Pacific youth and violent offending in Pacific youth and violent offending in Aotearoa New Zealand

Julia Ioane, University of Technology, Ian Lambie, University of Auckland

Pacific youth offenders in Aotearoa New Zealand are over-represented in the offenders (who constitute the other rates of violent offences. The purpose of this study was to explore the risk larger ethnic youth groups in Aotearoa). factors that exist amongst this group. Using file data from the New Zealand The definition of a ‘Violence’ offence Police, the offending behaviour and social demographic characteristics of reflects that of the . 200 Pacific violent youth offenders aged 10–24 years were investigated. These include Homicide, Kidnapping/ Results revealed that these youth were more likely to be born in Aotearoa, Abduction, Robbery, Grievous Assaults, raised in low socio-economic deprivation areas, and that their exposure Serious Assaults, Intimidation/Threats, and involvement in family violence was high. Furthermore, their first known Group Assemblies (see Appendix A). offence to Police was generally of a violent nature. Recommendations for Both in Aotearoa and overseas, the clinical practice and implications for future research are discussed. dearth of research regarding Pacific youth is acknowledged (Fiaui & Keywords: Pacific youth offenders, youth offenders, youth violent offending Hishinuma, 2009; Singh & White, 2000). In order to provide a brief review of the Pacific people are a rapidly growing, Given the fact that the Pacific existing literature, the authors examined diverse and vibrant population. They community in Aotearoa have such a Pacific studies in Aotearoa and overseas, include those born in the islands and youthful population; and that a number of including local and international studies overseas. Within this wider population, risk factors exist including poor education investigating other ethnic minorities. A the main groups are predominantly (Maguin & Loeber, 1996), antisocial 14 year longitudinal study in Aotearoa Samoan (49%), Cook Islands Maori peers (Zimmerman & Messner, 2010), found that children of Pacific ethnicity (21%), Tongan (20%) and Niuean (8%) family violence (Reid & Crisafulli, 1990) had a higher risk of offending than (, 2014). Recent and poverty (Farrington, 1989),all of children of Pakehā ethnicity (Fergusson, statistics show that almost two-thirds of which contribute to offending behaviour; Horwood & Lynskey, 1993). Few Pacific people are born in Aotearoa New any influence this population will have studies looking at Asian/Pacific Island 1 Zealand , urbanised, and make up 7.4% on Aotearoa is likely to increase as the youth violence found that Samoan youth of the total population in Aotearoa. The current youthful population develops into reported higher rates of violence than Pacific population are also a youthful adulthood. Therefore, researching Pacific other ethnic groups such as Filipino and population, with more than half of its youth and their offending behaviour is Hawaiian youth (Mayeda, Hishinuma, population (54.9%) under 25 years old necessary to provide information for Nishimura, Garcia-Santiag & Mark, (Statistics New Zealand). Population targeted prevention and intervention of 2006). In addition, a more recent study projections estimate that the number of this vulnerable population group (Ioane, that analysed data from the Youth Pacific people living in Aotearoa will Lambie & Percival, 2013). Risk Behavior Surveillance System increase by 2.4% per year, an estimate (1999-2009) in the U.S. found that which is higher than for both Māori and Pacific Youth and their offending indigenous and ethnic minority youth Europeans in Aotearoa (Statistics New behaviour that included Native Hawaiians/Pacific Zealand, 2010). The classification age range for Islanders reported higher rates of youth The Pacific population typically youth who offend in Aotearoa is between violence that Asians and European reside in the most deprived areas of 14 and 16 years old. Pacific youth (Sugimoto-Matsuda, Hishinuma, Aotearoa characterised by poverty, offenders are the third largest group of Chang, 2013). This is not surprising inadequate housing and typically, high youth offenders in Aotearoa, representing given the large existing literature base rates of crime (Ministry of Health & 6–9% of all youth apprehensions over the demonstrating that youth in ethnic Ministry of Pacific Island Affairs, 2004). period 1996–2005 (Soboleva, Kazakova minorities generally are more likely to Statistics continue to report a low number & Chong, 2006). The latest figures be involved in violence. An American (22.8%) of Pacific secondary school show that Pacific youth who engage in study, examining the differences in youth students achieving the requirements to offending behaviour commit a larger violence among different ethnic groups, attend university when compared to both percentage of violent apprehensions found than American Indian, African- Pakehā (48.3%) and Asian secondary 2than do European and Māori youth American, and Latino youth were more school students (65.3%) (Statistics New 2 Apprehensions count the number of likely to be involved in physical fights Zealand and Ministry of Pacific Island times a person is apprehended or multiple than their Caucasian counterparts, Affairs, (2010). offenders are apprehended for one offence. and were also more likely than youth For example, one offender apprehended for 1 Hereafter, New Zealand will be referred three burglary offences is counted as three hended for a burglary offence is counted as to as Aotearoa, its indigenous translation. apprehensions, while two offenders appre- two apprehensions.

New Zealand Journal of Psychology Vol. 45, No. 3, November 2016 • 23 • Julia Ioane, Ian Lambie from the Caucasian community to regardless of whether they had been more than one Violence offence at the come from impoverished environments charged or not. same time, the most serious Violence where violence was more common offence was recorded. For example, if Inclusion criteria (McNulty & Bellair, 2003). In Canada, an offender committed a serious assault a ten-year follow-up of Aboriginal The youth offenders identified and also intimidated the victim, the and non-Aboriginal adolescent sex for this study were sourced from the serious assault offence was recorded. offenders found that the Aboriginal New Zealand Police according to the Furthermore, if an offender committed population were more likely to have following criteria: other Violence offences during 2007, backgrounds associated with Foetal 1. They committed a violence the first Violence offence in 2007 was Alcohol Syndrome Disorder, substance offence (charged or non-charged) on recorded. Once the Violence offence abuse, childhood victimisation, academic or between 1 January 2007 and 31 was identified and recorded; all previous difficulties and instabilities in their home December 20074. offences (violence and non-violence environment, and were more likely to 2. They were identified as having a offending) prior to the Violence offence reoffend sexually, violently, and non- Pacific ethnicity. This is either reported were also recorded. The authors also violently than were their non-Aboriginal by the offender or previously known by documented any further offending counterparts (Rojas & Gretton, 2007). Police. until 2009 to explore the likelihood of While there is some available research 3. They were aged between 10 recidivist offending. As the research regarding Pacific youth offending in and 24 years of age at the time of their progressed, the authors redefined the Aotearoa, much more is needed given Violence offence. This age range was Violence offences into three separate the continued disparity of outcomes selected by the authors in recognition of categories for further analysis. for Pacific youth in areas of social, the fact that Pacific cultures use concepts Table 1. economic, and educational risk factors other than age to define the maturity of that suggests that this population will youth in the community, which tends Type of Violence offences continue to have greater representation in often to be older than their chronological Severea Kidnapping and Abduction, Robbery, youth offending (Ministerial Taskforce, age (Suaalii & Muavoa, 2001). Grevious Assault, Serious Assault 2002; Ioane, Lambie & Percival, 2013; ). The over-representation of Pacific Procedures youth offenders in violent apprehension Using the inclusion criteria, this Moderate Minor Assault statistics necessitates an exploration of information was extracted from the this population in our society. The aim of INCOFF Offender Provisional Detail this study was to explore Pacific violent Business Object universe database, Minor Intimidation/Threat, Group Assembly youth offenders through analysing their which provided a list of all Violence social and demographic characteristics offences committed in 2007. The a There were no homicide offences in this study. alongside their offending behaviour in information documented that related to order to gain further insight into this the offender included their age at the vulnerable population group. time of the Violence offence; suburb Inter-rater reliability where they reportedly lived; gang To assess the reliability of the data notification5 (if present); and family collected, a post graduate psychology Method violence notification6 (if present), all of student with research experience, access Funding was received from the which was recorded. Random sampling to the New Zealand Police database and Auckland City Pasifika District Advisory was used to select 200 case numbers no previous involvement in the current Board of New Zealand Police and within the database that involved youths study checked inter-rater reliability for the Health Research Council. Ethical of Pacific ethnicity. Inter-rater reliability 10% of the overall sample. The results of approval was granted by the University was also carried out to check all coding the inter-rater agreement for the variables of Auckland Human Subjects Ethics of variables that included offence types examined (suburb recorded at the time of Committee (UAHSEC) and the Research and demographic information. and Evaluation Steering Committee offending; ethnicity; gang notification; (RESC) of the New Zealand Police. Final selection criteria family violence notification and offence Information from the New Zealand Police If there was more than one offender codes) showed a ‘moderate’ agreement was sourced from two national databases: involved in a Violence offence, all between raters, with an average kappa the INCOFF Offender Provisional Detail offenders in that group were selected of 0.74. Business Object universe database and for the study. If the offender committed Data analysis the National Intelligence Application All information was recorded in (NIA)3. Files were accessed for the 4 This date was the actual date of the of- fence or, in some cases, when it was made Microsoft Excel© and subsequently purposes of this study for offenders known to New Zealand Police. transferred to Predictive Analytics who had committed a Violence offence, 5 The offender may be an associate, mem- Software (PASW)7 Version 18.0 for 3 This is a database that involves ber or affiliated with local gangs. This was sharing information and integrating inter- either known by Police or reported by the statistical analysis and results. faces between the New Zealand Police, offender. Ministry of Justice, Department of Correc- 6 The offender may be an offender, victim 7 Formerly known as Statistical Package tions and Land Transport Safety Authority. or witness of family violence. for Social Sciences (SPSS).

• 24 • New Zealand Journal of Psychology Vol. 45, No. 3, November 2016 Pacific youth and violent offending in Aotearoa New Zealand

Results (M = 17.22, SD = 3.66) was 17 years. Table 5 provides a summary of the Table 2 provides a summary of Almost half of the sample committed a social and demographic characteristics of the social and demographic variables Violence offence (n = 94) as a type of Pacific recidivist offenders. The average associated with violent offending first offence. After recoding Violence age for Pacific recidivist offenders was behaviour amongst Pacific offenders. offences in the subcategories of severe, 16 years old. With regard to gender, 76% Chi-square (χ2) tests were used to identify moderate, and minor; Pacific youth of Pacific males in this study reoffended; statistically significant differences among offenders in this study committed more consistent with 60% of Pacific females the variables. In addition, t-tests were severe Violence offences than any other in this study. Therefore, no significant used to test whether differences were type of Violence offence in this study difference in gender was found with significant for the interval variables. (χ2 (1, N = 200) = 9.38, p = .002). More respect to recidivist youth offenders (χ2 than half of the Pacific youth (n = 146) in (1, N = 200) = 3.59, p = .058). Of the Table 2. the study reoffended after their Violence sample that went on to reoffend, it was Background characteristics of Pacific violent youth offenders (n = 200) offence (χ2 (1, N = 200) = 42.320, p < found that those born in Aotearoa were Characteristics n (%) .001). significantly more likely to reoffend Table 3. than those who were born in the Pacific Islands (χ2 (3, N = 200) = 16.64, p = Family violencea 122 (61.0) Offending characteristics of Pacific violent youth offenders (n = 200) .001). More than two-thirds (66.4%) of

Offending variables n (%) M SD Sig Pacific recidivist offenders were likely Born in New Zealand 103 (51.5) to have experienced or been exposed to

family violence in the home; significantly Male 168 (84.0) Average age at first offence 17.22 3.66 Female 32 (16.0) higher than for Pacific youth offenders who did not reoffend (χ2 (1, N = 200) = Violence as first time offence 94 (47.0) 6.72, p = .010). Socio-economic depravation 142 (71.0) index (8 or higher)b Severe violent offence as first 129 (64.5) ** Table 5 Age: Range 12 – 24yo; M=19.43 time offence Background characteristics of Pacific recidivist offenders (n=146) and non-recidivist

offenders (n =54) a Either an offender, witness or victim of family violence. b 10 is the most deprived areas in New Zealand. Offends after violent offence 146 (73.0) Characteristics Recidivist Non recidivist Sig **p<.01 n (%) n (%)

Male 127(76%) 41(23%) According to the sample in this Table 4 provides a summary of the Female 19 (60%) 13(24) study, just over half of the Pacific type of Violence offences committed youth offenders (51.5%) were born in by Pacific youth in this study. Of the Birthplace New Zealand 81(53.5%) 22(40.7%) ** Aotearoa. Most Pacific youth offenders sample of 200 Pacific youth offenders Pacific Islands 45(30.8%) 11(20.4)b who committed a Violence offence in were male (84.0%) and living in areas of very high socio-economic deprivation. 2007, Serious Assaults were the most common Violence offence committed. Family violence Involved 97(66.4%) 25(46.3%) ** Seventy-nine, or over a third of the total Not involved 49(33.6%) 29(53.7%) sample (39.5%), lived in areas with a Serious Assaults accounted for over a third of all Violence offences, including socio-economic deprivation index of ten, Age: Range 12-24yo; described as one of the most deprived Male Assaults Female and Aggravated M=16.89 areas in Aotearoa. Assaults. Table 4 Finally, more than half of the Pacific Types of violent offences committed by Pacific youth offenders (n=200) youth offenders (61.0%) in this study had Types of violent offences n (%) a Either an offender, witness or victim of family violence. ** p < .01 b. There were also a number of birthplaces not recorded. either been exposed to, or experienced, family violence in their homes. Other Homicide 0 (0.0) variables measured, such as drugs, Kidnapping and Abduction 2 (1.0) suicide risk, and gang association were Discussion Robbery 22 (11.0) Consistent with previous research on excluded from the analysis due to very low numbers. Any findings from these Grievous Assaults 31 (15.5) youth offenders, 84% of Pacific violent variables would distort and provide an youth offenders in our sample were Serious Assaults 75 (37.5) male (Moffitt & Caspi, 2001; Tibbetts & inaccurate perception of the reality as numbers are not significant. Minor Assaults 34 (17.0) Piquero, 1999; Zimmerman & Messner, 2010). Using the Social Deprivation Table 3 provides a summary of Intimidation and Threats 34 (17.0) the offending variables associated with Index (SDI) to determine socio-economic violent offending behaviour among Group Assemblies 2 (1.0) deprivation, we found that this group of youth offenders were growing up in Pacific youth offenders. The average age at first offence of Pacific youth offenders the lowest socio-economic deprivation

New Zealand Journal of Psychology Vol. 45, No. 3, November 2016 • 25 • Julia Ioane, Ian Lambie areas in the country; a finding which is such as imprisonment without age these are requires research and analysis consistent with other ethnic minorities appropriate intervention. In this study, in order to identify prevention strategies internationally (Farrington, 1989; most Pacific violent youth offenders for our Pacific youth. This is consistent Hemphill et al., 2009; Jarjoura, Triplett committed violent crimes as a first time with previous recommendations that & Brinker, 2002; Marie, Fergusson, offenceof a more ‘severe’ nature and an evaluation and review of current & Boden, 2009; Maxwell, Kingi, continued to reoffend after their Violence interventions with Pacific youth Robertson, Morris, & Cunningham, offence. Therefore this study highlights who are at risk of adverse outcomes, 2004; McAra & McVie, 2010; Wright, a more serious group of offenders where including those undergoing mentoring Caspi, Moffitt, Miech & Silva, 1999; intensive age appropriate interventions and therapeutic programmes, would be Zimmerman & Messner 2010). A survey that includes cultural interventions beneficial for both the Pacific community of secondary school students in Aotearoa need to be implemented after their first and for society as a whole (Siataga 2011). showed that Pacific students reported offence to ensure the likelihood of further Furthermore, given the growing a higher degree of violence exposure offending is diminished. diversity and diasporic Pacific in the family home between adults; Further findings in this study community in Aotearoa, further research and adults hitting children than NZ showed that Pacific youth offenders who would benefit from consideration and European students. (Helu, Robinson, reoffended, compared to those who did acknowledgement of youths of mixed Grant, Herd, & Denny, 2009). This not reoffend, were more likely to have Pacific ethnicity, Pacific and non-Pacific finding validates the increased risk previous or current involvement with ethnicity; youths born in New Zealand for Pacific youth towards offending family violence, again highlighting the and those who migrate from the islands . behaviour given that more than half of association by which family violence the youth offenders in this study were appears to impact on the development of Conclusions either exposed to, or involved with, young children and the risk of offending family violence in their homes. This is behaviour. Recidivist offenders were Almost half of the sample committed consistent with previous findings where also more likely to be born in Aotearoa. a Violence offence as a first time offence family violence was reported amongst However, anecdotal evidence suggests consistent with a recent Australian study families with dysfunctional and criminal that it is possible some of the youth of Pacific youth offenders (Ravulo, histories (Boden, Fergusson & Horwood, offenders born in the Pacific Islands were 2016). The most common Violence 2010; Juby & Farrington, 2001; Marie sent home to the islands by family as a offence committed by Pacific youth in et al., 2009; Reid & Crisafulli, 1990; consequence of their behaviour. In these this sample was Serious Assaults that Rodriguez, Smith & Zatz, 2009). cases any reoffending behaviours would also include Male Assaults Female. The findings in the current study not be captured in the New Zealand data Family violence features highly in this showed that Pacific youth were more (New Zealand Police, 2010). sample of Pacific youth, a finding that likely to commit a violent offence as supports a previous analysis of violent Limitations and future research their first offence and were reported by crime in Aotearoa that estimated that a NZ Police data to offend on average One of the major limitations of this third of violent crimes were associated at the age of 17 years old. This was study was the inability to break down with family violence (Smith 2008). consistent with international research the Pacific ethnicities into the different In a national student survey, it was looking at Pacific youth offending in Pacific nations, for example Samoan, hypothesised that the violent behaviour where these youths did not Tongan, and Cook Islands Māori to name among Pacific youth is a reflection of commit their first offence before the age a few. This is due to the way in which what is observed in the home (Helu et al., of 15 years old (Ravulo, 2016). This Pacific ethnicities are recorded as one 2009). To gain further insight, the origins, study is also consistent with international group in the Police database. Efforts to attitudes, and effects of family violence literature that has shown seemingly research and acknowledge each Pacific in Pacific communities need to be higher reports for violent behaviour with group separately remains a priority researched directly with Pacific violent Pacific ethnicities than other minority within the Pacific community because, youth offenders and their families, given ethnic groups (Fiaui & Hishinuma, 2009; without this research, issues that are the high rates of family violence in this Mayeda, Hishinuma, Nishimura, Garcia- relevant to one ethnic group but not to study. Santiago & Mark, 2006). This study another are likely to be missed (Le & It is also important to note the showed the average age of offending for Arifuku 2005). ongoing efforts of the government Pacific youth was 17 years old, which Based on the findings of the in Aotearoa, with campaigns against is in line with the common age for study, the authors suggest the need for family violence and a change in Police violent apprehensions in Aotearoa (Smith qualitative research on Pacific youth attitudes, which are likely to have 2008). However, this age means that our in Aotearoa and their violent offending increased public reporting of family Pacific violent youth offenders generally behaviour, alongside a control group of violence (Smith 2008). Working with begin to offend at an age that does Pacific youth who do not offend. It is families to eliminate violence in the not meet criteria for a legally defined likely that common risk factors would be homes should continue to be a priority ‘youth’. Therefore, they are more likely found between the two groups. However, amongst government agencies such as to be sentenced in the District Court of greater interest are the protective and health, police and education. Equally jurisdiction and face harsher penalties, resiliency factors among Pacific youth important is the need for findings from who do not offend. Determining what research such as this, as well as future

• 26 • New Zealand Journal of Psychology Vol. 45, No. 3, November 2016 Pacific youth and violent offending in Aotearoa New Zealand research, to inform government policy McMorris, B. J., & Romaniuk, H. McAra, L, & McVie, S. (2010). ‘Youth Crime and implementation. This will allow us (2009). Modifiable Determinants of and Justice: Key Messages from the to work with these vulnerable population Youth Violence in A u s t r a l i a Edinburgh Study of Youth Transitions groups using evidence based research and the United States: A Longitudinal and Crime’, Criminology and Criminal Study. The Australian and New Justice, 10(2), 179–209. and research informed practice (Lambie Zealand Journal of Criminology, 42(3), & Ioane, 2012). McNulty, T. L., & Bellair, P. E. (2003). 289–309. ‘Explaining Racial and Ethnic Differences Even though these findings should Ioane, J., Lambie, I., & Percival, T. (2013). in Adolescent Violence: Structural be viewed as exploratory, this study A review of the literature on Pacific Island Disadvantage, Family Well-being, and provides a platform for Pacific youth youth youth offending in New Zealand. Social Capital. Justice offending research to continue, as there Aggression and Violent Behavior, 18, 426- Quarterly, 20(1), 1–31. is a significant amount of information 433. Ministerial Taskforce (2002). Youth Offending yet to be discovered from studying this Jarjoura, G. R., Triplett, R. A., & Brinker, G. Strategy. Preventing and Reducing population. Future findings from this P. (2002). Growing Up Poor: Examining Offending and Re-offending by group are likely to inform government the Link between Persistent Childhood Children and Young People. Te Haonga. policies and practice, given the violent Poverty and Delinquency. Journal : Ministry of Justice and the nature of offending for this population of Quantitative Criminology, 18(2), Ministry of Social Development. 159–187. and the current youthful age of the Ministry of Health & Ministry of Pacific population as a whole. As research Juby, H., & Farrington, D. P. (2001). Island Affairs (2010). ‘Ala Mo’ui. Disentangling the Link between Disrupted Pathways to Pacific Health continues in this area it is likely that Families and Delinquency. British and Wellbeing 2010-2014. Wellington: Aotearoa will become better informed Journal of Criminology, 41(1), 22–40. Ministry of Health. about developing culturally appropriate Lambie, I., & Ioane, J. (2012). From text Moffitt, T. E., & Caspi, A. (2001). ‘Childhood interventions for this group. This can books to footpaths: making real-world Predictors Differentiate Life-Course then begin to reduce the adverse effects research stick at the coal face. In Persistent and Adolescence-Limited of offending on our Pacific youth and E. Bowen & S. Brown (Eds.), Perspectives Antisocial Pathways among Males and families; and the wider community in on Evaluating Criminal Justice and Females’, Development and Aotearoa. Corrections (Advances in Program Psychopathology, 13(2). 355–375. Evaluation, Volume 13., pp. New Zealand Police (2010). The Victimisation 231-243) UK: Emerald Group Publishing and Offending of Pacific Peoples in References Limited. New Zealand (Report NIC-KP-100512). Boden, J. M., Fergusson D. M., & Horwood, Le, T. N., & Arifuku, I. (2005). Asian and Wellington: New Zealand Police. L. J. (2010). Risk Factors for Conduct Pacific Islander Youth Victimization and Ravulo, J (2016). Pacific youth offending Disorder and Oppositional/Defiant Delinquency: A Case for Disaggregate within an Australian context. Youth Disorder: Evidence from a New Zealand Data. Amerasia Journal, 31(3), 29–41. Justice, 16(1). 34-38. Birth Cohort. Journal of the American Maguin, E., & Loeber, R. (1996). Academic Academy of Child & Adolescent Reid, W. J., & Crisafulli, A. (1990). Marital performance and delinquency. In M. Psychiatry, 49(11), 1125–1133. Discord and Child Behaviour Problems: Tonry (Ed.). vol. 20, Crime and Justice: A Meta-analysis. Journal of Farrington, D. P. (1989). Early Predictors A Review of Research (pp. 145-164). Abnormal Child Psychology, 18(1). of Adolescent and Aggression and Adult Chicago, IL: University of Chicago 105–117. Violence. Violence and Victims, Press. 4(2), 79–100. Rodriguez, N., Smith, H., & Zatz, M. Marie, D., Fergusson, D. M., & Boden, J. M. S. (2009). Youth is enmeshed in a Fergusson, D. M., Horwood, L. J., & (2009). Ethnic Identify and Criminal highly dysfunctional f a m i l y Lynskey, M. T. (1993). Ethnicity, Social Offending in a New Zealand Birth system: Exploring the relationship among Background and Young Offending: A Cohort. The Australian and New Zealand dysfunctional families, parental 14-Year Longitudinal Study. Australian Journal of Criminology, 42(3), incarceration, and juvenile court decision and New Zealand Journal of 354–368. making. Criminology, 47(1), 177-208. Criminology, 26 (2), 155–170. Maxwell, G., Kingi, V., Robertson, J., Rojas, E. Y., & Gretton, H.M. (2007). Fiaui, P. A., & Hishinuma, E. S. (2009). Morris, A., & Cunningham, C. (2004), Background, Offence Characteristics, and Samoan Adolescents in American Achieving Effective Outcomes in Criminal Outcomes of Aboriginal Samoa and Hawai’i: Comparison of Youth Justice. Final report, available Youth Who Sexually Offend: A Closer Youth Violence and Youth Development online at http://www.msd.govt. Look at Aboriginal Y o u t h Indicators. A Study by the Asian/ nz/documents/about-msd-and-our-work/ Intervention Needs. Sex Abuse, 19(3), Pacific Islander Youth Violence Prevention publications- resources/research/ 257–283. Centre. Aggression and V i o l e n t youth-justice/achieving-effective- Siataga, P. (2011), ‘Pasifika Child and Behaviour, 14(6), 478–487. outcomes-youth-justice- overview.pdf. Youth Well-being: Roots and Wings’, in Helu, S. L., Robinson, E., Grant, S., Herd, Mayeda, D. T., Hishinuma, E. S., Nishimura, Improving the Transition. Reducing R., & Denny, S. (2009). Youth ’07. The S. T., Garcia-Santiago, O., & Mark, G. Social and Psychological Morbidity Health and Wellbeing of Secondary School Y. (2006). Asian/Pacific Islander during Adolescence. A Report from Students in New Zealand: Results for Youth Violence Prevention Center: the Prime Minister’s Chief Science Pacific Young People. Auckland: Interpersonal Violence and Deviant Advisor. Auckland: Office of the The University of Auckland. Behaviors among Youth in Hawai’i’. Prime Minister’s Science Advisory Hemphill, S. A., Smith, R., Toumbourou, Journal of Adolescent Health, 39(2), Committee. J. W., Herrenkohl, T. I., Catalano, R. F., 276.e1–276.e11.

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Singh, D., & White, C. (2000), Rapua Te involvement in providing consultation Huarahi Tika: Searching for Solutions. and feedback throughout the duration of Wellington: Ministry of Youth Affairs. this study. This work was supported by Smith, J. (2008), Exploring Trends in the Constable Pita Fuafiva Scholarship Recorded Violent Crime in New Zealand. of the Auckland City Pasifika District Policy Group, Police Advisory Board of New Zealand Police National Headquarters. Wellington: New and the Health Research Council Pacific Zealand Police. PhD Scholarship (09/325). Sugimoto-Matsuda, J., Hishinuma, E., & Chang, J. (2013). Prevalence of youth violence in t h e U . S . , Corresponding Author: 1999-2009: Ethnic comparisons and Julia Ioane disaggregating Asian Americans and Public Health and Psychosocial Pacific Islanders. Maternal and Child Studies, Health Journal, 17, 1802-1816. Auckland University of Technology Soboleva, N., Kazakova, N., & Chong, J. Private Bag 92019, (2006). Conviction and Sentencing of Auckland, New Zealand Offenders in New Zealand: 1996 to 2005. Wellington: Ministry of Justice. Email: [email protected] Statistics New Zealand (2010), National Ethnic Population Projections: 2006 (base)–2026 update, available online at h t t p : / / www.stats.govt.nz/browse_for_stats/ population/estimates_and_projections/ Nati onalEthnicPopulationProjections_ HOTP2006-26.aspx. Statistics New Zealand (2014). 2013 Census QuickSTats about culture and identity. Wellington: Author. Statistics New Zealand & Ministry of Pacific Island Affairs (2010). Education and Pacific Peoples in New Zealand. Wellington: Author. Suaalii, T. M., & Mavoa, H. (2001). Who says yes? Collective and individual framing of Pacific children’s consent to and participation in research in New Zealand. Childrens Issues, 5(1), 39-42. Tibbetts, S. G., & Piquero, A. R. (1999). The Influence of Gender, Low Birth Weight, and Disadvantaged Environment in Predicting Early Onset of Offending: A Test of Moffitt’s Interactional Hypothesis. Criminology, 37(4), 843–877. Wright, B. R. E., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Miech, R. A., & Silva, P. A. (1999). Reconsidering the Relationship between SES and Delinquency: Causation but not Correlation. Criminology, 37(1), 175-194. Zimmerman, G. M., & Messner, S. F. (2010). Neighbourhood Context and the Gender Gap in Adolescent Violent Crime. American Sociological Review, 75(6). 958–980. Acknowledgment The authors would like to express their appreciation to the New Zealand Police including Senior Sergeant Siaosi Fanamanu, Senior Sergeant Mike Fulcher and the Research and Evaluation Steering Committee. We also acknowledge Ida Malosi for her

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Pacific youth and violent offending in Aotearoa New Zealand

Appendix A: New Zealand Police Violence Codes1

Homicide ; Attempted Murder; ; Infanticide; Abortion; Aiding Suicide and Pact Kidnapping/Abduction Kidnapping; Abduction; Slave Dealing Robbery Aggravated Robbery; Non-Aggravated Robbery; Assaults with Intent to Rob; Compelling Execution of Documents; Aggravated Robbery Grievous Assault Wounding with Intent; Injuring with Intent; Aggravated Wounding/Injury; Disabling/Stupefying; Dangerous Acts with Intent; Injure—If Death Ensued, Manslaughter; Miscellaneous Grievous Assaults; Use Firearm against Law Enforcement Officer; Assault with Weapon Serious Assault Aggravated Assaults; Assault with Intent to Injure; Assault on Child (Under 14 years); Assault by Male on Female; Assaults Police; Assaults Person Assisting Police; Assaults Person Lawful Execution Process; Common Assault; Miscellaneous Common Assault Minor Assault Assault on Law Enforcement Officers; Assaults Person Assisting Police; Assaults Official (Other Statutes); Common Assault; Miscellaneous Common Assault Intimidation/Threat Threatens to Kill/Do GBH; Threatening Act (Person/Property); Threatening Behaviour/Language; Demand Intent to Steal/Extortion; Offensive Weapon Possession etc; Fail to Provide Necessities of Life; Miscellaneous Intimidation/Threats; Threatening to Act (Person or Property) Group Assemblies Riot; Unlawful Assembly; Crimes against Personal Privacy; Criminal Harassment; Participation & Association Offences

1 Refer to New Zealand Police for further information and clarity

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