Merit Research Journal of and Medical Sciences (ISSN: 2354-323X) Vol. 3(4) pp. 165-175, April, 2015 Available online http://www.meritresearchjournals.org/mms/index.htm Copyright © 2015 Merit Research Journals

Review

Avicenna (Ibn S īnā): A par excellence influential Iranian physician and philosopher – scientist, and the prince of physicians

Nāsir p ūyān (Nasser Pouyan)

Abstract

Nāsir p ūyān (Nasser Pouyan), Tehran, , Latin name of Ab ū ʻAl ī S īnā (980-1037), a famous and influen- 16616-18893, tial Persian physician and philosopher- Scientist, as a brilliant youth at Bukh ārā, mastered nearly all the sciences of his day by the age of 19. E-mail: [email protected] While serving as a royal physician to various rulers in Iran, he wrote his many works, mostly in Arabic. The most famous of these were which was one million words long in five volumes and ranked among the famous books in the history of medicine. He wrote also a vast scientific and philosophical encyclopedia Kitab al- Shif āʼ (), a lengthy account of Aristotelian logic, metaphysics, and physiology. His own philosophy was Neo- Platonic mysticism con- structed on Aristotelian base, which Avicenna attempted to reconcile with the main doctrines of Islam. Avicenna described anthrax, dementia, epilepsy, headache, and pleurisy. He recognized the contagiousness of tuberculosis, and advised freshening of ununited fractures. Although, Avicenna wrote little regarding dentistry that was new, he stressed the importance of keeping the teeth clean. He recommended for this purpose a number of dentifrices such as burnt hart ʼs horn, salt, meerschaum, and ... His works were widely read in the medieval Near East, and in Latin , in the of Middle ages.

Keywords: Canon of Medicine, Medicine, Philosophy, Shif ā

INTRODUCTION

The most widely influential Persian contributor to world trans-Caspian province, a tax-collector’s son. Here is a medicine was Avicenna whose standing both in Islam and man who starting with none of the advantages of life be- Christendom was equal to Galen (129-200) the famous comes, while still a youth, the adviser and confident of his Greek physician and prolific writer (Lyons, Albert S. ruler, who, change his city though he may, yet always Medicine: An Illustrated History, M.D., Abradale Press, becomes the leading citizen within a few months, and New York, 1987). Ibn Sīnā, the prince of physicians, whose writings influenced all over the world, although he whose great work, the Canon of Medicine was widely read, never travelled outside central Asia. He was hailed by his and in Latin , formed the foundation of univer- compatriots as the Second Teacher, the Chief Master; he sity medical course in the West from 1250 to 1600 (Porter, has been set by Dante in Paradise along with the greatest 1996). Say, he was one of the greatest men that this world intellects of the non-Christian world; and William Harvey has ever seen. It is not court of the caliphs or one of the (1578-1657) brilliant British physician will say 600 years noble families of Baghdad that produces this prodigy. He after his death to his friend Aubrey: “Go to the foun- is the son of a middle-class countryman in a far-away tain-head and read Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) Greek phi 166 Merit Res. J. Med. Med. Sci.

Figure 1. Avicenna (980-1037). One of the Islam ʼs greatest intellects, authored al- Qanun (the Canon), probably the most in- fluential text of all the times.

losopher and scientist, Cicero (Marcus Julius Cicero, night in sleep nor passed a whole day in any other occu- 106-43B.C. Roman orator, author, and statesman) and pation but study. Whenever I met with an obscure point, it Avicenna.” Ḥusayn bin ‘Abd All āh Ḥasan bin ‘Al ī bin S īnā was my custom to perform the total ablution and then was the son of a citizen of Balkh. His mother’s name has proceed to a mosque where I would pray to God to grant been preserved; she was one Sat āra, the daughter of a me comprehension and unlock for me the gates of diffi- householder in Afshana, a village not very far from the culty. I found medicine an easy subject.” (Figure 1) modern town of Bukh ārā. Avicenna himself was probably born in the village of Kharmesan, also in the province of Balkh, being the elder of two sons. His brother’s name One of the Islam ʼs greatest intellects, authored al- was Ma ḥmūd. His father moved his family to Bukārā in Qanun (the Canon), probably the most influential text A.D. 985, and Avicenna began his education. From the of all the times very first he was instructed in the Qur ān. ‘Al ī’s extraordi- nary memory at once displayed itself. He was one of At the early days of Avicenna’s practice, N ūḥ bin Man ṣūr those remarkable children, who learn to recite the whole Sāmānī, the seventh of a successful line of s āmānids Qur ān by heart. His next subject was rhetoric. Then he rulers fell ill, and the regular physicians having failed to was sent to the geometrician, from whom he also learnt bring about a cure, Avicenna was called in. He affected a algebra and arithmetic, and under whom he studied as- cure to the intense delight of the ruler. He was given a tronomy. Within a few years was considered fit to start place of honour in the court and was further rewarded by theology under Ism ā‘īl and logic under al-Nātil ī. At the age being granted the right of access at any time to the royal of sixteen, on the advice of Ab ū Sahl ‘ls ā bin Ya ḥyā library. By this time the library was well stocked with use- al-Mas īhī a Christian physician of Jurj ān, Ibn S īnā started ful and scarce manuscripts, including many Greek vol- medicine and took as his tutor Ab ū Sahl. He besides the umes. Avicenna writes “I went there, and found a great glory that is rightly his as the adviser and companion of number of rooms filled with books packed up in trunks. I Avicenna, was himself no mean physician. His knowledge then read the catalogue of the primitive authors and found of medicine was acquired chiefly at Baghdad. Later he left therein all that I required. I saw many books, the very titles the court of the caliph for that of Ma’m ūn ibn Muhammad of which were unknown to most people, and others which Khw ārizmsh āh and here he became acquainted with I never met with before or since.” Avicenna was then just Avicenna. Avicenna in his autobiography writes: “at first I eighteen. The library was destroyed by fire and most of treated patients not for fees, but for my own instruction. the manuscripts perished. Avicenna according to later During this period of my studies I never passed a whole writers had a hand in the outbreak, being desirous that his Pouyan 167

rivals in the medical world should have no access to the send him to me.” texts which he had studied there. But this is probably By this portrait Avicenna was recognized. According to mere slander, although a Persian historian, Mas‘ūd Aur- Niz āmī, Q ābūs sent for Avicenna and loaded him with rāq, states that the story was related of him also by con- honours. But Avicenna himself relates that he reached temporary writers. Jūrjan just too late to see Q ābūs, who had been deposed Anyhow, after Avicenna finished his education, he en- and cast into prison a short while before. Avicenna at age tered the court of the king of Khw ārizm and never re- of thirty two in 1020 while was still at Jurj ān, met Ab ū turned to his native land. In A.D. 1001, his father died and ‘Ubayd ‘Abd al-Wāḥid bin Muhammad al-Jūzj ānī, his fa- he left Bukh ārā. Ibn S īnā in his diary writes: “the necessity mous disciple, secretary and friend. Either the death of forced me to leave my native land,” but he does not de- Qābūs or undesirable publicity caused Avicenna to flee scribe its nature. At that time Abu ’l-Husayn Ahmad bin again. This time he turned west and passing through the Muhammad al-Suhayl ī, a man of scholarly tastes, was forests of M āzandr ān made his way across the Elburz prime minister at Khw ārizm. Here Avicenna turned and Mountains and came to Rayy, the capital of ‘Ir āq-i‘Ajam was treated with the greatest respect. The tyrant Ma ḥmūd [Iraq of non-Arab]. Here he found himself in that great Ghaznav ī who in the art of war had been so completely mountain plain which embraced the great cities of Persia successful, was determined to make his court as brilliant of those days Rayy, Isfah ān and Hamadan. All these were in intellect as it was rich in spoils. The court of Khw ārizm, under the rule of a member of the Buwayhid family. In far inferior in power, was yet vastly superior in art and Rayy a woman, named Sayy īda, the widow of Fakhr science, for Abu ’l-‘Abb ās Ma’m ūn, the Khw ārizmsh āh, al-dawla, was ruling on behalf of her infant son, Majd was himself a philosopher and a friend of scholars. al-dawla Daylam ī. Avicenna was received with all re- Ma ḥmūd sent an imperious summons to the spectfully. Khw ārizmsh āh, bidding him send to Ghazna certain of his It is to Ab ū ‘Ubayd that the world owes the detailed in- leading scientists and men of learning. Abu ’l-‘Abbās formation that it now has of the life of Avicenna and also heard of this before the arrival of the ambassador. He of his many works. For Avicenna was careless. His time called his philosophers, astronomers and physicians into was much taken up with statecraft and less creditable his presence and with a pathetic courage explained that occupations. Without Ab ū ‘Ubayd’s spur much that he he dare not resist Ma ḥmūd, but that he would shut his wrote would have been left unwritten and without Abū eyes to any who might wish to escape before he was offi- ‘Ubayd’s industry and prudence much that was written cially informed of Ma ḥmūd’s command. For “Ma ḥmūd would have been lost. For Avicenna was in the habit of hath a strong hand and a large army: he hath annexed giving away his manuscripts without keeping any copy. Khur āsān and India and covets Iraq, and I cannot refuse Not only did Ab ū ‘Ubayd complete Avicenna’s autobiog- to obey his order or execute mandate. What say ye on this raphy from the time of their meeting until the day of his matter.” death, but he also completed his most important Persian Among the physicians who preferred liberty to the work, the D ānishn āma-i ‘Al ā’ ī, and collected and edited court of the tyrant Ma ḥmūd Ghaznav ī were Avicenna and the minor works which his friend had scattered about so his old master Ab ū Sahl ‘Is ā bin Yahy ā al-Mas īhī, and the liberally during his lifetime. (A Medical History of Persia physician Ab ū ‘Al ī bin Miskawayh. So the little group of and the Eastern Caliphate, pp. 188 and 189.). It is said refugees set out for Jurj ān. On the way Ab ū Sahl died, but that the young prince took Avicenna as his minister and Avicenna after suffering much from the winds, dust and that this became the cause of an open war between him thirst arrived in T ūs and finally made his way to N īsh ābūr. and the queen mother. When the latter was victorious But the hue and cry was raised throughout the land and Avicenna was obliged to flee from Rayy. Whatever may Avicenna thought it more prudent to push on to Jurjān, have been the cause, again necessity made him pass on where Q ābūs ibn Wushmg īr was reigning. to Qazv īn, less than 1oo miles away; and from there he For a while Avicenna remained in hiding living in a moved on to Hamad ān. caravanserai and earning his daily keep by treating the At that time Shams al-dawla, another son of Sayy īda, sick around him. His success led to his downfall, for he was ruler of Hamad ān. Following the example of his was called in to treat a member of the court. Now, among mother, he welcomed Avicenna and soon gave him min- those who had obeyed the Tyrant Ma ḥmūd’s summons isterial rank. But this rule was troubled. A revolt among was a young man named Ab ū Nasr ‘Ar āq a nephew of the the underpaid and underfed soldiery broke out and Khw ārizmsh āh . He was summoned because of his fame Avicenna’s house was attacked and looted. He was as a physician, but it seems that his skill as an artist was forced into retirement, from which, however, he was soon the greater and more useful gift. For Ma ḥmūd, finding that summoned to undertake the treatment of Shams al-dawla Avicenna had eluded him, bade Ab ū Nasr draw his por- who was attacked by severe colic, which baffled his doc- trait, and, having forty copies of it painted by lesser artists, tors. Again Avicenna triumphed and he was restored to had these distributed in all districts together with a proc- his high office of state. The death of his patron leads to lamation, which ran: “There is a man after this like- trouble. Taj al- dawla, who succeeded, preferred another ness, whom they call Ab ū ‘Al ī bin S īnā. Seek him out and to Avicenna and Avicenna was forced to hide in the house 168 Merit Res. J. Med. Med. Sci.

Figure 2. In this edition (Venice, 1522), Avicenna is pic- tured as a medieval professor dictating to a student the later commentator, Gentile da Foligno (d. 1348).

of a druggist Ab ū Gh ālib. But he could not remain con- have recorded it, on Friday, the first of Rama ḍān. Ibn cealed for long. His flight gave rise to suspicions and, Khallik ān says that at the end of Avicenna’s life, search being made, he was found and condemned to ‘Al ā’aldawla became nervous at him and imprisoned this imprisonment. He was lodged in the fortress called Fara- great physician. At last, he expired during captivity. jān, but after four months escaped in disguise and fled to In the book called “ Ḥujjat al-Ḥaq Ab ū ‘Al ī bin S īnā” Isfah ān, where another member of the Daylami family (page 593), as narrated from the book Tatemma (page was reigning. This was ‘Al ā’al-dawla Ḥas ām al-dīn, often 46), is written. “She īkh (i.e. Avicenna) finished his life in known as Ibn K ākūya or son of K ākūya, because his fa- the court of ‘Al ā al-dawla and died in Hamad ān on Friday, ther was the K ākū or uncle of the famous queen Sayyida. the first day of Ramad ān 428 Ḥigira (1036) due to colic, Again Avicenna rose triumphant over his misfortunes. He luxurious life, disregarding his health and taking errone- was received with the greatest respect by ‘Al ā’al-dawla ous medicine.” He lived around 58 years. Regarding the who placed at his disposal a palace with gardens and a burial place of Avicenna, the oldest written informs us guard, such as he merited, as he himself said. He had such as this: His tomb is in Hamad ān and is located in the now no further desire to meddle in politics and was the middle of the new city, beside the road. On the floor of the prince’s confidential adviser without assuming the obliga- tomb, there are two stones. One covers the remains of tions of the viziershit. Thus affairs of state had not robbed Avicenna and the other one belongs to the grave of him of his scientific tastes nor now did they occupy too She īkh Ab ū Sa‘ īd who was a druggist son and a mystical much of his time. It was impossible, even for Avicenna, poet. He was a contemporary of Avicenna and said to thus to burn the candle at both ends. Weakened by have been acquainted with him. These two once met. overwork and probably also by over indulgence in the Avicenna, speaking of the poet said: “All I know, he sees.” pleasures of the flesh, he was taken with severe ab- But the poet capped the remark by saying: “What I see, he dominal pain. In his desire to be well without delay he knows.” A modern inscription records that the tomb had administered to himself eight enemas in one day. This set fallen into disrepair, a fact noted by al-Kashm īrī when he up an ulcerative diarrhoea. But Avicenna declared himself passed through Hamad ān in I 741, and that it was re- better and resumed his old habits of work and play. He stored by Princess Nigar Khanum of the Q ājār family in made his condition worse by innumerable draughts of the year H. 1294 (I877). It has since been restored again, infusion of celery; and a servant, who had deceived him thanks to the interest which the late Sir William Osler and feared his punishment, nearly poisoned him with showed in Avicenna and all connected with him. The ex- opium. It has been suggested that the cause of all this act year of the birth of Avicenna is not known precisely. trouble was a cancer of the stomach. Nevertheless, he felt The author of the Tabaq āt al-aṭibba’ gives on the authority himself well enough to accompany his patron on a journey of Ab ū ‘Ubayd J ūzj ānī 375 as his birth and 428 as his to Hamad ān. On the road he was again struck down with death that is 985 and 1036 respectively. But it is generally colic, never regained his health, and entered Hamadān agreed that Ibn Khallik ān, who makes the date of his birth only to die a few days later. During the last fortnight of his five years earlier, is the more correct. He agrees in the life he refused all medical treatment. He gave alms to the date of his death, adding that it was on a Friday in the poor, freed his slaves and read through the entire Qur ān month of Rama ḍān, for Avicenna’s first recorded case is once every three days (Ibid, p.192). (Figure 2) said to have been his attendance at the death-bed of N ūḥ Concerning Avicenna’s date of death there are not bin Man ṣūr. This prince reigned from 976 to 997. In equal opinions. A number of historians and authors report al-Qift ī’s Ta’r īkh al-ḥukam ā’ is found an extract of it: Sha‘ban 428H. (1036), in Isfah ān; Y āqūt writes his Avicenna’s autobiography. He there states that he death date 6th Sha‘ban 428 H. (1036), but the others was seventeen when he was called in to attend upon the Pouyan 169

prince. This would therefore fix 980 as the date of his birth. Greek scientist “Aristotle’s ideas intrigued him; he also A wit of the day wrote the following epitaph upon him: “I studied the commentators such as al-Fārābī. The Nes- saw Ibn S īnā contending with men, but he died in prison torians at Baghdad were Avicenna’s principal teachers, (or, of constipation) the most ignoble death; what he at- and the entire gamut of human knowledge was within his tained by the Shif ā’ (or, by Healing) did not secure his purview: grammar, poetry, geometry, astronomy, anatomy, health, nor did he escape death by his Nij āt (or, Deliver- physiology, materia medica, surgery. When only ance).” In this verse there are three ingenious word-plays, twenty-one, he wrote a scientific encyclopedia (Encyclo- for ḥabs means both “imprisonment” and “constipation”, pedia International, vol.2, p.278).” Considering that, Ab ū while two of his most famous works are entitled Shifa’ ‘Ali essentially was a restless person, he left Bukh ārā to (“Healing”) and Nij āt (“Deliverance”) (Medicine: An Illus- Gorg ānaj, and to Khuras ān, and then he went to Gurg ān, trated History, p.310). Rayy, Ḥamad ān, and Isfah ān. Avicenna while served as a royal physician to various kings, princes, and governors, when he travelled widely in the eastern Islamic lands, Avicenna’s scientific, moral, and religious status wrote nearly 270 different books and treatises, and mostly was in Arabic. “The most famous of these works were the “He was a boy prodigy and is said to have mastered the Canon (the Norm), a medical compendium, and the Shifa’ Kor ān by the age of ten (Encyclopedia International. (the Cure), a lengthy account of Aristotelian logic, meta- Grolier, vol.2, New York, 1975, p.278)” and “nearly all the physics, and psychology. Avicenna’s own psychology was sciences of his day by the age of 19 6.” It was he, we are Neo- Platonic mysticism constructed on an Aristotelian told, and who explained logic to his master al-Nātil ī. He base, which he out attempted to reconcile with the main had no teacher in the natural sciences or in medicine, in doctrines of Islam (Lee, 2000).” fact, famous physicians were working under his direction “Avicenna described diabetes mellitus, contraception, when he was only sixteen. He did, however, find difficulty anthrax, epilepsy, dementia, headache, pleurisy, advised in understanding Aristotle’s Metaphysics, which he freshening of un-united fractures, and recognized the grasped only with the help of al-Fārābī’s commentary. contagiousness of tuberculosis (Dentistry: An Illustrated Having consulted him on medical matters, the princes had History, p.70).” Regarding “dental treatment, however, recourse to him also in matters of politics. He was a min- Avicenna wrote little that was new. He stressed the im- ister several times, his advice being always listened to; portance of keeping the teeth clean, and recommended but he became an object of envy, sometimes persecuted for this purpose a number of dentifrices such as meer- by his enemies and sometimes coveted by princes op- schaum, burnt hart’s born, salt, and burnt and powdered posing those to whom he wished to remain loyal. He took snail shells. He discussed teething, suggesting that fats flight and was obliged to hide on several occasions, and oils, as well as the brain of a hare or the milk of a earning his living by medical consultations. He was im- bitch, might be smeared on the gums in difficult cases. prisoned, escaped, lived for fourteen years in relative Avicenna examined in detail the causes of toothache, peace at the court of Isfah ān and died at Hamad ān7. Ac- and in his text we again find mention of the tooth worm, cording to Malvin E.Ring: “One of the greatest of the for which he prescribed fumigation: Take four grains each lslamic physicians was Ab ū ‘Al ī al-Ḥusayn bin S īnā of henbane and leek seeds and two and one – half onion (980-1037) (This brilliant and very learned person’s actual knead these with goat fat until smooth, and from this birth date is not clear. Ibn Ab ī Usayb ī‘a on the basis of Ab ū paste make pills with a weight of one dirham; burn one pill ‘ubayd J ūzj ānī (Avicena’s famous pupil), has stated 375 H. in a funnel under a covering of the patient’s head. (985) for Avicenna’s birth date and 428 H. (1036) as his The use for a file to reduce the height of an elongated death date.( Ṭabaq āt al-aṭibb ā’, vol. 2,p.9), whom we call tooth and of arsenic for fistulas and “foul ulcers” of the Avicenna. The scope of his attainments is almost unbe- gums are among the many subjects by Avicenna (Medi- lievable. Probably the greatest intellectual of Islam, he cine: An Illustrated History, p.310).” mastered the Qur ān at ten. Soon after, he had absorbed This great physician and scientist-philosopher whose the science of logic and read Euclid and Ptolemy and, standing in both Islam and Christendom was equal to that indeed, almost all the literature was available to him. By of Galen (Chocrane)… “believed that surgeons were less the age of sixteen he had completed the study of medi- important than physicians, and his influence lasted for cine, for, as he said in his biography, “medicine is not a almost ten centuries (Encyclopedia of Islam, vol.3, pp.941 difficult science, and naturally I excelled in it in a very and 942).” Avicenna in his lifetime and after his demise short time.” At twenty-one he had composed an encyclo- was respected by all classes of people. The scholars and pedia of all the sciences except mathematics. His literary scientists honoured him because of his profound knowl- output was enormous, and it is said that he wrote fifty edge in medicine, philosophy and his governmental posi- pages each evening. Of all his works, the most famous is tions. Avicenna’s true scientific position revealed itself his al-Qanun (The Canon) probably the best known after his demise. Physicians, philosophers and scientists medical text of all the time, it earned for him the title prince all over the world do honour to him. His works are con- of doctors (Medicine: An Illustrated History, p.310).” sidered among the best sources in the world. Erudites 170 Merit Res. J. Med. Med. Sci.

boasted of reading of Avicenna’s works. Not only Islamic been transmitted with different titles, others lost. The world honoured Avicenna, the West and the philosophical manuscript of the Ins āf disappeared at the sack of Isfah ān, and scientific circles respected him as well. His “Canon of in his own lifetime. The fundamental bibliography is that Medicine” printed in Latin language 16 times in the 15th which al-Juzj ānī included in his biography, but it is not century and 20 times in the 16th century. This work was exhaustive. G.C. Anawati lists a total of 276 works, in- the textbook of Montpellier and Louvain universities until cluding texts noted as doubtful and some apocryphal 1650. In Europe Avicenna is celebrated to Aristotle of words in his bibliography of 1950. Mahdav ī, in 1954, lists Islam and called the second Hippocrates. Ab ū ‘Ubayd I3I authentic, and 110 doubtful works. Ibn S īnā was who was Avicenna’s pupil for 25 years introduces known primarily as a philosopher and a physician, but he Avicenna such as this: “She īkh [Avicenna] was handsome contributed also to the advancement of all the sciences and graceful, such a man that, when he lived in Bukh ārā that were accessible in his day: natural history, physics, ravished everybody’s heart. People when met him stared chemistry, astronomy, mathematics, and music. Eco- at his size and stature. He was a strong, sturdy, delicate, nomics and politics benefited from his experience as a and a pleasure seeking man. In all, his qualities were statesman. Moral and religious questions (not necessarily beyond description.” pertaining to mysticism), Qur ānic exegesis, statements on Some historians and writers report us that Avicenna Sūfi doctrine and behaviour produced minor writings. He was so rough that the armies revolted against him and wrote poetry for instructional purposes, for he versified tried to kill him, but he hid himself and was saved. A epitomes of logic and medicine, but he had also the abili- number of historians like Abu ’l-Hassan Beyhaq ī inform us ties of a true poet. Clothing his philosophical doctrine in regarding Avicenna’s scurrilous language, dishonour, images, both in verse (as in his poem on the soul) and in heedlessness, and harshness to the scholars and scien- prose, in symbolic narratives whose meaning has given tists of before and his time. Avicenna attacked Rhazes rise to controversy (Dentistry: An Illustrated History, p.70.). and called this Iranian famous man of knowledge idle The important medical works of Avicenna are: talker. For instance Avicenna says: “What is Rhazes’ business with theology, it is better for him to engage in his own job which is searching at urine and excrement.” Re- Canon garding his religion, according to historians he believed in Ism ā‘īlism. The Canon of Medicine (al-Qānūn fi ’l-ṭibb) or Law of Medicine is an enormous and influential medical ency- clopedia which ranked among the most famous books in Avicenna’s works the history of medicine. Probably, it is the most influential medical text of all the time. “One of the most significant If his works are to be understood, they should not be sections of the Canon deals with the treatment of frac- thought of as those of a philosopher who lived in his tures of the jaw. Avicenna emphasized that it was impor- books. He was occupied all day by affairs of state, and he tant to determine if a fracture had been correctly reduced. laboured by night on his great works, which were written This could best be done, he said, by observing whether with astonishing rapidity. He was never safe, and was the teeth were brought into proper occlusion after the re- frequently compelled to move; he would write on horse- duction. This accomplished, he devised putting a suppor- back, and sometimes in prison, his only resource for ref- tive dressing around the jaw, head, and neck and a light erence being his memory. It has been found surprising splint along the teeth. Then, if necessary gold wire might that he differs from Aristotle in his works: but he quoted be used to reinforce the stability of the bandage. This him without re-reading him, and, above all, his inde- rational and sound procedure was notably advanced for pendence of mind inclined him to present his own per- the eleventh century; not very different from the treatment sonally worked out thought, rather than to repeat the recommended today it formed the basis for treatment by works of another. Besides, his personal training was dif- the surgeons of the later Middle Ages (Western Medicine: ferent. He was a man who lived in touch with the concrete, An Illustrated History, p.45.). (Figure 3) constantly faced with difficulties, and a great physician This comprehensive book of medicine has been com- who dealt with specific cases. The secret of his evolution, piled in three sections: First section was written in Jurj ān however, will remain concealed from us as long as we do (403 H./1012); Second section was written in Rayy (405 not possess such important works as the Kit āb al-ins āf, H./1014); and the rest was written in Hamad ān (between the “Book of Impartial Judgment”, which investigated 405 and 414 H./1014 and 1023). According to Juzj ānī, 28,000 questions, and his “Eastern Philosophy”, of which Avicenna taught Canon to his students. Canon of Medi- we have only a fragment. The corpus of Ibn S īnā’s works cine is composed of five books: that has come down to us is considerable, but incomplete. 1. The first book concerned with general medical princi- To the many questions that were put to him he replied ples (A Medical History of Persian and the Eastern Ca- hastily, without always taking care to keep his texts. liphate, p.196.), is about the human body, sickness, Al-Jūzj ānī has preserved several of these; others have health and general treatment and therapeutics. It, con Pouyan 171

Figure 3. This manuscript page is the beginning of Book IV, which deals with signs and symptoms, diagnostic signs, prognostics, minor surgery wounds, fractures and bites, and also discusses on poisons.

sidered by the ancients to be the most distinguished part poeias of the early Arab school, is marked neither by its of Canon. Recently, it has been translated into English by completeness nor by its originality (Western Medicine: An Dr. O. C. Gruner (London, 1930) with the exception , un- Illustrated History, p.45.). fortunately , of the anatomical section, and has been 3. The Third book with diseases occurring in particular commented on by him and by Dr. Soubiran (Paris , 1935) parts of the body, deals with special pathology, studied by 2. The second book with simple drugs, each described organs, or rather by systems. and listed under the initial letter. It is notable that 4. The fourth book deals with signs, symptoms, diagnos- Avicenna does not arrange them in the Persian alpha- tic signs, prognostics, minor surgery, tumours, wounds, betical order, but in the order of the letters of the Abjad fractures and bites, and discusses on poisons. system. This was an arrangement of the letters in the 5. The final book contains a formulary of recipes for order of their numerical values. A was the equivalent of 1, compound remedies. “The Canon was widely read by B of 2, J of 3, D of 4, and so on through the alphabet. This Europeans in the Latin translation of Gerard of Cremona section of the Canon, compared with other pharmaco- made in the twelfth century. So great was the interest in 172 Merit Res. J. Med. Med. Sci.

this massive medical textbook that late in the fifteenth 10. Jam āl al-dīn Ḥill ī. century, Girolamo Ramusio attempted to improve upon 11. Rafi‘a al-dīn G īlī. Greard of Cremona’s Latin translation by comparing it 12. Ya‘q ūb bin S āvī (al-Sāmir ī, seventh century H./13th with an Arabic manuscript, and in 1527 a new Latin ver- century). sion was published that had been made by Andrea Al- 13. Abu’l-Faraj Ya‘q ūb bin Ish āq known as Ibn al-Quff. pago (d.1522) who had resided in Damascus for thirty 14. Hibat All āh Yah ūdī Mi ṣrī. years as a physician in the service of the Venetian 15. Muhammad bin Aqsar ā’ī (8th century H./ 14century). republic and had used his fluency in Arabic not to trans- 17. Ḥakim ‘Al ī J īlānī (tenth century H./ 16th and 17th late it but also to append an Arabic-Latin glossary of terms. century). The Cannon’s enormous size, in addition to its very title 18. Sa‘d al-dīn K āzar ūnī (d. 745 H./1344). meaning “codes of law”, reinforced its authoritative nature. 19. Abd All āh al-fa ḍā’il Mu ḥammad bin N āmvar Khunj ī (d. Between 1500 and 1674 some sixty editions of parts or 646 H./1248). entire of the Canon were published in Europe, mostly 20. ‘Al ī bin Abd All āh, known as Zayn al-‘Arab al-Mi ṣrī intended for use in university medical training (Parker, (770 H. / 1368). Steve. Eyewitness Science Medicine, in association with 21. ‘Aziz al-dīn R āzī. the Science Museum, London, p.21). The Canon of 22. Qu ṭb al-dīn Ibr āhīm Mi ṣrī. Medicine was one million words long and after translated 23. Ma ṣih al-mulk( Ḥak īm Shaf ā’ī kh ān bin Ḥakim Abd al- into Latin, it became a major work in European medical Sh āfi kh ān). school, rivalling Galen (Encyclopedia of Islam, vol.3, 24. Hibat All āh Jam ānī. p.942). Several treatises take up in isolation a number of 25. Qu ṭb al-dīn Sh īrāzī (d. 710 or 719 H./1310 or 1319). the data in the canon and deal with particular points. His commentary is called al-To ḥfat al-sa‘d īya. Some are very well-known: their smaller size assured 26. Af ḍal al-dīn J ūveyn ī. them of a wide circulation. Among the most widely dif- 27. Rabi‘al-dīn Abd al-Az īz Chilab ī. fused are treatises on the pulse, the medical pharmaco- 28. A commentary on fevers by Is ḥāq kh ān bin Ism ā ‘ īl poeia, advice for the conservation of health and the study khan Dehlav ī (12th centnry H./18th and 19th century). of diarrhoea; in addition, monographs on various reme- It is called Gh āyat almafh ūm f ī tadbir al-ma ḥmūm. dies, chicory, oxymel, balsam and bleeding. The virtues 29. Ma ḥmūd bin ‘Umar Chaghm īnī (d. 745 H./ 1344). He of wine are not neglected (Ibid, pp.943 and 944). has written a summary of Canon which is called Qānūncha (little canon). 30. Annotations on Canon by Ḍīyā’ al-dīn bin Bah ā’ al-dīn Commentaries written on Canon al-Shuj ā’ī. Besides the above – mentioned authors, some other After Avicenna, Islamic medicine spread gradually, and physicians and scholars have written annotations on scientific centres in eastern Islamic lands, including lran, Avicenna’s Canon. Some others have made abstracts of became active. Taking into consideration that in the sev- this comprehensive encyclopedia. enth and eighth centuries most medical works were in Arabic, an inclination concerning writing the medical books and treatises in Persian language was observed. In Al-Nab ḍ the meantime, writing commentaries on authentic medical works increased and many reliable commentaries were This treatise is in Persian and discusses regarding pulses written on Avicenna’s Canon. Here the writers of com- and vessels. This work definitely belongs to Avicenna. mentaries “Shar ḥ” and marginal notes “ Ḥāshia”on Canon Manuscripts of this treatise are available in the libraries of are introduced: Iran and abroad. Al-Nab ḍ consists of nine chapters (fa ṣl). 1. Ab ū ‘ubayd ‘Abd All āh al-Juzj ānī Avicenna’s disciple, secretary, and friend. 2. ‘Ali ibn Ridw ān (d.460H/1067). Al-Urj ūza fi ’l-ṭibb 3. Fahkr al-dīn R āzī (543 or 544 H/ 1148 or 1149). 4. “Commentary of lbn al-Naf īs” which is called M ūjiz Physicians were offered a mnemonic in the form of a al-Gh ānūn (a short and abridged Canon) by Ibn poem which established the essentials of Avicenna’s al-Naf īs (d. 687 H./1288), the famous Egyptian physi- theory and practice: principles, observations, advice on cian. therapeutics and dietetics, simple surgical techniques. 5. Ibr āhīm bin Mu ḥammad sal āmī al-mi ṣrī (seventh cen- Urdj ūza fi ‘l-ṭibb is Ibn S īnā’s famous medical work in tury/13th century). (Commentary) poem which was translated into Latin several times from 6. Najm al-dīn Abu ’l-‘Abb ās A ḥmad. (Ibn al-‘Ātafa). the 13th to 17th century, under the title Cantica Avicennae. 7. Mu ḥammad bin Āmul ī (d. 753 H./1352). Al-Urj ūza fi’l-ṭibb was printed by ‘Abd al-Maj īd in Calcutta, 8. Sa‘d al-dīn Mu ḥammad F ārsi. in 1829, and was also printed in Lacanhu with Averroës’ 9. Fakhr al-dīn Mu ḥammad Khujand ī. commentary, in 1261H. (1845). Its Latin translation with a Pouyan 173

commentary of Averroës was printed by Armegandus tages of oxymel. Andrea Alpago translated it into Latin in Blasii de Motepesulano, under the tittle “Cantica Avicenne 1543 together with the translation of “Avicennae philoso- cum comento Averrois translata exarabico in Latinus” in phi praeclarissimi, libellus de removendis nocumentis, Venice (Italy), in 1485. quae accidunt in regimine Sanitatis” under the title “Trac- Also, the Latin translation of this Urj ūza was printed by tus ejusden… de Syrupo acetose”, ans was printed in Jean Hervagiyus in Basel (Switzerland) in 1556 and by Venice. Andrea Alpagus Bellunensis as well. It was printed by Apud Juntas in 1562 and 1609 and by Jean Fuché (poem) in Nimes (France), in 1630; and in 1649 was printed by Ris āla fi’l - ‘ishq Antonius Deusingius. Al-Urjuza fi’l-ṭibb under the title “Cantica Avicennae” or “Poéme de la Médecine” with an “The Ris āla fi ’l-‘ishq, “The Epistle on Love”, however, is Arabic collectin was printed by Henri Jahier, professor of primarily a metaphysical explanation of the tendency of medical school of Algeria and ‘Abd al-qādir N ūr al-dīn every being towards its good, and a physical explanation professor of Lycée Franco Musulman of University of Al- of the motion of the stars; they imitate in their fashion, geria. which is material, the unceasing action of the pure Act. The spheres, in fact, thus imitate the unceasing desire of the celestial Souls which correspond to each one of them. Al- Adw īya al-qalb īa The rational soul of man tends towards its good with a conscious motion of apprehension of, and love for, the This book is regarding cordial drugs and consists of 19 active Intellect, and, through it, for the necessary Being, chapters. It was translated by Arnaldo de Villa Noua under which is pure Good. In the highest states, however, it can the title “Princips Avicennae Corde ejusque Facultatibus tend directly towards the latter (Ibid, p.942).” ī ī Libbellus”. Al-Adw ya al-qalb a has the following titles as ‘Abd All āh al-Faq īh al-Ma‘ ṣūmī. This treatise includes well: “De Medicinis Cordialibus” or “Medicamenta Cor- seven chapters. Al-‘ishq was printed in Leiden (Neder- dialis”. lands), in 1894 by Mehren (A.F.V.), and also in Cairo. This The above mentioned medical work was also trans- treatise was translated into Persian language by Amr bin lated into Turkish in 1937. The same book was translated Sahl ān Savuj ī. Ḍiy ā’ al-dīn Dur ī translated this treatise Ḥ ṭ into Urdu language by Shifa’ al-mulk akim ‘Abd al-la if in into Persian in 1318 H. (1900). Also, Mehren summarized ā ī ī 1956 in Calcutta under the title of “Kit b adv a al-qalb a” it in French language. composed by Avicenna in 123 pages (size: 14×22cm).

Avicennae philosophi praeclarissimi, Libellus de re- Al-Shif ā’ movendis nocumentis, quae accidunt in regimine Sanitatis Medicine is the subject of separate works of Avicenna but natural history and mathematics are thought of as parts of Avicenna has composed this work which is in Arabic, for philosophy. Thus, his principal treatise on these sciences Abu ’l-Ḥass ān A ḥmad bin Mu ḥammad al-Sahl ī, the vizier is included in the Kit āb al-Shif ā’, (Book of Healing [of the patron of science ‘Ali Ma’ m ūn Khawarizmsh āh, between Soul]”), in the same procedure as that on metaphysies, 392 and 403H.(1001 and 1014). while the Canon of Medicine is a separate work (A Medi- This work contains seven articles: On various errors; cal History of Persia and the Eastern Caliphate, pp. 189 on bathing; on weather; on foods; on water and bever- and 190). According to Dr. Syrill Elgood: “It was now that ages; on movements; and on vomiting. It was printed in Ab ū ‘Ubayd asked the Shkh to write a general commen- Būlāq in Cairo, in 1305 (1887). On its annotation Rhazes’ tary on Aristotle. Avicenna refused to take up so large a book “The advantages of foods and removing the disad- task, but consented to set out on paper a refutation of vantages”, is written. The Persian translation of this book certain points in Aristotle’s teaching. It was thus that the is available in the libraries in England. Also, this work was work now known as al-Shif ā’, or ‘The Healing’, was translated in to Persian by Sheikh Ḥusayn al-Jābir commenced. This work is to be regarded as a treatise on al-an ṣārī under the title M ūjiz ‘A ẓīm al-nāfi’ in 1310 and philosophy and not on medicine. Persian writers class it printed in Delhi. The Latin translation of this book under along with Ptolemy’s Almagest as a work devoted to a the above-mentioned title was done by Andrea Alpago in branch of astronomy. The sections on the medical prop- Venice, in 1547. erties of stones and other chemical chapters are included only because those subjects were in his day considered an integral part of philosophy. Ibn Ab ī U ṣaybi‘a states that Tractus ejusden… de Syrupo acetoso (al – Sakan- this book was written in 20 days while Avicenna was living jib īn) at Hamad ān. But Niz āmī says that it was written with great deliberation page by page while he was at Isfah ān. This treatise is in Arabic and is concerning on the advan- The work as a whole lies outside the limits of a chapter 174 Merit Res. J. Med. Med. Sci.

Figure 4. Kit āb al-Nij āt (The Book of Salvation [From Er- ror]), which is not an independent redaction, as was thought until 1937.

Figure 5. Avicenna ʼs resting- place in Hamad ān (2015).

that deals only with Avicenna the physician. Shif ā’ is a al-dīn Sh īrāzī. Shif ā’ is in Arabic and consists of five book on logic, theology, and natural sciences. It is one of articles (maq āla) (Encyclopedia of Islam, vol.3, p.942). the important Islamic philosophical books and in philoso- (Figure 4) phy has the dignity that Canon possesses in medicine. Kit āb al-Ish ārāt wa ‘l-tanb īhāt (Book of Directives and Like Canon on Shif ā’ many commentaries has been writ- Remarks), is complete (translated into French and Eng- ten. The most important commentary belongs to Ṣadr lish), as is Dānishn āma-i ‘Al ā’ī. Pouyan 175

Dānishn āma-i ‘Al ā’ī. (The book of knowledge for ‘Al ā’), Avicenna ʼs Kit āb al- Shif āʼ which is a book on logic, a resumé of his doctrine written at the request of the theology, and natural sciences is one of the important prince ‘Al ā’ al-dawla. Ab ū ‘Ubayd J ūzj ānī Avicenna’s dis- Islamic Philosophical books and in philosophy in has dig- ciple and secretary, not only completed his autobiography, nity that canon possesses in medicine. but also completed this work. Kit āb al– Ins āf (Book of impartial judgement between the Easterners and the Westerners), which has been REFERENCES published by A.Badaw īt. A Medical History of Persia and the Eastern Caliphate, pp. 189 and 190. Mantiq al-mashriqiyy īn (Logic of the Easterners), which A Medical History of Persian and the Eastern Caliphate, p.196. is the logic of his eastern philosophy (Encyclopedia of Brill EJ (1986). Encyclopedia of Islam. Vol.3, , p.941. Islam, vol.3, p.942). (Figure 5) Chocrane J. An Illustrated History of Medicine, Tiger Books International, London, p.51. Dentistry: An Illustrated History, p.70. Dentistry: An Illustrated History, p.70. CONCLUSION AND IMPACT Dr. Najm ābādī, Ma ḥmud. Ta ʼrikh- I Ṭibb dar Iran pas az Islam, (in Per- sian), Tehran University Publications, 1366 (1987), pp. 477-633. Avicenna a scholar of the highest attainments was Elgood, Cyril. A Medical History of Persia and the Eastern Caliphate. Cambridge University Press, 1951, pp.184-191. probably the most influential Islamic physician. His works Encyclopedia International, vol.2, p.278. are considered among the best medical and philosophical Encyclopedia International. Grolier, vol.2, New York, 1975, p.278. sources in the world, and erudities boasted of reading Encyclopedia of Islam, vol.3, p.942. them. Not only Islamic World honoured Ibn S īnā, the West Encyclopedia of Islam, vol.3, p.942. Encyclopedia of Islam, vol.3, pp.941 and 942. and the philosophical and scientific circles also respected Ibid, p.192. him. His Canon of Medicine printed in Latin language 16 Ibid, p.942. times during the 15th century and 20 times in the 16 Ibid, pp.943 and 944. century. Canon of Medicine wast the textbook of Montpel- Lee HSJ (2000). The Medical Millennium, the Parthenon Publishing Group, New York, London, p.5. lier (in France) and Louvain (in Belgium) universities until Lyons, Albert S. Medicine: An Illustrated History, M.D., Abradale Press, the middle of the 17th century. So great was the interest in New York, 1987, p.310. the Canon of Medicine that late in the 15th century, an Medicine: An Illustrated History, p.310. Italian attempted to improve it upon its Latin translation by Medicine: An Illustrated History, p.310. Medicine: An Illustrated History, p.310. comparing Avicenna ʼs enormous and influential medical Parker, Steve. Eyewitness Science Medicine, in association with the work with an Arabic manuscript. Between 1500 and 1647 Science Museum, London, p.21. some sixty edition of parts or entire of the Canon of Porter R (1996). The Cambridge Illustrated History of Medicine, Cam- Medicine were published in Europe, mostly intended for bridge University Press,. P68. Professor Kanani Zanjani, Saeed. A Research on the History of World the use of university medical training. After translation into Medicine and Treatment Up to Present Era. Book I, Pioneers and Latin, it became a major work in the European medical Islamic Medicine, Translated into English by M.D. Sarmadi Publica- schools, rivalling Galen. It formed the basis for treatment tions Tehran, 2002, pp. 352- 417. by the physicians and surgeons, and dentists of the later Ring ME (1985). Dentistry: An Illustrated History, Abradale Press., p.70. Sarmadi, Mu ḥammad Taghi. A Research on the History of World Medi- centuries. cine and Treatment Up to Present Era, Book I, Pioneers and Islamic His Kitab al- Shifā', a langthy account of aristotelian Medicine (in Persian), Sarmadi Publications, Second Edition, Tehran, logic, methaphysics, and psychology has the impact and 2001, pp. 263-320. dignity that Canon of Medicine possesses in medicine. Western Medicine: An Illustrated History, p.45. Western Medicine: An Illustrated History, p.45. Europe, mostly intended for use of university medical training. Canon after translation into Latin, became a major work in European medical schools, rivalling Galen.