurs realize that their political bosses will important when they introduce new ideas to the staff. It seldom be willing or able to provide them clear goals.
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“Vague and ambiguous goals could be interpreted in innovative ideas in the public service. This is what can different ways to introduce and implement innovative be implied from the field discussions. This situation is programs for the people.” common, not only to the Sri Lanka Administrative System, but also to the rest of the public service. Managerial Autonomy Most respondents have in common the idea This study has confirmed that having managerial that there is no proper system that measures their autonomy, freedom and independence is one of the performance and achievements. Both innovative and major facilitating factors of public entrepreneurship. normal officials were measured and rewarded in a Several interviewees revealed that they were able to use similar manner, which discourages hard working their authority without political interference. Under that managers. In fact, punishment is more prevalent than situation, innovative ideas are encouraged. Even when reward, so many managers are reluctant to try new ideas there were unnecessary political influences, some for fear of failure. officials revealed that flexibility to some extent could be “Government has failed in giving rewards to maintained without breaking rules and without doing officials who perform well. The existing system has no any injustice for the general public. Several officials, encouragement on new ideas and innovations. Hard however, revealed that more flexibility creates a higher work goes to the “pool”(the pool is a place where the degree of political involvement, which makes officials are transferred as punishment).” Several innovation more difficult. “If we have shown good officials have revealed that the existing system is not results with our reputation, then politicians will not suitable and has to be changed towards a performance intervene in our work.” system based on their achievement and performance. “Politicians are not always bad fellows. Some “No system exists that gives promotion for suitable politicians welcome our innovative ideas and sometimes persons, but rather political reasons seem to dominate. they encourage us.” Another additional Secretary Therefore, good officials with new ideas might be de- revealed that managing unnecessary political influence motivated as no authority exists to consider our merits.” is one of the required managerial skills. The same It seems that the non-existence of a performance based official pointed out that when unnecessary political reward system influences the work in a negative way. influence appeared, he has not rejected it immediately, Even though they do not expect financial rewards, good as the kind of response might make bad relationships recognition and better promotion for their achievement with the political boss. It is better to take some time to and merits would encourage them to work in an acknowledge the irrationality of their ideas or demands. entrepreneurial manner. Under such a situation, the official must have advisory skills earned through a good reputation. Aggressive and Transfer System emotional responses to their political bosses may create The logical purpose for a transfer is an administrative unproductive conflicts. Thus, maintaining good relations reason and the interest of the public. In practice, with politicians is very useful and this kind of situation however, irrational transfers are seen for political may help to reduce unnecessary political involvement. reasons. “There are two systems of transfers; one is It is well known that without autonomy there related to the political boss. Whenever the political boss can be little entrepreneurial activity (Ramamurti, 1986). wants or is refused by the official, then the official is However for some cases in the study, it was indicated transferred. The other method is the official’s request. If that managerial autonomy has to be earned rather than there is no restriction to the official’s request, the granted. This is especially true with public respective officer can get the transfer.” Several officials, entrepreneurs. Public entrepreneurs must be good however, have revealed that there is no proper leaders; they must possess the necessary skills to placement system. Even though there is a system that manage political interference while maintaining good allows officials to request transfers every five years, this political relationships. system seems not to be properly implemented. If the It must be accepted in theory that public politicians and higher authorities accept it, transfers can service is a neutral body that exists for the sake of the be obtained. An official revealed that he was public. However, some officials did not agree with this disappointed with an unnecessary transfer and forced to theoretical statement. They indicated that political go to “the pool.” Further, this officer mentioned that interference has been an epidemic in the field of the such transfer might affect family matters as well. A public service. The concept of accountability has been senior official, who has earned a good reputation in the severely damaged by some political alignments, Sri Lanka Administrative Service, mentioned that his according to one official. political boss transferred him to the “pool” when he refused to implement the politician’s illegal suggestions. Performance Based Reward System But this official has taken this opportunity as a good It was revealed that the existing reward system does not opportunity, because during this period, he was able to place much emphasis on performance and complete two examinations (which were neglected by achievements. If there were a reward system, which busy work) and also able to pay closer care to family measures their performance, there would be more matters and look after the education of his children.
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Overall discussion, however, related to the Some officials, however, have shown less transfer system indicated that the system of transfer does interest with mass media attention as it sometimes not make much difference to innovative ideas of the creates extra problems and negative criticism. At the officials as some officials continue their exceptional same time, most officials agreed that the mass media work without considering the place he/she works. Most could be used to educate the people and the government of the public entrepreneurs found in this study indicated whenever it is necessary. The discussions have shown that they are committed to their work, regardless of the that it was more useful for public officials to promote transfer system or other forms of political interference. civil society organizations as they could provide reliable feedback information to evaluate plans and programs. Citizen Participation Such feedback information could be used to generate Public entrepreneurship among public administrators new ideas and methods for future work. must be reconciled with the demands for adherence to It was revealed in those in-depth interviews democratic values in government administration. that most innovative ideas appeared in relation to field (Kobrak, 1993). This perspective relates to citizen administration rather than in departments or ministries participation needed to align with the activities of the located in Colombo. Perhaps, this may be due to the fact public entrepreneurs. Citizen participation involves that Divisional Secretaries or Government Agents may creating opportunities under suitable conditions for have more autonomy than Senior Assistant Secretaries people to influence decisions affecting them (Pateman, in a Ministry. Other reasons may be that in a Ministry, 1970). Thus activities have to be undertaken for getting political involvement is higher than in the field involvement of the people when designing, and administration. Thus, those field administrators were implementing plans and programs. Also the clients’ able to introduce new ideas and changes to their work involvement can be obtained as feedback after the with few instructions and less supervision from the implementation of the program to determine whether the center. “When I was working as “Government Agent”, I programs or services have satisfied the peoples’ wants. had more autonomy than this post (even the post of A majority of interviewees also agreed that Additional Secretary of a Ministry is higher than when introducing or implementing new ideas, methods “Government Agent”).” Another Additional Secretary or programs, it was very useful to collect the advised the researcher to go to the field administration, beneficiaries’ ideas. Sometimes new methods or ideas to find more innovative ideas in administration. This were found in the process of citizen participation. Some implies that location may be another determinant factor officials have revealed that clients’ feedback is also very of entrepreneurship in the Sri Lanka Administrative useful as it helped to evaluate the result of their Service. innovative programs or ideas. If there were a system to evaluate or measure the public service by the clients, Summary and Conclusion then the feedback on the quality of the service would The selected officials’ attitudes and behavior related to lead to more improvement. One official suggested, with the three dimensions (innovativeness, risk taking and regard to resettlement activities, without peoples’ proactiveness) of entrepreneurship were discussed in participation, the kind of work could not be done this paper and presented from the outcome of the in- effectively. Those activities needed different ideas and depth interviews. It also presented entrepreneurial approaches for implementation to attract the people. activities of officials by focusing on their attitudes, past Several officials explained that how they developed a and present behavior, and experiences at their work. suitable mechanism for getting involvement of the Finally, the paper examined key factors of public citizens. They also believed that clients’ participation entrepreneurship in the Sri Lanka Administrative definitely ensured more effectiveness of the public Service. service as it helps to know clearly about what people The results have indicated that there are public need. It was revealed at the interviews that well entrepreneurs in the Sri Lanka Administrative Service. organized and independent ratepayers associations and The above-presented examples show their beneficiaries’ groups could provide good avenues to innovativeness, proactiveness and risk-taking behavior, bring public service closer to the people. which provided some evidence of entrepreneurial activities of public managers in the Sri Lanka Public Support Administrative Service. Public support means getting supportive comments and Motivation to achieve is one key factor when recognition of the general public and the mass media. creating efficient public management. Regarding their “Public support is used by public entrepreneurs to achievement, some officials clearly indicated that they balance political pressure” ( Bogaards, 1997: 18). had non-economic motives rather than financial Several respondents have revealed that they are not motives. Some of those respondents have indicated that much concerned about public support if the program is they feel a need to serve the country, which may help to an existing one. In terms of new programs, however, obtain more respect within the service, rather than public and media support is very useful. having a higher salary as the first priority.
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With regard to leadership skills, most of the performance-based reward system, 6) citizen respondents of the sample possess the required participation and 7) public support. The transfer system leadership skills, namely technical skills, human skills does not have much influence on public and conceptual skill. They also have agreed that those entrepreneurship. In addition to that, in-depth interviews kinds of skills are very useful, especially to design and revealed that location of organizations (field implement innovative ideas at work. Some respondents administration) is another contributing factor to public in the purposive sample indicated that conceptual skills entrepreneurship in the Sri Lanka Administrative are more useful when introducing and implementing Service. new ideas at work. Thus, if policy makers are committed to It was also revealed that goal clarity is very administrative reforms in the public service and wish to crucial when introducing innovative ideas in public engender an entrepreneurial spirit to provide more service. Those officials strongly agreed that they have efficient and effective service, they would be wise to clear goals at work. consider the factors revealed in this study. Regarding degree of managerial autonomy, most officials agreed that they had the required freedom and independence at their work. Thus it reveals that if Dr. ( Mrs). R Lalitha S Fernando the managers are given a higher degree of managerial Academic Qualification: B.Sc. Public Administration autonomy, those senior officials in the public service, (Special) University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka could do innovative work and implement changes in (1985), M.A. (Econ.) Developement Administration and their workplaces. They believed that there is managerial Management, University of Manchester, U.K., autonomy to some degree. For some cases, they have (1992) P.hD. Public Management (NIDA), earned the autonomy by using their various skills in Bangko, (2003). Current position and Address: Senior order to implement their innovative work. Lecturer Grade 1 and Head, Department of Public It is general acceptance that a performance- Administration, Faculty of Management Studies and based reward system makes a significant difference to Commerece, University of Sri Jayawerdenepura, public entrepreneurship. According to the empirical Nugegoda, Sri Lanka. Research Interest: Public results, most officials did not agree that the existing Management , Public Entreprenuership, Managerial reward system is based on their performance and urged Innovation, E-Governance, Public Policy and Policy a proper reward system. They argue that the existing Analysis, Poverty,Reduction reward system discourages innovative work. Respondents in the purposive sample have emphasized Reference that the existing system needs to be changed towards a system that measures their results. Berman, E. M. and Jonathan, P. W. 1998. Responsible Further, the in-depth interview results Risk Taking. Public Administrative Review. 58, 4 (July/ indicated that there seems to be no proper transfer August): 346-352. system in the Sri Lanka Administrative Service and sometimes political conflict gives them an undesirable Bogaards, Matthijs. 1997. Public Entrepreneurs in placement. Some officials, however, revealed that if Indian Administrative Service. Indian Journal of there was a proper transfer system, more innovative Public Administration. XL111, 1 ( January/ March):1- work could be done. 34. It also indicates that citizens’ participation is crucial when introducing and implementing Doig, J. W. and Hargrove, E. C., eds. 1987. Leadership entrepreneurial work in public service. The officials and Innovation: A Biographic Perspective on point out that they have considered clients’ ideas before Entrepreneur in Government. Baltimore, London: Johns planning and implementing new programs and also they Hopkins University Press. normally get feedback after the implementation of the program. Kanter, Moss Rosabeth. 1993. Change Masters and The discussion revealed that some officials are the Intricate Architecture of Corporate Culture Change. interested in the mass media and considered getting The Political Environment of Public Management. public support useful. But some of them did not pay Kobrak, Peter., eds. Harper Collings College Publishers. much attention to the mass media as it sometimes creates problems in their work. In contrast, several of Keys, P. R. 1988. Administrative Entrepreneurship in them mentioned that mass media and public support are the Public Sector: Administration in Social Work. 12, 2: useful at the introduction and implementation of new 59-68. ideas and changes. Based on these in-depth interviews, it reveals Kobrak, Peter. 1993. The Political Environment of that the following factors influence public Public Management. New York: Harper Collings entrepreneurship: 1) motivation to achieve, 2) leadership College Publishers. skills, 3) goal clarity, 4) managerial autonomy, 5)
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