Fundamental Investigations of LCA of Shinkansen Vehiclesehiclesehicles

PAPERPAPERPAPER

TTToru MIYMIYoru AUCHIAUCHIAUCHI TTTakafumi NAGATOMOTOMOTOMO TTTaro TSUJIMURA Engineer Engineer Chief Engineer Metallic Materials G.,

Hiroshi TSUCHIYAAA Engineer, Tribo-Materials G.,

Materials Technology Development Div., Technological Development Dept.

Recently, environmental protection has become one of the most critical concerns in the global scale. Currently, it is widely recognized that life cycle assessment (LCA) is a very effective instrument to quantitatively evaluate environmental impact of various products across their whole lifecycle. LCA itself is not yet established as a well defined method, but already finding a wide range of applications in electric appliances, automobiles and other industrial products. We conducted a basic survey for LCA of Shinkansen vehicles, as a case study for the railway system. As a result of this survey, we could obtain useful knowl- edge for applying LCA to the railway.

KeywordsKeywordsKeywords : LCA, Energy consumption, CO2 emission, Shinkansen vehicles

1. Introduction 2. Outline of LCA

The global environmental problem is a very critical LCA is a method to calculate all inputs and outputs concern, including depletion of the ozone layer, earth for a certain product, and to analyze their environmental warming and lack of waste landfill space. With this back- impact. Fig. 1 indicates a lifecycle flow of the product. ground, international conferences for the environmental Manufacturing of a product starts after the materials for problems have been held in the world, where related trea- it are brought in. The product thus finished is used and ties have been concluded and declarations made. In the maintained. After its useful life is expired, it is to be International Standardization Organization, a special recycled or disposed. At any stage of this span, there are scheme of ISO14000s was proposed concerning environ- some inputs such as energy and raw materials, and some mental management and inspection. outputs such as waste material and waste water. These The importance of the global environmental problems inputs and outputs give some environmental impact to has recognized increasingly by the public. The typical the earth. problems arisen are disposal of waste, generation of di- oxin and pollution of waters. It is necessary for the industrial and private sectors to make efforts in reducing the environmental impacts. However, what we should do for decreasing the environmental impacts is not always clearly defined; environmental impacts of various products and services being linked to each other complexly, even if efforts are made in order to reduce the environmental impact of a certain product, there are cases where this may induce the increase of the environmental impact on the whole. To avoid this, LCA is provided as a method to evaluate the environmental impact totally and quantitatively. LCA consists in improving the environmental impact of a certain product by evaluating across its lifecycle quantitatively. As a case study on the railway system, we imple- mented an LCA-based basic survey for Shinkansen vehicles. Fig. 1 Life cycle flow for products

ISO14040 (JIS Q 14040) illustrates the principle and the framework of LCA. The framework is composed of four stages as shown in Fig. 2. The direct applications

204204204 QR of RTRI, Vol. 40, No. 4, Dec. ’99 are not included in the framework of LCA. Energy, raw materials, water etc. A. Goal and scope definition When implementing LCA, it is necessary for us to de- Manufacturing of raw materials termine its objectives and the survey scope. What the Manufacturing stage ------Fabricating parts, Assembling purpose is and to what extent the survey shall be per------formed shall be clearly defined. Running Operation/Maintenance stage ------Maintenance B. Inventory analysis ------The data of environmental impacts such CO emis- 2 Scrapping sion and energy consumption should be collected at every Final disposition ------stage.

C. Impact assessment Exhaust (CO2, NOx, SOx), drainage, solid waste etc. We classify the data gathered by inventory analysis each impact category and estimate its environmental Fig. 3 Life cycle flow of railway vehicles loads. tem. D. Interpretation In order to determine the energy consumption and

The results of the inventory analysis and impact CO2 emission at each stage, a coefficient shall be needs evaluation are evaluated individually or on the whole. to be prepared, which may be used to convert the amount of material used and electricity to energy consumption or

CO2 emission. This coefficient is called a basic unit. The coefficient may differ depending upon districts even in the same country., therefore in Japan, various organiza- tions use their own basic unit. In Japan, there are no unified standards governing all substances. Under these circumstances, the results of LCA may vary according to basic units used, so the most important thing at the cur- rent stage is define its calculation grounds or sources for the basic units. The table attached hereto summaries the energy ba-

sic unit and CO2 emission basic unit for various materials. The energy basic unit used in this paper is the one shown in the reference 1), and concerning the basic unit

of CO2 emission, we indicate the name of an association or organization having established such a basic unit. Fig. 2 Phases of an LCA

TTTable Energy and CO222 emission basic units 3. LCA of Shinkansen vehicles

3. 1 The goal and scope definition

Fig. 3 shows the lifecycle flow for railway vehicles, which consists of four stages, manufacture, operation, maintenance and final disposal of waste. Every stage includes input of energy and raw material, and output such as emission of gases (CO2, NOx and SOx), waste water and emission of pollutants. For this case study, we try to calculate the energy consumption and CO2 emission by stage (inventory analysis), and based upon these calculation results, we conduct observation on the lifecycle energy consumption (LCE) and the lifecycle CO2 emission (LCCO2). The vehicles used for this study are three kinds of 0 series, 100 series and 300 series which are currently op- erated on Tokaido Shinkansen Line and Sanyo Shinkansen Line. The vehicles of 0 series and 100 series are of a steel body and designed to run at the maximum 3. 2 Inventory analysis speed of 220 km per hour. The vehicles of 300 series are of aluminum body with the maximum speed of 270 km The energy consumption (LCE) and CO2 emission per hour, and equipped with a regenerative brake sys- (LCCO2) across the lifecycle are defined by Equations (1)

QR of RTRI, Vol. 40, No. 4, Dec. ’99 205205205 and (2).

E2 ＝ E2R ＋ E2M ･･････････････････････････( 9 ) LCE ＝ E1 ＋ E2 ＋ E3 ･･････････････････････( 1 ) C2 ＝ C2R ＋ C2M ･･････････････････････････(10) LCCO2 ＝ C1 ＋ C2 ＋ C3 ････････････････････( 2 ) where where E2R ＝Energy consumption (GJ) in running E1 ＝ Energy consumption (GJ) in the manufacturing C2R ＝ CO2 emission (t) in running stage E2M ＝ Energy consumption (GJ) in maintenance C1＝CO2 emission (t) in the manufacturing stage C2M ＝CO2 emission (t) in maintenance E2＝Energy consumption (GJ) in operation and maintenance The energy consumption and CO2 emission in main- C2＝CO2 emission (t) in operation and maintenance tenance are defined by Equations (11) and (12). E3 ＝ Energy consumption (GJ) in the final disposal of waste E2R ＝ D × Rk × aj ･･････････････････････(11) C3＝CO2 emission (t) in the final disposal of waste C2R ＝ D × Rk × bj ･･････････････････････(12)

A. Manufacturing stage where

The energy consumption and CO2 emission in the D ＝ Running distance (km) across the lifecycle manufacturing stage are defined by Equations (3) and Rk ＝ Electric power basic unit (kWh/km/vehicle) (4). The inspection basic unit is given by Equation (13),

E1 ＝ E1M ＋ E1P ･･････････････････････････( 3 ) and the energy consumption and CO2 emission in main- C1 ＝ C1M ＋ C1P ･･････････････････････････( 4 ) tenance are given by Equations (14) and (15). where Uk ＝ Pk / Mk ････････････････････････････(13) E1M ＝ Energy consumption (GJ) in production of raw E2M ＝ Uk × Nk × aj ･･････････････････････(14) materials C2M ＝ Uk × Nk × bj ･･････････････････････(15) C1M ＝ CO2 emission in production of raw materials E1P ＝ Energy consumption (GJ) in fabrication and as- where sembling Uk＝Electric power basic unit in inspection (kWh/inspec- C1P＝CO2 emission (t) in fabrication and assembling tion/vehicle) Pk＝Power consumption in maintenance factory per an- The energy consumption and CO2 emission in produc- num (kWh) tion of raw materials are defined by Equations (5) and Mk ＝ Number of inspections par annum (6). Nk ＝ Number of inspections across the lifecycle.

Σ E1M ＝ (ai × Wi) ････････････････････････( 5 ) C. Final disposition Σ C1M ＝ (bi × Wi) ････････････････････････( 6 ) The energy consumption and CO2 emission in the final disposition are defined by Equations (16) and (17). where Σ ai ＝ Energy consumption basic unit in each kind of ma- E3 ＝ (ai × W3j) ････････････････････････(16) Σ terial (GJ/t) C3 ＝ (bi × W3j) ････････････････････････(17) bi＝CO2 emission (t/t) basic unit in each kind of material Wi＝Weight of each of the materials of a vehicle where 3 W3j＝Fuel consumption in scrapping (m /vehicle, etc.) The energy consumption and CO2 emission in fabrication and assembling are defined by Equations (7) and 3. 2. 1 Manufacturing Stage (8). Fig. 4 shows the materials of which a Shinkansen ve- Σ E1P ＝ (ai × W1j) ････････････････････････( 7 ) hicle is composed and their weight. The vehicle is manu- Σ C1P ＝ (bi × W1j) ････････････････････････( 8 ) factured with metallic materials such as steel, stainless steel and aluminum, and with other materials which in- where clude organic and nonorganic materials such as glass, ai＝Energy consumption basic unit (GJ/kl) of fuel, etc plastics and resins. Of these materials, we only consider bi＝CO2 emission basic unit (t/kl) of fuel, etc. metallic materials for this research. The composition of Wi ＝ Energy consumption for each kind of materials for materials for 100 series vehicle are deemed as the same a vehicle (kl/vehicle, etc) as those of 0 series. Being made of steel, the vehicle of 0 series is 40% heavier than the vehicle of 300 series. B. Operation/Maintenance stage Fig. 5 shows (a) the energy consumption and (b) the

The energy consumption and CO2 emission in opera- CO2 emission in producing the materials of a vehicle, tion and maintenance stage are defined by Equations (9) which are calculated by Equations (3) and (4). In the pro- and (10). cess of producing materials, the energy consumption and

206206206 QR of RTRI, Vol. 40, No. 4, Dec. ’99 the CO2 emission is larger in 300 series than in 0 series, nant. For this calculation, the data relating to fabrica- in spite of 300 series being lighter in weight than 0 se- tion and assembling are taken from the reference 1). The ries, because the energy consumption basic unit and CO2 fuel consumption for a vehicle (heavy oil and paraffin) is emission basic unit in production of aluminum is predomi- 0.4 kl and the electric consumption is 14,800 kWh. From

Equations (5) and (6), the energy consumption and CO2 emission calculated are determined to be approximately 155 GJ/vehicle and 5.8 tons per vehicle. Steel Stainless steel 3. 2. 2 Operation / Maintenance Stage Series 300 Aluminum alloy Copper wire Others When calculating the energy consumption and CO2 emission in the stage of operation and maintenance, we assumed the lifecycle of a vehicle to be 20 years and the running distance across the lifecycle to be 800,0000 km and the inspection frequency across the lifecycle to be 20 times. The number of inspections includes bogie inspec- Series 0 tions and general inspections which are conducted at ev- (Series 100) ery 450,000 km of running distance, but excluding daily inspections and regular inspections. Fig. 6 indicates (a)

energy consumption and (b) CO2 emission during the 0 10 3020 40 50 60 70 lifecycle running which are calculated from the Equations Weight, ton/a vehicle (11) and (12). In this calculation, assuming that the train Fig. 4 Materials and weight per vehicle is composed of 16 vehicles, riding passengers to capacity, the power consumption rate (kWh/km) for running is determined from the power consumption between Tokyo and Shin-Osaka, and this value is multiplied by the lifecycle

running distance (8,000,000 km) and by energy and CO2 basic units. The maximum speeds of Kodama and Hikari

(a) No regenerative brake Series 300 (Nozomi 270km/h) Regenerative brake

No regenerative brake Series 300 (Hikari 220km/h) Regenerative brake Series 300 (Kodama 220km/h) Regenerative brake Series 100 (Hikari 220km/h) Series 0 (Hikari 220km/h) Series 0 (Kodama 220km/h) 0 100,000 200,000 300,000 Energy consumption, GJ/Vehicle

(b) No regenerative brake Series 300 (Nozomi 270km/h) Regenerative brake

CO2 emission, t/vehicle

Fig. 5 (a) Energy consumption and (b) CO222 emission in Fig. 6 (a) Energy consumption and (b) CO222 emission in raw materials runningrunningrunning

QR of RTRI, Vol. 40, No. 4, Dec. ’99 207207207 trains are 220 km/h and that of Nozomi trains is 270 km/ Manufacture (materials) Maintenance h. Kodama trains stop at every station, Hikari trains Manufacture (assembling) Scrapping and Nozomi trains stop at the stations of Tokyo, Nagoya, Running (a) Kyoto and of Shin-Osaka. The trains of 300 series are No regenerative brake Series 300 equipped normally with the regenerative brake; for com- (Nozomi 270km/h) parison, this paper reports the case using the regenera- Regenerative brake tive brake and that using no regenerative brake. In the No regenerative brake Series 300 case of Kodama, the 300 series vehicle is approximately (Hikari 220km/h) Regenerative brake 30% lower in running energy consumption and CO2 emis- Series 300 sion than the 0 series vehicle, due probably to the ef- (Kodama 220km/h) Regenerative brake fects from lightening of vehicles, use of the regenerative Series 100 brake, and reduction of load in running. In the case of (Hikari 220km/h) Series 0 Hikari, both the running energy consumption and CO2 (Hikari 220km/h) emission become smaller in the order of 0 series, 100 Series 0 series and 300 series (using the regenerative brake); 0 (Kodama 220km/h) series is about 20% lower than 100 series, and 300 se- 0 100,000 200,000 300,000 ries about 30% lower than 0 series. In the group of 0 Energy consumption, GJ/Vehicle series, the running energy consumption of Hikari is ap- (b) proximately 15 % lower than Kodama; from this, we can No regenerative brake Series 300 consider that the energy consumption due to train stop- (Nozomi 270km/h) ping is considerable. In 300 series, the energy consump- Regenerative brake tion and CO2 emission of both Hikari and Kodama are No regenerative brake Series 300 about 5% reduced by the use of the regenerative brake. (Hikari 220km/h) Regenerative brake The energy consumption and CO2 emission in maintenance are determined by Equations (13), (14) and (15). Series 300 (Kodama 220km/h) Regenerative brake The power consumption per vehicle is calculated to be Series 100 about 12,050 kWh per maintenance. The energy consump- (Hikari 220km/h) tion and CO emission across the lifecycle are 2,777 GJ Series 0 2 (Hikari 220km/h) per vehicle and 95 tons per vehicle. Series 0 (Kodama 220km/h) 3. 2. 3 Final Disposition Stage 0 5,000 10,000 15,000 CO2 emission, t/vehicle

The vehicles, when aged and out of service, are Fig. 7 (a) LCE and (b) LCCO222 scrapped and disposed. Concerning the energy consumption and CO2 emission in scrapping stage, we used the regenerative brake), its LCE and LCCO2 are about 8% data given in the reference 1). The fuels used for scrap- smaller than 0 series, but approximately 8% larger than ping are 875 m3 of oxygen, 0.02t of LPG and 0.127kl of 100 series. light oil, and the power consumption is 500 kWh. The energy consumption and CO2 emission which are determined by Equations (16) and (17) are approximately 18 4. Conclusions GJ per vehicle and 0.62t per vehicle. Concerning Shinkansen vehicles of 0 series, 100 se- 3)3)3) 3. 3 LCE and LCCO222 ries and 300 series, their life cyle energy consumption (LCE) and CO2 emission (LCCO2) are calculated. As a Fig. 7 shows LCE and LCCO2 of vehicles belonging to result, we confirm that for any type of vehicle, more than 0 series, 100 series and 300 series which are determined 95% of LCE and LCCO2 is attributable to running. Given by Equations (1) and (2). The values of LCE and LCCO2 the same conditions (number of stations where the train were always the same in each of the stages of fabrication, stops, and the maximum speed), both LCE and LCCO2 assembling, maintenance and scrapping of vehicles. The reduce according to the series number (0 series, 100 se- factor governing LCE and LCCO2 mainly is running, and ries and 300 series). This can be considered to be bought in any vehicle, more than 95% of LCE and LCCO2 is at- about mainly from the effects of improvement such as tributable to running. Therefore, the most important lightening of vehicle, use of the regenerative brake and thing in reducing LCE and LCCO2 is to use vehicles of reduction of running resistance. At the same time, we energy saving type. Given the same maximum speed, the confirm that at the maximum speed of 220 km/h for 100 newer the model of vehicle is (0 series, 100 series and series and of 270 km/h for 300 series, LCE and LCCO2 of 300 series), the smaller the energy consumption and CO2 300 series are larger than 100 series. emission due to running become. Accordingly, LCE and In performing this research, we faced several prob-

LCCO2 reduce remarkably. From this, we can say that lems as indicated below; lightening of vehicle, reduction of running resistance and the use of the regenerative brake contribute to energy 1) It was difficult to collect detailed data of materials saving in vehicle running. However, we must note here 2) It was impossible to collect specific data of fabrica- that in the case of Nozomi train of 300 series (using the tion and assembling.

208208208 QR of RTRI, Vol. 40, No. 4, Dec. ’99 3) Not only disposal and use of materials but also their Acknowledgment evaluation could not be clearly specified. 4) The basic units for various factors are not estab- We express our sincere gratitude to Central Japan lished. Railway Company for their kind cooperation which was 5) Interpretation involves ambiguity. extended to us in performing this study.

With regard to problems 1) and 2), the energy consumption and CO2 emission relating to the materials, References and their fabrication and assembling are much smaller that those in running, so we ignore the data concerning 1) Yasuo KOSEKI, “The Society of Japanese Railway the problems 1) and 2). Problem 3) is a critical issue to Vehicle Industry”, Railway Technology (in Japanese), be discussed, because there is not so many waste dis- 213, p.120, 1997 posal plants in Japan. Problem 4) is an issue which we 2) The Society of Non-Traditional Technology, Eco-ma- are currently tackling to establish the basic units for terials Forum, “Basic investigation for building up various factors. environmental load estimation system” (in Japanese), Through this study, we could deepen our understand- p.67, 70, 1995 ing that LCA is an effective tool to evaluate environmen- 3) Miyauchi T., Nagatomo T., Tsuchiya H., Tsujimura T., tal impacts. We would like to extend its application not “Proceedings of The Third International Conference only to the railway vehicles but also other railway-related on Eco Balance”, pp.321-324, 1997 objects.

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