Publications of the Biological Survey 2nd Series Volume 7: 24-33, 2006 © Oklahoma Biological Survey, 2006

VASCULAR UTILIZED BY THE PLAINS IN SOUTHWESTERN OKLAHOMA Julia Jordan1,4, Wayne Elisens2, 3, and Richard Thomas2 1Sam Noble Oklahoma Museum of Natural History, 2Oklahoma Biological Survey, and 3Department of Botany and Microbiology; University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73019

ABSTRACT.—Based on field studies conducted in 1963 and 1964, the Plains Apache in southwestern Oklahoma utilized at least 105 of vascular plants as edible plants and for material culture, ritual and medicinal purposes, and personal care and adorn- ment. Most species (98) are native to western Oklahoma and the Great Plains. The only North American exotics are watercress, white sweetclover, and Johnsongrass; peyote, sweetgrass, frosted mint, and mescal bean are the only North American natives used that do not occur in Oklahoma. We propose that many of the plants utilized by the Plains Apache have a long history of usage among numerous tribes in the temperate steppe ecoregion of , because 44 species appear in the archaeobotanical record throughout the Great Plains. Although the Plains Apache were historically nomadic and had an economy based in large part on the American Bison, they have a rich ethnobotanical heritage.

INTRODUCTION The North American temperate steppes have a con- Ethnobotanical studies among tribal groups from tinental climate characterized by hot summers and cold the Great Plains of North America generally are few in winters and an annual precipitation gradient increas- number, concentrated in the early decades of the twen- ing from west (<38 cm) to east (>76 cm). The surface tieth century, and confined mostly to the northern and topography has low relief, an eastward slope from 1675 m central regions (Kindscher 1987, 1992; Pfeiffer 1993; to less than 450 m, and valleys that are typically broad, Adair 2003, Moerman 2006). Among traditionally steep sided, and shallow. The potential natural vegeta- nomadic hunting and gathering tribes in the southern tion of the region inhabited by the Plains Apache is plains, use among the Comanche (Carlson and predominantly grassland with some woodland and Jones 1940, Jones 1968), Kiowa (Vestal and Schultes forest associations. Grasslands are classified generally 1939), and Plains Apache (Jordan 1965) have been as Grama–Buffalo short grass (Bouteloua–Buchloë), investigated. The Plains Apache are distinct culturally Bluestem-Grama mixed grass (Schizachyrium/Andropogon– from the Apache of the Southwest, and were previous- Bouteloua), Tallgrass (Andropogon/Schyzachrium– ly referred to as the ‘Kiowa-Apache’ or even erro- Panicum–Sorghastrum), Sandsage Bluestem (– neously considered a band of the Kiowa. The Plains Schizachyrium), and Shinnery Oak-Bluestem (Quercus– Apache, similar to all Apacheans living east of the Andropogon/Schizachyrium) communities. Vegetation , were a small group whose tradition- with high cover of woody plants include Postoak- al economy was centered on bison hunting supple- Blackjack Oak (Quercus) Forest (i.e., the Cross Timbers) mented by gathering (Schroeder 1974, Foster and and riverine woodland (Bruner 1931, Kuchler 1964, McCullough 2001). They inhabited the western and Hoagland 2000). southern Great Plains (Montana and North Dakota Most members of the Plains Apache now live in south to New and Oklahoma) in the High southwestern Oklahoma with a population around Plains and Osage Plains physiographic regions (Hunt 2000 (Schweinfurth 2002). Because the Plains Apache 1967) since at least the 17th century (LaSalle report of were made to take individual allotments of 160 acres 1682 in Foster 2003, Foster and McCullough 2001). The each from 1902 to 1908, there is no reservation current- Plains Apache have an ethnobotanical heritage that is ly (Schweinfurth 2002). Southwestern Oklahoma has based historically and ecologically in the Temperate the vegetation and flora characteristic of the Great Steppe Ecoregion of North America (Bailey 1995) Plains (Great Plains Flora Association 1986, Bailey where they reside currently. We report here for the 1995), Cross Timbers (Dyksterhuis 1948), and the first time a list of plants utilized by the Plains Apache North American Prairie floristic province (Takhtajan based on the field research of Jordan (1965, unpub- 1986). The tribe has subsisted and persisted with simi- lished manuscript). lar habitats and vegetation at least since contact with

4 E-mail: [email protected] 24 25 JORDAN, ELISENS, AND THOMAS [POBS, Vol. 7

European explorers and settlers. Along with the the Bebb Herbarium; the second author verified nam- Comanche and Kiowa, they have resided in southwest- ing of 19 voucher specimens. Five identifications were ern Oklahoma since 1867. Members of the Plains obtained without plant specimens and were based on Apache are concentrated near the towns of Anadarko, detailed descriptions provided by informants. Because Apache, Boone, Carnegie, and Fort Cobb in the general George Goodman was an acknowledged expert of the area surrounding the juncture of southern Caddo, flora of Oklahoma (e.g., Goodman 1958), we have high western Comanche, and eastern Kiowa counties. This confidence in our species identifications. Plant nomen- area is characterized by a flat to rolling topography clature including common names followed The ranging in elevation from 360 m to 450 m, with the PLANTS database (USDA, NRCS 2006). Several highest elevations (>730 m) in the Wichita Mountains species were identified only to . of northern Comanche County. The primary goal of this study was to list the plants RESULTS AND DISCUSSION utilized by the Plains Apache as identified by six Plains At least 105 species in 86 genera of vascular plants Apache elders. Discussion of the cultural, ritualistic, representing 46 families were utilized by the Plains and cosmological significance of their plants is present- Apache; results are presented in Tables 1 and 2. Most ed in Jordan (1965, unpublished manuscript). plants (98) are native to southwestern Oklahoma, occur Although many other plants were undoubtedly impor- throughout the western and southern Great Plains, and tant formerly in Apache life, information on their iden- most likely represent plants that were familiar to the tity and use were not obtained and may be beyond Plains Apache during their history. Support for this recovery, because of the loss of cultural information. latter hypothesis is inferred from the Great Plains pale- oethnobotanical record (Adair 2003), which lists 44 MATERIALS AND METHODS species in 35 genera shared with the Plains Apache eth- Information concerning plant use by the Plains nobotanical survey (Jordan 1965). Apache was obtained through interviews, observa- Watercress (Nasturtium officinale), white sweet- tions, and field excursions by the senior author with clover (Melilotus alba), and Johnsongrass (Sorghum two male and four female tribal elders in 1963 and halapense) are the only North American exotics repre- 1964. Six principal informants provided most of the sented in the ethnobotanical survey of the Plains information and are now deceased: Fred Bigman, Ray Apache (Jordan 1965). Jordan (1965) observed that Blackbear, Gertie Chalepah, Rose Chaletsin, Connie most introduced plants were unnamed, ignored by the May Saddleblanket, and Louise Saddleblanket. Based informants, and dismissed as “white man’s plants.” on the age and experiences of the informants, most Peyote (Lophophora williamsii), sweetgrass (Hierochloe data about plant utilization date from around 1890 to odorata), frosted mint (Poliomintha incana), and mescal 1930, but some present uses may be quite old and bean (Sophora secundiflora) are native North American extend back into the pre-contact period. plants that do not occur in Oklahoma. Because they are Plants were placed into four ethnobotanical cate- important in rituals and for personal use, they were gories: edible plants, plants important for material cul- obtained via travel, trade and purchase (Jordan 1965, ture, ritual and medicinal plants, and plants used for unpublished field notes). Pinyon pine (Pinus edulis) is personal care and adornment. The list of medicinal native to Oklahoma, but occurs naturally only in the plants recovered is less complete than those of other extreme western part of the panhandle (Cimarron categories, because medicines were the property of County) and is distant from the present location of the healing specialists and their manner of preparation Plains Apache. Pinyon seeds also were obtained was not common knowledge (Jordan 1965). Plants through travel and trade. classified as ‘mates’ (i.e., plants similar in appearance The largest category of plants used by the Plains to those of cultural significance) and those used for Apache are the ‘edible plants’ (48 species) followed by firewood, fodder, crops, or bouquets were not includ- plants used in material culture (43 species), in rituals or ed in the list presented here, but are available in Jordan for ‘medicinal’ use (39 species), and for personal care (1965). and adornment (7 species). Twenty-seven plants have Most identifications were obtained directly from multiple usages in more than one category. Three plant material brought by the senior author to the species of edible plants, groundnut (Apios americana), Robert Bebb Herbarium of the University of potato dwarf dandelion (), and tuber- Oklahoma. Identifications were provided by George J. ous desert-chicory (Pyrrhopappus grandiflorus), were Goodman, a plant systematist and former curator of identified by detailed descriptions provided by inform- 2006] Vascular plants utilization in Oklahoma 26

ants, whereas two species of medicinal plants, stiff and a rich understanding of natural resource use and greenthread (Thelesperma filifolium) and sneezeweed management adapted to the Great Plains region. (Helenium sp.), were identified in a similar manner. Because the vegetation and landscapes of Caddo, Additional species of edible and medicinal plants were Comanche, and Kiowa counties were similar to those described by informants but not included in Jordan of their ancestral range in the western Great Plains, (1965), because plants were not observed and identities many of the culturally and economically significant could not be determined. Based on the large number of plants of the Plains Apache reflect a long history of plants in Table 2, it is apparent that the Plains Apache usage and knowledge predating their settlement. We had a rich ethnobotanical tradition. hope that this summary list of the plants stimulates The present inventory lists plants used by the interest and honors the cultural traditions of the Plains Plains Apache in the mid-1960s in southwestern Apache. Cultural knowledge is diminishing rapidly Oklahoma – several generations after the near extermi- with each passing generation; it is imperative to record nation of the American Bison and after high mortality and archive as much information and material as pos- and forced settlement permanently altered their tradi- sible. We hope this report is a contribution to that tional way of life. Although the tribe was forced to set- effort. tle in Oklahoma during the latter part of the 19th centu- ry, they brought with them a long cultural tradition

Table 1. Summary of vascular plants used by Plains Apache in Oklahoma recorded by J. A. Jordan in 1963-64. Plants classified as 'mates' and those used for firewood, fodder, crops, or bouquets are not included. Only one species included for Crataegus, Cuscuta, Fraxinus, Rubus, and Typha.

Total number of species 105 Total number of species native to North America 102 Total number of species native to Oklahoma 98 Species used as edible plants 48 Species used for material culture 43 Species used as ritual and medicinal plants 39 Species used for personal care and adornment 7 Species with multiple uses 27 Total number of genera 86 Total number of families 46 27 JORDAN, ELISENS, AND THOMAS [POBS, Vol. 6

.

s are native to

(follicle)

immature seed

Ethnobotanical use

material culture leaf personal care root

ritual/medicinal root

ritual/medicinal stem, leaf

Texan great ragweed material culture whole plant

(DC.)

texana

DC. * Cuman ragweed ritual/medicinal leaf

Gray slimleaf milkweed ritual/medicinal root

L. * eastern redcedar material culture wood

L. scouringrush horsetail material culture stem

Sudworth Pinchot’s juniper ritual/medicinal leaf

L. butterfly milkweed ritual/medicinal root

Medik. groundnut edible tuber

L. var.

Ait. * fragrant sumac edible fruit

(Raf.) Woods. star milkvine edible immature fruit,

Nutt. * soapweed yucca edible flower, immature

Engelm. twoneedle pinyon edible seed, resin

L. smooth sumac ritual/medicinal leaf

sp. milkweed edible immature fruit

sp. pine material culture wood

Scheele *

Nutt. prairie broomweed material culture stem, leaf

Equisetum hyemale

Juniperus pinchotii Juniperus virginiana

Pinus Pinus edulis

Yucca glauca

Rhus aromatica Rhus glabra

Apios americana

Asclepias

Asclepias stenophylla Asclepias tuberosa Matelea biflora

Ambrosia psilostachya Ambrosia trifida

Amphiachyris dracunculoides

Equisetaceae

Cupressaceae

Pinaceae

Agavaceae

Anacardiaceae

Apiaceae

Asclepiadaceae

Table 2. Vascular plants used by the Plains Apache in southwestern Oklahoma recorded by J. A. Jordan in 1963-64. All specie Oklahoma unless indicated. * = voucher specimen deposited at OKL; † = not native to Oklahoma, †† = not native to North America

Scientific plant name Common name category Plant part used

EQUISETALES

CONIFERS

ANGIOSPERMS 2006] Vascular plants utilization in Oklahoma 28 swelling) Ethnobotanical use personal care stem, leaf ritual/medicinalritual/medicinal corm sap ritual/medicinalpersonal care stem (pads) spine watercressMissouri foxtail cactus edible edible fruit leaf †† (Nutt.) tuberous desert-chicory edible root (tuberiform (Rydb.) ritual/medicinal inflorescence Lehm. * narrowleaf stoneseed ritual/medicinal root DC. blacksamson echinacearitual/medicinalDC. blacksamson root (Hook.) stiff greenthread(Hook.) stiff edible seed (Lem. ex peyote ritual/medicinal entire plant Nutt. white sagebrush ritual/medicinal stem, leaf † Raf. rusty blackhaw edible fruit R. Br. L. compassplant edible sap Engelm. twistspine pricklypear edible fruit (Pursh) rush skeletonplant ritual/medicinal stem Torr. * Baldwin’s ironweed material culture stem, leaf (Vent.) fetid marigold(Vent.) fetid ritual/medicinal inflorescence Torr. sand sagebrush material culture stem, leaf (L.) Nutt. potato dwarfdandelion edible , tuber Hook. dotted blazing star edible corm (Willd. ex intermedium sp. sunflower material culture stem, leaf sp. sneezeweed ritual/medicinal inflorescence sp. goldenrod ritual/medicinal leaf mexicana ssp. Spreng.) Keck * A. S. Hitchc. D. Don ex Hook. Gray var. Nutt. Shinners Salm-Dyck) Coult. Artemisia filifolia Artemisia ludoviciana Dyssodia papposa Echinacea angustifolia Krigia dandelion Lygodesmia juncea Pyrrhopappus grandiflorus Silphium laciniatum Solidago Thelesperma filifolium Helenium Helianthus Liatris punctata Lithospermum incisum Escobaria missouriensis Nasturtium officinale Lophophora williamsii Opuntia macrorhiza Viburnum rufidulum Vernonia baldwinii Boraginaceae Brassicaceae Cactaceae Caprifoliaceae Scientific plant name Common name category Plant part used Table 2. Continued 29 Table 2. Continued Ethnobotanical use Scientific plant name Common name category Plant part used

Caryophyllaceae Paronychia virginica Spreng. yellow nailwort material culture leaf ritual/medicinal whole plant Convolvulaceae Ipomoea leptophylla Torr. bush morning-glory ritual/medicinal root drummondii C. A. Mey. * roughleaf dogwood material culture wood Cucurbitaceae Cucurbita foetidissima Kunth gourd ritual/medicinal root, stem, leaf, fruit Cuscutaceae

Cuscuta sp. dodder ritual/medicinal entire plant JORDAN, ELISENS,ANDTHOMAS Cyperaceae Cyperus setigerus Torr. lean flatsedge edible stem (culm) base Ebenaceae Diospyros virginiana L. common persimmonedible fruit Fabaceae Baptisia bracteata Muhl. longbract wild indigo material culture fruit (legume) ex Ell. var leucophaea (Nutt.) Kartesz & Ghandi Dalea enneandra Nutt. nineanther prairie clover ritual/medicinal stem Gymnocladus dioicus Kentucky coffeetree material culture wood, seed (L.) K. Koch Lespedeza capitata Michx. * roundhead lespedeza edible leaf ritual/medicinal leaf Melilotus alba Medikus †† white sweetclover personal care stem, leaf, flower Mimosa microphylla Dry. littleleaf sensitive-briar ritual/medicinal flower Pediomelum esculentum large Indian breadroot edible root (Pursh) Rydb. * Prosopis glandulosa honey mesquite edible fruit (legume), seed Torr. var. glandulosa Psoralidium tenuiflorum slimflower scurfpea material culture stem (Pursh) Rydb. Robinia psuedoacacia L. black locust material culture wood Sophora secundiflora (Ortega) Lag. mescal bean material culture seed [POBS, Vol.6 ex DC. † personal adornment seed Fagaceae Quercus macrocarpa Michx. bur oak edible nut (acorn) material culture wood

2006] Vascular plants utilization in Oklahoma 30

personal care personal shell hard

material culture material husk fruit wood,

material culture material wood

material culture material wood

Ethnobotanical use Ethnobotanical

purple poppymallow purple edible root

*

Engelm.oak chinkapin ritual/medicinal leaf

Münchh.oak blackjack ritual/medicinal leaf

L.germander ritual/medicinal leaf

Regelonion Drummond’s edibleleaf bulb,

(Torr.) (Torr.) mint frosted ritual/medicinalflower leaf, stem,

Buckl.oak Shumard’s edible(acorn) nut

Berl. little walnut little Berl. edible seed

(Wangenh.) pecan (Wangenh.) edible seed

L. ssp. ssp. L. bergamot wild care personal flower leaf,

L. var. var. L. garlic meadow Fraser edibleleaf bulb,

Wangehn.oak post edible(acorn) nut

S. V. Fraser * Fraser V. S. plains edibleleaf bulb,

Willd. var. var. Willd. buckeye Ohio culture material seed

(Pursh) Torr. Torr. (Pursh) blazingstar bractless culture material leaf

stricta stricta

fistulosa

Pursh var. var. Pursh currant golden edible fruit

DC.

var. var.

(Buckl.) B. L. Robins. L. B. (Buckl.)

Ownbey

†

microcarpa microcarpa

villosum

(Torr. & Gray) Gray Gray) & (Torr.

(Osterhout) Harrington (Osterhout)

& Gray var. var. Gray &

fraseri

Gray Gray

fistulosa fistulosa

var.

K. Koch Koch K. culture material wood

arguta

Callirhoe involucrata involucrata Callirhoe

Mentzelia nuda Mentzelia

Allium perdulce Allium

Allium drummondii Allium

Allium canadense Allium

Teucrium canadense Teucrium

Poliomintha incana incana Poliomintha

Monarda fistulosa Monarda

Juglans microcarpa microcarpa Juglans

Carya illinoinensis Carya

Aesculus glabra Aesculus

Ribes aureum Ribes

Quercus stellata Quercus

Quercus shumardii shumardii Quercus

Quercus muehlenbergii Quercus

Quercus marilandica Quercus

Malvaceae

Loasaceae

Lilliaceae

Lamiaceae

Juglandaceae

Hippocastanaceae Grossulariaceae

Table 2. Continued Scientific plant name plant Scientific name Common categoryused part Plant 31 JORDAN, ELISENS, AND THOMAS [POBS, Vol. 6 Ethnobotanical use material cultureritual/medicinal wood root ritual/medicinal stem (culm), leaf material culture fruit ritual/medicinal stem (culm), leaf sweetgrassJohnsongrass personal care material culture stem (culm), leaf stem (culm), leaf ash material culture wood † †† (Michx.) little bluestem material culture stem (culm), leaf (Michx.) Torr. sideoats grama ritual/medicinal leaf Nutt. longleaf buckwheat ritual/medicinal root (P. Mill.) ram’s horn edible seed L. * American pokeweed edible stem, leaf Vitman big bluestem material culture stem (culm), leaf Dcne. Wright’s plantain material culture inflorescence Jacq. wooly plantain material culture inflorescence Marsh. * Chickasaw plum edible fruit (L.) Pers. (L.) DC. Carolina coralbead edible fruit (L.) Beauv. (Raf.) Schneider osage orange material culture wood S. Wats. Mexican plum edible fruit Engelm. & Gray * Oklahoma plum edible fruit Nutt. ex Pursh scarlet beeblossom material culture stem Willd. American lotus edible rhizome, seed L. red mulberry edible fruit scoparium * sp. hawthorn edible fruit Thellung ritual/medicinal seed Nash var. Proboscidea louisianica Cocculus carolinus Maclura pomifera Morus rubra Nelumbo lutea gracilis Crataegus Prunus angustifolia Schizachyrium scoparium Sorghum halepense Eriogonum longifolium Gaura coccinea Phytolacca americana Plantago patagonica Plantago wrightiana Fraxinus sp. Andropogon gerardii Bouteloua curtipendula Hierochloe odorata Prunus mexicana Martyniaceae Menispermaceae Moraceae Nelumbonaceae Polygonaceae Onagraceae Phytolaccaceae Plantaginaceae Oleaceae Poaceae Scientific plant name Common name category Plant part used . Table 2. Continued

2006] Vascular plants utilization in Oklahoma 32

edible fruit

material culture material wood

material culture material wood

ritual/medicinal

ritual/medicinal root

Ethnobotanical use Ethnobotanical

western soapberry soapberry western culture material wood

Michx.bully gum ediblefruit sap,

drummondii

Raf. Raf. horsenettle western culture material fruit

var. var.

L. chokecherry edible fruit

L.elm American culture material bark wood,

Bartr. ex Marsh. Marsh. ex Bartr. cottonwood eastern culture material wood

(Torr.) Raf. Raf. (Torr.) lantern Chinese culture material fruit

Willd. * Willd. sugarberry edible fruit

L. frost grapeedible frost L. fruit

Rowlee Rowlee willow sandbar culture material leaf bark, stem,

Muhl.elm slippery ediblesap bark, inner

Michx. riverbank grapeedible riverbank Michx. fruit

Marsh. willow black culture material leaf bark, stem,

spp. blackberry edible fruit

sp. cattail edible rhizome

spp grapeculture material wood stem,

(Hook. & Arn.) L. Benson * Benson L. Arn.) & (Hook. ritual/medicinal bark

Vitis

Vitis vulpina Vitis

Vitis riparia Vitis

Ulmus rubra Ulmus

Ulmus americana Ulmus

Celtis laevigata Celtis

Typha

Sideroxylon lanuginosum Sideroxylon

Solanum dimidiatum Solanum

Quincula lobata Quincula

Sapindus saponaria Sapindus

Salix nigra Salix

Salix interior Salix

Populus deltoides Populus

Rubus

Prunus virginiana Prunus

Vitaceae

Ulmaceae

Typhaceae

Sapotaceae

Solanaceae

Sapindaceae Salicaceae

Table 2. Continued Scientific plant name plant Scientific name Common categoryused part Plant 33 JORDAN, ELISENS, AND THOMAS [POBS, Vol. 6

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Hoagland, B. 2000. The vegetation of Oklahoma: A Special thanks are extended to all of the Plains classification for landscape mapping and conserva- Apache who assisted the first author, and especially to tion planning. The Southwestern Naturalist the principal informants without whom this study 45:385-420. would not have been possible. We are grateful to the Hunt, CB. 1967. Physiography of the . late William Bittle and George Goodman for their men- San Francisco, : W. H. Freeman. torship, guidance and assistance during the course of Jones, DE. 1968. Comanche plant medicine. Papers in the investigation. We also acknowledge the support Anthropology 9:1-13. and critical reading of Paul Minnis. This paper pres- Jordan, JA. 1965. Ethnobotany of the Kiowa-Apache. ents a portion of a master's thesis by JAJ submitted to MA thesis, University of Oklahoma, Norman, the University of Oklahoma. Oklahoma, USA. Kindscher, K. 1987. Edible Wild Plants of the Prairie: An Ethnobotanical Guide. Lawrence, : LITERATURE CITED University Press of Kansas. Adair, MJ. 2003. Great Plains paleoethnobotany. Kindscher, K. 1992. Medicinal wild plants of the Pages 258-346 in Minnis, PE, ed. People and Plants prairie: an ethnobotanical guide. Lawrence, in ancient eastern North America. Washington, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. DC: Smithsonian Books. Kuchler, AW. 1964. Potential natural vegetation of the Bailey, RG. 1995. Description of the Ecoregions of the conterminous United States. Special Publication United States, 2nd edition. USDA Forest Service No. 36. New York, New York: American Miscellaneous Publication No. 1391. Washington, Geographical Society. DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Moerman, D. 2006. Native American Ethnobotany: A Bruner, WE. 1931. The vegetation of Oklahoma. database of plants used as drugs, dyes, foods, Ecological Monographs 1:99-188. fibers, and more, by the native peoples of North Carlson, GG, Jones, VH. 1940. Some notes on uses of America. (http://herb.umd.umich.edu/, 15 plants by the Comanche Indians. Papers of the August 2006). University of Michigan - Dearborn, Michigan Academy of Science, Arts, and Letters Dearborn, Michigan. 25:517-542. Pfeiffer, MA. 1993. Ethnobotany and paleoethno- Dyksterhuis, EJ. 1948. The Vegetation of the Western botany: A bibliography. (http://wings.buffalo. Cross Timbers. Ecological Monographs 18:325-376. edu/anthropology /Documents/ethnobib.txt, 10 Foster, MW, McCollough, M. 2001. Plains Apache. August 2006). Pages 926-940 in DeMallie, RJ, ed.. Handbook of Schroeder, AH. 1974. A study of the Apache Indians, North American Indians, vol. 13, part 2. Parts 4 and 5. New York: Garland Publishing. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. Schweinfurth, KP. 2002. Prayer on top of the earth: Foster, WC. 2003. The LaSalle expedition on the The spiritual universe of the Plains . Mississippi river: A lost manuscript of Nicolas de Boulder: University of Press. La Salle, 1682. Austin, : Texas State Takhtajan, A. 1986. Floristic regions of the world. Los Historical Association. Angeles: University of California press. Goodman, G.J. 1958. Spring flora of central Oklahoma. USDA, NRCS. 2006. The PLANTS database. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma (http://plants.usda.gov, 18 July 2006). National printing services. Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70874 USA. Great Plains Flora Association. 1986. Flora of the Great Vestal, PA, Schultes, RE. 1939. The economic botany Plains. Lawrence, Kansas: University press of of the Kiowa Indians as it relates to the history of Kansas. the tribe. Harvard University Botanical Museum Leaflets, Cambridge, MA: