REVIEW ARTICLE published: 06 March 2015 doi: 10.3389/fpls.2015.00100 Reproduction and the pheromonal regulation of type in

Nadia M. Atallah and Jo Ann Banks*

Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA

Edited by: The fern life cycle includes a haploid that is independent of the sporophyte Dazhong D. Zhao, University of and functions to produce the gametes. In homosporous , the sex of the gametophyte Wisconsin-Milwaukee, USA is not fixed but can vary depending on its social environment. In many species, the Reviewed by: Elena M. Kramer, Harvard sexual phenotype of the gametophyte is determined by the pheromone antheridiogen. University, USA Antheridiogen induces male development and is secreted by hermaphrodites once they Keiko Sakakibara, University of become insensitive to its male-inducing effect. Recent genetic and biochemical studies of Tokyo, Japan the antheridiogen response and sex-determination pathway in ferns, which are highlighted *Correspondence: here, reveal many similarities and interesting differences to GA signaling and biosynthetic Jo Ann Banks, Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue pathways in angiosperms. University, 915 West State Street, West Lafayette, IN 47906, USA Keywords: antheridiogen, sex determination, ferns, GA signaling, GA biosynthesis e-mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION 1979). By optimizing the conditions for inducing apospory in The fern life cycle, illustrated in Figure 1, features two distinct Ceratopteris richardii gametophytes, a recent study has established body types: the large diploid sporophyte and the tiny haploid C. richardii as a useful experimental system for studying this gametophyte. From a reproduction point of view, the sole func- phenomenon (Cordle et al., 2007). Induced apogamous sporo- tion of the sporophyte is to produce then release haploid , phytes of C. richardii have features typical of the sporophyte, while the gametophyte, which grows from a , functions including stomata, vascular tissue and scale-like ramenta; how- to produce the gametes. Some ferns, like all angiosperms, are ever, they are abnormal compared to sexually-derived diploid heterosporous and produce both mega- and microspores that are sporophytes, which could be a consequence of being hap- destined to develop as female and male gametophytes, respec- loid. To better understand how sucrose promotes the develop- tively. Most ferns species are homosporous and produce only one ment of a sporophyte from cells of the gametophyte, the same type of spore. While textbook drawings of homosporous fern researchers identified 170 genes whose expression is up-regulated gametophytes typically show a heart-shaped hermaphrodite, fern during the period of apogamy commitment. Many of them gametophytes can be male, female, male then female, female then are associated with stress and metabolism or are homologs of male, hermaphroditic or asexual, depending on the species. In this genes preferentially expressed in seed and flower tissues (Cordle review we highlight old and recent studies that have revealed the et al., 2012). Understanding apogamy, coupled with studies of fascinating cross-talk that occurs between neighboring gameto- apospory in C. richardii, where diploid gametophytes develop phytes in determining what their sexual phenotype will be. from cells of sporophyte leaves without meiosis (DeYoung et al., 1997), should provide useful insights into genes and molecular ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FERN GAMETOPHYTES mechanisms that regulate the alternation of gametophyte and In addition to reproducing sexually, there are many exam- sporophyte generations in ferns in the absence of meiosis and ples of fern gametophytes that circumvent sex and reproduce fertilization. asexually. The most common type of asexual reproduction is A second form of asexual reproduction in homosporous ferns apogamy, whereby a sporophyte plant develops from a gameto- involves vegetative propagation of the gametophyte. While rel- phyte without fertilization, similar to apomixis in angiosperms. atively rare, such gametophytes typically do not produce sex In naturally occurring apogamous species, the viable spores organs. The fern Vittaria appalachiana, for example, is only produced by the sporophyte have the same chromosome num- known from its gametophytes (Farrar and Mickel, 1991). Each ber as the sporophyte (Walker, 1962, 1979). Obligate apogamy gametophyte forms vegetative buds, or gammae, that allow game- often occurs naturally in species of ferns that produce no or tophytes to multiply and form mats in dark, moist cavities and only one type of gametangia. Because water is required for rock shelters in the Appalachian Mountains. While the origin the flagellated sperm to swim to the egg in ferns, apogamous of V. appalachiana (is it a recent hybrid or ancient relict?) and species are typically found in dry habitats where water is limit- why it is unable to form sporophytes are unknown at this time, ing (White, 1979). Apogamy also can be artificially induced in its persistent gametophyte suggest that fern gametophytes, like many ferns by adding sucrose to the culture media in which bryophyte gametophytes, can persist and thrive for very long gametophytes are grown (Whittier and Steeves, 1962; White, periods of time.

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FIGURE 1 | The C. richardii life cycle. Typical of all homosporous germinates and develops as a male or hermaphroditic gametophyte ferns, the diploid sporophyte produces sporangia on the abaxial depending on the presence or absence of antheridiogen. When surface of the fronds. Each sporangium contains haploid spores that mature, sperm are released and swim to the egg. The young are released from the sporophyte and, in the case of C. richardii, can sporophyte remains dependent on the gametophyte for a short remain dormant but viable for more than 50 years. Each spore period of time.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION ferns (Yamane, 1998; Kurumatani et al., 2001; Jimenez et al., Most homosporous ferns that reproduce sexually ultimately form 2008). hermaphroditic gametophytes that have antheridia and archego- Much of what is known about the biology of antheridiogen nia. While hermaphroditism increases the probability that a single responses can be attributed to studies by Näf and Schraudolf gametophyte will reproduce, self-fertilization of a hermaphrodite during the 1950s and 1960s (reviewed in Näf, 1959, 1979). This (which is genetically similar to a doubled haploid in angiosperms) response is illustrated here for the fern C. richardii, originally results in a completely homozygous sporophyte. Given that this characterized by Hickok et al.(1995). In this species, an indi- absolute inbreeding could have negative consequences to the vidual spore always develops as a relatively large hermaphrodite individual and reduce genetic variation in populations, it is not (Figure 2A) that produces egg-forming archegonia (Figure 2B), surprising that homosporous ferns have evolved mechanisms to sperm-forming antheridia and multicellular lateral meristem. The promote outcrossing. One such mechanism that is common to hermaphrodite also secretes antheridiogen, or ACE (for antherid- many species of ferns involves the pheromonal regulation of iogen Ceratopteris) into its surroundings. If the hermaphrodite is sexual identity, where the sexual phenotype of an individual removed then replaced with a genetically identical spore, the new gametophyte depends on its social environment. spore will develop as an ameristic male gametophyte (Figure 2C) with many antheridia (Figure 2D) in response to ACE secreted by ONE GENOTYPE—TWO OR MORE PHENOTYPES the hermaphrodite. In a population of spores, spores that germi- In the late 1800’s, botanists began noting that fern game- nate first become hermaphrodites that secrete ACE, while slower- tophytes are often sexually dimorphic, with larger gameto- growing members of the population become male in response phytes bearing archegonia and smaller gametophytes bearing to the secreted ACE. In comparison to chromosomal based sex antheridia (Prantl, 1881; Yin and Quinn, 1995). The size differ- determination, this mechanism of sex-determination is unusual ence between them was attributed to the presence or absence because it allows the ratio of males to hermaphrodites to vary of a meristem, with females or hermaphrodites being “meristic” depending on population size and density and it is inherently (with a meristem) and males “ameristic” (without a meris- flexible rather than fixed. tem). In a major discovery, Döpp noted that the medium Typical of other ferns, a C. richardii gametophyte is able harvested from cultures of Pteridium aquilinum gametophytes to respond to ACE for a limited period of time, prior to the contained a pheromone that promoted the development of establishment of a lateral meristem. The lateral meristem not males in juvenile gametophytes (Döpp, 1950); this pheromone only confers indeterminate growth to the gametophyte, but its is referred to as antheridiogen. Antheridiogens or antheridio- formation coincides with a loss in ability to respond to ACE gen responses have since been identified in over 20 species of as well as the secretion of ACE. Archegonia invariably initiate

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FIGURE 2 | The antheridiogen response in C. richardii. A single males. The male lacks a meristem and almost all cells differentiate as spore always develops as a hermaphrodite when grown in the absence antheridia. The SEM shows six antheridia, each having a ring cell and a

of ACE. The hermaphrodite consists of a single sheet of cells with a cap cell that pops open to release sperm. When a male gametophyte is distinct multicellular meristem that forms a meristem notch and transferred to media lacking ACE, some cells divide and begin to form a multiple archegonia that develop adjacent to the meristem notch, which hermaphroditic prothallus. The “switched” male shown is forming are highlighted in the SEM (boxed area of the hermaphrodite). three such prothalli. mn: meristem notch; ar: archegonia; cc: cap cell;

Hermaphrodites secrete ACE; in the presence of ACE, spores develop as rc: ring cell. close to the meristem notch of the hermaphrodite, well after two species of homosporous ferns: C. richardii and Lygodium the lateral meristem is well developed. While the hermaphroditic japonicum. Ceratopteris richardii is a semi-tropical, annual species program of expression cannot be reversed, the male program of and is useful as a genetic system for many reasons. Large numbers expression is reversible. Cells of the male gametophyte prothallus, of single-celled, haploid spores (typically 106) can be mutage- when transferred to media lacking ACE, will divide to ultimately nized and mutants identified within 2 weeks after mutagenesis. form one or more new hermaphroditic prothalli (Figure 2E). Gametophytes can be dissected and regrown, making it possible Antheridiogen thus serves multiple functions in male gameto- to simultaneously self-fertilize and out-cross a single mutant phyte development: it represses divisions of the prothallus that gametophyte. Because self-fertilization of a gametophyte results in establish the lateral meristem; it promotes the rapid differen- a completely homozygous sporophyte that produces >107 spores tiation of antheridia; it represses its own biosynthesis; and it within a 6-month period, suppressor mutants are also easy to gen- serves to maintain in the gametophyte an ability to respond to erate. Because C. richardii gametophytes are sexually dimorphic, itself. mutations affecting the sex of the gametophyte are especially easy All of the antheridiogens that have been structurally charac- to identify (Hickok, 1977, 1985; Hickok et al., 1985, 1991; Warne terized from ferns are gibberellins (GAs) (Yamane et al., 1979; and Hickok, 1986; Warne et al., 1988; Hickok and Schwarz, 1989; Furber et al., 1989; Takeno et al., 1989; Yamane, 1998). Although Vaughn et al., 1990; Scott and Hickok, 1991; Chun and Hickok, the structure of ACE is unknown, GA biosynthetic inhibitors 1992; Banks, 1994, 1997a,b; Eberle and Banks, 1996; Strain et al., reduce the proportion of males in a population of C. richardii 2001; Renzaglia et al., 2004). Over 70 mutants affecting sex deter- gametophytes suggesting that ACE and GA share a common mination have been characterized, most falling into three major biosynthetic pathway (Warne and Hickok, 1989). ABA, a known phenotypic groups: the hermaphroditic (her) mutants, which are antagonist of GA responses in angiosperms, completely blocks the hermaphroditic in the presence or absence of ACE, the transformer ACE response in C. richardii, also indicating that ACE is likely a (tra) mutants, which are male in the presence or absence of ACE, GA (Hickok, 1983). and the feminization (fem) mutants, which are female in the presence or absence of ACE and produce no antheridia. Through THE SEX-DETERMINING PATHWAY IN Ceratopteris test of epistasis (i.e., comparing mutant phenotypes of single and Most recent studies aimed at understanding how antheridio- various combinations of double and triple mutants), a genetic gen determines the sex of the gametophyte have focused on model of the sex determination pathway has been developed and

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FIGURE 3 | A comparison of the GA signaling pathway in angiosperms sex-determining mutants but it is consistent with recent molecular and and the sex-determining (SD) pathway in C. richardii. The SD pathway biochemical studies in the fern L. japonicum. T bars represent repressive in C. richardii is based solely on the epistatic interactions among events whereas arrows indicate activating events.

is illustrated in Figure 3 (Eberle and Banks, 1996; Banks, 1997a,b; ACE. This “battle of the ”—deciding whether to be male or Strain et al., 2001). This pathway reveals that there are two major female—depends on which of the two major regulatory sex genes regulators of sex: TRA, which is necessary for lateral meristem prevails in the young gametophyte, a decision that is ultimately and archegonia development (female traits), and FEM, which is determined by the presence or absence ACE. necessary for antheridia development (the male trait). FEM and While this model explains how male and female gametophyte TRA negatively regulate each other such that only one can be identities are determined, it does not explain the hermaphrodite. expressed in the gametophyte. What determines whether FEM or One possibility is that in certain cells of the hermaphrodite, the TRA is expressed in the gametophyte is ACE.ACE activates the activities of FEM and TRA are reversed, allowing FEM to be HERs, which, in turn, repress TRA. Because TRA cannot repress expressed in cells that will eventually differentiate as antheridia. FEM, FEM is expressed and the gametophyte develops as a male. Testing this and other possibilities will require the cloning of the In the absence of ACE, HER is not active and is thus unable to sex-determining genes and assessing their temporal and spatial repress TRA. TRA promotes the development of a gametophyte patterns of expression in the developing hermaphrodite. with female traits and represses the development of antheridia The sex-determining pathway in C. richardii is remarkable by repressing the FEM gene that promotes male development. in its resemblance to the GA signaling pathway in angiosperms Additional genetic experiments have revealed that the repression (Sun, 2011), as illustrated in Figure 3. In Arabidopsis, GA is of FEM by TRA and of TRA by FEM is indirect and involves bound by its receptor GIBBERELLIN INSENSITIVE DWARF1 other genes (Strain et al., 2001). What is remarkable about this (GID1). The GA-GID1 complex triggers the rapid proteolysis pathway is that it is inherently flexible, which is consistent with of one or more DELLA proteins that are ultimately responsi- what is understood about sex determination in this species by ble for repressing GA responses. Proteolysis of DELLA requires

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GID1 and the specific F-box protein SLEEPY1 (SLY1), which gametophyte. Because GA9 methyl ester is more hydrophobic and SLY1/GID2 promotes poly-ubiquitination of DELLA by the SCR more efficiently taken up by gametophytes than GA9, splitting the complex and results in its degradation by the 26S proteasome. GA biosynthetic pathway between young and older gametophytes Since DELLA acts as a repressor of GA responses, its GA-induced was proposed to enhance the sensitivity of young gametophytes degradation results in a GA response. While targets of DELLA to the secreted antheridiogen by their neighbors and, at the same repression have been identified (Fleet and Sun, 2005), in the time, promote the activation of male traits once inside the young case of barley seed germination (which requires GA), DELLA gametophyte (Tanaka et al., 2014). directly or indirectly represses GAMYB, a transcription factor In addition to characterizing antheridiogen biosynthesis in L. that promotes α-amylase expression in germinating barley seeds japonicum, Tanaka et al.(2014) also made two other important (Gubler et al., 1995, 1999). Based on the similarities between discoveries. They found that a L. japonicum DELLA protein was the GA signaling pathway in angiosperms and the sex determi- degraded in GA4 and GA9 methyl ester treated gametophytes, and nation pathway in C. richardii, it is tempting to speculate that that the L. japonicum GID1 and DELLA proteins could interact the HER genes in C. richardii encode GID1 and SLY1, that TRA in a yeast–two hybrid assay, but only in the presence of GA4 encodes a DELLA protein, and that FEM encodes a GAMYB-like (and not GA4 methyl ester or GA9 methyl ester). All told, the protein. results of these experiments were used to define a model of the antheridiogen response in L. japonicum that is remarkably similar ANTHERIDIOGEN BIOSYNTHESIS IS SPLIT BETWEEN YOUNG to the pathways illustrated in Figure 3. AND OLDER GAMETOPHYTES IN Lygodium japonicum Lygodium japonicum is another homosporous fern species with FUTURE DIRECTIONS an antheridiogen response. This species has the distinct advan- The elucidation of the antheridiogen biosynthetic and signal- tage of having its antheridiogens structurally well characterized. ing pathways in ferns has only just begun and many questions Two different GAs have been identified as antheridiogens in this regarding sex determination and sexual reproduction remain, species, including GA9 methyl ester (Yamane et al., 1979) and many of which can be resolved by cloning all of the sex deter- GA73 methyl ester (Yamane et al., 1988). GA73 methyl ester is mining genes. Some of these questions are: To what extent are the most active antheridiogen and is able to induce antheridia other involved in sex determination? Is the split GA formation at the incredibly low concentration of 10−15 M. To biosynthetic pathway in L. japonicum typical of other ferns? What test the hypothesis that antheridiogen is synthesized through the is the relationship between the antheridiogen response in the GA biosynthetic pathway, L. japonicum genes related to five dif- gametophyte to GA responses in the sporophyte? Knowing that ferent GA synthesis genes, including ent-copalyl diphosphate/ent- some mutations in C. richardii (e.g., her mutations) have no effect kaurene synthase (CPS/KS), ent-kaurenoic acid oxidase (KAO), on the sporophyte while other mutations (e.g., tra mutations) kaurene oxidase (KO), GA 20-oxidase (GA20ox), and GA3-oxidase severely affect the sporophyte suggest that at least some, but not (GA3ox), were identified and their expression patterns in devel- all, genes are necessary in both generations. Is antheridiogen also oping gametophytes investigated (Tanaka et al., 2014). Their involved in the developmental decision to produce mega- and expression patterns revealed that all but GA30ox were more micro-sporangia in heterosporous ferns? From an evolutionary highly expressed in older gametophytes that secrete antheridio- perspective, was the antheridiogen signaling and responses in gen, consistent with the expectation that antheridiogen biosyn- the gametophyte co-opted during or important for the evolution thesis genes are up-regulated in gametophytes that secrete it. of heterospory from homospory in ferns? Addressing these and GA3ox expression showed the opposite pattern of expression; other questions will lead to a more comprehensive understanding i.e., it was more highly expressed in young gametophytes that of sex determination in ferns, including an understanding of the did not secrete antheridiogen but were capable of responding to molecular mechanisms at play. antheridiogen. To explore this further, the same authors assayed the effects of prohexadione, a GA3ox inhibitor, on antheridia REFERENCES formation in the presence of GA4 (which has an OH group Banks, J. A. (1994). 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Conflict of Interest Statement: The authors declare that the research was con- 65, 2311–2314. doi: 10.1271/bbb.65.2311 ducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be Näf, U. (1959). Control of antheridium formation in the fern species anemia construed as a potential conflict of interest. phyllitides. Nature 184, 798–800. doi: 10.1038/184798a0 Näf, U. (1979). “Antheridiogens and antheridial development,” in The Experimental Received: 13 January 2015; accepted: 07 February 2015; published online: 06 March Biology of Ferns, ed. A. F. Dyer (New York: Academic Press), 436–470. 2015. Prantl, K. A. E. (1881). Beobachtungen üer die ernährung der farnprothallien und Citation: Atallah NM and Ann Banks J (2015) Reproduction and the pheromonal die verteilung der sexual organe: apogamie. Just’s Bot. Jahrb. 15, 553–574. regulation of sex type in fern gametophytes. Front. Plant Sci. 6:100. doi: Renzaglia, K. S., Wood, K. D., Rupp, G., and Hickok, L. G. (2004). Characterization 10.3389/fpls.2015.00100 of the sleepy sperm mutant in the fern Ceratopteris richardii: a new model for This article was submitted to Plant Evolution and Development, a section of the the study of axonemal function. Can. J. Bot. 82, 1602–1617. doi: 10.1139/b04- journal Frontiers in Plant Science. 125 Copyright © 2015 Atallah and Ann Banks. This is an open-access article distributed Scott, R. J., and Hickok, L. G. (1991). Inheritance and characterization of a dark- under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, germinating, light-inhibited mutant in the fern Ceratopteris richardii. Can. J. distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original Bot. 69, 2616–2619. doi: 10.1139/b91-326 author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal Strain, E., Hass, B., and Banks, J. A. (2001). Characterization of mutations that is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or feminize gametophytes of the fern Ceratopteris. Genetics 159, 1271–1281. reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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