Kenya State of the Environment Report 2014

NATIONAL ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT AUTHORITY

Theme: Environmental Management and Devolution: Harnessing Opportunities

A Publication of the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA), Kenya

First Published 2017

ISBN: 978-9966-1987-9-2

This document should be cited as follows: Government of Kenya (2014), State of the Environment Report, National Environment Management Authority, NEMA - Nairobi

All correspondence should be addressed to:

The Director General National Environment Management Authority P. O. Box 67839 -00200 Nairobi Tel. (020) 2183718, (020) 2103696, (020) 2307281, (020) 2101370, (020) 2198643 Fax +245 (0)20 6008997 Email: [email protected] Website: www.nema.go.ke

FOREWORD State of the Environment Report (SoE) is a globally accepted process of environmental assessment, documentation and reporting. Kenya has been involved in this process since 2003. The process has been domesticated through a legal provision in the Environmental Management and Coordination Act (EMCA 1999).Section 9(2)(p) of the Act mandates the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) to prepare annual state of the Environment report for submission to the National Assembly for adoption.

Kenya is endowed with enormous natural resources which provide both ecological goods and services to the National as well as County economies. The Country has through time depended on these ecological goods and services as the Natural Capital. The Water towers for example provide important recharge for rivers draining several water basins and providing water for domestic use, agriculture and wildlife. They also maintain the hydrological cycle; that regulates the atmospheric temperature and neutrality. The cycle is important to the life of many organisms. In addition water provides habitat to a myriad of species. From the foregoing it is imperative that the growth of the National Economy is directly linked to the integrity of the Environment.

In pursuit of development the environment has become more vulnerable due to both natural and human induced factors like climate change, floods, droughts, fires and many others resulting into negative impact on the environment. The rivers that form major water sources in Kenya are increasingly becoming polluted and the quantity of water is becoming less and less. It is therefore important to constantly keep a watch on such trends and raise alarm at the opportune time for managing environmental changes. State of the Environment Reporting (SoE) is a process that attempts to address this need through monitoring, assessment and reporting.

Kenya government has achieved major milestonnes in its quest to protect and conserve its natural resources. The Kenya Constitution of 2010 has provided for very clear direction on Natural Resources use and management. It elevates environmental integrity into a human right, thus making environment assessment, monitoring and reporting a critical aspect of national as well as county governance, and thus the State of the Environment Report contributes to this important national goal. The constitution has changed the manner in which the environment is managed by delegating responsibility at individual, collectively, national and county governments. For effective governance (including environmental governance), the constitution has provided for public participation

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in the development planning process and this enhances accountability and transparency.

It is on this basis that this report, shall provide an invaluable input and comprehensively inform policy and planning in Kenya, and therefore contribute to the environment sustainability for human wellbeing.

Prof. Judi Wakhungu Cabinet Secretary, Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources and Regional Development Authorities

PREFACE The Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources is mandated with the function of ensuring that the Country attains sustainable development. The Ministry is the focal point of a number of Multilateral Environment Agreements (MEAs) and has ensured Kenya’s active participation in international environmental diplomacy and also in the domestication of environmental conventions, protocols and treaties. This has been done through development of policies, strategies, legal and institutional frameworks to address environmental matters.

After the Rio conference in 1992, member States moved to implement the requirement (under Agenda 21) of regular environment assessment, monitoring and reporting. This was done with the enactment of the Environment Management and Coordination Act in 1999, which made State of the Environment (SOE) reporting mandatory. The SOE for 2014 will be the last prepared annually since the amended EMCA (2015) requires that SOE is produced every 2 years.

Since then, the Country has been involved in preparing the State of the Environment Reports, from the pioneering report produced in 2003. Other reports cover the period for the years 2004, 2005, 2006/2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2012 and 2013. The need for regular environmental assessment and reporting has even become more important with issues of Climate Change taking the centre stage. Kenya provides due attention to the environment, and has integrated environmental considerations into its development blue print, the Vision 2030. The Country has also developed a National Climate Change Response Strategy and Action plan and many other policy documents to guide environmental management. Environmental assessments and reporting is therefore a key instrument in assessing the performance of these strategies, and policies against the environment integrity of the nation.

The objectives of SoE are: (i) Assessment and consolidation of environmental data from diverse sources using known environmental indicators, (ii) Analyzing data to determine trends (iii) Indicating clearly whether environmental quality is improving, getting worse or staying the same (iv) Assessing whether policies, laws programmes and other actions are having the desired effect. All these objectives are aimed at informing policy at all levels.

The methodologies applied in the preparation process are the Driver-Pressure- State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) and Opportunity framework approaches and use of Environmental Indicators to interrogate various aspects of environment. This analysis has brought out some pressing environmental issues which include: the declining state of wetlands as a result of human encroachment, deforestation and de-vegetation of important ecosystems, pollution of rivers, lakes and the sea, degradation of critical production areas, to name just a few. This worrying trend

brings to our attention these critical environmental challenges for discussion and decision making at the highest level of governance (both national and county).

I want to emphasize the central role that the lead agencies as per EMCA 1999 play in this process. I call upon the departments involved in data collection and monitoring frameworks to strengthen their capacity in order to be able to undertake regular monitoring and reporting of environmental change. They should also be ready to avail and share the data whenever called upon to do so as a requirement under the Constitution of Kenya 2010.

Finally, I want to take this opportunity to thank those who were involved in the process of preparation of SOE 2014, and urge them to continue beyond the completion of the 2014 report, with the same spirit for future assessment and SOE reports.

Charles Sunkuli Principal Secretary, State Department of Environment

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The State of the Environment 2014 report was prepared by a team of NEMA officers with most of the data and information coming from the lead agencies representing various Ministries, Departments and Agencies (MDAs). The teams were organized into thematic groups to address and prepare the chapters and sections of the report. These institutions played a crucial role in the data collection, analysis, compilation and validation. The data was collected using National Environmental Indicators (NEIs) which enabled trends analysis and bringing out major environmental issues.

I wish to express my gratitude to the representatives of the lead agencies and stakeholders who played a critical role throughout this process. Specifically, the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources is appreciated for giving policy direction for the process. I also wish to thank the Danish government for financial support to the SOE making process.

My appreciation also goes to the NEMA Board of Management, who provided the resources and an enabling environment that made the completion of this report possible. Equally, the NEMA team especially staff from the Department of Environmental Planning and Research Coordination are commended for working tirelessly to compile and edit the data and information provided in the final document for publication. It is interesting to note that the report unlike the previous ones has captured strongly the issue of devolution and how this affects environmental governance at county level. Devolution as a new concept in this country has contributed toward changing peoples’ attitude towards environmental responsibility and enhanced compliance.

Finally, this report is considered to contain baseline data for future forecasts of the environmental situation for the country. Such forecast will provide early warning and signals that provoke national debate and well-timed planning for appropriate management, interventions and mitigation of impacts of deleterious anthropogenic activities at national as well as county levels. This report also serves to spur commitment of the government institutions and other stakeholders to play their rightful roles in environmental monitoring, planning and living to the spirit of the Constitution of Kenya 2010 and Kenya’s Vision 2030.

Prof. Geoffrey Wahungu Director General, National Environment Management Authority

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Table of Contents FOREWORD ...... III

PREFACE ...... V

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... VII

TABLE OF CONTENTS...... VIII

LIST OF FIGURES ...... XVI

LIST OF TABLES ...... XIX

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... XXII

ACRONYMS ...... XXVII

1.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.2 BACKGROUND ...... 1 1.2.1 Provisions of EMCA on State of the Environment Planning ...... 1 1.2.2 Objectives of SoE 2014 ...... 2 1.2.3 State of Environment Reporting Process ...... 2 1.2.4 Structure of the State of the Environment Report ...... 2 1.3 METHODOLOGY ...... 3 1.4 STATE OF ENVIRONMENT REPORTING IN KENYA ...... 3 1.5. LINKAGES WITH OTHER PROCESSES ...... 4 1.6 COUNTRY PROFILE ...... 4 1.6.1 Geographical Location ...... 4 1.6.2 Size ...... 5 1.6.3 Topographical Diversity ...... 5 1.6.4 Ecological Regions and Ecosystems ...... 5 1.6.5 Savannah Grassland and Rangelands ...... 5 1.6 6 Forest Ecosystems ...... 7 1.6.7 Riverine and Lake Ecosystems ...... 7 1.6.8 Wetlands Ecosystems ...... 7 1.6.9 Drainage Basins and Catchments ...... 7 1.6.10 POPULATION DENSITY ...... 8

CHAPTER 2: PEOPLE, ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT ...... 9

2.1. 1 AGE STRUCTURE ...... 9 2.1.2 Morbidity ...... 10 2.2 CULTURE AND ENVIRONMENT ...... 10 2.3 SOCIO-ECONOMIC INDICATORS ...... 12 2.3.1 Poverty and Ecosystem ...... 15

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2.3.2 Poverty and Economic Development ...... 15 2.3.3: Policy Cconsideration ...... 16 2.3.4: Gender and Environment ...... 16 2.3.5: Youth and Environment ...... 17 2.4 DEVELOPMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY ...... 19 2.4.1 Trend of Sectors ...... 19 2.4.2 RESOURCE EFFICIENCY AND THE LOW-CARBON ECONOMY ...... 21 2.5 TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT ...... 23

CHAPTER 3: WEATHER AND CLIMATE CHANGE ...... 25

3.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 25 3.2 WEATHER ...... 25 3.2.1 Climate variability in Kenya ...... 25 3.2.2 Temperatures ...... 26 3.2.3 Rainfall ...... 27 3.2.4 Frequency of Extreme Events ...... 28 3.2.5 Annual Variability of Rainfall and Temperature ...... 31 3.2.6 Climate Related Extreme Events / Disasters ...... 37 3.3 CLIMATE CHANGE ...... 37 3.3.1 The Threat of Climate Change ...... 39 3.3.2 Climate Adaptation and Mitigation (green technologies) ...... 40 3.3.3 Vulnerability Assessment and Mapping in Kenya...... 43 3.3.4 Evidence/ Manifestations of Climate Change ...... 47 3.3.5 Impacts on Systems and Sectors in Kenya...... 48 3.3.6 Opportunities and Endowment Value of Climate Change ...... 57 3.3.7 Kenya’s National Communications ...... 57 3.3.8 Approaches to Estimation of Emissions ...... 57 3.3.9 Partnership Opportunities ...... 59 3.3.10 Conclusion and Recommendations ...... 60

CHAPTER 4: WATER RESOURCES AND POLLUTION ...... 62

INTRODUCTION...... 62

4.1 WATER RESOURCES ...... 62

4.1.1 Proportion of Water for Domestic, Irrigation, Industry and Other Uses ...... 63 4.2 RIVER FLOW LEVELS/VOLUMES BY BASINS ...... 64 4.3 GROUND WATER LEVELS BY POTENTIAL/VOLUMES ...... 64 4.4 PROPORTION OF POPULATION USING IMPROVED SANITATION FACILITIES ...... 64 4.5 IRRIGATION WATER DEMAND ...... 66

4.6 LEVEL IN WATER STORAGE CAPACITY ...... 66 4.7 WATER BASINS IN THE COUNTRY ...... 67 4.8 GROUNDWATER RESOURCES ...... 68 4.9 WATER QUALITY AND CATCHMENT DEGRADATION ...... 69 4.10 CATCHMENT DEGRADATION ...... 69 4.11 TRANS-BOUNDARY WATERS ...... 70 4.12 EXTREME EVENTS ...... 70 4.13 WATER MONITORING ...... 70 4.14 MAIN GROUNDWATER AQUIFERS ...... 72 4.14.1 Classification of aquifers ...... 73 4.15 WATER RESOURCE SITUATION FOR 2012-13 ...... 73 4.16 WATER POLLUTION ...... 74

CHAPTER 5: LAND AND SOILS ...... 79

5.1 LAND ...... 79 5.1.1 Status of Land Resources in Country ...... 79 5.1.2 Land Use and Land Use Change ...... 80 5.1.3 Land Use Planning ...... 81 5.1.4 Land Tenure ...... 82 5.1.5 Sustainable Land Administration and Management ...... 84 5.1.6 Policy Reform Programs ...... 85 5.1.7 Policy and Legal Reforms ...... 86 5.1.8 Threats to Land ...... 87 5.1.9 Endowment Value of Land and Opportunities ...... 87 5.2 SOILS ...... 88 5.2.1 Soils and Agro-Ecological Zones ...... 89 5.2.2 Soil Degradation ...... 91

CHAPTER 6: FOREST, WOODLANDS AND GRASSLANDS ...... 92

6.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 92 6.1 .1 FORESTS ...... 93 6.1.2 Kenya Water Towers ...... 95 6.1.3 Afforestation and Rehabilitation of Forest Degraded Areas ...... 95 6.1.4 Plantation Forests ...... 95 6.1.5 Seedlings Production ...... 95 6.1.6 Gazettement of Forest Land ...... 96 6.2 DRY LANDS ...... 96 6.2.1 Status of Dry-land Forests in Kenya ...... 96 6.2.2 Threats to Dry land Forests ...... 97

6.2.3 Sustainable Management of Dry lands ...... 97 6.3 RESTORATION EFFORTS IN VARIOUS FOREST CONSERVANCIES ...... 97 6.3.1 Conservation Initiatives Identified ...... 98 6.4 ACHIEVEMENTS IN 2014 ...... 98 6.5 REDD IN KENYA ...... 100 6.5.1 Institutional Arrangements ...... 101 6.5.2 Stakeholder Engagement and Participation ...... 101 6.6 LAND TENURE ARRANGEMENTS AND CARBON RIGHTS ...... 101 6.7 FOREST MANAGEMENT ...... 102 6.7.1 Reference Levels ...... 102 6.7.2 Monitoring, Reporting and Verification ...... 103 6.7.3 Safeguards ...... 103 6.7.4 Gender Equality ...... 103

CHAPTER 7: BIODIVERSITY ...... 105

7.1 IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY ...... 105 7.2 CHALLENGES FACING BIODIVERSITY ...... 105 7.3 BIODIVERSITY REVENUE GENERATION AVENUES ...... 106 7.4 PROPORTION OF TERRESTRIAL AND PROTECTED AREAS...... 106 7.5 ECOSYSTEMS AND THEIR SERVICES ...... 106 7.6. WILDLIFE CONFLICTS ...... 106 7.7 PAYMENTS FOR ECOSYSTEMS SERVICES: CASE STUDY ...... 109 7.8 RAMSAR SITES ...... 109 7.9 THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ...... 109 7.9.1 Invasive species ...... 110 7.9.2 Poaching ...... 110 7.9.3 Other threats to Wildlife ...... 112 7.10 COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT FOR PROTECTION OF WILDLIFE ...... 113 7.11 AGRICULTURAL BIODIVERSITY ...... 113 7.12 BIRDS ...... 113 7.12.1 Status of Habitats and Species Under The IBA Programme ...... 113 7.13 INITIATIVES FOR PROTECTION OF ECOSYSTEMS ...... 114

CHAPTER 8: COASTAL, MARINE AND WETLANDS ...... 115

8.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 115 8.2 MANGROVES ...... 115 8.2.1 Distribution ...... 115 8. 2.2 History of Exploitation ...... 116 8.2.3 Importance of Mangroves ...... 116

8.2.4 Threats to Mangroves ...... 117 8.2.5 Opportunities for Improved Management ...... 119 8.3 CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEM ...... 120 8.3.1 Coral Reefs ...... 120 8.3.2 Cover/Current status ...... 120 8.3.3 Biodiversity ...... 122 8.3.4 Threats/ Threats Forecast ...... 124 8.3.5 Interventions ...... 125 8.3.6 Legislations ...... 126 8.3.7 Other Threatened species in the Coastal and Marine Ecosystems ...... 127 8.4 WETLANDS ...... 127

CHAPTER 9: AGRICULTURE, LIVESTOCK AND FISHERIES ...... 130

9.1 AGRICULTURE SYSTEMS ...... 130 9.2 CROP PRODUCTION ...... 131 9.2.1 Food Crops ...... 131 9.2.2 Industrial Crops ...... 132 9.3 CROP YIELDS ...... 132 9.3.1 Major Cereals ...... 132 9.3.2 Major Legumes ...... 133 9.3.3 Horticultural Crops ...... 134 9.3.4 Major Tuber crops ...... 134 9.3.5 Industrial Crops ...... 136 9.3.6 Crop Research and Development ...... 137 9.4 IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE ...... 137 9.5 AGRICULTURAL INPUTS ...... 138 9.6 CREATION OF AN ENABLING ENVIRONMENT IN AGRICULTURE SECTOR ...... 139 9.7 LIVESTOCK ...... 140 9.7.1 Livestock Rearing and Carrying Capacity ...... 140 9.7.2 Livestock Population ...... 140 9.7.3 Degradation of Land due to Overstocking ...... 145 9.7.4 Resource Use Conflicts ...... 148 9.7.5 Initiatives of Sustainable Livestock Management ...... 148 9.8 FISHERIES ...... 149 9.8.1 National Fish Production and Utilization ...... 150 9.8.2 Capture Fisheries ...... 153 9.8.3 Marine Capture Fishery ...... 158 9.8.4 Other Capture Fisheries ...... 162 9.8.5 Aquaculture ...... 162

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CHAPTER 10: ENERGY, TRANSPORT, COMMUNICATION AND MINING ...... 164

10.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 164 10.1.1 Energy Resources in Kenya ...... 164 10.1.2 RENEWABLE ENERGY ...... 168 10.1. 3 OTHER RENEWABLE SOURCES ...... 174 10.1. 4 KENYA NUCLEAR ENERGY QUEST ...... 175 10.1.5 CHALLENGES IN ENERGY SECTOR ...... 175 10.2 TRANSPORT ...... 175 10.2.1 Transport Infrastructures ...... 177 10.3 COMMUNICATION ...... 180 10.3.1 Mobile Telephony ...... 180 10.3.2 Data on E-Waste ...... 180 10.4 MINING ...... 181 10.4.1 Licensing in the Mining Sector ...... 184 10.4.2 Emerging Issues ...... 185

CHAPTER 11: TOURISM, TRADE AND INDUSTRALIZATION ...... 187

11.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 187 11.1.1 Tourism Arrivals and Earnings ...... 187 11.1.2 Number of Visitor-Days Stayed ...... 189 11.1.3 Hotel Occupancy ...... 190 11.1.4 Visitors to National Parks and Game Reserves ...... 192 11.1.5 Museums, Snake Parks and Historical Sites ...... 194 11.1.6 Conference Tourism ...... 195 11.1.7 Training ...... 196 11.1.8 Challenges...... 196 11.1.9 Conclusion ...... 197 11.2 TRADE ...... 198 11.2.1 Introduction ...... 198 11.2.2 International Trade...... 198 11.2.3 Trade and Export Promotion ...... 199 11.2.4 Impact of Trade to the Environment ...... 200 11.2.5 Green Economy Initiatives in Kenya ...... 201 11.3 INDUSTRALIZATION ...... 202 11.3.1 Food Processing Industry ...... 202 11.3.2 Tobacco, Textiles, Wood Products, Industries ...... 202 11.3.3 Chemicals, Rubber, Plastics and Glass ...... 202 11.3.4 Metal, Electrical / Non-Electrical and Transport Equipment ...... 202

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11.3.5 Impact of Industry on Environment...... 203

CHAPTER 12: URBANIZATION, HEALTH, SANITATION AND WASTE ...... 204

12.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 204 12.1.1 URBANIZATION ...... 204 12.1.2 Proportion of Urban Population ...... 205 12.1.3 Area Covered by Informal Settlements ...... 205 12.1.4 Developmental Control ...... 206 12.2 HEALTH AND SANITATION ...... 207 12.2.1 Environmental Related Diseases ...... 208 12.2.2 Strategies for Addressing Sanitation Challenges ...... 208 12.2.3 Community Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) ...... 208 12.2.4 Policy Statement ...... 208 12.2.5 Under five mortality rate ...... 209 12.2.6 General population mortality ...... 209 12.2.7 Access to primary health care ...... 209

12.3 WASTE MANAGEMENT ...... 210

12.3.1 Municipal Waste Management ...... 210 12.3.2 Challenges...... 211

CHAPTER 13: ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION, INFORMATION, COMMUNICATION AND AWARENESS...... 212

13.1.1 EDUCATION, COMMUNICATION AND AWARENESS ...... 212 13.1.2 FORMAL EDUCATION ...... 212

13.2 UNIVERSITIES OFFERING ENVIRONMENTAL RELATED COURSES ...... 213

13.3 STATUS OF NON-FORMAL EDUCATION PROGRAMMES ...... 215

13.3.1 Public Awareness and Participation ...... 215 13.3.2 Current Status of Public Awareness and Participation in Environment ...... 215 13.3.3 Messages During World Environment Days ...... 216

13.4 CAPACITY OF ENVIRONMENTAL EXPERTISE ...... 219

CHAPTER 14: ENVIRONMENTAL GOVERNANCE ...... 220

14.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 220 14.1.1 INTERNATIONAL FRAMEWORKS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL GOVERNANCE ...... 220 14.2 OTHER MEAS ...... 221 14.3 HIGHLIGHTS OF THE KENYA CONSTITUTION 2010 ...... 222 14.4 INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS ...... 223

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14.5 ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATIONS ...... 223 14.6 ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES ...... 224 14.7 DEVOLUTION AND ENVIRONMENT ...... 224 14.7.1 Introduction ...... 224 14.7.2 Public Participation in Environmental Management ...... 225 14.8 ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE MINISTRY UNDER CLIMATE CHANGE ...... 225 14.9 MAINSTREAMING ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS INTO SECTORAL POLICIES ...... 226 14.10 ENVIRONMENTAL COMPLIANCE AND ENFORCEMENT ...... 226 14.10.1 Environmental Compliance and Enforcement regimes ...... 227

CHAPTER 15: EMERGING ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES ...... 228

15.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 228 15.1.1 CLIMATE CHANGE AND EFFECTS ON FOOD SECURITY, NUTRITION AND INCOMES ...... 228 15.2 EMERGING LIVESTOCK DISEASES ...... 228 15.3 EMERGING CHANGE OF LAND USE ...... 228 15.4 MIGRATION TO THE ASALS ...... 229 15.5 INVASIVE PLANT SPECIES ...... 229 15.6 HABITANT DEGRADATION/POLLUTION...... 229

REFERENCES ...... 230

APPENDICES ...... 234

APPENDIX 1: LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS AND INSTITUTIONS ...... 234

List of Figures Figure 1: Map of Kenya showing 47 counties...... 6 Figure 2: Population pyramid, Kenya 2009 ...... 9 Figure 3: Number of poor in millions ...... 13 Figure 4: Poverty headcount at national, urban and rural region ...... 14 Figure 5: Kenya proportion of youth ...... 18 Figure 6: Rural-urban youth population by gender, 2009 ...... 18 Figure 7: Share of GDP in 2012 by sectors ...... 20 Figure 8: GDP by sector, 2012 ...... 20 Figure 9: Other contributing sectors to GDP in 2012...... 21 Figure 10: Trends in production as resources decline ...... 22 Figure 11: Max. and min. temperature variation ...... 27 Figure 12: Long rains (March to May) performance, 2014 ...... 29 Figure 13: Short rains (October to December) performance, 2014 ...... 30 Figure 14: Annual and seasonal rainfall trends ...... 33 Figure 15: Mean annual and seasonal maximum temperatures trends ...... 34 Figure 16: Mean annual and seasonal minimum temperatures trends ...... 36 Figure 17: Kenyans fleeing from the floods in Samburu county 2014 ...... 38 Figure 18: Global trends in air temperature since 1950 (IPCC, 2014) ...... 39 Figure 19: Changes in rainfed maize yield with climate change ...... 50 Figure 20. Waste water licenses issued at Coast region ...... 76 Figure 21. Waste water licenses issued at North Eastern region ...... 77 Figure 22. Waste water licenses issued at Eastern region ...... 77 Figure 23. Waste water licenses issued at Central region ...... 78 Figure 24. Waste water licenses issued at North Rift region...... 78 Figure 25: Map showing distribution of major soils ...... 90 Figure 26: Forest cover by 2010 in the country ...... 94 Figure 27: Kenya’s wildlife protected areas ...... 107 Figure 28: Elephant poaching trends ...... 110 Figure 29: Rhino poaching trends ...... 111 Figure 30: Coastal Kenya showing counties with major mangrove sites ...... 116 Figure 31: Mangrove loss at Tudor Creek Mombasa ...... 118 Figure 32: Percentage cover of hard corals within parks, reserves and unprotected areas ...... 121 Figure 33: Relative abundance of coral genera ...... 122

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Figure 34: Picture of Sea Cucumber ...... 123 Figure 35: Species composition in protected and unprotected areas at the Coast ...... 124 Figure 36: Coral reef with different functional groups ...... 125 Figure 37: Health conditions of the reefs at the Coast ...... 125 Figure 38: Kenya’s coastline with major towns and nationally gazetted marine parks and reserves 127 Figure 39: Trends in national GDP and agri.GDP ...... 130 Figure 40: Trends in horticultural exports ...... 136 Figure 41: Trend of acreage under irrigation ...... 138 Figure 42: Cattle population trends ...... 141 Figure 43: Sheep trends ...... 142 Figure 44: Goat trends ...... 142 Figure 45: Poultry trends ...... 143 Figure 46: Other livestock trends ...... 144 Figure 47: Distribution of diseases in Kenya, 2014 ...... 147 Figure 48: Confirmed rabies cases 2010-2014 ...... 147 Figure 49: Reported foot and mouth disease (FMD) cases, 2014 ...... 148 Figure 50: Fish production by quantity and value 2005-2014 ...... 153 Figure 51: Lake Victoria species catch composition 2005-2014 ...... 156 Figure 52: Lake Victoria species catch composition 2014 ...... 156 Figure 53: Lake Victoria fish landing by counties 2014 ...... 157 Figure 54: Trends of marine fish production by quantity and value ...... 160 Figure 55: Percentage contribution of marine fish species groups 2014 ...... 161 Figure 56: Trends of landings of marine fish species groups 2012-2014 ...... 161 Figure 57: Marine fish production by quantity, value and counties 2014 ...... 162 Figure 58: Aquaculture production 2005-2014 ...... 163 Figure 59: Telephony connectivity ...... 180 Figure 60: Licensed internet services providers ...... 181 Figure 61: Licensed internet subscriptions ...... 181 Figure 62: Mining licenses ...... 184 Figure 63: Annual registration of quarries ...... 185 Figure 64: International visitor arrivals and tourism earnings ...... 188 Figure 65: Monthly visitor arrivals through JKIA ...... 189 Figure 66: International visitor arrivals ...... 189 Figure 67: Visitor – day stay in Kenya ...... 190 Figure 68: Monthly bed and room occupancy ...... 191

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Figure 69: Hotel bed occupancy trends...... 191 Figure 70: Bed night occupancy at the coast ...... 192 Figure 71: Visitors to national parks and game reserves, 2012-2014 ...... 194 Figure 72: Number of visitors to museums, snake parks and historical sites ...... 194 Figure 73: Number of conferences held ...... 195 Figure 74: Number of delegates to conferences ...... 195 Figure 75: Number of trainees for various cources ...... 196 Figure 76: Percentage households by main mode of human waste disposal, 2009...... 208 Figure 77: Under five mortality rate ...... 209 Figure 78: Wetlands day celebrations at Sio Siteko wetland in Busia county 2014 ...... 218

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List of Tables Table 1: Mean annual and seasonal rainfall ...... 36 Table 2: Mean annual and seasonal maximum temperature ...... 36 Table 3: Mean annual and seasonal minimum temperature ...... 36 Table 4: Assessment matrix ...... 44 Table 5: Key mitigation technologies and practices ...... 46 Table 6: DPSIR matrix ...... 55 Table 7: Average annual water availability per drainage basin ...... 62 Table 8: Annual renewable water resources (mcm/year) ...... 63 Table 9: Annual renewable surface water resources by catchment (Mcm/year) ...... 63 Table 10: Present and future water demands by sector (before water balance study) ...... 63 Table 11: Average annual water availability per drainage basin ...... 64 Table 12: Annual sustainable yield of groundwater compared to annual recharge (unit:BCM) ...... 64 Table 13: Current situation of water supply in 2010 (Unit: million persons) ...... 65 Table 14: Current situation of sanitation in 2010 (Unit: million persons) ...... 65 Table 15: Water and sanitation coverage ...... 65 Table 16: Available water resources and water demands projections by catchment area ...... 65 Table 17: Irrigation development target area for 2030 (Unit: ha) ...... 66 Table 18: Possible irrigation area estimated by water balance study (Unit: ha) ...... 66 Table 19: Water quality for the drainage basins ...... 69 Table 20: Water bodies shared by Kenya with its neighbours ...... 70 Table 21: Water resources operational monitoring stations (2009) ...... 72 Table 22: Progress on the improvement of hydrological stations 2011/12 ...... 72 Table 23: Classification of Kenya’s aquifers ...... 73 Table 24: Pollutant discharge load by sector ...... 75 Table 25: Summary of newly gazetted forests ...... 96 Table 26: Conservation initiatives ...... 98 Table 27: Summary of re-aligned forest boundaries ...... 100 Table 28: Human- wildlife conflicts and response ...... 108 Table 29: Prioritized biodiversity issues that need intervention ...... 108 Table 30: Ramsar sites in Kenya ...... 109 Table 31: Comparison and distribution of elephants between 2011 and 2014 ...... 111 Table 32: Critically endangered species ...... 111 Table 33: Endangered amphibian species ...... 112

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Table 34: Threatened insects ...... 112 Table 35: Distribution of important bird categories ...... 113 Table 36: Wildlife population estimates in the rangelands ...... 114 Table 37: Initiatives for protection of ecosystems ...... 114 Table 38: DPSIR for marine and wetlands ...... 128 Table 39: Opportunity framework for marine and wetlands ...... 129 Table 40: Trends in acreage, production and imports of major cereals ...... 132 Table 41: Trends of acreage and production of legumes (2010-2014) ...... 133 Table 42: Trends of acreage and production of tuber crops 2010- 2014 ...... 134 Table 43: Fresh horticultural exports 2010-2014 ...... 135 Table 44: Trend of acreage and production of industrial crops 2010- 2014 ...... 136 Table 45Table 46: Crop varieties released 2008- 2014 ...... 137 Table 47: Irrigation potential and development per water catchment ...... 138 Table 48: Quantities of fertilizer procured under government bulk procurement initiative ...... 139 Table 49: Policies and laws to spur production ...... 139 Table 50: Cattle Population ...... 141 Table 51: Sheep and goat population ...... 142 Table 52: Poultry population ...... 143 Table 53: Population of other types of livestock ...... 144 Table 54: Hives population...... 145 Table 55: Summary of livestock disease incidences ...... 146 Table 56: Quantity and value of fish landings ...... 151 Table 57: Fresh water and marine fish catches by species, weight and value ...... 152 Table 58: Lake Victoria annual fish landings by species, weight, value and counties 2014 ...... 155 Table 59: Marine fisheries landings by species, weight and value (comparative) ...... 159 Table 60: Consumption of petroleum ...... 165 Table 61: Net domestic use of petroleum fuels by consumer category ...... 165 Table 62: Electricity generation by sources, 2005-2013 ...... 170 Table 63: Electricity consumption ...... 171 Table 64: Demand of petroleum for selected purpose, 2010-2014 ...... 176

Table 65: Co2 emission by sector by year 2012 ...... 177 Table 66: Carbon emissions from different sectors ...... 177 Table 67: Traffic at Mombasa port for bulk liquids ...... 178

Table 68: Fuel consumption and Co2 emissions in Kenya 2012 by vehicle make ...... 179 Table 69: EIA licenses issued for mining sector ...... 184

Table 70: Game Lodges occupancy in national parks and game reserves ...... 192

Table 71: Number of visitors to national parks and game reserves ...... 193 Table 72: Indicators on conference tourism ...... 195 Table 73: Training courses offered...... 196 Table 74: Total population projections by age, 2013- 2017 ...... 205 Table 75: Number and type of license applications processed ...... 211 Table 76: Number of education institutions in the country ...... 212 Table 77: Environmental courses offered in Kenyan universities ...... 213 Table 78: Commemoration of environment days in 2014 ...... 216 Table 79: Distribution of licensed experts in counties by 2014 ...... 219

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) has been reporting on the State of the Environment for Kenya from 2003. The mandate of coordination of this process is provided for under section 9 of the Environment and Management and Coordination Act EMCA of 1999. The aim of this process is to undertake a comprehensive assessment of the environment of the Country and present accurate and timely information on the state of the environment and natural resources, identifying and documenting the causes of change and their subsequent impact.

The thematic areas in this SOE as analyzed by the Driver-Pressure-State-Impact- Response(DPSIR) and Opportunity Framework Analytical methods brings out the main elements that interplays in the Kenya’s environment. The DPSIR process identifies the drivers and pressures causing environmental change including the impacts, state and the responses within the thematic sectors. The opportunity framework on the other hand identifies, the key environment assets, goods and ecological service offered by each sector and further identifies the main threats to the sector. Most important, the process identifies the main opportunities which can be used for future intervention for sustainability.

This comprehensive analysis provides segments and their linkages in the environment, hence knowing how they influence each other. The weighting of these influences are further documented by collecting and presenting data and information using the National Environment Indicators (NEI). The gathering and documentation of the NEI data is undertaken by the lead agencies.

The SOE 2014 is presented in fourteen main chapters with another 15th chapter which brings out only the pertinent emerging environmental issues. These have been used to form the structure of the document with related sub-sections. Each chapter illustrates a theme as follows:

Chapter one gives an introduction of the State of the environment (SOE) 2014. The overall theme of this SOE report is Environmental management and devolution: harnessing opportunities. The overall objective of devolved governance is to enhance, encourage and promote participation of people in making decisions on issues related to Environmental Management that affect their lives as well as ensuring equitable distribution of national and local resources. Good governance is the creation of an economic, political and social environment that is participatory, transparent and accountable, effective, equitable and that promotes the rule of law. These provisions are found under the “Bill of Rights” of the Kenya Constitution 2010.

Governance comprises the "mechanisms, processes and institutions, through which citizens and groups articulate their interests, exercise their legal rights,

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meet their obligations and mediate their differences"(UNDP 1996). The result is an improved human well-being, while significantly reducing environmental risks and ecological challenges. The report gives a heavy focus on environmental aspects that impact the delivery of vision 2030, as well as highlight areas of, good governance "ensures that political, social and economic priorities are based on broad consensus in society and that the voices of the poorest and the most vulnerable are heard in decision-making over the allocation of development resources”.

Chapter two on People, Environment and Development, analyses the National Natural Resource capital and relates it with the three vision 2030 development pillars namely, the Social, Economic and Political. It also analyses the interplay between human development and Environmental Management. The perspective used in this chapter is that the environment and the natural resources therein, and the Ecological services thereof are valuable assets that require to be integrated into the National Accounting process. The section presents the human development data using the year 2005 as the baseline, and analyses the trends of change.

Chapter Three on Weather and Climate Change gives an analysis of Climate and its weather elements including Rainfall, temperature, humidity and drought as key aspects of the Environment that influences provision of environmental goods and services. The chapter presupposes that Climate change has a critical influence on the Ecological services which are also influenced by the weather elements.

Chapter Four on Water Resources and Pollution recognizes water resources as central to provision of environment goods and assets. It offers key ecological services that drive many other environmental processes. The chapter provides an assessment of the status of the water resources both at the surface and beneath the ground levels. Through the use of Environmental Indicators, data was collected and documented, and analyzed. Knowledge of the quantity of the resource provides the possibility of attaching a monetary value to water as a natural capital.

Chapter Five on Land and Soils considers land as an important natural capital that offers enormous ecological services and goods for Kenyans. Land is available in different states that offer different opportunity for extraction of the natural goods. Agriculture, livestock rearing and keeping, are process that benefit from this natural capital. The documentation of the levels of agricultural inputs and outputs has a direct influence on the status of land. The chapter documents the trend over time in land use patterns, and also forecasts future trends. This information should be used to identify areas that need policy actions to reverse adverse trends.

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Chapter Six is on Forests, Woodlands, and Grasslands. It discusses these natural resources as key contributor to the ecological services and economic development. The forests are important sources of livelihood to the communities living in those particular areas. Forest, woodlands and Grasslands provide key goods and assets to the National economy. The main forests in Kenya comprise the five Water Towers that constitute the water catchments and source of the main rivers. This chapter shows the trends in encroachment, settlements and logging and how this is impairing the ecological services. The chapter also gives the importance of on-farm forests in the supply of the forest products and drivers of the national as well as county economies. The importance of non-wood products from the forests is also provided.

Chapter Seven covers biodiversity. Biodiversity is discussed as an important natural capital that provides ecological services using the genetic resource base. The value of biodiversity through the returns that are obtained from tourism by inference is nearer to consolidating the values for National accounting. Biodiversity loss will cause a definite loss to the National economy

Chapter Eight on Coastal Marine and Wetlands considers Coastal Marine and Wetlands as natural capital that provides significant contribution to the economy. The ocean waters are important carbon sinks and offer important ecological service. Wetlands are a source of livelihood to riparian communities and offer important ecological services acting as recharge areas to rivers and lakes. Like in the previous sections, the drivers and pressures emerge as a result of human interferences. The chapter documents the level to which changes have occurred in these important natural resources

Chapter Nine on Agriculture, livestock and fisheries highlights the sector as the mainstay of Kenya’s economy. Currently it contributes more than 26 per cent of the GDP directly and another 25 per cent indirectly as highlighted by the Agricultural Sector Development Strategy 2010–2020. The sector also accounts for 65 per cent of Kenya’s total exports and provides more than 18 per cent of formal employment. More than 70 per cent of informal employment is in the rural areas. Livestock as the main source livelihoods for pastoral communities is also discussed here. Fisheries including aquaculture have been pointed out as an increasingly important contributor to the economy. Fish farming has emerged as a vibrant sector which if natured can be as important as Agriculture in contributing to social economic wellbeing of Kenyans.

Chapter Ten on Energy, Industry, Transport and Mining assesses the provision of Energy as crucial in utilization of all the natural capital in delivering services for livelihoods. For the first time issues on the prospects for Kenya to introduce Nuclear Energy is discussed. The Environmental Services are clarified through Environmental Indicators that are used for the performance assessment of the

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environmental services and forms a basis for environment reporting through the State of the Environment reporting process. Industry relies greatly on the energy sector. Development of renewable energy is one of the policy shifts the government has embraced in the recent past. The growing interest in the mining industry with new minerals being discovered within our borders is an indication of a boom in the contribution of this sector to the economy. Application of regulatory instruments like EIA and Environmental Audits are advised.

The Chapter Eleven is a new chapter on matters to do with Tourism, Trade and Industrialization. The introduction of this new chapter was discussed by the National steering Committee with the aim of bringing out pertinent environmental issues relating to these three areas. In the past matters to do with tourism were not adequately discussed yet the sector contributes immensely to the economy of the country. Equally, environmental issues in Trade and industrialization need to be addressed. Indicators developed under these three formed the basis of data analysis and presentation.

Chapter twelve is on Urbanization, Health, Sanitation and Waste. Details of the process of urbanization and how this affects provision of essential goods and services to the growing populations in the urban areas is well articulated here. The sprawling informal settlement and the related challenges of poor housing and resultant environmental diseases are also described. It is explained that urbanization creates enormous social, economic and environmental changes which provide an opportunity for sustainability with the potential to use resources more efficiently. Policy interventions for this chapter would entail strengthen institutions involved in enforcement and regulation of waste management, urban planning and environmental protection, developing a National policy on e-waste management, providing portable water and sanitation needs in urban slums, strengthening health care delivery system in urban areas and stepping up public health and behavior change education on sanitation and hygiene.

The Chapter Thirteen is on Environmental Education, Awareness, Information and Communication. It highlights the approaches used for environmental education in Kenya. The chapter notes that environmental education and awareness is carried out in two perspectives: one is geared towards teaching about nature and ecology, in subjects like biology, natural science and geography. This approach is used in the classroom situation where the teachers have to follow a given curriculum. The second approach involves creating awareness, developing skills and active participation. This method is used in school to a small degree in the extra curriculum activities. Schools have clubs such as environment clubs, young farmers clubs, geography clubs and wildlife clubs, in which students are members and take part in various environment awareness and conservation activities.

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Chapter Fourteen which is on Environmental Governance explains the rules, practices, policies and institutions that shape how Kenyans should interact with the environment. Good environmental governance takes into consideration the role of all actors whose actions impact on the environment. From governments to NGOs, the private sector and civil society, cooperation is critical to achieving effective governance that can help us move towards a more sustainable future. These actors engage in numerous activities such as identification of problems and provision of adequate information on the identified problems. They also provide a forum for formulation of policy and guidance, coordination and promotion of cooperation between the different actors, and the establishment of concrete mechanisms for implementation of the formulated policies at local, national and international levels. The chapter also addresses the enforcement mechanisms and institutional arrangement for the protection of the environment.

Chapter Fifteen is on Emerging Environmental Issues and documents some of the environmental issues from any of the sectors which are emerging. Emerging in the sense that solution to problem are unknown, intricate, beyond technological capacity available in the Country, lacks strategic frameworks like policies, strategies and Plans and requires further understanding and documentation. Some of the Emerging Environmental Issues described in this SOE includes Invasive Species, Weeds like the Water hyacinth, Oil, Gas and Coal exploration and mining. These are new aspects in the National economy that has come with the discovery of commercial deposits in Kenya.

In Conclusion, the SOE 2014 like others show the status of the environment, the existing environment problems, how to avoid the problems and enhance positive effects through policy decision proposals. It demonstrates how the environment may be improved as part of the development process. It provides an opportunity for mitigation measures to be incorporated to minimize the problems. It enhances participatory data capturing and monitoring systems to assess future impacts and provide data on which managers can make informed decisions to avoid environment damage. It is a management tool for planners and decision makers and compliments other studies on policies, engineering and economics of environmental management. It is accepted as an essential part of development planning and management. It enhances reporting obligations that come with international agreements.

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ACRONYMS ADC Agriculture Development Corporation AFOLU Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use AMCEN African Ministerial Conference on Environment AMREF Africa Medical Research Foundation ASDS Agriculture Sector Development Strategy ASALs Arid and Semi-Arid Lands ASK Agricultural Society of Kenya CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CBOs Community-Based Organizations CDM Clean Development Mechanisms CDTF Community Development Trust Fund CEAPs County Environment Action Plans CIDP County Integrated Development Plan CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species CLTS Community Led Total Sanitation DPSIR Drivers Pressures State Impacts Responses DRSRS Department of Resource Surveys and Remote Sensing DWFN Distant Water Fishing Nations EA Environmental Audit EAWLS East Africa Wildlife Society EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone EIA Environmental Impact Assessment EMCA Environmental Management and Coordination Act EU European Union FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FCPF Forest Carbon Partnership Facility FEWS Famine Early Warning Systems FFEPP Farming Enterprise Productivity Programme GBD Global Burden of Disease GDP Gross Domestic Product GIS Geographic Information Systems

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GMT Greenwich Mean Time GOK Government of Kenya GTZ German Technical Cooperation HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus IBA Important Bird Area ICIPE International Centre for Insect Physiology and Ecology ICT Information and Telecommunications Technology IGAD Inter-Governmental Authority on Development IK Indigenous Knowledge ILM Integrated Land and Soil Management Approach ILO International Labour Organization ILRI International Livestock Research Institute IMIS Integrated Meteorological Information System IPPC Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ITN Insecticide Treated Net IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature IWRM Integrated Water Resources Management JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency JKIA Jomo Kenyatta International Airport KARI Kenya Agricultural Research Institute KEBS Kenya Bureau of Standards KEMRI Kenya Medical Research Institute KENSUP Kenya Slum Upgrading Programme KEPHIS Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Service KEREF Kenya Sugar Research Foundation KEWI Kenya Water Institute KFWG Kenya Forest Working Group KIPPRA Keya Institute for Public Policy Research and Analysis KMD Kenya Meteorological Department KMFRI Kenya Marine and Forestry Research Institute KNBS Kenya National Bureau of Statistics KNSDI Kenya National Spatial Data Infrastructure KPLC Kenya Power and Lighting Company

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KSPCA Kenya Society for the Protection and Care of Animals KU Kenyatta University KUC Kenya Utalii College KVDA Kerio Valley Development Authority KWS Kenya Wildlife Service KWTA Kenya Water Towers Agency LBDA Lake Basin Development Authority LVEMP Lake Victoria Environmental Management Programme MCS Monitoring Control and Surveillance MDG Millennium Development Goals MER-COV Middle Eastern Respiratory Syndrome – Corona Virus MEWNR Ministry of Environment, Water and Natural Resources MIA Moi International Airport MOH Ministry of Health MOU Memorandum of Understanding MRV Measurement Reporting and Verification MTP Medium Term Plan MU Moi University NADIMA National Disaster Management Authority NBEs Nature Based Enterprises NBSAP National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan NCCRS National Climate Change Response Strategy NCPD National Council for Population and Development NEAP National Environment Action Plan NEAPC National Environment Action Plan Committee NEC National Environment Council NEMA National Environment Management Authority NET National Environment Tribunal NGO Non-Governmental Organization NMK National Museums of Kenya NOCK National Oil Corporation of Kenya NTFP Non-Timber Forest Product ODF Open Defecation Free

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PA Protected Area PCC Public Complaints Committee PFMPs Participatory Forest Management Plans REDD Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation RCMRD Regional Centre for Mapping of Resource for Development RPLRP Regional Pastoral Livelihood Resilience Project RWH Rain Water Harvesting SERC Standards and Enforcement Review Committee SLMP Sustainable Land Management Project SoE State of Environment TBNRM Trans Boundary Natural Resource Management TLU Tropical Livestock Unit TWG Technical Working Group UN United Nations UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNESCO United Nations Education and Scientific Cultural organization UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change UNHCR United Nations High Commission for Refugees UNICEF United Nations Children Education Fund UoN University of Nairobi USDA United States Department of Agriculture. WCK Wildlife Clubs of Kenya WDCD World Day to Combat Desertification WED World Environment Day WHO World Health Organization WRMA Water Resources Management Authority WRUA Water Resources Users Association WSTF Water Service Trust Fund WTO World Trade Organization WWF World Wildlife Fund

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The theme of SoE 2014 is Environmental management and devolution: harnessing opportunities. Kenya has witnessed unprecedented political and socio-economic transformation since independence. High population growth, shrinking productive land and technological changes are some of the significant changes. These interlinked components provide the backdrop against which to view changes in the state of the country’s environment. This is because they serve a dual purpose as some of the most forceful drivers of environmental change. The main human activities contributing to environmental degradation in Kenya include unsustainable land use practices, poor soil and water management practices, deforestation, overgrazing and pollution

The Constitution of Kenya 2010 and other new developments like climate change marked an important chapter in Kenya’s environmental policy development. Hailed as a ‘Green’ Constitution, it embodies elaborate provisions with considerable implications for sustainable development emanating from harnessing the opportunities offered by the environment. These range from environmental principles and implications of Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs) to the right to a clean and healthy environment as enshrined in the Bill of Rights. Chapter V is entirely dedicated to land and environment. It also embodies a host of social and economic rights which are of environmental character such as the right to water, food and shelter.

1.2 BACKGROUND

1.2.1 Provisions of EMCA on State of the Environment Planning

The State of Environment (SoE) report is produced pursuant to section 9 (2) of the Environmental Management and Coordination Act No.8 of 1999 (under review) which mandates the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) to prepare annual reports on Kenya’s state of the environment for submission to the National Asembly.

Conventionally, State of the Environment Report is an account of the environmental state, highlighting the major environmental threats and ‘hotspots’, and indicating the magnitude and scope location. Section 9 sub-section 2(p) of the Environmental Management and Coordination Act No.8 of 1999, establishes environmental reporting as a national goal.

1.2.2 Objectives of SoE 2014

The SoE 2014 Objectives are to: o Consolidate environmental data from diverse sources using known environmental indicators and analyze the data to determine trends. o Indicate clearly whether environmental quality is improving, getting worse or staying the same. o Assess whether policies, laws, programmes and other actions are having the desired effect and identify emerging issue o Inform environmental policies interventions. o Provide tangible environmental issues backed by data for planning through the National Environmental Action plan (NEAP) and County Environmental Action Plans (CEAPs)

The SoE 2014 highlights issues to demonstrate that devolution as described in the constitution can lead to good environmental management and empower people of Kenya and ensure sustainable use, management and control of natural resources. The SOE 2014 will also provide highlights on emerging environmental issues in all sectors that potentially pose threats to the realization of sustainable development in Kenya.

1.2.3 State of Environment Reporting Process State of the Environment is a report documenting findings from annual assessment of the state of the environment in the country. The State of the Environment report as an Environmental planning and monitoring tool provides a platform for environmental data and information generation based on current (annual) assessment of environmental resource-base in the country. This data is used to support key decision-making processes and provide policy direction in environmental management. The goal of SoE is to consolidate environmental data using known environmental indicators and to determine trends in the environment; assess how policies, laws, programmes and projects are impacting on the environment; identify emerging environmental issues that need policy action as well as monitor the implementation of Environmental Action Plans at all levels.

1.2.4 Structure of the State of the Environment Report

The SoE 2014 has employed the National Environmental Indicators to determine the state and trends of the environment. These indicators were developed by NEMA through a participatory stakeholder’s and interactive process with support from UNEP, where approximately sixty (60) National Environmental Indicators representing seven thematic sectors were produced. The thematic areas in focus

for SoE 2014 included: Introduction, People, Environment and Development; Weather and climate change; Land and Soils, Forest, Woodlands and Grasslands; Biodiversity; Coastal Marine and Wetlands; Water Resources & Pollution; Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries; Energy, Transport and Mining;Tourism, Trade and Industrialization; Urbanization, Health and Sanitation; Environmental Education, Information, Communication and Awareness; Environmental Governance and Emerging Environmental issues.

1.3 METHODOLOGY The SoE 2014 employed two main analytical approaches namely, the DPSIR model and the Opportunity Framework Approach. These two approaches are conventional approaches for global environment assessment and reporting. Each of the thematic areas of the SoE 2014 was interrogated using the two analytical frameworks resulting into tabulation of the findings in form of matrices.

The DPSIR framework was used to analyse the causes (drivers and pressures) of environmental change (impact, state and responses) of the seven thematic areas of the Environment. The opportunity framework on the other hand was used to identify the assets; environmental goods and ecological services; the threats to the assets and the opportunities offered for future sustainable development. The findings from these two processes provided the building blocks for the assessment report.

National Environmental Indicators (developed with UNEP support in 2009) were employed to guide data collection feeding into the two analytical approaches. The output of this analysis is the determination of trends that assisted in forecasting of the future trends. This enabled objective identification of the main environmental problems and hence set priority areas for decision making and policy focus. The trends further assisted to determine whether the quality of our environment is improving and if the investment in environment intervention was producing desired result.

The data used was provided by the relevant lead agencies with key mandates in the various thematic sectors. The result of the analysed data is presented in form of tables, maps, graphs, charts and pictures. However, there were some challenges in data availability for some indicators.

1.4 STATE OF ENVIRONMENT REPORTING IN KENYA This National State of the Environment 2014 is the tenth series of reports published by the National Environment Management Authority. The first ever State of the Environment Report was published in 2003. Thereafter, the following State of the Environment Reports (SoEs), have been produced: 2004, 2005, 2006/2007, 2008, 2009, 2010 2011, 2012 and 2013/2014. This is in line with

fulfilling the national obligation as signatory to Agenda 21 of the Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. Guided by United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the preparation of the State of the Environment reports have evolved in approaches and content. However, the principal objective of this process has remained the same, periodic reporting of the State of the environment for the member States of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).

In Kenya, the spirit of regular environment assessment and reporting received a boost with the enactment of the Environment and Management and Coordination Act, which paved the way for domestication of this process. Section 9, subsection 2(p) of EMCA provides for preparation of the State of the Environment report, which subsequently must be tabled in parliament for discussion and adoption and provide policy direction for Environment Management in the subsequent years. This process is coordinated by the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA), whose core mandate as provided in EMCA, is coordination and supervision of all Environmental matters in the country.

1.5. LINKAGES WITH OTHER PROCESSES

The SOE 2014 highlights issues to demonstrate that good environmental management can empower people of Kenya and ensure sustainable use, management and control of the environment towards attainment of the Vision 2030. The SOE will also provide highlights on environmental issues that potentially pose threats to the realization of sustainable development goals in Kenya.

1.6 COUNTRY PROFILE

1.6.1 Geographical Location The Republic of Kenya is located within the eastern side of the vast continent of Africa, where it forms part of East Africa. It shares boundaries with Republic of Uganda to the west, and the United Republic of Tanzania to the South, and is also bordering the following countries: Ethiopia in the North, the Republic of Southern Sudan in the North-West and the Republic of Somalia in the East. Kenya is bordered in the Southeast by the Indian Ocean, which serves the Country as an important outlet and means of international maritime contact. The Republic of Kenya lies approximately between Latitudes 5o 0’ N and 4o 40’ S and between Longitudes 33o 83’ E and 41o 75.5’ E and is almost dissected by both the equator and by Longitude 38o 0’ E. Kenya has a single time zone which is GMT+ 3. Figure 1 shows the 47 counties as created by the Constitution of Kenya 2010 under the devolved governance system.

1.6.2 Size Kenya has an area of about 582 646 km2. Water occupies about 1.9 % or 11,230 km2 leaving 571,416 km2 of the dry land of which more than two-thirds is either semi desert or desert. This then means only between 142,314 and 189,562 km2 of the land can be used profitably by the country’s estimated 33 million (2004) inhabitants. The greater part of the habitable area of the republic is situated in the wetter Central and South-Western areas, although there is a narrow strip of land along the Indian Ocean coast, which is equally very wet.

1.6.3 Topographical Diversity Practically every landform type ranging from mountain (glaciated) and permanent snow above 4,600 metres altitude on Mt. Kenya to a true desert landscape in the Chalbi is present. Similarly, all stages of landscape evolution from Cambrian plantation surfaces; to extremely recent volcanic and tectonic Landscape are all well represented. The entire landscape while possessing great altitudinal range from sea level to 5, 900 metres is dominated by a flight of plateau which somewhat convey the impression of extensive upland plains rather than mountainous environments.

1.6.4 Ecological Regions and Ecosystems Kenya is an ecosystem diverse nation with approximately 9 biodiversity regions ranging from; Forest (Forest Ecosystems), Swamps (wetland Ecosystem), Arid lands (Rangeland Ecosystem), Savannah grassland (grassland Ecosystems), Mountain (Alpine Ecosystem), Ocean (Marine Ecosystems), Lakes (Lake Ecosystems), Mangrove (Mangrove Ecosystems) and ‘Farmlands’.

1.6.5 Savannah Grassland and Rangelands Kenya landscape is covered by over 80% arid and Semi-arid lands, which forms the major rangeland ecosystems and savannah grassland. The rangeland is dominated by grassland and bush land including woody vegetation. The rangeland is characterized by low rainfall averages, frequent drought and incidences of food insecurity. Agricultural productivity is low and food insecurity is rampant. The rangelands and Savannah grasslands harbours enormous wildlife biodiversity that Kenya is renowned for most of the game parks and game reserves are found in these ecosystems.

Figure 1: Map of Kenya showing 47 counties Source: opendata.go.ke

1.6 6 Forest Ecosystems The forest ecosystems are found in the humid and rainy moist areas of Kenya, mainly in the highlands of Kenya and around the high mountains of Mau, Cherengani, Mt. Kenya, Mt. Elgon and Aberdare ranges. The forest ecosystems constitute the major water towers providing water source of many rivers. Forest ecosystems are renowned for abundant biodiversity and provide abundant natural resources for economic growth. Most forest reserves and parks are found in these ecosystems. On the mountainous areas are found mountain forest ecosystems, these mountain ecosystems contain typical alpine vegetation and sometimes snow-capped mountains.

1.6.7 Riverine and Lake Ecosystems In addition to the terrestrial ecosystems discussed above, aquatic ecosystems found in the country include the riverine ecosystems found around river courses that bear unique biodiversity and riverine vegetation. The lake Ecosystems comprise the Rift Valley lakes which are often brackish, some of which are home to huge bird biodiversity contributing to tourism industry. On the western part of the country bordering Uganda is found Lake Victoria that offers fisheries resources for export and food to the local communities.

1.6.8 Wetlands Ecosystems Kenya is also dotted with wetland ecosystems found mainly along the deltas and estuaries of the major rivers. Apart from the riverine swamps, there are lacustrine wetlands found in various parts of the Country, many of which provide water recharge and discharge. Wetlands are considered the kidneys of the earth and known to provide numerous ecological functions. Along the Coastal region is found the mangroves ecosystems including the 200 mile Economic Exclusive Zone (EEZ) which forms the marine ecosystem, which carries unique coastal biodiversity including corals and sandy beaches. Near the shoreline in there is mangrove ecosystem coverage providing the littoral merges of fresh water and marine water with unique biodiversity. These ecosystems provide important fishing resources to the coastal communities.

1.6.9 Drainage Basins and Catchments There are five drainage basins in Kenya namely: Lake Victoria, Rift Valley, Athi River, Tana River and Ewaso Ngiro. They contain the water resources with potential to support social and economic development. These basins have water bodies such as lakes, rivers, wetlands and springs. These water bodies are the sources of water for rivers flowing west of the Rift Valley to Lake Victoria and East of the Rift Valley into the Indian Ocean.

1.6.10 Population Density Population trends have resulted in increased population densities in some of the rural areas, such as Kiambu, Kakamega, Vihiga, Kisii and Kisumu counties, with densities of over 500 persons per sq km, compared to a national average of 68. Such high densities have created increasing pressure on the land and other natural resources, the consequences being evident in the extensive loss of forest cover, land degradation, dwindling water resources and emerging climate change (GoK, 2013). A further characteristic of the distribution of the population is the rapid urbanization. The 2009 Population and Housing Census shows that slightly less than one-third of the population lived in urban areas, a substantial increase from the 19.3 percent recorded in the 1999 census. The growing urban population has over-stretched existing infrastructure and services, leading to growth of informal settlements characterized by overcrowding, and the lack of basic infrastructure (such as sewage, safe drinking water and decent housing), and consequently increased poverty and delinquency.

Population growth and development are inter-linked in complex ways. Economic development generates resources that can be used to improve education and health, the two key contributors to the quality of human capital. Such improvements, along with associated changes, can reduce both fertility and mortality rates. Conversely, high rates of population growth eat into investment resources for economic and social development, and can hinder improvements in both education and health, and the reduction of poverty. A growing population also poses challenges over housing and employment and increases the risk of social unrest, amongst other concerns. These potential linkages have been recognized in Kenya and are articulated in past policy and other documents, such as Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2000 on National Population Policy for Sustainable Development.

CHAPTER 2: PEOPLE, ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT

2.1 Demographic Dynamics

The first Kenya population census undertaken in 1948 gave an estimated population of 5.4 million people while the 2009 Population census recorded an estimated population of 38.6 million people. The Population has been increasing by about 1 million people per year from 1999 and was estimated at 43 million people in 2014 (KNBS, 2015).

This rapid population growth poses serious challenges including the increasing land degradation and depletion of natural resources and decline of Natural assets, goods and the impairment of ecological services. Slightly less than one third of the population live in urban areas indicating a substantial increase from the 19.3 per cent recorded in the 1999 census (NCPD, 2013). However, the growing urban population have over the years overstretched the existing infrastructure and services leading to the growth of informal settlements characterized by environmental degradation, high levels of poverty and delinquency (NCPD 2013)

2.1. 1 AGE STRUCTURE

Kenya’s population age-sex structure depicts a broad based characteristic as shown in Figure 2. However, this is likely to change due to recent improvement of fertility indicators.

Male Female 80+

70-74

60-64

50-54

40-44

30-34

20-24

10-14

0-4 8 6 4 2 0 0 2 4 6 8 16 14 12 10 10 12 14 16

Percent

Figure 2: Population pyramid, Kenya 2009 Source: KNBS, 2014

Total fertility rate (Average number of children per woman) in Kenya declined from 4.6 in 2008/2009 to 3.9 in 2014 (KNBS, 2014). If this decline is sustained for a longer period, the shape of the population pyramid which depicts Kenya’s population structure will be altered to reflect less youthful population.

Estimates from the projected population indicate that by 2050, the children’s share of the population is expected to decline from the 43 per cent in 2009 to about 32 per cent. On the other hand, share of the working age population (15-64) is expected to increase from 33 per cent in 2009 to about 41 per cent, while the elderly share is expected to reach nine per cent from 4.5 per cent in 2009 (NCPD, 2013).

2.1.2 Morbidity Morbidity and mortality due to waterborne and sanitation related diseases is very high and accounts for about 70 per cent of all diseases burdens in the country (GOK, 2010). In 2014, malaria and respiratory diseases continued to be the leading causes of illness accounting for 58 per cent of the total. Malaria and Pneumonia accounted for 11.6 per cent and 10.9 per cent respectively and were the leading killer disease (KNBS, 2014).

Interventions geared towards the improvement of hygiene, water supply and sanitation to control diarrhoea; promotion of hand washing with soap and water can reduce water and sanitation related morbidity and deaths by up to 35% (NEMA, 2011).

2.2 CULTURE AND ENVIRONMENT

The cultural practices of the forty-two major communities in Kenya that directly and indirectly impacts on the environment have been covered adequately by the State of the Environment Report (SOE) of 2010, 2012 and 2013. However, one important aspect of culture that has not been adequately covered due to data limitations is Indigenous Knowledge (IK), which is the focus this year on this section. This emphasis on IK resonates well with the theme of this year’s SOE because the devolved system of environmental and political governance, empower counties which are enclaves of different cultural groups, greater responsibility for their environmental conservation and management.

The relationship between culture and the environment is approached from two perspectives namely: the value of indigenous knowledge in identifying potentials of natural capital, and the role of IK in conservation and management of natural resources. Communities in Kenya have their own perceptions of their environments which they construct into sources of environmental utility or risks and vulnerability. Such socio-construction of environmental conditions is unique to each community and varies on a spatial-temporal context. Through

communities cultural norms and practices of traditional systems of taboos, beliefs, attitudes and prejudices as well as rituals have emerged to shape values of natural capital. In this context, IK plays a critical role in determination of environmental ethics, which is an important attribute of cultural institutions.

Cultural institutions help in defining economic values of natural capital vis-avis their risks or vulnerability in life. In a nutshell, the goods and services people obtain from their natural environment are determined by cultural institutions. Such institutions however work through the framework of indigenous knowledge to determine whether environmental resources within their spheres of daily operations need community’s protection and conservation as perceived in what is eatable as food, suitable as medicinal herbs, religious functions, recreation or is poisonous.

It is important therefore to stress that perceptions of natural capital utility and risks which have evolved through generations constitute indigenous knowledge which also vary from one community to another even within the same environment. What is a natural resource in one community could be a neutral stuff in another community. In Kenya, cultural norms and practices determine what we consider to be food in many communities. In some communities, there is also gender consideration on what is to be eaten. In addition, age factor also influences what one should eat in some communities.

Community ownership of common goods resources such as land, water points, grazing pasture was anchored on the principle of equity. This principle controlled access and use of resources and this practice helped to slow the process of environmental degradation. Cultural practices therefore give landscapes distinctive features that constitute a cultural landscape. Such landscapes are characterized by practices of agriculture, livestock husbandry, settlement and housing architecture that are basically influenced by indigenous knowledge that has been accumulated through several generations. The wealth of indigenous ecological knowledge in our communities is great though not much is documented and applied to enhance our economic development. It is only in the area of medicine today that traditional medicine has been accepted not only in Kenya, but in many other countries. Some of our indigenous knowledge has actually been stolen and patented by developed countries.

Environmental risks such as pollution have also been controlled through cultural practices which invoke the wrath of ancestors through the enforcement of taboos and beliefs, which were vital tools for enforcing compliance in environmental protection. Lastly, indigenous knowledge was useful in establishment of social boundaries by stating rights and obligations of individuals ’vis-à-vis the society regarding access to resources or landscape. Ceremonies and rituals were also very important in enforcing some of these practices.

In summary, the devolved system of environmental governance offers counties and their communities’ greater opportunity to tap indigenous knowledge for better management of their natural resources. However, for this to be fully realized there is need for more research to enable integration of such knowledge with modern knowledge derived through science and technology.

Outlook • Continued loss of indigenous knowledge, which is not documented, in our communities is a major challenge as such knowledge is in the possession of the aging population who are dying with such wealth of knowledge. • Increasing population pressure in different landscapes is accelerating deforestation for agricultural activities, human settlements and other infrastructural development that cause enormous loss of biodiversity that constitute vital assets for indigenous knowledge. • Lack of formal and informal environmental education in our communities has contributed largely to the loss of indigenous ecological knowledge. • The slow application of research on indigenous knowledge that could be applied to various facets of development in the country has hindered progress in integration of IK to the development process.

In the context of the strong interrelationships between Indigenous ecological knowledge and environment conservation and management, further environmental degradation in most parts of Kenya could be arrested or slowed down by putting in place appropriate policies for sustainable conservation and management of land resources. The policy suggestions made in this report complement those suggested in previous SoEs.

Policy Decisions • Environmental education for sustainable environmental management should be introduced to the communities in Kenya using both informal and formal systems of education to preserve indigenous ecological knowledge. • There is need to promotes coordinated inter-sectoral planning for all landscapes in the country in order to avoid duplication and conflicting policies in the use of natural resources. • There is need to foster research on Indigenous Kknowledge to boost integration of such knowledge in the mainstream of development and to preserve natural biodiversity

2.3 SOCIO-ECONOMIC INDICATORS

More recent approaches have attempted to redefine poverty as a complex and multidimensional issue, affecting the lives of many people (Alkire et al., 2013). Poverty is not an easy concept to define; many definitions exist, influenced by

different approaches and ideologies that are mostly related to the environment. Human beings depend on biodiversity and ecosystems, and the services nature provides. Ecosystems provide such basic products as food, timber, fibres, fuel, medicines and fresh water. They also provide essential services that include water purification, air and soil quality, pollination, pest control, climate regulation, protection against floods, landslides and other natural hazards. Natural resources are not only life sustaining but also constitute the basic economic assets of hundreds of millions of people in Kenya. For instance, soil degradation through erosion, overuse or use of chemical products, overgrazing, or salinization resulting from inadequate water management entail loss of income base for small farmers and doom them to poverty.

Kenya Economic Report of 2014 has shown that more than three quarters of the world’s poor live in Africa. Kenya has an estimated 21.5 million people still living below the poverty line, which accounts for about 49.5 per cent of the total population. Over the last five years, poverty has declined marginally from 50.6 per cent in 2009 to 49.7 per cent in 2011 before rising to 49.8 per cent in 2012. It is worth noting that while absolute poverty declined slightly between 2009 and 2013, the total number of people falling into poverty has been rising significantly. For instance, between 2012 and 2013, it increased by 0.4 percentage points (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Number of poor in millions Source: KIPPRA 2014

The study on Kenya Economy, KIPPRA 2014, did show that there have been regional variations on the levels of poverty. It has been severe in some regions than in others. In 2013, several counties recorded high levels of poverty (over 80%); these include Turkana, Mandera, Wajir, Marsabit, Tana River and Kwale.

Other counties such as Kiambu, Kirinyaga, Murang’a, Nyeri, Lamu, Meru, Kajiado, Narok and Nairobi have shown a positive side, with poverty levels below 40 per cent.

A regional rural-urban perspective indicates significant disparities (Figure 4). Rural areas have nearly 75 per cent of the total population lives, poverty has over the last five years stagnated at an average of 55 per cent. This figure stands over and above the national average of about 50 per cent. In the urban areas, approximately 36 per cent of the population is trapped in poverty.

Figure 4: Poverty headcount at national, urban and rural region Source: KIPPRA 2014

Many people living in rural poverty heavily rely more directly on environment through various agricultural practices for survival than the wealthy. In Kenya, agriculture is the mainstay of the economy and supports 70 percent of the population (NEMA, 2012). Agriculture and forestry sectors however, declined in growth rate from 4.2 percent in 2012 to 2.9 percent in 2013, in spite of total forest plantation which increased by 2,200 hectares from 127.1 thousand in 2012 to 129.3 thousand hectares in 2013.

Majority of the people directly relying on agriculture do not have access to training on how to protect the environment. This factor combined with high population growth puts increased pressure on land, resulting to a decline in crop yields for life sustenance. Lack of ability and knowledge on the best practices of protecting the environment has made rural poor prone to various environmental

hazards, such as an acceleration of erosion, increased ecological vulnerability, landslides, etc. The damage to the environment, combined with lack of clean water and land suitable for farming leads to more hunger, illness, poverty and reduced opportunities to make a living among the economic lives of the poor.

In urban areas poverty manifests itself in slum settlements as reflected by the increasing population of the poor living in abject poverty. Such populations create pressure on environmental resources through increased demand for cheap household energy derived from charcoal, cheap housing and food supplies from rural areas (NEMA, 2012). Improper use of energy resources leads to waste and higher energy costs that end up being unaffordable for the poor. Lack of resources, in congested poor neighborhoods, leads to inadequate waste collection, waste management, subsequently health problems.

2.3.1 Poverty and Ecosystem There has been a persistent decline on the ecosystems which supply most of the essential services to mankind. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment study (UNDP- UNEP, 2007) show that poorer communities and those living in marginalized areas are most affected by the decline on the ecosystem since they are most directly reliant on ecosystem services for their well-being. Poor people in both rural and urban areas are less resilient to the natural and the man-made disasters. Consequently poverty leads to conflict over natural resources at personal, community, regional and national levels. This poses a threat to their development. Illegal logging, for instance, robs governments of revenues which consequently deprives local communities of forest resources and services.

Poverty leads to deforestation through inappropriate use of wood and other resources for cooking, heating, housing and crafts, thus depriving vulnerable groups from essential goods and accelerating both the downwards spiral of poverty and environmental degradation. UNEP 2006 further states that most poor rural households meet their domestic energy requirements from wood fuel while urban residents depend on charcoal. In addition, other livelihood strategies contributing to environmental degradation include tourism, curio business, and livestock husbandry. Such activities adversely affect wetlands, lakeshores, hillsides and riverine ecosystems.

2.3.2 Poverty and Economic Development Poverty is often associated with poor management of macro and micro economic development because poor economic growth contributes to low gross domestic product (GDP), low employment, low income per capita, and therefore low consumption of goods and services that are basic to human well-being. If this is maintained for a long time, then a cycle of poverty is generated as seen among some pastoralist communities in Kenya, including among vulnerable groups of orphans, widowed and disabled and very old populations.

It is also noted that poverty could be a direct product of insecurity because peace is an important ingredient of development. Societies experiencing conflicts, wars, skirmishes, cattle rustling and other forms of violence do not have time and resources to invest in agricultural production, trade and commerce, and other socio-economic and welfare activities that are essential for human well-being. Insecurity is becoming a real challenge to sustainable development of some regions in Kenya due to frequent cattle rustling and conflicts over land and other natural resources. All these indicators of insecurity are accelerating poverty levels and trends in northern, eastern and coastal regions of the country.

2.3.3: Policy Cconsideration Concerted efforts towards conserving natural resources will make poorer communities more resilient. There is need to carefully invest in environmental goods and services such as integrated water resource management, sustainable fisheries, restoring degraded land and sustainable forest management. Universal access to basic education and vocational training, community information on sound agricultural methods are essential in reducing poverty as well as in reducing the effects of poverty on the environment. Local low cost production of fuel-efficient stoves and heating devices can go a long way in reducing the energy bill of low-income households while protecting the environment.

2.3.4: Gender and Environment For many years, the relationship between human society and the physical environment had been assumed to be gender-neutral, affecting both women and men in a similar way. The differentiated socio-cultural construction of men and women’s roles means that the linkages between people and the physical environment impact differently on both sexes. Different roles men and women have in the family, community and work-force are likely to have different responses, priorities and power over resources when it comes to environmental protection. Men and women will therefore interact with the environment differently, and therefore an opportunity for them to protect it.

Gender roles in most communities in Kenya dictate that women and children are daily exposed to environmental risks, because of their dominance in agricultural labour, and their responsibility in carrying out domestic chores of fetching fuel wood, water and grazing livestock. In most households, women are also responsible for water and waste management. Such roles have made women in some communities to become effective managers of environmental resources, especially as traditional herbal healers, and through women groups have also spearheaded re-afforestation programmes as best illustrated by the Green Belt Movement in many areas of Kenya highlands.

Women, particularly in the rural and marginalized communities, are often restricted from public positions, political participation and decisions about

various resource responsibilities. Men, who not necessarily take into account the views and needs of the female household managers, make most of the decisions. This may intensify conflict and competition over natural resources since women and men have different responsibilities and experiences which affect their knowledge and use of natural resources differently.

In Kenya, the efforts towards an inclusive sustainable development, has embarked on environmental conservation, by building substantially on the relationship between environment and gender roles. The relationship has been integrated in certain aspects of policy-making, particularly in participatory decision-making and stakeholder involvement that require gender equity. Gender equity is essential in addressing major sustainable development challenges, mostly the use and management of natural resources and the prevention of environmental degradation and pollution. The legal framework on this is appropriately drawn in Chapter 4 on the Bill of Rights and Chapter 5 on Land and Environment of the Kenya Constitution of 2010 (COK, 2010). The Supreme laws of the land in these sections promote gender equity and equality in access to land resources and other socio-economic services that enhance women participation in decision-making in all matters that affect their well-being.

Further, one of the goals of gender mainstreaming, in the Millennium Development Goals, is for environmental protection by promoting equal opportunities for men and women as participants and beneficiaries of environmental protection by considering their different positions and knowledge in regard to the environment. It has particularly focused on women empowerment since women are more directly involved in environmental activities such as agriculture including activities related to forestry.

2.3.5: Youth and Environment

Young people constitute a large part of the world’s population. The definition of youth is controversial and varies with the context in which it is used. Youth has cultural and demographic perspectives which vary on a spatial-temporal context. The Kenyan youth aged 15-24 years, for example, constitute a large percentage of the total national population as depicted in Figure 5 by several censuses since 1969. The 2009 census reveals that the urban youth were 35 percent of the total national youth population. They also constituted 23 % of the total urban population indicating that concentration of youth in the major urban centres (Figure 6).

Youths, especially young children, are more vulnerable to environmental risks. These risks may be access to clean and safe drinking water and sustainable consumption. Young people are expected to live longer and therefore carry the

consequences of current environmental decisions to the future. Future generations will also be affected by these decisions which include the extent to which they have addressed concerns such as the depletion of resources, the loss of biodiversity, and long-lived radioactive wastes.

Figure 5: Kenya proportion of youth Source, Kenya Economic Report; 2014

Figure 6: Rural-urban youth population by gender, 2009 Source, KIPPRA 2014

The youth have a key role in national development including environmental management. Every state should therefore, create opportunities for its youth to obtain education and acquire skills in order to fully participate in nation-building. In Kenya, students attaining secondary education acquire knowledge and skills which are appropriate for the implementation of environmental policies, programmes and projects with focus on conservation and management of natural resources. In addition, those with technical training and university education are critical in providing extension services and have skill suitable for the

implementation of environmental assessment tools such as Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), Environmental Audit (EA) and Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) activities.

Kenyan youth engage in self-employment as observed in well nurtured and established tree nurseries and seedlings along roadsides in urban and rural areas throughout the country. Such tree seedlings have supported reforestations in many rural areas and greening of urban centres. However, in some cases self– employed youth engaging in curio business for tourists, soapstone quarrying, sand-harvesting, charcoal business and general crafts industry that have negatively impacted on the environment are causing serious environmental degradation in some areas (NEMA, 2010).

The participation of youth in environmental protection can be sought right from the grass-root level and participation in conservation projects to policy-making bodies and NGOs, such as the youth summits. The role of youth can be institutionalized in policy-making through advisory bodies such as youth councils and the departments with youth affairs in line ministries. However, youth affairs has only been considered a part of the education ministry rather than a resource to be tapped for participation in policy-making in a variety of areas, including the environment.

2.4 DEVELOPMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY Kenyan industrial development has just started with its history of less than 50 years. Basic infrastructures, which are indispensable for economic activity, have not yet been sufficiently prepared. And an essential lack of cooperation is recognized in every scene e.g. between supplier and assembler, manufacture and sale, university and enterprise, and private sector and public sector.

2.4.1 Trend of Sectors

The Kenyan Economy attained growth of 6.1% in 2013 compared to that of 5.7% in 2012 (KNBS 2014). In 2006, the inflation rate increased from 10.3% in 2005 to 14.5% reflecting drought and soaring of oil prices. The high price of fuel and power would affect the economy continuously, and the industrial sector is anticipated to be obliged much more to tighten its management.

Figures 7 shows the performance of different sector where the biggest sector is agriculture which occupies a quarter of GDP. The second group of sectors include manufacturing, wholesale and retail trade, repairs, and transport and communication. Each of these sector members covers approximately ten percent, which is about a half of agriculture. The contribution of wholesale and retail trade, repairs is increasing gradually while that of agriculture is decreasing.

30 (%) 25

2002 15 2003 2004 10 2005 2006 5

Education Manufacturing Agriculture & Forestry Transport & Communication Wholesale & Retail Trade, Repairs Real Estate, Renting & Business Services

Figure 7: Share of GDP in 2012 by sectors Source: Source: Economic Survey 2012 The biggest sector is agriculture and forestry, and the second one is transport and communication. Manufacturing is the third sector and occupies 11 %, showing its position as one of the major sectors in Kenya.

Trend of GDP by sector in recent years is shown in Figure 8. It is noted that the amount of agriculture and forestry is about triple in comparison with each amount of transport and communication, manufacturing, and wholesale and retail trade and repairs.

Other community, Health and social social and personal work services 3% 4% Private households with employed persons Public administration Education 0% and defence 7% 4% Agriculture and Real estate, renting forestry and business services 28% Fishing 6% Financial 1% intermediation Mining and quarrying 4% Manufacturing 1% Transport and 11% communication Electricity and water 12% supply Hotels and 3% Wholesale and retail restaurants trade, repairs Construction 2% 11% 3%

Figure 8: GDP by sector, 2012 Source: Economic Survey 2012

Except for agriculture and forestry, transport and communication increased the most in the remaining three sectors. Education and real estate, renting and business services follow the second group though their increase is small (Figure 9).

Other community, Health & social social & personal w ork Public services 2% administration & 4% Education defence 5% 4% Finance, real estate Agriculture & Fishing & business forestry 0% services 18% Mining & quarrying 4% Financial 1% intermediation 3% Manufacturing Transport & 21% communication 14% Hotels & Wholesale & retail Electricity & w ater restaurants Construction trade, repairs 2% 2% 6% 14%

Figure 9: Other contributing sectors to GDP in 2012 2.4.2 Resource Efficiency and the Low-Carbon Economy The emergence of resource efficiency and the low-carbon economy as Kenya’s policy priorities is grounded in recognizing that the prevailing model of economic development (based on steadily growing resource use and harmful emissions) cannot be sustained in the long term. Already currently, Kenya’s systems of production and consumption look vulnerable. The country’s ecological footprint (i.e. the area needed to meet Europe's resource demand) is twice the size of its land area, and the EU is heavily and increasingly reliant on imports to meet its resource needs.

At the most basic level, resource efficiency captures the notion of 'doing more with less'. It expresses the relationship of society's demands on nature (in terms of resource extraction, pollutant emissions and ecosystem pressures more broadly) to the returns generated (such as economic output or improved living standards). The transition to a low-carbon economy is one particularly important aspect of the broader goal of reducing the environmental burden of society's resource use.

Increasing resource efficiency is essential to sustain socio-economic progress in a world of finite resources and ecosystem capacity, but it is not sufficient. After all, increasing efficiency is only an indication that output is growing more than resource use and emissions. It does not guarantee a reduction in environmental pressures in absolute terms.

In assessing the sustainability of European systems of production and consumption, it is therefore necessary to move beyond measuring whether

production is increasing faster than resource use and related pressures ('relative decoupling'). Rather, there is a need to assess whether there is evidence of 'absolute decoupling', with production increasing while resource use declines (Figure 10). In addition to assessing the relationship of resource use to economic output, it is also important to evaluate whether the environmental impacts resulting from society's resource use are decreasing ('impact decoupling').

Figure 10: Trends in production as resources decline Source: EEA 2014

Kenyan industry delivers a complex mixture of benefits and costs to society. In addition to producing goods and services, the sector generates substantial employment, earnings and tax revenues. Yet industry also contributes significantly to the emissions of many important air pollutants and greenhouse gases, causing widespread harm to the environment and human health.

East Africa Community policies such as the Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) Directive and related directives have played an important role in limiting the adverse environmental effects of industrial production in recent decades. More recently, the obligations on industry have been brought together in the Industrial Emissions Directive, which sets out requirements for some large industrial installations to avoid or minimize emissions and waste.

In terms of climate change policy, the most important measure addressing industry is the Kenya Emissions Trading System. The Kenya Emissions Trading System addresses the greenhouse gas emissions from more than 12000 installations in power generation, manufacturing, and industry. It also addresses the greenhouse gas emissions from aircraft operators, covering around 45% of Kenya greenhouse gas emissions in total. Greenhouse gas emissions covered by the Kenya Emissions Trading System is not well documented though.

Kenya's industrial emissions of pollutants and greenhouse gases have increased since 1990, with the concomitant increase in sectoral economic output. Environmental regulations such as the Kenya's Large Combustion Plant (LCP)

Directive have contributed to these reductions. Though these factors such as energy efficiency, changes in the energy mix, end-of-pipe pollutant abatement technologies, a shift in Kenya away from certain heavy and more polluting types of manufacture, and company participation in voluntary schemes to reduce environmental impacts have had a decrease in contributing to emissions reductions, there impacts are negligible.

Looking ahead, further implementation of the Industrial Emissions Directive will help reduce these impacts. In addition, the Kenya’s proposed Clean Air Policy Package (EC) puts forward a new directive on medium-sized combustion plants, which would reduce the annual emissions from these plants by an estimated 45% for sulphur dioxide (SO2), 19% for nitrogen oxides (Nx), and 85% for particulate matter.

2.5 TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT Tourism brings income to Kenya and gives tourists a greater understanding of the country’s biodiversity. In 2014, the sector experienced decreased performance due to insecurity associated with terror attacks, adverse travel advisories by key source markets and continued spread of Ebola in West African countries. The tourism earnings decreased by 7.3 per cent from Kshs 94.0 billion in 2013 to Kshs 87.1 billion in 2014 Economic Survey. This was attributed to a decrease of 11.1 per cent in the number of international visitor arrivals over the same period.

Positive impacts of tourism include the following: • Conservation: Tourism has supplied the economic incentive to set up natural parks and conservation areas which protect wildlife • Employment: Tourism has generated jobs improving the living standards for local communities. • Infrastructure: Roads, airports and other facilities have been constructed • Investment: Profits from tourism have been invested in education and other programmes for local communities.

Negative Impacts of tourism include: • Environmental damage: Roads and tracks for safari vehicles can destroy vegetation cover and lead to soil erosion. • Loss of traditional culture: The Maasai ways of life and traditional livelihood methods have been eroded. • Water Cycle damage: Diverting water for tourists can exploit local water reserves leaving local people, plants and animals short of water. Tourist hotels at times dump waste in the rivers. • Inequality: Often the profits of tourism are reaped by wealthy landowners or the hotel and travel companies.

The negative impacts occur when the level of visitors use is greater than the environment’s ability to cope with use within the acceptable limits of change. Uncontrolled conventional tourism poses potential threats to many natural areas. It can put pressure on an area and lead to impacts such as soil erosion, increased pollution, discharge into water bodies, increased pressure on endangered species and heightened vulnerability to forest fire.

CHAPTER 3: WEATHER AND CLIMATE CHANGE

3.1 INTRODUCTION Kenya is susceptible to climate-related events such as droughts and floods which pose a serious threat to the socio-economic development of the country. Kenya’s existing vulnerability to climate impacts results from a wide range of factors including high natural resources, livelihood dependency and limited adaptive capacity.

Environmental degradation in Kenya directly contributes to impacts of climate change as is witnessed in the rising costs of water treatment, food imports and health services. These are not only increasing human vulnerability and health insecurity but also draining the country’s economic resources. The expansion of human activities into marginal areas leading to clearance of natural habitats such as forests and wetlands has been a major driving force behind land degradation throughout the country. The continuous loss of biological resources translates into loss of economic potential and options for commercial development.

3.2 WEATHER Weather refers to day to day variations in the state of the atmosphere using parameters such as temperature, rainfall, wind, among others. For example a day’s weather can be described as sunny and dry or cloudy or rainy. Climate is the mean state of weather of a place over a long period of time preferable 30 years. The climate of a place can be described using a combination of several weather parameters. For example the climate of the coastal strip of Kenya can be described as warm and humid while for north eastern as hot and dry.

Climate is the major driver of socioeconomic activities in Kenya. For example agriculture, which accounts for about 26% of Kenya gross domestic product and 75% of livelihood of most of the rural poor is rain fed. The hydropower generation, a major source of electricity for industries in Kenya also depends on rainfall. Climate variability may have serious impacts on the national economy since socio-economic activities in Kenya depend on climate. There has been increased rainfall variability which has resulted into floods and droughts. This has affected the economy of Kenya negatively due to high sensitivity to variation in rainfall. Hence there is need to monitor present and future climate variability for sustainable economic growth.

3.2.1 Climate variability in Kenya Climate variability is defined as the fluctuations of climate parameters (rainfall, temperatures etc) about the mean from time to time (seasons or year). El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO), Indian Ocean dipole (IOD), Tropical cyclones, Quasi

Biennial Oscillation (QBO) and the Madden and Julian Oscillations (MJO) are the major drivers affecting climate variability in Kenya. For example warm/cold ENSO conditions in the eastern and central equatorial Pacific Ocean and positive/negative IOD in the Indian Ocean are associated with floods/droughts in parts of Kenya. Climate variability is evident in the seasonal and annual fluctuations about the mean. It recurs or repeats after a certain interval of time. Much of the inter-annual rainfall variability in Kenya is attributed to the influence of ENSO and IOD (Ogallo et al., 1988; Owiti et al, 2008) while the anomalous wet and dry spells that occur over Eastern Africa at intra-seasonal time scales have been linked to different phases of the MJO (Omeny et al., 2008, Pohl and Camberline, 2006). Topography including the highlands of Rift Valley, the Lake Victoria troughs and the eastern lowlands greatly contributes to spatial variations in rainfall in Kenya. For example topography and the winds outflow from the Lake Victoria has been attributed to the enhanced convection that occurs over the Lake Victoria basin (Omeny et al., 2008). Other studies have attributed the enhanced convection to the Lake Victoria through and the influence of the highlands west of the Rift valley (Nyakwada, 2009). Recurrent floods in Budalangi, Kano Plains, Rachunyo, Nyatike and parts of central Rift Valley; droughts in North-eastern and South-eastern parts of the country and frost in parts of central Kenya and Nandi Hills are attributed to extreme climate events. These extreme climate events have had serious impacts on the economy, lives and property as well as livelihood of Kenyan people. For example, the floods associated with the El Nino of 1997/98 destroyed property, displaced people and led to loss of lives and droughts in 1999/2000 and 2005/2006 resulted to death of livestock and crop failure in Kenya. Frost also affected tea production in parts of central Kenya and Nandi hills.

3.2.2 Temperatures Mean temperatures are also predicted to increase with a greater frequency of ‘hot’ days and nights and fewer ‘cold’ days or nights. A hot day or night is defined by the temperature exceeded on 10 percent of the days or nights in the current average climate of an area (station); and cold days or nights are defined as the temperature for the coldest 10 percent of the days or nights. In some areas like Nairobi, night-time warming features more prominently than day-time warming. In general, there has been an increasing trend in both the average maximum and minimum temperatures over the country as shown in Figure 11. This is in line with the predictions from the climate change scenarios.

Figure 11: Max. and min. temperature variation

3.2.3 Rainfall The effects of climate change continue to be felt in Kenya in form of high temperatures and drought. As depicted in Figure12, rainfall amounts received during the 2014 long rains were generally depressed over most parts of the country. Most stations recorded rainfall which was less than 75 per cent of their seasonal Long Term Means (LTMs) for March to May. The worst conditions were observed over North western, Nairobi area and parts of central Rift Valley (Narok) where several meteorological stations recorded less than 50 per cent of their LTMs. The rainfall distribution, both in time and space, was also generally poor over the larger part of the country. Most areas, for example, remained generally dry during the critical month of April 2014 when crops had germinated and required high moisture for growth. All stations except Makindu, Lamu and Mtwapa received rainfall amounts that were below their LTMs. This impacted negatively on the crop and pasture performance.

The performance of the 2014 short rains (October-December) is shown in Figure 13. Most parts of the country received near normal rains during this season. However, most stations along the Coastal strip and a few stations in North Eastern and Western Kenya recorded above-average rainfall. Stations like Msabaha, Marsabit, Mombasa and Mtwapa all recorded above 150 per cent of their seasonal LTMs.

The highest seasonal total amount of rain of 625.5 mm was recorded at Meru station while Marsabit, Kisii, Mombasa, Kakamega, Mtwapa, Embu, Kericho and Nyeri stations recorded 483.1 mm, 455.0 mm, 452.3 mm, 423.3 mm, 398.3 mm, 387.2 mm, 378.6 mm and 356.6 mm, respectively. Kitale, Dagoretti Corner, Msabaha, Kisumu, Wilson Airport, Thika and Eldoret Airport stations recorded between 250 mm and 350 mm while the rest of the stations recorded less than 250 mm. The seasonal rainfall distribution, both in time and space was generally poor over the larger part of the country.

Rainfall is also projected to increase with many models indicating an intensification of heavy rainfall especially during the wet seasons, and an associated flood risk. Seasonal rainfall trends are mixed, with some locations indicating increasing trends while others show no significant changes. The annual rainfall totals show either neutral or slightly decreasing trends due to a general decline in the main long rains season.

3.2.4 Frequency of Extreme Events Thousands of record-breaking weather events worldwide bolster long-term trends of increasing heat waves, heavy precipitation, droughts and wildfires. A combination of observed trends, theoretical understanding of the climate system, and numerical modeling demonstrates that global warming is increasing the risk of these types of events today. Impacts from recent climate-related extremes, such as heat waves, droughts, floods, cyclones, and wildfires, reveal significant vulnerability and exposure of some ecosystems and many human systems to current climate variability. Impacts of such climate-related extremes include alteration of ecosystems, disruption of food production and water supply, damage to infrastructure and settlements, morbidity and mortality, and consequences for mental health and human well-being. Reducing the future risk of extreme weather requires reducing greenhouse gas emissions and adapting to changes that are already unavoidable.

Figure 12: Long rains (March to May) performance, 2014 Source: Kenya Meteorological Department

Figure 13: Short rains (October to December) performance, 2014 Source: Kenya Meteorological Department

Cai et al. (2014) used 20 climate models to assess possible changes in El Niño behavior in response to greenhouse gas forcing over the next 100 years. They found a consistent pattern across most models for the frequency of intense El Niños to double in the 21st century, with the likelihood of extreme events occurring roughly once every 10 years instead of once every 20 years. Intense El Niños, like those in 1982-83 and 1997-98, have dramatic worldwide impacts, increasing the probability of droughts, floods, heat waves and extreme weather events in far reaching parts of the globe including Kenya with profound socio- economic consequences.

3.2.5 Annual Variability of Rainfall and Temperature Time series of annual and seasonal rainfall and temperature over Kenya were plotted and trend lines inserted to determine direction on change (trend) due to climate change (Figure 14). Summary of the annual and seasonal rainfall and temperature trends for individual stations in Kenya are also presented in Tables 1, 2 and 3.

The annual, March to May and October to December seasonal rainfall trends have been on the increase (Figure 14) during the review period (2008-2014). However, during June to August season the trend line shows a marginal reduction. Most stations also show increasing trends in the annual, March to May and October to December rainfall seasons. In the annual rainfall totals Wajir, Garissa and Lamu shows reducing trends, while Mombasa shows no trend during the period. During March to May (MAM) season Garissa and Voi shows reducing rainfall trends, while Makindu shows no trend during the period. During October to December (OND) season Lodwar, Wajir, Garissa and Nakuru shows reducing rainfall trends, while Lamu, Nyeri and Kericho shows no trend. During June to August the main rainy areas of Western Kenya, Central Rift Valley and the Coast are showing mixed signals of both increasing and reducing trends with the areas showing reduction dominating.

However, the October to December seasonal rainfall was characterized by high temporal variability with low average rainfall total of less than 200mm in the year 2010, with high average rainfall total of more than 400mm in 2011. The March to May season, was characterized by low temporal variability with a low average rainfall total of about 250mm in 2009, and a high average of more than 400mm in the years 2010 and 2013.

Figure 14: Annual and seasonal rainfall trends

Both annual and seasonal maximum temperatures were characterized by increasing trends (Figure 15). However, minimum temperatures were characterized by mixed trends (Figure 16). For example, the March-May and June-August season were characterized by increasing temperature trends while decreasing trends characterize the annual and October-December seasons. The maximum temperature showed a tendency to increase over most of the stations in the country, while minimum temperatures had a tendency to reduce.

Figure 15: Mean annual and seasonal maximum temperatures trends

Figure 16: Mean annual and seasonal minimum temperatures trends Climate model simulations under a range of possible greenhouse gas emission scenarios suggest temperature increase of 3°–4°C in Africa by the end of the 21st century, which is roughly 1.5 times the global mean response. Slope in minimum temperature trends are also steeper than trends in maximum temperatures, an indication of warmer nights and that climate change affects more night time temperatures than daytime temperatures. The mean annual and seasonal rainfall, mean annual and seasonal maximum temperatures and mean annual and seasonal minimum temperatures are highlighted in Tables 1, 2 and 3.

Table 1: Mean annual and seasonal rainfall Year 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Annual 835.8 820.7 1024.1 1009.5 1030.4 1007.9 891.7 Mar-May 313.9 250.9 476.9 262.5 399.3 469.0 297.8 Jun-Aug 219.7 160.9 228.4 260.4 239.8 155.3 199.2 Oct-Dec 246.1 342.9 197.1 439.9 372.1 265.6 286.1

Table 2: Mean annual and seasonal maximum temperature

Seasons/Annual 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Annual 27.7 28.4 27.9 27.9 27.8 27.7 28.5 March-May 28.2 29.3 28.3 29.2 28.6 28.1 29.1 June-August 25.5 26.9 26.2 26.7 25.5 25.8 27.1 October-December 27.9 28.1 28.4 27.4 27.6 28.0 28.7

Table 3: Mean annual and seasonal minimum temperature

Seasons/Annual 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Annual 16.7 17.1 17.4 17.2 16.9 16.8 16.9 March-May 17.3 18.1 18.4 18.0 17.8 17.8 18.1 June-August 15.9 16.1 16.5 16.6 15.8 15.8 16.5 October-December 17.1 17.6 17.2 17.4 17.2 17.1 16.8

3.2.6 Climate Related Extreme Events / Disasters Climate disasters are on the rise. Around 70 percent of disasters are now climate related – up from around 50 percent from two decades ago. These disasters take a heavier human toll and come with a higher price tag. In the last decade, 2.4 billion people were affected by climate related disasters, compared to1.7 billion in the previous decade. The cost of responding to disasters has risen tenfold between 1992 and 2008. Destructive sudden heavy rains, intense tropical storms, repeated flooding and droughts are likely to increase, as will the vulnerability of local communities in the absence of strong concerted action (IPCC, 2014).

Even in the absence of climate change, the economic costs of the periodic floods and droughts that affect Kenya could rise significantly in future years, due to population and economic growth. The study has assessed these changes and finds that in the absence of adaptation, these drivers could increase the costs of events by a factor of five by 2030, i.e. periodic large-scale event could have direct economic costs of $5 to 10 billion. A key priority therefore is to increase the resilience of Kenya to cope with these extreme events. Climate change is likely to further increase the economic costs of these events. Many of the projections indicate increases in intensity of heavy precipitation events that would increase the economic costs of periodic flood events significantly for Kenya (Figure 17). The return period of larger events would reduce leading to more significant flood events indicating significant increases in economic costs. The effects on droughts are more uncertain, but the range of model projections does include changes that would exacerbate existing periodic events for some regions of the country, which would further increase economic costs (SEI, 2009). It would be difficult to persuade many smallholders working on the land to invest in insurance schemes, since they might have no spare cash available to spend on even small premiums.

3.3 CLIMATE CHANGE In the last century there has been evidence of global warming attributed to increased concentration of Green House Gases (GHGs) into the atmosphere from burning of fossil fuels and land cover change. The United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) defined climate change as ‘a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods’ is associated with global warming. The changes in the composition of the atmosphere brought about by increased concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide has major consequences on animals, plants and weather patterns.

Figure 17: Kenyans fleeing from the floods in Samburu county 2014 The UN's IPCC (2014) concluded that climate change was already having effects in real time – melting sea ice and thawing permafrost in the Arctic, killing off coral reefs in the oceans, and leading to heat waves, heavy rains and mega- disasters. In Kenya temperature and rainfall are among the best major indicators of climate change from availability of data. Changes in temperature and rainfall have far reaching effects on water resources and food security in Kenya. The glaciers on top of Mount Kenya are reducing and sea level is rising along the Kenyan coast.

Climate change is serious threat to sustainable development due to its impacts on environment, human health, food security, economic activities, natural resources and physical Infrastructure. According to IPCC Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) millions of people globally will be exposed to water stress and access to food in many African countries will be severely compromised. The increasing concentrations of Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere will continue to affect livelihood and small economies like Kenya. Global climate scenarios indicate that the air temperature is on the rise (Figure 18) while rainfall trends vary with the region. Frequencies and magnitudes of rainfall are projected to increase in some parts of the world. These scenarios need to be verified at regional and national level.

The dry lands of Kenya are the most vulnerable to climate change phenomenon due to high rainfall variability. The frequency and severity of both droughts and floods is already high in dry parts of the country and is expected to increase in coming years.

Figure 18: Global trends in air temperature since 1950 (IPCC, 2014)

Smallholder farming and pastoral production dependent on rainfall are the major sources of livelihood. Droughts have increased food insecurity (food shortage and poverty) and loss of livelihoods.

The impacts of climate change in other arid areas of Kenya pose distinct challenges in maintaining food security and often cut across all the sectors. For example during the year 2014 the abnormal onset of the rainy season resulted to severe floods that destroyed infrastructure, hampered transport network, damaged crops, increased disease epidemics, caused death of livestock and affected livelihoods; droughts led to rampant environmental degradation, conflicts over limited resources and adversely affected ecosystems balance (biodiversity and habitats).

3.3.1 The Threat of Climate Change Climate change posed a threat to global food stocks, and to human security (IPCC, 2014). Global crop yields are beginning to decline – especially for wheat – raising doubts as to whether production could keep up with population growth. Under some scenarios, climate change has led to dramatic drops in global wheat production as well as reductions in maize. Other food sources such as fish catches in some areas of the tropics are projected to fall by between 40% and 60%. Climate change has also been connected to rising food prices and political instability, for instance the riots in Asia and Africa after food price shocks in 2008. And for the first time IPCC warned that climate change, combined with poverty and economic shocks, could lead to war and drive people to leave their homes.

According to IPCC (2007), climate change and variability are considered to be major threats to sustainable progress. The areas likely to feel the greatest impacts comprise the economy, water, ecosystems, food security, coastal zones, health

and the distribution of populations and settlements. Africa is considered vulnerable to climate change- effects largely due to lack of financial, institutional and technological capacity.

Kenya is already feeling the effects climate change. The widespread poverty, recurrent droughts, floods, inequitable land distribution, overdependence on rain-fed agriculture, and few coping mechanisms all combine to increase people’s vulnerability to climate change. For instance, disadvantaged people have little security against extreme climatic events. They have few resource reserves, poor housing and depend on natural resources for their livelihoods. Extreme weather events have serious economic implications. Floods and droughts cause damage to property and loss of life, reduce business opportunities and increase the cost of transacting business in most parts of the country.

3.3.2 Climate Adaptation and Mitigation (green technologies) In general, there are two different strategies when it comes to dealing with climate change. We can try to stop future warming (mitigation of climate change) or we can find ways to live in our warming world (adaptation to climate change). • Adaptation involves developing ways to protect people and places by reducing their vulnerability to climate impacts. For example, to protect against sea level rise and increased flooding, communities might build seawalls or relocate buildings to higher ground. • Mitigation involves attempts to slow the process of global climate change, usually by lowering the level of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Planting trees that absorb CO2 from the air and store it is an example of one such strategy.

It’s quite unlikely that we will be able to clean up the extra greenhouse gases and halt climate change entirely through mitigation efforts. Thus, some adaptation will be necessary. Both adaptation and mitigation are essential to reduce the impacts of climate change. Strategies to mitigate and adapt to climate change range from an individual, to local, national and global efforts.

Adaptation (changes that reduce vulnerability to changes in climate) Humans have a long history of making changes in the way they live to survive environmental changes. These changes are ways to adapt to new conditions. Adaptation of human societies to climate change is taking place today on a limited basis. Current climate change poses challenges to adaptation. Adaptation happens in a variety of ways. Some adaptations are fueled by changes in government policies. Other adaptations occur because of technological advances. Advances in climate modeling have provided scenarios of future impacts, which are driving some of adaptation efforts that will hopefully reduce

vulnerability to climate change. However, the ability to adapt is not equal between all people, states the IPCC (Working Group II). For example, developing nations with limited resources that are already dealing with the stresses of violent conflicts or high HIV/AIDS rates are less able to adapt to climate change. This is especially problematic in places like Southern Africa where the impacts of climate change on drought conditions are expected to become increasingly severe. There are limits to how much we can adapt. There are often technological and financial limits that prevent the scale of adaptation that we would need. And often people are unwilling to change their behaviors. Plus, while humans may have the ability to adapt to climate change, many other species may not.

Adaptation options in Kenya

Indigenous coping mechanisms/farmers practices Traditionally, farmers had various ways of coping with climate change. In dry land areas, characterized by large land sizes, shifting cultivation used to be practiced, where land is left fallow for some time. This practice is now less common as land sizes decrease due to the ever increasing population. In this practice some land is left to naturally regenerate when new land is opened up for crop production. Farming is mostly done in lowlands to take advantage of relatively high soil moisture retention for crop production. Growing of drought- tolerant crops including sorghums, millets, cowpeas, pigeon peas, grams is common. Farmers in these areas also have diversified foods including wild crops. Traditional germplasm conservation that ensures preservation of highly adaptable crop varieties that more resilient to climate variability is practiced.

In the high potential areas, farmers mostly rely on traditional forecast on rainfall onset. They sow crops in time to maximize on moisture use. They also preserve their own local varieties which are more resilient to climate variability. Crop diversification is also commonly practiced to spread the risk of crop failure and enhance dietary diversity at household level.

Improved soil management This involves practices that improve soil fertility aimed at contributing to sustainable land management to increase crop productivity and improve agrarian livelihoods. These practices reduce production costs, maintain soil fertility and conserve soil moisture. They include use of organic nutrient sources e.g. manures (FYM, compost), crop residues, mulching to reduce moisture loss from fields. The organic nutrient sources are used in combination with inorganic nutrient sources to augment soil fertility and boost crop vigour and early maturation. Intercropping/relaying with legumes such as Mucuna, beans, cowpeas, pigeon peas, crotalaria etc. and cover crops e.g. Desmodium, Dolichos lab lab, is also

practiced to improve nutrient cycling, soil fertility and maintenance of soil structure.

Water harvesting and conservation measures The existing water harvesting and conservation measures include: Cut-off drains/storm water diversion drains: These are established in order to intercept and divert storm run-off which would otherwise flow on the farm and wash away soil leading to soil and nutrients losses resulting to declining crop yields and destruction of soil structure & loss of soil biodiversity. However, the diverted water needs to be channeled through well-managed water ways to avoid gully formation.

Contour terraces/ bunds & Infiltration/retention ditches : These are physical structures that retain water within the farm for crop utilization.

Ridges: Crop ridging along the rows enables water retention in the furrows after rainfall events. Crops use the water retained in the furrows. Tied ridges- furrows are raised and tied in along and at the end of the furrow; water is retained in the furrows after rainfall events.

Roof and Rock catchments: Water is collected into tanks or ponds and used for domestic purposes or crop irrigation.

Zai pits: Shallow, wide, circular pits combining water harvesting and conservation for both moisture and soil fertility for crop production. Zai pits are very useful for rehabilitating crusted soils and gentle clay slopes with limited infiltration and difficult tillage. They are constructed by measuring a circular diameter of 60cm, digging a hole using a jembe to a depth of 30cm, putting in well-decomposed manure, then planting 4-8 seeds of cereal crop in the pit.

Irrigation and Drainage Irrigation is one of the most important adaptation measures to climate change, due to its enormous effect on improved food security. Well-designed drainage systems when used in combination with collection systems from rocks and run-off can reduce erosion and improve water access in arid and semi-arid regions. The more common methods include furrow, overhead and drip irrigation. The irrigation benefits are expected to be more pronounced in the arid and semi-arid regions, compared with the high potential areas. Irrigation leads to mitigation benefits primarily through increasing crop productivity and biomass. In order to increase agricultural production, the storage capacity of existing irrigation systems may need to be expanded to manage more frequent extreme weather events.

Agro forestry Practices These involve deliberate combination of trees and agricultural crops and animals on the same farm either in a spatial arrangement or temporal sequence. These are fruit trees, fodder trees, fertilizer trees, medicinal trees or other suitable species grown for timber, firewood, fruits, livestock feed or raw materials for industry. Agro forestry can offer a significant buffer against the effects of climate change through increased carbon sequestration and reduce on-farm income risks by providing alternative income streams to households. However, care should be taken to select suitable trees, tree/crop associations and the right management practices for different places. Common agro forestry practices include improved fallows using fertilizer trees and shrubs ( e.g. Sesbania, Tephrosia, Tithonia, Faidherbia albida, Gliricidia), shamba system (growing annual crops as a forest plantation establishes), tree gardens, multipurpose trees and shrubs, plantation/crop combination, boundary trees/live fences, fodder tree banks, shelter belts, conservation hedges, wind breaks, trees with pastures/fodders.

3.3.3 Vulnerability Assessment and Mapping in Kenya The following are some of the sectors that were addressed as indicated in Table 4

Mitigation (changes to slow climate change) There are two ways to stop increasing the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. You can stop putting so many greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. You can also invent ways to get greenhouse gases out of the atmosphere – for example, planting trees that absorb CO2 from the air is an example of one such strategy. These two methods are usually thought of in combination. Reduction of the amount of greenhouse gases put into the atmosphere (i.e., greenhouse gas emissions) is usually accomplished through reducing energy use and switching to energy sources that don’t release greenhouse gases including increasing the fuel efficiency of vehicles, making individual lifestyle changes, and changing business practices. Technologies such as hydrogen fuel cells, solar power, tidal energy, geothermal power, and wind power, along with the use of carbon sinks, carbon credits, and taxation, are aimed at countering greenhouse gas emissions more directly.

Some ideas are easy and inexpensive, such as replacing incandescent lights with compact fluorescent bulbs that use less electricity than their conventional counterparts. Many mitigation techniques, such as fuel cells and biofuels, are still in the development phase and will require further research to determine their usefulness and viability. Some proposals, such as seeding the oceans with iron to increase phytoplankton populations (and draw more CO2 out of the air), sound more like science fiction and are unlikely to be implemented, especially when we don’t fully know the consequences for marine life.

Table 4: Assessment matrix

No. Sector Vulnerability Adaptation Assessment 1 Agriculture -Poverty among the small -scale subsistence -Adoption of drought resistant/escaping crops. farmers. -Soil conservation measures. -Farming in the marginal rainfall areas. -Adoption of appropriate agricultural techniques and -Over-cultivation and land degradation. water conservation technologies. -Inadequate technologies to improve -Crop diversification in subsistence farming. production. -Alternative means of income generation for -Limited in-economic diversification. subsistence farmers. -Weak integration of knowledge on the use of -Enhanced public education and awareness raising climate information to maximize agricultural on effective use of climate information. production. 2 Water -Population increase in the marginal areas -Enhance water harvesting and conservation Resources leading to increased demand for water. methods -Over-cultivation in slopping areas leading to -Increased afforestation especially in the water flash floods and siltation of rivers and catchment areas. reservoirs-Deforestation in the water -Zoning of environmental significant sites catchment areas. -Exploitation of underground water especially in the -Inefficient utilization of available water, e.g. marginal rainfall areas. irrigation methods. -Adoption of irrigation technologies that lead to -Water pollution, especially by industries. water conservation. -Policies and measures that enhance water quality. -Good soil conservation practices in agriculture. -Public education and awareness raising. 3 Energy -Deforestation especially in the hydropower -Increased afforestation and reforestation. Resources dams catchment areas. -Good agricultural practices and soil conservation. -Over cultivation resulting in siltation of -Adoption of biomass energy -efficient stoves. rivers and dams. (appropriate energy conservation measures) -Inefficient utilization of biomass for energy. -Enhance/diversify alternative income generating -Poverty leading to over exploitation of activities (AIG) biomass. -Increasing exploitation of renewable energy resources such as wind, solar and Geothermal energy. -Enhanced energy efficiency in industrial and commercial operations.

-Public education and awareness creation.

4 Health and -Inadequate health services especially in -Provision of adequate health service in rural areas public safety rural areas. -Adequate response strategies to the outbreak of -Increased prevalence of diseases related to climate related diseases. climate change -Availability and utilization of climate information -Poverty especially among rural towards preparedness. communities. -sustainable disease vector control strategies. -Lack of alternative means of income -Provision of clean and adequate water. especially in marginal rainfall areas. -Sustainable community conflicts resolution -Traditional ways of life that are not changing strategies. with time. -Alternative sources of income for communities in -Inadequate public awareness of disease marginal rainfall areas. risks. -Public education and awareness raising. -Encroachment of wildlife parks and reserves The above sectors are only some of the sectors by farmers and pastoralists.

There does not appear to be a shortage of steps that we can take to reduce our carbon emissions, but there is no single fix. Table 5 lists technologies that are currently available or are expected to become available within the next 25 years and would be implemented at the scale of governments, communities, and industries (IPCC, 2007). Some of the technologies in may be associated with other environmental concerns for example increased uranium mining and nuclear waste storage required by nuclear power plants.

Table 5: Key mitigation technologies and practices

Sector Key mitigation technologies and practices Key mitigation technologies currently commercially available and practices projected to be commercialized before 2030 Energy Supply Improved supply and distribution efficiency; CCS for gas, biomass and coal- fuel switching from coal to gas; nuclear power; fired electricity generating renewable heat and power (hydropower, solar, facilities; advanced nuclear wind, geothermal and bioenergy); combined power; advanced renewable heat and power; early applications of Carbon energy, including tidal and Capture and Storage (CCS, e.g. storage of wave energy, concentrating removed CO2 from natural gas). solar, and solar PV. Transport More fuel efficient vehicles, including hybrid Second generation biofuels; vehicles, cleaner diesel vehicles, & biofuels. higher efficiency aircraft; Shifting from road transport to rail and public advanced electric and hybrid transport systems. Increased non-motorized vehicles with more powerful transport (cycling, walking, etc.). Improved and reliable batteries. land-use and transport planning. Buildings Efficient use of lighting and daylighting. More Integrated design of efficient electrical appliances and heating & commercial buildings cooling devices. Improved cook stoves, including technologies, such as insulation, and passive & active solar design intelligent meters that provide for heating & cooling. Increased use of feedback and control; solar PV alternative refrigeration fluids and recovery & integrated in buildings. recycle of fluorinated gases. Industry More efficient end-use electrical equipment. Advanced energy efficiency; Improved heat and power recovery; material CCS for cement, ammonia, and recycling and substitution; control of non-CO2 iron manufacture; inert gas emissions; and a wide array of process electrodes for aluminum technologies used in industry. manufacture. Agriculture Improved crop and grazing land management Improvements of crops yields to increase soil carbon storage; restoration of cultivated peaty soils and degraded lands; improved rice cultivation techniques and livestock and manure management to reduce CH4 emissions; improved nitrogen fertilizer application techniques to reduce N2O emissions; dedicated energy crops to replace fossil fuel use; improved energy efficiency. Forestry Improved afforestation (the establishment of a Tree species improvement to new forest by seeding or planting on increase biomass productivity nonforested land); reforestation; forest and carbon sequestration. management; reduced deforestation; Improved remote sensing harvested wood product management; use of technologies for analysis of

forestry products for bioenergy to replace vegetation/ soil carbon fossil fuel use. sequestration potential and mapping land use change. Waste Increased landfill methane recovery; waste Biocovers and biofilters to Management incineration with energy recovery; composting optimize CH4 oxidation. of organic waste; controlled waste water treatment; recycling and waste minimization.

3.3.4 Evidence/ Manifestations of Climate Change

In recent decades, changes in climate have caused impacts on natural and human systems on all continents and across the oceans (IPCC, 2014). In many regions, changing precipitation or melting snow and ice are altering hydrological systems, affecting water resources in terms of quantity and quality. Glaciers continue to shrink almost worldwide due to climate change, affecting runoff and water resources downstream. Climate change and variability have also led to more frequent extreme weather events such as cyclones, erratic rainfall, flooding, more intense and prolonged droughts and devastation of some coastal ecosystems. Climate change is causing permafrost warming and thawing in high latitude regions and in high-elevation regions. Many terrestrial, freshwater, and marine species have shifted their geographic ranges, seasonal activities, migration patterns, abundances, and species interactions in response to ongoing climate change (IPCC, 2014).

The evidence of climate change in Kenya is unmistakable (GoK, 2010). Air temperatures have risen throughout the country. Rainfalls have become irregular and unpredictable, and when it rains, downpour is more intense. Extreme and harsh weather is now a norm in Kenya. More specifically, since the early 1960s, both minimum (night time) and maximum (daytime) temperatures have been on an increasing (warming) trend in most meteorological stations. The minimum temperature has risen generally by 0.7 – 2.0°C and the maximum by 0.2 – 1.3°C, depending on the season and the region. This warming is depleting glaciers on Mount Kenya. Because of the vital ecological role of mountains, this will have negative implications on biodiversity and water supply in the country and tourism, whose continued double-digit growth is crucial to achieving the 10 percent economic growth rate anticipated by Vision 2030 (IPCC 2007, UNEP 2009).

The rainfall showed increased variability both during the year and year to year. There was a general decline of rainfall in the main season of March to May (the “Long Rains”). In other words, drought in the Long Rains Season is more frequent and prolonged. On the other hand, there is a general positive trend (more rains) during September to February. This suggests that the “Short Rains” (October- December) season is extending into what is normally hot and dry period of January and February. Moreover, measured by the volume of rainfalls in a 24

hour period, more intense rainfalls occur, and more frequently, over the coastal strip and the northern parts of the country during September - February. This means frequent occurrence of severe floods in those areas. The emergence of diseases epidemics such as highland malaria and Rift Valley Fever due to favourable survival conditions (moisture and temperature) created by climate changes and variability in Kenya (GoK, 2010).

3.3.5 Impacts on Systems and Sectors in Kenya Climate change poses significant environmental challenges for this Country as evidenced by the frequent droughts and water shortages that even affect power supplies. This is happening at a time when power demand is on the rise and utilization of renewable energy sources exclusive of hydro remains relatively low. Other adverse impacts of climate change can be seen in the form of frequent and severe natural disasters such as floods, landslides and prolonged droughts. Increased frequency and intensity of extreme climatic conditions continue to undermine the country’s sustainable development. Managing climate-related disasters remains a significant challenge. Kenya needs at least US $500 million per year to address current and future climate change effects. It is predicted this figure will rise to US $1-2 billion per year by 2030. Unless effective mitigation and adaptation systems are immediately instituted, the combined effects of climate change impacts will hinder realization of targeted goals in Vision 2030.

Agriculture and Food Security Except in the oil-exporting countries, agriculture is the economic mainstay in most African countries. Farming depends entirely on the quality of the rainy season, a situation that makes Africa particularly vulnerable to climate change. Increased droughts could seriously impact the availability of food, as in the horn of Africa and southern Africa during the 1980s and 1990s. A rise in mean winter temperatures also would be detrimental to the production of winter wheat and fruits that need the winter chill. However, in subtropical Africa, warmer winters would reduce the incidence of damaging frosts, making it possible to grow horticultural produce susceptible to frosts at higher elevations than is possible at present. Productivity of freshwater fisheries may increase, although the mix of fish species could be altered. Changes in ocean dynamics could lead to changes in the migratory patterns of fish and possibly to reduced fish landings, especially in coastal artisanal fisheries.

Agriculture is a key part of the NCCRS, and the NCCAP reflecting the reliance on agriculture for the national economy and for providing labour locally; 80% of Kenyans live in rural areas and depend directly or indirectly on agriculture for their livelihoods. The agricultural sector comprises 24% of Kenya’s GDP and 19% of the formal wage employment. An estimated 60% of all households are engaged in farming activities.

In using four downscaled global climate models (GCMs), all of which are from the IPCC AR4, the MIROC model gives the most optimistic scenario, one in which nearly the entire country will experience an increase of 100–300 mm of precipitation between 2000 and 2050, with extreme northern Kenya and southwestern parts of the country gaining the most (Odera et al., 2012).The CSIRO-MK3 model predicts no change over the same period, except for a very moderate increase around Turkana District and in the southwest. The CSIRO model predicts a fairly uniform temperature increase of 1–1.5°C across the country for the average daily maximum during the warmest month. The MIROC model predicts that most medium- to high-potential agricultural areas will experience a marginal increase in temperature of only 0.5–1°C, while the easternmost part of Eastern, all of North Eastern, and the southern parts of Coast Counties will experience increases of 1–2°C, which is likely to result in heat stress in some years for some crops.

The maps in Figure 19 depict the results of model projections for rainfed maize, comparing crop yields for 2050 with climate change to yields with 2000 climate (Odera et al., 2012). The climate models project a substantial yield increases in most areas, including large areas in which the increase is projected to be greater than 25 percent. All models predict yield gain in areas that were previously too dry for maize cultivation. With these new areas becoming available, policymakers should consider facilitating expansion or relocation in some newly viable areas, while taking into account their ecological importance.

Climate change may force farmers to abandon some areas that they are currently cultivating in favor of new areas with the potential for maize production. Rising temperatures in many areas are likely to result in reduced crop yields: harvests of wheat, soybean, sorghum and irrigated rice could decline by between 5 % and 20 %, with irrigated rice production being the hardest hit.

Figure 19: Changes in rainfed maize yield with climate change Source: Odera et al., 2012

Odera et al., (2012) using global models for food and agriculture predicts a gradual upward trend in maize production in Kenya. This production increase is largely due to increases in yield: the area under maize production remains mostly unchanged from 2010 to 2050, while yield nearly doubles. The world price for maize is projected to roughly double over that period.

Overall, Kenya will experience country-wide losses in the production of key staple foods. Although modest increases in maize and bean production in the highlands are anticipated, the country-wide impacts will be a decrease in the production of the major staple foods due to the large areas where evapotranspiration could increase (Herrero et al., 2010). However, trade in key staples is likely to offset reductions in crop production due to climate change. This is because trade in cereal production is likely to increase as a result of climate change to satisfy internal consumption.

The prices of key staples are likely to increase and this will dampen demand for food, as affordability of nearly all agricultural commodities—including basic

staples and livestock products declines under climate change. As a result, per capita calorie availability in Kenya is likely to decline under climate change. The lower food accessibility due to increased commodity prices is likely to translate in increases in malnutrition, especially of young children in both 2025 and 2050. These effects will probably be exacerbated in areas of high vulnerability, like in the arid and semi-arid areas Kenya (Herrero et al., 2010).

Increased drought frequencies to more than a drought every five years could cause significant, irreversible decreases in livestock numbers in arid and semi- arid areas. Increased probability of drought to once every three years, could decrease herd sizes as a result of increased mortality and poorer reproductive performance of the animals. This decrease in animal numbers would affect food security and would compromise the sole dependence of pastoralists on livestock and their products. Climate change and increasingly climate variability will have substantial impacts on environmental security as well, as the conflicts (usually over livestock assets) often observed in these regions are likely to escalate in the future. Kenya will have significant areas in the ASALs where cropping might no longer be possible as a result of climate change and where the role of livestock as a livelihood option is likely to increase (Herrero et al., 2010).

Water Resources In many regions of the world, changing precipitation or melting snow and ice are altering hydrological systems, affecting water resources in terms of quantity and quality. Glaciers continue to shrink worldwide due to climate change, affecting runoff and water resources downstream. Climate change is causing permafrost warming and thawing in high-latitude regions and in high-elevation regions. There is no evidence that surface water and groundwater due to drought frequency has changed over the last few decades, although impacts of drought have increased mostly due to increased water demand.

Of the 19 countries around the world currently classified as water-stressed, more are in Africa than in any other region-and this number is likely to increase, independent of climate change, as a result of increases in demand resulting from population growth, degradation of watersheds caused by land-use change, and siltation of river basins . A reduction in precipitation projected by some GCMs for the Sahel and Southern Africa-if accompanied by high inter-annual variability- could be detrimental to the hydrological balance of the continent and disrupt various water-dependent socioeconomic activities. Variable climatic conditions may render the management of water resources more difficult both within and between countries. A drop in water level in dams and rivers could adversely affect the quality of water by increasing the concentrations of sewage waste and industrial effluents, thereby increasing the potential for the outbreak of diseases and reducing the quality and quantity of fresh water available for domestic use.

Adaptation options include water harvesting, management of water outflow from dams, and more efficient water usage. Kenya is classified as a chronically water- scarce country and has one of the world’s lowest water replenishment rates per capita. The combined effect of rising temperatures, more frequent droughts and decreasing rainfall has led to lowering river, lake and groundwater levels.

Health At present the worldwide burden of human ill-health from climate change is relatively small compared with effects of other stressors and is not well quantified. However, there has been increased heat-related mortality and decreased cold-related mortality in some regions as a result of warming. Local changes in temperature and rainfall have altered the distribution of some waterborne illnesses and disease vectors.

The health of human populations is sensitive to shifts in weather patterns and other aspects of climate change. These effects occur directly, due to changes in temperature and precipitation and in the occurrence of heat waves, floods, droughts, and fires. Health may be damaged indirectly by climate change-related ecological disruptions, such as crop failures or shifting patterns of disease vectors, or by social responses to climate change, such as displacement of populations following prolonged drought. Variability in temperatures is a risk factor in its own right, over and above the influence of average temperatures on heat-related deaths.

The current burden of climate-sensitive disease – particularly malaria - is high in Kenya. It accounts for an estimated 30% of all out-patient consultations and 19% of all hospital admissions. Of the total population, around 23 million (70%) are reported to live in areas at risk of malaria, including 3.5 million children under 5: consequently the disease is a major contributor to under 5 child mortality (SEI, 2009). Based on current population levels and incidence rates (2009), an extra 5.8 million people will be affected by Malaria in the 2050s, with excess mortality of 15,700 people per year, of which 11,400 are below the age of 15. The additional economic burden of endemic malaria disease in the 2050s was estimated to be over $ 86 million annually based on the clinical and economic malaria burden.

During floods which destroy water and sanitation facilities, environmental diseases such as typhoid, amoeba, cholera and bilharzia —which are normally associated with contaminated water and poor sanitation—reach epidemic levels. The Nyanza, Western, Coast, Eastern and North Eastern provinces, for example, recorded several cholera outbreaks during the 1997/1998 El-Niño rains. Further, amoebae thrive in warmer waters and this may explain why amoeba infections have risen steadily in areas that were historically cold but are now experiencing temperature rises, like Meru.

Human Settlement Many global risks of climate change are concentrated in urban areas. Steps that build resilience and enable sustainable development can accelerate successful climate-change adaptation globally. Heat stress, extreme precipitation, inland and coastal flooding, landslides, air pollution, drought, and water scarcity pose risks in urban areas for people, assets, economies, and ecosystems. Risks are amplified for those lacking essential infrastructure and services or living in poor- quality housing and exposed areas like in Kenya. Reducing basic service deficits, improving housing, and building resilient infrastructure systems could significantly reduce vulnerability and exposure in urban areas. Urban adaptation benefits from effective multi-level urban risk governance, alignment of policies and incentives, strengthened local government and community adaptation capacity, synergies with the private sector, and appropriate financing and institutional development. Increased capacity, voice, and influence of low-income groups and vulnerable communities and their partnerships with local governments also benefit adaptation (IPCC, 2014).

Major future rural impacts are expected in the near term and beyond through impacts on water availability and supply, food security, and agricultural incomes, including shifts in production areas of food and non-food crops across the world. These impacts are expected to disproportionately affect the welfare of the poor in rural areas, such as female-headed households and those with limited access to land, modern agricultural inputs, infrastructure, and education. Further adaptations for agriculture, water, forestry, and biodiversity can occur through policies taking account of rural decision-making contexts. Trade reform and investment can improve market access for small-scale farms (IPCC, 2014). Individuals living in marginal areas may be forced to migrate to urban areas (where infrastructure already is approaching its limits as a result of population pressure) if the marginal lands become less productive under new climate conditions. Kenya needs to align the policies and plans for sustainable rural and urban planning in order to cater for the impacts of climate change. This is because planners play a direct role in shaping and controlling land use and urban form which are significant determinants of a settlement’s adaptive capacity and resilience to climate change.

Gender aspects of climate change Impacts of climate change, such as drought, floods, extreme weather events and reduced food and water security, affect women and men differently with the poorest being the most vulnerable. 70 per cent of the world’s poor are women. Even though women are therefore disproportionately affected, at the same time they play a crucial role in climate change adaptation and mitigation actions. Women are predominantly responsible for food production, household water

supply and energy for heating and cooking. As climate change impacts increase, these tasks are becoming more difficult. However, women have knowledge and coping strategies that give them a practical understanding of innovation and skills to adapt to changing environmental realities as well as to contribute to the solution. These strategies to deal with climate variability are still a largely untapped resource. Additionally, women are often faced with difficulties when it comes to the general accessibility of financial resources, capacity-building activities and technologies. This often stands in the way of women’s empowerment in general and their role in relation to climate change adaptation and mitigation in particular. Women also tend to be underrepresented in the decision-making on climate change at all levels. This severely limits their ability to contribute and implement solutions and apply their expertise. Table 6 highlights the sector DPSIR model.

Table 6: DPSIR matrix Driver Pressure State Impact Responses Population Growth Demand • Land use and cover change • Promotion of afforestation/reforestation • Increased GHGs programmes concentrations through • Investment in clean development automobile and burning mechanisms biomass • Reduced population growth rates through family planning Agriculture Growth/expansion, • Food & water • pollution, • Policies &legislations, strategies demand, • degradation (Soil erosion • Compliance and enforcement of • Emissions of and land cover change), legislations GHGs into the • Change of rainfall patterns • Awareness &capacity building atmosphere, • Increased GHGs • Mixed shamba system • Encroachment concentrations thro • Implementation of MEAs • Agrochemicals burning biomass and agrochemicals Industries Industrial Emission of GHGs • Global warming • Clean development mechanisms development • Increased rainfall (CDMs) variability & intensities, • Implementation of MEAs floods and droughts • Climate change Response Strategy and • GHGs concentration in the Action Plan atmosphere • Depletion of ozone layer Natural factors Natural • Frequencies • Global warming/cooling • Early warning systems occurrences • severity • Floods • Disaster preparedness and response (ENSO, sunspot • Variability • Drought • Mapping of risk areas activities, volcanic • Landslides eruptions • Transport disruption &earthquakes) • Loss of lives and property • Pollution Urbanization Expansion /growth, • Level of GHG • Pollution • Urban planning policies concentration • Degradation • Devolved systems of governance into the • Warming of the • Upgrading informal settlements in atmosphere atmosphere (heat island urban areas. • LU/LC effects) • Waste management

Driver Pressure State Impact Responses Land use/Land • Demand • Settlement • Degradation • Conservation strategies/policies cover change • Population • Agriculture • Change in rainfall patterns • Climate smart agriculture • Mining • Habitat/biodiversity loss • Afforestation/reforestation • Industrialization programmes • Infrastructure development

3.3.6 Opportunities and Endowment Value of Climate Change Although climate change is a threat due to its impacts on the country’s economy and social activities, it also has environmental opportunities for public and private investments. The opportunities are in respect to advancements, gains and profits that the country will get by developing strategies to mitigating and adapting to climate change through investments. These include development through Clean Development Mechanism funds (CDM) from GEF, Capacity building for those who are involved in the projects and employment opportunities. Greening the economy refers to a process of balancing development with the environment sustainability to ensure better returns on natural, human and economic capital investments, while reducing greenhouse-gas emissions, waste and social disparities.

A green economy means investments in economic activities that promote sustainability of natural environment. Such opportunities include investments in renewable energy, energy saving products, low-carbon transport, energy- efficient building, clean technologies, improved waste management, improved freshwater provision, sustainable agriculture and fisheries and forest management.

Kenya is already experiencing high temperatures and highly variable precipitation while their economies remain dependent on rainfed agriculture. Poverty remains widespread; and infrastructure under-developed. In order to devise adaptation strategies for smallholders in Kenya, researchers need to assess the impact of climate change and variability on the agriculture sector and economy.

3.3.7 Kenya’s National Communications Kenya’s first national communication to the UNFCCC was submitted in 2002. At the point of reporting, Kenya did not have an MRV system for tracking fluxes in GHGs in the land sector. Using mostly internationally accepted defaults, the report used the limited available data on land use and land use change combined with international default values across the various pools on which it reported.

Importantly, the report was based on 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National GHG Inventories. In the interim years, the reporting guidance has been significantly refined by many developments including the 2003 IPCC LULUCF Good Practice Guidelines and the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories.

The second national communication is in draft form and may be submitted to the UNFCCC secretariat in 2015.

3.3.8 Approaches to Estimation of Emissions The approaches to estimating emissions from the land-based sector represent the contextual realties that a country is using to create their report. These approaches 57

vary in their methods for estimating the emissions and similar to the tiers, have three basic iterations, Approaches 1, 2 and 3.

Approach 1: This approach is defined by reporting on the total land area, disaggregated by the six IPCC land use categories, but without data on conversions between the various land uses. The total land area is usually the political boundaries of the country, and the disaggregated land uses should add up to the total land area of the country. Approach 1 tracks land use changes by simply tracking the change to the total area in a given land use. However, it does not attribute land use conversion from one land use to another and it is not spatially explicit and so patterns of land use change are not attributable to specific areas. This is usually because data on land use changes, and location of those changes is unavailable. Results for this approach can be presented in a table form, without spatially explicit representation.

Approach 2: This approach is similar to Approach 1 but with the added specificity of tracking land use changes from one of the six IPCC land use categories to another. For example, the approach demonstrates that the changes observed in a forest land total land area are due to forest land being converted specifically to another use such as cropland. Again, the data can be presented in a table or a matrix, showing the land area changes between land use categories. It is not spatially explicit. As such Approach 2 also often excludes tracking of lands through multiple classes (for example, several conversions on one land unit. This is important in areas where land use is dynamic.

Approach 3: This approach builds on the previous approaches by presented the land use and land use change data of the AFOLU sector in a spatially explicit manner. The data that is key to this is spatial location information from each of the land use changes over time. This allows for analysis that is linked to specific land use category changes with known carbon stock amounts, and therefore potential emissions profiles for those changes when tracked. It helps decision makers see exactly where land use conversions are taking place, mapping them against known land class strata and inferring emissions fluxes that could be associated with those land use changes over time. The results of Approach 3 can be represented in Land Area Matrices as used in Approach 2, but in this case are a summary of the land use data rather than an input to emissions estimation.

More information on each of these Approaches is available in the 2006 IPCC Guidance on National GHG Inventories, Vol. 4, Chapter 3.

Sleek Project in Kenya SLEEK is Kenya’s system for emissions estimation from the land-based sectors, including Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Uses (AFOLU). It is anticipated that SLEEK, using a Tier 3 Approach 3 will be able to support the GOK in the formation of the national communication and to BURs to the UNFCCC by supplying emissions flux information on the sources and sinks articulated in the 2006 Guidance.

SLEEK can provide specific information and expertise in: • Directly providing inputs to meet GOK’s international reporting obligations for GHG emissions the AFOLU sector specifically and, • Providing projections that act as a decision support tool for future planning and scenarios at national and local levels as well as other applications such as the State of Environment reporting etc. • SLEEK should also be able to produce guidance for key areas for potential mitigation measures.

To achieve this, SLEEK will bring together five key data sets: • Soil data providing information about soil nutrient and carbon levels; • Data showing forest distribution in Kenya and how much carbon is stored; • Comprehensive weather maps, showing key climate indicators across the country; • Information about Kenya’s key crops including how much carbon is stored by different crops; • Land cover maps of Kenya showing how land-use has changed.

3.3.9 Partnership Opportunities Partnerships for improved climate change management are bound in Kenya. Key development partners have come together to form a Donor Climate Change Coordination Group. They include the World Bank, DANIDA, USAID, JICA, SIDA and FINNIDA. They support activities at national and county levels. Regional climate change partnerships under the auspices of the EAC, COMESA, IGAD and AU seek to enhance resource mobilization, mitigation and adaptation, capacity building and technology transfer. The EAC Climate Change Policy and Master Plan provides a number of guidelines that partner states and other stakeholders can use in the preparation and implementation of collective measures to address climate change. COMESA operates a carbon fund that encompasses a range of climate change initiatives in carbon sequestration such as clean energy, forestry, agricultural conservation, land use and other low carbon projects such as the Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD). The African Ministers’ Conference on the Environment (AMCEN) also addresses climate change-related developments and environmental initiatives.

Some of the ongoing regional projects in Kenya for climate change include:

• Climate Change Adaptation in Africa (CCAA) that focuses on research and capacity development to improve the capacity of vulnerable communities to adapt to climate change. • The Africa Adaptation Programme (AAP) which aims to strengthen Kenya’s institutional and systemic capacity to implement the NCCRS and to address climate change risks and opportunities through a national approach to adaptation. • Kenya Adaptation to Climate Change in Arid and semi-arid Lands (KACCAL) which aims to facilitate long-term adaptation of the key stakeholders in the ASALs to climate change.

Kenya is signatory to and ratified the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Kenya’s commitments under the UNFCCC include: periodic updates and publication for inventories of anthropogenic , implementation of national and regional mitigation and adaptation programmes.

Articles 4-7 of the UNFCCC present opportunities for Kenya to access international funding through the Global Environment Facility (GEF) for inventorying GHG emissions, technology development, transfer and diffusion; capacity building; adaptation; mitigation; research; training, education and public awareness. Further, under Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol, resources can be accessed under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). However, only three CDM projects have been registered in Kenya. These are Ol Karia II Geothermal Expansion project; Ol Karia III Phase II Geothermal Expansion project; and Lake Turkana 310 MW Wind Power project (UNFCCC 2011).

An initial estimate of immediate needs for addressing current and future climate change impacts is US $500 million per year. The cost of climate change adaptation alone could increase to between$1-2 billion per year (SEI 2009) by 2030. Clearly, effective mitigation and adaptation mechanisms need to be devised urgently if Kenya is to remain on course to accomplishing the social and economic targets specified in Vision 2030. The urgency with which these remedial measures should be instituted is informed by the stark projection by the Stern report that climate change could cost African countries in excess of 20 percent of GDP per year by 2100.

3.3.10 Conclusion and Recommendations The African continent is particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change because of factors such as widespread poverty, recurrent droughts, inequitable land distribution, and overdependence on rain-fed agriculture. Although adaptation options, including traditional coping strategies, theoretically are available, in practice the human, infrastructural, and economic response capacity to effect timely response actions may well be beyond the economic means of some countries.

Kenya, like the rest of the world, is experiencing adverse impacts of climate change and variability which has the potential to derail attainment of the Vision 2030 goals. While the trajectories of future climate change and variability impacts in Kenya are uncertain, there is need to institute robust strategies to prepare for the uncertain future rather than using uncertainty as a reason for inaction. In addition to formulating a national climate change policy and enacting a climate change law, there is need to implement the following recommendations:

• Identify potential opportunities presented by climate change and variability (such as carbon trading). • Establish specialized institutions and centres of excellence that will enable Kenya to enunciate the science-policy nexus, and allocate funds to adequately research feasible mitigation and adaptation mechanisms. • Develop early warning systems and link climate change and disaster risk reduction at all levels. • Enhance communication of climate change adaptation and mitigation programmes at the national and community levels in order to upscale monitoring and reporting. • Use a number of policy and financial instruments to encourage use of alternative, cleaner sources of energy that are gentler on our climate systems. These could consist of command and control legal provisions, taxes that are predicated on the ‘polluter pays’ principle, green budgeting and a range of fiscal incentives.

CHAPTER 4: WATER RESOURCES AND POLLUTION

INTRODUCTION

Water is a component of all life and is the most essential of our natural resources. It comprises about 70 percent of the Earth's surface and 75 percent of the human body. Of that 70 percent of surface water, only 1 percent is actually drinkable. It is needed to keep the ecosystem in balance. Water is one of the most important resources for production and human well-being.

Kenya has an area of about 582 646 km2. Water occupies about 1.9 % or 11,230 km2 leaving 571 416 km2 to the dry land of which more than two-thirds is either semi arid or arid. This means only between 142 314 and 189 562 km2 of the land can be used profitably with rain-fed agriculture although there a large potential for irrigation in the ASALs if the required investment is availed (irrigation, water storage and water harvesting infrastructure).

4.1 WATER RESOURCES

In Kenya, water resources are represented by lakes, rivers, ocean, swamps, springs as well as dams/water pans and groundwater. The National Water Master Plan, 1992 estimated the natural renewable freshwater to be about 20.2 BCM (Billion Cubic Metres). Based on this report Tables 7 & 8 provides an overview of the renewable water resources, both surface and groundwater, and water abstraction from each of the five drainage basins.

Some environmental concerns related to water, such as droughts and most floods, are naturally occurring. Others are caused by human activities. Humans can affect water resources by changing the use, distribution, quantity, or quality of water. Human activities have caused catchment degradation, changes in land use, and contamination of water supplies. Many of the changes humans impose on water systems can cause undesirable impacts on watersheds and their ecosystems. Increased awareness of these concerns is the first step towards balancing the needs of humans and nature and becoming sound stewards of essential and valuable water resources. Table 7: Average annual water availability per drainage basin Drainage Basin Annual Rainfall Surface Water Ground Total Water (mm) (MCM) Water (MCM) (MCM)

Lake Victoria 1,368 1, 672 116 11,788 Rift Valley 562 2,784 126 2,910 Athi River 739 1,152 87 1,239 Tana River 697 3 ,744 147 3,891 Ewaso Ng’iro North 411 339 142 481 Total 621 19,691 618 20,309 Source: Adapted from (National Water Master Plan, 1992; National Water Master Plan (NWMP) Aftercare, 1998;

However, the National Water Master Plan 2030 gives a completely different estimate, especially with respect to ground water resources. In the NWMP 1992 groundwater resources estimates amounted to about 0.6 Billion Cubic Metres per annum while in NWMP 2030 is put at about 56 BCM/year as shown in Table 9. This was arrived at by calculating the infiltration of part of the precipitation in groundwater. Table 8: Annual renewable water resources (mcm/year) 2010 2030 2050 Source Surface Water 20,637 24,894 26,709 Groundwater Recharge 21,462 19,419 19,291 Total Renewable Water Resources 41,099 44,313 46,000

Table 9: Annual renewable surface water resources by catchment (Mcm/year) Catchment Area (km2) 2010 2030 2050 Lake Victoria North 18,374 4,626 4,969 5,455 Lake Victoria South 31,734 4,773 5,749 7,005 Rift Valley 130,452 2,457 3,045 3,794 Athi 58,639 1,198 1,334 1,711 Tana 126,026 5,858 7,261 7,383 Ewaso Ng’iro North 210,226 1,725 2,536 1,361 Total 575,451 20,637 24,894 26,709 Source NWMP 2030 Surface Water Resources

Kenya’s surface water resources are distributed within five drainage basins: the Tana, Athi, Ewaso Ng’iro North, Rift Valley and Lake Victoria Basin

4.1.1 Proportion of Water for Domestic, Irrigation, Industry and Other Uses

Kenya with a population of 38 610 097 (2009 census) faces enormous challenge of providing water and sewerage services to the increasing population. Most of the population live in rural areas (over 26 million), while more than 12 million lived in urban areas about 50% of which live in informal settlements.

The latest estimates for water demand so far are given by the National Water Master Plan (NWMP). It gives demands for domestic water supply, irrigation, livestock, industry, fisheries and wildlife. Irrigation demand is the largest at about 75% of all demand (Table 10). Table 10: Present and future water demands by sector (before water balance study) 2010 (MCM/year) 2030 (MCM/year) 2050 (MCM/year) Subsector Domestic 1,186 2,561 3,657 Industrial 125 280 613 Irrigation 1,602 18,048 18,048 Livestock 255 497 710 Wildlife 8 8 8 Fisheries 42 74 105 Total 3,218 21,468 23,141 Source: The National Water Master Plan 2030

4.2 RIVER FLOW LEVELS/VOLUMES BY BASINS Table 11 indicates the annual water availability from different water basins comparing L Victoria, Rift Valley, Athi River, Tana River and Ewaso ng’iro North basins.

Table 11: Average annual water availability per drainage basin Drainage Basin Annual Surface Ground Total Rainfall (mm) Water Water (MCM) Water (MCM) (MCM) Lake Victoria 1,368 1, 672 116 11,788 Rift Valley 562 2,784 126 2,910 Athi River 739 1,152 87 1,239 Tana River 697 3 ,744 147 3,891 Ewaso Ng’iro North 411 339 142 481 Total 621 19,691 618 20,309 Source: Adapted from National Water Master Plan, 1992; Aftercare, 1998;

4.3 GROUND WATER LEVELS BY POTENTIAL/VOLUMES Annual sustainable yield of groundwater in BCM in comparison to the annual recharge per catchment area as estimated by NWMP 2030 is given in Table 12. The table also shows the annual yield of ground water compared to recharge in the various catchments. Table 12: Annual sustainable yield of groundwater compared to annual recharge (unit:BCM) Catchment 2010 2030 2050 Recharge Safe yield Recharge Safe yield Recharge Safe yield Lake Victoria North 1,326 116 1,251 108 1,612 140 Lake Victoria South 2,294 203 2,111 188 2,126 190 Rift Valley 1,126 102 1,126 102 1,209 109 Athi 3,345 305 3,303 300 3,649 332 Tana 7,719 675 6,520 567 5,840 508 Ewaso Ng’iro North 1,725 526 2,536 475 1,361 449 Total 21,462 1,927 19,407 1,740 19,287 1,728 Source: Adapted from Annual Water Sector Review 2012-2013

4.4 PROPORTION OF POPULATION USING IMPROVED SANITATION FACILITIES Tables 13 and 14 highlight indicators of sanitation as compared with water availability. The quality of the water varies with the facilities in place. For example, piped water would be of better quality than the stream and pond sources.

Table 13: Current situation of water supply in 2010 (Unit: million persons) Drinking Water Piped by Spring/ Water Stream, lake Total Source/Evaluation WSP Well/ Vendor pond, others Borehole Urban Population 7.1 3.1 1.7 1.2 13.1 Rural Population 4.1 10.9 0.5 9.9 25.4 Total 11.2 14.0 2.2 11.1 38.5

Table 14: Current situation of sanitation in 2010 (Unit: million persons) Sanitation Sewerage Septic Tank, Pit No Treatment Total Latrine, Cesspool (Bush, other) Urban Population 2.4 9.2 1.6 13.1 Rural Population 0.0 20.1 5.3 25.4 National Average 2.4 2.2 6.9 38.5

Table 15 shows the water and sanitation coverage. Access to water treatment facilities is also an indicator of the state of sanitation. Table 15: Water and sanitation coverage Year 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13 Rural Water Supply 52 59.7 61.7 Urban Water Supply 41 45.2 47.1 Average -- 51.2 53.3 Rural Sanitation 69 69.1 70.6 Urban sanitation 69 81 0 Average 66.7 66.7

The Master Plan has estimated demands per the six water catchment areas are highlighted in Table 16.

Table 16: Available water resources and water demands projections by catchment area Catchment 2010 (MCM/year) 2030 (MCM/year) 2050 (MCM/year) Water Water (b)/(a Water Water (b)/(a) Water Water (b)/(a) Resources Demand Resources Demand Resources Demand (a) (b) (a) (b)

Lake 4,742 228 5% 5,077 337 26% 5,595 1,573 28% Victoria North Lake 4,976 385 8% 5,937 2,953 50% 7,195 3,251 45% Victoria South Rift Valley 2,559 357 14% 3,147 1,494 47% 3,903 1,689 Athi 1,503 1,145 76% 1,634 4,586 281% 2,043 5,202 255% Tana 6,533 891 14% 7,828 8,241 105% 7,891 8,476 107% Ewaso 2,251 212 9% 3,011 2,857 95% 1,810 2,950 163% Ng’iro North Total 22,564 3,218 14% 26,634 21,468 81% 28,437 23,141 81%

The Master Plan also determines several demand centres where there are or would be water deficits. These demand centres include Nairobi, Mombasa and Kisumu cities, Kakamega Eldoret, Nakuru and other smaller towns.

4.5 IRRIGATION WATER DEMAND It is estimated that Kenya has an irrigation potential of 539 000 hectares (ha). Additionally, the country has a potential of 600 000ha that can be developed through drainage and flood protection. With water harvesting and storage interventions, the irrigation potential could be increased to more than 1.3 million ha. Under Vision 2030, the area under irrigation is to be increased to 1.2 million ha by 2030. The developed areas against irrigation potentials can be seen in the Table 17. Table 17: Irrigation development target area for 2030 (Unit: ha) Catchment Area LVN LVS RV Athi Tana ENN Total Existing Irrigation 1,876 13,218 9,587 44,898 64,425 7,896 141,900 Area (in 2010) New Irrigation Area 90,786 186,978 63,493 233,628 482,450 142,665 1,200,000 (in 2030) Total 92,662 200,196 73,080 278,526 546,875 150,561 1,341,900 Source: NWMP 2030, based on data on potential agricultural area proposed by MOA

However, according to the NWMP 2030 this target may not be realized due to non- availability of irrigation water. On that account it is envisaged that the potential for irrigation is as given in the table 18. Table 18: Possible irrigation area estimated by water balance study (Unit: ha) Item LVNCA LVSCA RVCA ACA TCA ENNCA Total Existing 1,876 13,218 9,587 44,898 64,425 7,896 141,900 Irrigation Area New Irrigation 161,645 101,749 52,185 32,070 135,961 26,202 509,812 Area Total 163,521 114,967 61,772 76,968 200,386 34,098 651,712 Source: NWMP 2030

4.6 LEVEL IN WATER STORAGE CAPACITY Water is not always available when and where it is needed thus, storage and/or diversion systems have been developed to help meet this need. The most common surface-water structure for storage and transfer of water is a reservoir and canal system.

4.7 WATER BASINS IN THE COUNTRY

Lake Victoria Basin The Lake Victoria basin covers only 8% of the total area of Kenya but accounts for over 54 % of the national freshwater resources. The quantity of water in Lake Victoria is regulated by rainfall, evaporation and inflows from the rivers within the lake basin and outflows via river Nile. The main rivers from the Kenyan catchment are Sio, Nzoia, Yala, Nyando, Sondu-Miriu, North Awach, South Awach and Gucha- Migori.

The Rift Valley Basin With an Area of about 130 452 km2, this basin consists of a number of closed basins. These include those discharging into Lake Turkana in the North through the Turkwel and Kerio rivers and those draining into Lake Natron in the south through the Ewaso Ngiro South River. The smaller lakes such as Lake Baringo, Lake Bogoria, Lake Nakuru, Lake Elementeita, Lake Naivasha and Lake Magadi also form individual basins. Nearly all the major lakes in Kenya are found in the Rift Valley. Their water quality varies from fresh (L. Naivasha and L. Baringo), through brackish (L. Turkana) to saline (L. Magadi). Lake Naivasha (Ramsar Site) supports a highly significant flower-based horticultural industry and some fisheries. It provides water for domestic and livestock use. The source of water for the steam used by the Ol- Karia geothermal power plant is thought to originate in this lake through subterranean seepage. The Lake’s environs, including its rich biodiversity, are highly attractive for tourism. Unfortunately, the use of the lake’s resources, notably its water and riparian lands, are largely uncontrolled and serious concern has arisen about the sustainability of the activities.

Athi River Basin With an area of 67 000 km2, this basin comprises the southern part of the country east of the Rift Valley, and drains the southern slopes of the Aberdares Range and the flanks of the Rift Valley, as well as the North Eastern slopes of Mt Kilimanjaro to form the Athi River finally flowing into the Indian Ocean. The upper portion of the river basin drains an area that is very active with high potential in terms of agriculture and industrial basis. The area has several urban centres including Nairobi and Mombasa.

Athi River, whose length is approximately 591 km, has an average width of 44.76 m, average depth of 0.29m and average flow rate of 6.76 m3/sec is the main river traversing this basin. The river tributaries traversing urban centres have poor water quality due to untreated or semi-treated municipal and industrial discharges.

Tana River Basin The river basin has an area of 127,000 km2. This basin drains the eastern slopes of the Aberdares range, the southern slopes of Mt. Kenya and the Nyambene hills, and discharges through the Tana River into the Indian Ocean. Just like the Athi River Basin, Tana River Basin drains an area that has high population, is highly urbanized and of high agricultural activities.

The main river traversing this Basin is Tana River whose length from the furthest source to Indian Ocean is approximately 1,050 km, with an average width of 39.3 m, mean depth 2.5m and an average flow rate of 41.98m3/sec. Its mean annual discharge at Garissa is 5Bm3. Portions of this basin include agriculturally high potential areas despite the fact that about 80% of this basin is ASAL that would require some form of irrigation in order to grow crops. The river is the major source of hydropower generation potential in the country, estimated at 960 MW. Some of the problems afflicting this river basin are water short falls arising from excessive abstractions, water conflicts arising from water use between upstream and downstream users and issues dealing with pollution of the basins water resources.

Ewaso Ng’iro-North River Basin With an area of 209 000 km2, this comprises the Northern part of Kenya, and drains the northern slopes of the Aberdare Range and Mt. Kenya. Even during the flood season, Ewaso Ng’iro river is absorbed in the Lorian Swamp, though in some years its flow continues into Somali Republic. In this Basin, there is increasing demand for irrigation water, which in turn is posing a threat of water conflicts.

4.8 GROUNDWATER RESOURCES Besides surface water, Kenya is endowed with groundwater resources. Areas that receive low rainfall and runoff such as Ewaso Ng’iro basin are largely dependent on groundwater as a reliable source. Groundwater is also an important supplementary source in urban centres such as Nairobi, Mombasa, and Nakuru

Previous estimates (NWMP, 1992) indicated that Kenya's groundwater water resource was about 4% of the total renewable water resource in Kenya. Improvements of technology and geological mapping have demonstrated that the potential of groundwater resources in Kenya is huge. According to the NWMP 2030, groundwater is now thought to comprise almost 50% of the national freshwater source. Further, results from recent state-of-the-art research in Turkana significantly raise the prospect of groundwater resources.

Annual sustainable yield of groundwater in BCM in comparison to the annual recharge per catchment area as estimated by NWMP 2030 is given in Table 18.

4.9 WATER QUALITY AND CATCHMENT DEGRADATION An overview of the present water quality status of the water resources in the country indicates that most water resources have degraded due to unsustainable land and water use practices. Consequently, the physical chemical analyses of surface waters show a high concentration of dissolved and suspended matter towards the beginning of the rainy season. The water quality of each drainage basin is summarized in the Table 19.

Table 19: Water quality for the drainage basins Basin Surface Water Quality Groundwater Quality Lake Victoria Lake itself has fresh water. Rivers exhibit variable Over 90% of boreholes drilled have seasonal water quality-water in rivers is turbid, good water quality, which is fresh and coloured and silt laden in rain seasons. In upper free from high levels of dissolved salts. reaches, water is of good quality. Rift Valley Only Lake Naivasha has fresh water. The other lakes in Mostly fresh, neutral, soft and free from the basin have brackish to saline waters. In the upper colour and turbidity. 50% of tested parts of the rivers, water is of good quality but in lower borehole waters have fluoride levels parts high siltation and agricultural pollutants affect above 1.5ppm. water quality. Athi In upper reaches, water is of good quality in dry Over 50% of boreholes contain hard periods but gets very turbid during the rainy season. and saline water. At coastal area, Water quality deteriorates downstream due to sewage pollution and seawater pollution from municipal wastes, domestic sewage, intrusion affect the water quality. High industrial effluents and agricultural activities. local variations occur in water quality. Parts of the basin have high fluoride levels, hardness, high iron and manganese contents. Tana Generally of good quality. Pollution from municipal Generally fresh and free from colour sewage, agrochemicals and siltation affects some and turbidity. Hardness varies from soft rivers in this basin. Quality deteriorates gradually to moderately soft. High fluoride levels downstream. in parts of the basin. Ewaso Ng’iro Rivers have high turbidity due to agricultural activities. Water often hard with variable salinity levels. Nitrate contamination has been detected and is due to accumulation of livestock waste at watering points Source: Ministry of Water and Irrigation, Water Quality and Pollution Control Division

4.10 CATCHMENT DEGRADATION Catchment degradation is a major problem, which is undermining the limited sustainable water resources base in the country resulting in increased runoff, flash flooding, reduced infiltration, erosion and siltation. The main causes of catchment degradation include population pressure and deforestation resulting from destruction of natural vegetation through such activities as poor farming practices, (over-cultivation and over-grazing), poorly environmentally assessed developments like infrastructure, forest excision for settlement, wood fuel, illegal logging and human encroachment, excess abstractions of surface and groundwater, high nutrient levels causing eutrophication of lakes, dams and pans, toxic chemicals, including agricultural pesticides, and heavy metals which are toxic to aquatic life as well as other water users including humans. Degradation of the water resource base of the country causes chronic and long term problems. This is in contrast to the episodic nature of climate variability discussed above. The effects of water resource degradation are not always

apparent because of the incremental nature of the degradation and are often felt at a distance (in time and space) from the source of degradation.

4.11 TRANS-BOUNDARY WATERS About 54% of Kenya’s water resources are shared with other countries. Through the Lake Victoria Basin, Kenya provides about 45% of surface water inflows to Lake Victoria, and hence to the upper Nile. Kenya also shares a large amount of other important surface and groundwater resources with its neighbours – Ethiopia, Sudan, Tanzania, Somalia and Uganda as shown in Table 20.

Table 20: Water bodies shared by Kenya with its neighbours Water Body Shared with Lake Victoria Uganda and Tanzania Lake Natron Tanzania Lake Turkana (River Omo) Ethiopia Lakes Jipe and Chala Tanzania Mara River Tanzania Rivers Umba and Lumi Tanzania Rivers Sio, Malaba and Malakisi Uganda Daua River Ethiopia and Somalia Merti Aquifer Somalia Kilimanjaro Aquifer Tanzania

4.12 EXTREME EVENTS Drought is a recurring phenomenon and its impact on water resources is usually devastating. Floods lead to disasters particularly in low-lying areas. The latest drought experienced in most parts of the country was during 2008/2009. This was followed by El-Niño type rains towards the end of 2009 continuing till April/May 2010 with a lot of flooding.

4.13 WATER MONITORING

There are several issues and challenges that need to be taken into account when undertaking sustainable water resources management.

Kenya experiences wide climatic variations both in time and space. There is considerable spatial variability in rainfall received ranging from 250mm per year in ASAL areas to 2000mm per year in the high mountain areas. About two thirds of the country receives less than 500mm of annual. Thus water resources (both surface and groundwater) are unevenly distributed within the country. For instance Lake Victoria basin is endowed with the largest availability. Water demand in some urban centres is being met from water abstracted from a different catchment or drainage basin. For example Nairobi receives the bulk of its water supply from the Tana River Basin, which accounts for the 15.9% water 70

abstraction from the basin. Also the country experiences droughts and floods every three to four years.

Most of Kenya’s surface water originates in localized catchments in five highland areas commonly referred to as “Kenya’s water towers”. Protection of these water towers is therefore of paramount importance.

Over half of Kenya’s water resources; both ground and surface water are shared with her neighbours. Management and utilization of trans-boundary waters presents more challenges compared to national waters. As an example, Lake Victoria Basin is one of the water surplus areas of Kenya but as shared resource large-scale use of the water resources in this basin calls for trust and confidence built amongst the riparian countries.

Kenya and her neighbours are in the process of coming together in order to cooperate and share the benefits accruing from their shared water resources. At the Regional level, the Lake Victoria Tripartite agreement set the stage for the Lake Victoria Environment Programme a tripartite agreement between Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania has been reached. This agreement has established the Lake Victoria Environment Management Project (LVEMP) with the aim of rehabilitating the Lake Victoria ecosystem.

On the wider front the Nile Basin Initiative (NBI) provides the basis for cooperation of all riparian countries in the development of the water resources of the Nile Basin. The emphasis is towards the need for equitable sharing of the benefits, the sustainability of water resources, the need to build trust and cooperation between riparian countries and the need for protection of resources.

Although groundwater is widely available in Kenya exploitation and use is sometimes limited by poor water quality, over exploitation, saline intrusion along the Coastal areas and inadequate knowledge of the occurrence of the resource.

Pollution caused by fertilizer and municipal sewerage plants, partially treated or untreated industrial effluents containing high levels of organics, metals and other toxic substances.

The current water storage of 4.079 billion m3 out of the available renewable water of 76 billion is dismally compared to countries with similar climatic regimes such as South Africa (756 m3 per capita), China (2,486m3 per capita), Brazil (3,255 m3 per capita) and Australia (4,729m3 per capita). The inadequacy of a reliable and timely water resource assessment. This comprises the continuous measurement and recording of water resources data, including their quantity and quality and the various human and other factors which affect the resource. In the recent past the water resources monitoring network has undergone much deterioration. In order to provide a basis for planning and management of water resources the water assessment and monitoring networks (for surface and ground water quantity and quality aspects) need to be rehabilitated and improved. At the same time 71

research in water sector is essential if the country is to achieve its long-term water resources management targets. Table 21 shows the status of water monitoring network as per 2009. In this financial year there was program to improve the monitoring network although Table 22 shows some of the rehabilitated stations.

Table 21: Water resources operational monitoring stations (2009) Drainage Area River gauging Water Groundwater Level Rainfall stations Quality (B/hole) monitoring St. stations stations Lake Victoria North 34 57 14 26 Lake Victoria South 38 45 11 53 Rift Valley 42 26 26 26 Athi 30 40 33 27 Tana 51 57 18 36 Ewaso Ng’iro North 40 32 13 12 Total 235 257 115 180 Source: WRMA (2011) Table 22: Progress on the improvement of hydrological stations 2011/12 1st Quarter 2nd Quarter 3rd Quarter Total Established 2 1 3 6 Rehabilitated 4 3 24 31 Upgraded 12 6 - 18 Total 18 10 27 55 Source: WRMA (2013) 4.14 MAIN GROUNDWATER AQUIFERS Kenya consists of three major rock types which influence the hydro-geological condition of the country. The rock types are the volcanic rocks, metamorphic basement and intrusive rocks and the Sedimentary rocks. The groundwater resources are, therefore, spread over the three hydro-geological formations, namely, volcanic rocks in and out of the Rift Valley; Basement rocks and the eastern and western quaternary sedimentary rocks.

Prospecting for water resources in deep aquifers (>300m) has started with regional mapping of the Turkana Basin. Initial results show that there are good chances of striking potable water of between 400 to 600m below ground level. Moreover, it is now thought that there exists a deep aquifer in the coastal region of Kenya due to the discovery of such an aquifer in the Tanzanian Coast (Tanga-Dar esalaam area).

From the existing information Kenya’s groundwater potential is extremely variable, both spatially and temporally, in quality and quantity, and in terms of depth to the water table. Recharge varies from less than 5 percent of the annual rainfall in the arid and semi-arid lands where evapotranspiration losses are high,

to 30 percent in areas of deep sandy soils, coral limestone, and unconsolidated rocks where evapotranspiration losses are low. In humid and semi-humid regions recharge rates may be higher.

4.14.1 Classification of aquifers The various aquifers in the country have been classified into four broad categories with respect to their perceived importance. The classification helps in determining the quality and quantity of each aquifer recognizing the value and vulnerability to different management regimes. The classification is shown in Table 23.

Table 23: Classification of Kenya’s aquifers Description Examples Class Strategic Aquifer used to supply significant Sabaki, Tiwi, Nairobi, aquifer amount/proportions of water in a given Central Merti, Nakuru, area and for which there are no alternative Kabatini, Lake resources, where such resources would Naivasha, Lamu Island take time and money to develop, significant transboundary aquifers Major High-yields aquifer systems with good Daua and Elgon aquifer quality water volcanics Minor Moderate-yield aquifer systems with Mandera Jurassics aquifer variable water quality Poor aquifer Low to-negligible yield aquifer systems Aquifers in Basement with moderate to poor water quality rocks Special Aquifer systems designated as such by Isinya aquifer WRMA

For sustainable utilization of groundwater resources it is important that studies are conducted to determine the current abstraction levels from aquifers in different parts of the country and encourage such exploitation where appropriate as and when quality and quantity allow.

4.15 WATER RESOURCE SITUATION FOR 2012-13

The water resources situation in this country highly depends on the amount of rainfall and how it is distributed both in terms of time and space. Below is a summary of how the rainfall was received in the different parts of the country in the past four seasons (July-September 2012, October-December, 2012, January – February 2013 and March-May 2013). The summary is based on reports from the Meteorological Department.

During the period June-August 2012 the Western parts of the country continued to record significant amounts of rainfall that was well distributed within the region. The rainfall occasionally spread to the Central highlands (Aberdare Ranges and Mt. Kenya high grounds) and Nairobi area. Depressed rainfall was however,

experienced along the coastal strip while the rest of the country remained generally dry.

The performance of rainfall during the short rains season (October-December 2012) was almost normal over most parts of the country. However, several stations along the Coast and some parts of north western, western and central Kenya recorded above normal rainfall for the season.

Generally, during the first two months of 2013, sunny and dry weather conditions prevailed over most parts of the country. This was more so in February when most stations in the country recorded monthly rainfall totals of less than 10mm. The first half of January 2013 was however generally wet over western Kenya and some parts of central highlands including Nairobi.

This year’s ‘Long Rains’ season (March to May 2013) enhanced rainfall (> 125% of the Long Term Means) was reported over most parts of the country. This was clearly evident over the North West, North East, parts of Highlands East of the Rift Valley as well as North Coast and parts of South-eastern lowlands. The rainfall distribution was, however, poor over the North Western parts where much of the rainfall was realized in very few days of the season.

Due to the enhanced rainfall recorded throughout the country both positive and negative impacts on various sectors such as agriculture, environment, energy and livestock were reported. These include: • Good crop performance over most parts of the country especially the western highlands • Good pasture and water availability for livestock in most of the pastoral areas; • Enhanced water levels in the hydroelectric power generating dams due to enhanced rainfall in the respective catchment areas. • Flash floods left a trail of destruction including destruction of property and sweeping away of planted crops in some areas; • Flooding in schools and homes as well as rendering thousands people homeless with some loss of lives; • Landslides in some parts of the country also rendered several families homeless as well causing human deaths; 4.16 WATER POLLUTION Pollution of water resources is a relatively major problem in Kenya. The ppollution kills life that depends on these water bodies. Dead fish, crabs, birds, dolphins, and many other animals are often killed by pollutants in their habitat (living environment). Table 24 highlights the major sources of pollution in Kenya that include: • Organic residues from municipal sewage • Industrial sources including Tanneries, pulp and paper milling, Heavy chemical Industries, and Textile factories • Agro-chemicals and agro-based industries such as Coffee and Sugar factories, 74

• Agricultural activities which include Fertilizers and pesticides • Sediment load due to soil erosion • Water pollution not only creates health hazards but also reduces industrial capacity through cost arising from removing pollutants, destroys ecosystem and affect biodiversity.

Table 24: Pollutant discharge load by sector Pollution Source Typical BOD Level of Typical COD Level of Raw Raw Effluent, mg/l Effluent, mg/l Industry -- --- Coffee Pulping 3 000 – 9 000 3 000 – 28 000 Textile 1 500 3 300 Leather Tanning 1 500 --- Paper and Pulp 1 500 --- Slaughter House 1 400 2 100 Fruit Canning 2 000 -- Milk Processing 1 000 1 900 Domestic Waste 500 -- Agriculture -- -- Cattle Pen washings 1 500 -- Pig Sty Slurry 15 000 -- Poultry Manure 30 000 -- Source: WRMA (2013) Pollution disrupts the natural food chain as well. Pollutants such as lead and cadmium are eaten by water animals. Later, these animals are consumed by fish and the food chain continues to be disrupted at all higher levels

Managing Water Pollution

Water pollution could be managed through several strategies which could be categorized under, Education / Awareness Creation, Enactment and Enforcement of Appropriate Laws and Others.

Education/Awareness Creation The general public should be made aware of the water pollution sources, causes and their impact to human and environmental health. However, public awareness in Kenya on water pollution is very low. Enactment and Enforcement of Appropriate Laws Water pollution is generally transboundary in nature. Many rivers cross countries and counties, the same way seas span whole continents. Pollution discharged by factories in one country or county with poor environmental standards can cause problems to its neighbors, even when they have tougher laws and higher standards. Environmental laws can make it tougher for people to pollute, but to be really effective they have to operate across borders. This is why we have international laws governing the oceans, such as the 1982 UN Convention on the

Law of the Sea (signed by over 120 nations), the 1972 London (Dumping) Convention, the 1978 MARPOL International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, and the 1998 OSPAR Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North East Atlantic and the Environmental Management and Coordination Act (EMCA 1999) among others. Others Other strategies of handling water pollution include embracing the “Polluter pays principle”. This means that whoever causes pollution should have to pay to clean it up. Polluter pays principle can operate in all kinds of ways. It could mean that tanker owners should have to take out insurance that covers the cost of oil spill cleanups, for example. It could also mean that shoppers should have to pay for their plastic grocery bags, to encourage recycling and minimize waste. Ultimately, the polluter pays principle is designed to deter people from polluting. The National Environment Management Authority, an institution of EMCA 1999, controls human activities dealing with water resources through licensing. Figures 20,21,22,23 and 24 highlights the waste water licenses issued at various years of reporting from the regions of the coast, North Eastern, Central, Eastern and North Rift. Mombasa and Nairobi show the highest number of licenses given. These are the two regions with the highest population and facilities.

Figure 20. Waste water licenses issued at Coast region

Figure 21. Waste water licenses issued at North Eastern region

Figure 22. Waste water licenses issued at Eastern region

Figure 23. Waste water licenses issued at Central region

Figure 24. Waste water licenses issued at North Rift region. Source: NEMA Annual Report, 2014 There is a need for all interested parties to work together to keep the environment clean so the plants, animals, and people who depend on it remain healthy. We can take individual action to help reduce water pollution, for example, by using environmentally friendly detergents, not pouring oil down drains, reducing pesticides, and so on. We can take community action too, by helping out on cleanups or litter picks to keep our water bodies cleaner. And we can take action at national and county levels to pass laws that will make pollution harder and the environment less polluted. Working together, we can make pollution less of a problem and Kenya a better place.

CHAPTER 5: LAND AND SOILS INTRODUCTION Land is a key resource in Kenya and is the basis of livelihood for vast majority and a foundation of economic development. Land resources are finite, fragile and non- renewable and are considered a capital and asset that provides the essential services for development and human wellbeing. Consequently, the demand and pressure on land is ever increasing. The main driving force leading to pressure on land resources is the increasing rate of population growth; hence demand for more food and shelter (sector plan for land reforms 2013-2017).

5.1 LAND

The unsustainable use of land in urban and rural areas remains a major challenge to all Kenyans due to the serious impact on the environment. Activities contributing to land degradation include unsuitable agricultural land use, poor soil and water management practices, deforestation and overgrazing. Natural disasters, including droughts, floods and landslides, also contribute to land degradation. Change in land use patterns continue to create severe implications on socio-economic development and relationships on the ecosystem functions. The remedy to this will be adoption of appropriate agricultural technologies and formulation of appropriate policies and legislations to guard against further sub division of arable land and ensure enforcement of land use plans (sector plan for land reforms 2013-2017).

5.1.1 Status of Land Resources in Country Kenya occupies 582,646 km2 of land which is categorized as public, community and private. Public land comprises 77,792 km2 and 396, 315 km2 is community land while 107,953 km2 is under private ownership. Forest cover comprises 4.4 per cent against the recommended 10 per cent. The proportion of public and community land is expected to reduce as more land is alienated to individuals and institutions under leasehold terms and as more land is registered through land adjudication. The proportion of private land is therefore expected to continue to increase as more community land is registered and more public land is alienated. The ownership and management of land in each category is governed by various legislations.

Demand for housing in urban areas is estimated at 250,000 housing units against an estimated supply of 50,000 units per year. This shortfall is acute among low- income households whose demand is estimated at 48%. Low-income earners and other vulnerable groups tend to close this gap by living in slums and other informal settlements. The middle-income group is equally disadvantaged because of the high prices of middle income housing, resulting in the supply of affordable housing for this group remaining unattended.

The demand for arable land for food production and infrastructural development (both public and private) is also expected to increase with the number of people which the world must feed is expected to increase by another 50% during the first half of this century. When coupled with significant nutritional improvements for the 2.1 billion people currently living on less than $2/day (World Bank 2012), this translates into a very substantial rise in the demand for agricultural production. In 2013 Kenya reported a decelerated growth in the domestic agricultural production of 2.9 per cent from growth of 3.8 per cent in 2012 partly due to inadequate rainfall received in some grain growing regions (Economic survey 2013).

5.1.2 Land Use and Land Use Change The existing land use plans are isolated and their implementation has been hampered by weak enforcement. Significant tracks of good agricultural land and other valuable areas have been alienated for unrelated uses, thereby contributing to unplanned and unregulated urban. Lack of national policy and appropriate planning has contributed to the emergence of other problems such as such as congestion, pollution and environmental degradation. The sustainable management of biodiversity is a major concern in Kenya and globally. Erosion of biodiversity at an alarming rate due to consumptive uses of species has resulted to excessive alteration of habitats due to human activities such as cultivation; pastoralism and urbanization. Rapid population growth rate in Kenya of 3.9% per annum has accelerated species extinction thus exerting more pressure on available resources (Sector Plan for land reforms 2013-2017).

Sustainable use and sharing of benefits from land based natural resources is gaining popularity in Kenya and globally. Communities, individuals and institutions are increasingly becoming aware of their rights to access and use natural resources. Cumulatively erratic weather conditions, population pressure, increased urban sprawl, industrialization and existence of different property rights regimes have created a paradigm shift in the land use practices and sustainable management of land resources. To help realize the objectives of the Vision 2030 in both the economic and social pillars, the government has initiated several strategic development and investment projects across the country. These include the following: • Standard gauge railway line and Lamu Port, Southern Sudan and Ethiopia Transport (LAPSSET) corridor projects linking the Kenyan and with other East African countries are expected to generate environmental stress i.e. urban industrial wastes, deforestation ,forceful movement of residents and interference with the movement of wildlife along the transport corridor in nearby national parks and game reserves. • 1.6 Million Acre Galana and 0.4 Million Acre Bura and Hola Irrigation scheme is expected destroy forest cover and aquatic life in the area • Expansion of Thika Road super highway has fuelled speculation of land held commercialization purposes and further sub division of land in to 80

smaller units in areas along the super high way and its environ for settlement and industrial use. • Exploration and exploitation of oil in Turkana County, has caused increased tensions and disputes on land among the nomadic population. • Spontaneous shift from traditional agricultural production to real estate development and investment in regions within the Nairobi Metropolitan i.e. Kiambu, Kajiado, Machakos and Murang’a due rapid spread of industrialization and increased demand for housing. • Construction of new cement factories and mining of coal in Kitui has caused degradation and depletion of land to extract raw materials

5.1.3 Land Use Planning Since independence Kenya has never had a comprehensive national land use and urbanization policy that guides and regulates socio economic use of land and urban development. The Ministry of land , housing and urban development is in process of developing national land use and urbanization policy that will provide an appropriate frame work for preparation and implementation of national, sectoral, regional and local area land use plans and will ensure that the planning process is integrated, participatory and meets stakeholder needs. The overall land use framework will define key measures required to address the critical issues of land administration, access to land, land use planning, environmental degradation, proliferation of informal urban settlements and constitutional issues such as compulsory acquisition of land and development control (Sector Plan for Land Reforms 2013-2017).

The Kenya Constitution 2010 has spelt out the distribution of functions and roles on land use and urban planning between the National and County governments and other government institution in the following order:

National government: Policy formulation on land use and urban planning i.e. National land Use and Urban Plan

National land commission: Coordination of implementation of National, sectoral, regional and local area land use plans to ensure compliance.

County of Government: Implementation of county land use and physical development plans

The existing physical development plans are isolated and their implementation has been characterized by weak enforcement and lack of National Land Use Policy. The situation is further complicated by the following:

• Multiplicity of planning agencies on land use management • Lack of integrated spatial and economic planning • Lack of a National Strategy for land development

• Lack or inadequacy of most basic input survey data • Inadequate, outdated and scattered land use information • Institutional weaknesses • Inadequate land use planning at the national county and sectoral levels

Development of National Land Use and urban Policy entails preparation of the following guiding frame works:

National Spatial Plan: This involves preparation of long term plan to guide the sectoral integration and rationalization of social, economic and territorial development of the country.

County Spatial Plan: This involves preparation of guidelines to ensure that all counties follow the same standards in implementation development projects in the country. This involves the following:

• Development of a framework for the preparation of 47 county spatial plans. • Revising and finalizing physical planning manuals and standards • Monitoring and supervision of integrated strategic physical development plans for the major cities and urban areas.

5.1.4 Land Tenure Land tenure systems are the rules invented by societies to regulate how property rights to land are to be allocated within societies. They define how access is granted to rights to use, control, and transfer land, as well as associated responsibilities and restraints. i.e. land tenure systems determine who can use what resources for how long, and under what conditions.

In Kenya Land tenure is often categorized as:

• Private Land: the assignment of rights to a private party who may be an individual, a married couple, a group of people, or a corporate body such as a commercial entity or non-profit organization. For example, within a community, individual families may have exclusive rights to residential parcels, agricultural parcels and certain trees. Other members of the community can be excluded from using these resources without the consent of those who hold the rights. • Community Land: a right of commons may exist within a community where each member has a right to use independently the holdings of the community. For example, members of a community may have the right to graze cattle on a common pasture.

Public Land is defined as:

• Land which at the effective date was unalienated government Land as defined by an Act of Parliament in force at the effective date; • land lawfully held, used or occupied by any State organ, except any such land that is occupied by the State organ as lessee under a private lease; • Land transferred to the State by way of sale, reversion or surrender; • land in respect of which no individual or community ownership can be established by any legal process; • Land in respect of which no heir can be identified by any legal process • All minerals and mineral oils as defined by law; • Government forests other than forests to which Article 63 (2) • Government game reserves, water catchment areas, national parks, government animal sanctuaries, and specially protected areas; • All roads and thorough fares provided for by an Act of Parliament; • All rivers, lakes and other water bodies as defined by an Act of Parliament; • The territorial sea, the exclusive economic zone and the sea bed; • The continental shelf; • All land between the high and low water marks; • Any land not classified as private or community land under this Constitution; and • Any other land declared to be public land by an Act of Parliament-In force at the effective date; or enacted after the effective date.

It should be noted that public land shall vest in and be held by a county government in trust for the people resident in the county, and shall be administered on their behalf by the National Land Commission, if it is classified under Clauses (1) (a), (c), (d) or (e); and (b) clauses (1) (b) of the Constitution. Public land classified under clause (1) (f) to (m) shall vest in and be held by the national government in trust for the people of Kenya and shall be administered on their behalf by the National Land Commission. It also emphasizes that public land shall not be disposed of or otherwise used except in terms of an Act of Parliament specifying the nature and terms of that disposal or use.

Community land: is defined as: Land that is vest in and be held by communities identified on the basis of ethnicity, culture or similar community of interest.

Community land consists of the following: • Land lawfully registered in the name of group representatives under the provisions of any law; • land lawfully transferred to a specific community by any process of law; • Any other land declared to be community land by an Act of Parliament; and Land that is:

(i) Lawfully held, managed or used by specific communities as community forests, grazing areas or shrines;

(ii) Ancestral lands and lands traditionally occupied by hunter-gatherer communities; or

(iii) Lawfully held as trust land by the county governments, but not including any public land held in trust by the county government under Article 62 (2).

Any unregistered community land shall be held in trust by county governments on behalf of the communities for which it is held. It is noted that community land shall not be disposed of or otherwise used except in terms of legislation specifying the nature and extent of the rights of members of each community individually and collectively.

5.1.5 Sustainable Land Administration and Management Kenya Constitution 2010 stipulates that Management and Administration of land shall be as follows:

Public land: Public land shall vest in and be held by a county government in trust for the people resident in the county, and shall be administered on their behalf by the National Land Commission.

Community Land: Community Land shall vest in and be held by communities identified on the basis of ethnicity, culture or similar community of interest and be administered by the National Government.

Private land consists of the following: a) Registered land held by any person under any freehold tenure b) Land held by any person under leasehold tenure; and c) Any other land declared private land under an Act of Parliament

A person who is not a citizen may hold land on the basis of leasehold tenure only, and any such lease, however granted, shall not exceed ninety-nine years. If a provision of any agreement, deed, conveyance or document of whatever nature purports to confer on a person who is not a citizen an interest in land greater than a ninety-nine year lease, the provision shall be regarded as conferring on the person a ninety-nine year leasehold interest, and no more

For purposes of this Article:

(a) A body corporate shall be regarded as a citizen only if the body corporate is wholly owned by one or more citizens; and

(b) Property held in trust shall be regarded as being held by a citizen only if all of the beneficial interest of the trust is held by persons who are citizens.

(4) Parliament may enact legislation to make further provision for the operation of this Article

NOTE: Management of and Administration of Private land is a function of the National Government.

To enhance sustainability of and efficiency in management and administration of land resource, the Ministry of Land, Housing and Urban development has initiated the following of policy, legal and Institutional reform programmes:

5.1.6 Policy Reform Programs National Land Information Management System The Ministry has initiated development of a transparent, decentralized, affordable, effective and efficient GIS based Land Information Management System. The system entails safeguarding and digitization of land paper records, deployment of Electronic land records Management System and development and implementation of a cadastral database system.

National Spatial Plan This involves preparation of long term frame work to guide the sectoral integration and rationalization of the social, economic and territorial development of the country.

County Spatial Plan This involves preparation of guidelines to ensure that counties follow the same standards in implementing development projects in the county. These involve the following: a) Development of a framework for preparation of 47 County spatial and urban development plans. b) Review of physical planning manuals, Guidelines and standards c) Monitoring and supervising the implementation of strategic physical development plans the major cities and urban areas

Kenya National Spatial Data Infrastructure (KNSDI) This involves development of a National Infrastructure for access and use of geospatial information in decision making establishing a modern geodetic framework, updating and digitization of maps and KNSDI guidelines at local, county and national levels.

Land Adjudication and Tilting programme This involves establishment of National Titling Centre, to fastrack the processes of registration land transactions and digitizing the land title deeds. The centre is designed to ensure that all titles and all the information about lands in Kenya is captured in a digital format to enhance transparency and accountability. This centre will expedite the process of registration of Land titles in less than 16 days as opposed to the 73 days as was the case earlier. The entails:

a) Finalization and operationalisation of community land bill in order to embark on adjudication and Titling of community land. b) Establishment of special community land tribunals working with local leaders to resolve disputes on community land. c) Fast-Tracking land adjudication and settling programmes in order to ensure security of tenure d) Fast-track the process of registering the unregistered community land

National Land Title Register: This in accordance with the land registration Act, 2012: A National Land Title Register will contain all land in the country. This involves implementation of the following activities: a) Geo-referencing of all parcels of land b) Conversion of existing land under various land registration statutes to the Land Registration Act 2012. c) Transfer of converted land records to the county land registries d) Issuance of both manual and digital certificate of titles e) Resolution of boundary disputes

Strengthening Disputes resolution Mechanism Pending land boundary disputes has been hindrance to guaranteeing land rights and security tenure. To clear these huge backlogs of boundary disputes, the sector has reviewed and harmonized relevant land laws and established Alternative Disputes resolution Mechanisms. Land Act 2012, and Land Registration Act 2012.

5.1.7 Policy and Legal Reforms The sector has reviewed the existing policies and laws to improve efficiency in Management and administration during the Plan Period 2013-2017. These include:

National land Policy: A Comprehensive review is under way to incorporate the emerging issues and the changes brought about by the constitution of Kenya 2010.

Legal Reforms: The Sector has reviewed and harmonized relevant land laws to eliminate existing inconsistencies. These include Survey Act 299, Land Act 2012 and Land Registration Act 2012. In addition Community land Bill and Spatial planning Bill, Eviction and resettlement Bill has been finalised to and submitted to the Attorney General.

Institutional Reforms: The National Land Commission has been fully operationalized and Field offices and County Land Management Boards established.

5.1.8 Threats to Land There are several degraded areas in Kenya which require rehabilitation and restoration. These include wetlands, riverbanks deforested areas, eroded shoreline, hilltops and disused quarries and mines The threats to land in Kenya include the following:

• Catchment degradation by systematic deforestation, conversion of land and wetlands into human settlements and farmlands, • Human encroachment in forest zones; soil erosion and illegal logging, livestock incursions into the forest, charcoal burning, and forest fires. • Excessive and illegal logging especially of high value timber trees; • Invasive species in forest and farm areas, rivers and lakes; i.e. the water hyacinth in lake Victoria, and Naivasha and the rapidly spreading ‘Mathenge Shrub in Arid and Semi Arid Lands. • Charcoal production which is an economic coping mechanism especially during the dry seasons; • Overgrazing and illegal grazing in forest and game reserves which threaten newly planted trees • Frequent forest fires, Like the recent (year 2012) fires destroying about 1,300 ha and 15,000 ha in Mt. Kenya • Soil erosion and sedimentation of water bodies from intensification of agriculture including farming on steep slopes and river banks, and from roads and quarries; • Competition on Water-Use due to demand exceeding sustainable supply, and further compounded by high runoff rates and decreasing groundwater recharge; drainage of wetlands, and pollution of springs; • Climate Change being experienced through temperature increases and rainfall irregularity and intensification; • Human Wildlife Conflicts mainly in form of consumption and destruction of crops and forests, death or injury to humans, and damage on local infrastructure especially water systems. • Exploration and exploitation of minerals resources like Titanium Mining in Kwale, Petroleum mining in Turkana and Coal Mining Kitui in Counties may expose the biodiversity to radiation possibly leading to environmental degradation in both the terrestrial and marine environments if mitigation on ecological damage is not addressed. • Strategic development projects i.e. the proposed Standard Gauge Railway Net work passing through the game reserves and national parks is likely to heighten the Human wild life conflict, cause destruction of pasture and disruption of movement along the wildlife migration corridors.

5.1.9 Endowment Value of Land and Opportunities Land is the most important natural resource that Kenya is endowed with. It is critical to economic, social, political and cultural development. It is also 87

considered as the principal source of livelihood and material wealth by playing host to natural resources. Secure access to land, sustainable land use planning and equitable distribution of land remain immensely important for food and nutrition security, attraction of foreign investors, employment, foreign exchange earnings, growth of industries and generally the socio-economic development of the country.

Kenya’s long term development agenda the Vision 2030 identifies land component in transforming Kenya into “a newly industrialized, middle income country, providing a high quality of life to all citizens in a clean and secure environment,” as well as meeting the millennium development goals (MDGs) by 2015 and the post MDG agenda after 2015.

Under the second MTP the country expects to achieve GDP growth from 5.3 in 2014 to 10 per cent annually. The Kenyan Government and its donor partners have allocated enormous resources towards the establishment of various strategic development programs geared towards facilitating sustainable growth and transformation of our Economy, as well as linking the Kenyan economy with other East African coutries, these Programs among others include; Development of Konza Techno City, LAPSSET corridor, construction of standard gauge railway line, of special Economic Zone, establishment of special Economic Zone and Resort Cities in Mombasa, Kisumu and Lamu Counties

The development of these strategic development projects have led to the improvement of efficiency in the national transport network and also fueled construction of linkup roads in major urban cities thus fueling further sub-division of land within metropolitan regions for speculation purposes and establishment of high rise buildings by both private individuals and companies (Second Medium Term Plan, 2013-2017).

Policy Decision To Promote land restoration policies and in cooperate high rise building as an efficient land utilization practice, while encouraging research on land use in relation to the built environment. This will also Involve and empower communities in land utilization and management.

5.2 SOILS

Quality fertile soils are a foundation of sustainable agriculture. Soils are also essential in the hydrological cycle. Soil degradation processes of particular concern throughout the country include erosion, compaction and soil fertility depletion. Loss of natural habitats has reduced vegetation cover and exposed soils to extensive wind and soil erosion in many parts of the country. The distribution of various soils types in the country are shown in Figure 25.

5.2.1 Soils and Agro-Ecological Zones Kenya’s Agricultural sector is diverse, given heavy reliance on rain fed agricultural production. These differences are mostly captured on the amount rainfall received in different areas, i.e. in high rainfall areas and marginal rain fall areas. These can further be subdivided in to Semi- arid lands and arid lands

Kenya’s High Rainfall Areas (HRAs): These areas cover of approximately 11% of the country which receive an annual rainfall above 1000 mm in one or two seasons. Farmers produce full range crops that are available in the country, including cereals, roots and tubers, fruits, vegetables and arrange of livestock. Due to high population density, and associated demand for housing, commerce and infrastructure, sub-division of land in these areas are on the rise, averaging less than 2 Ha per person. Thus, Kenya’s high rainfall areas have large and rapidly expanding centres.

Kenya’s Semi Arid Lands: These areas cover of approximately 21% of the country receiving between 450mm and 870mm rainfall annually. Significant proportions of these areas are used for grazing by pastoralist communities. Livelihoods in semi arid areas are more varied than those in the arid areas, including rain-fed and irrigated agriculture, agro- and sanitation services is better than in the arid areas. Pressure on land and natural resources in these areas is growing while productivity is declining.

Kenya’s Arid Lands: These areas account for 68% of Kenya’s land mass approximately 37Million hectares and receive average rainfall of between 150mm to 450mm annually. Pastoralism is the main source of subsistence characterized by high mobility and communal management of pasture, water and other natural resources. As result of global climate change, these areas are prone to more frequent and severe droughts and are associated with food insecurity as a result of failure of traditional means of livelihood.

Soil Characteristics; Kenya has twenty five major soil types. The ten dominant soil types based on percentage coverage for the various agro ecological zones include; Regosols 15%, cambisols 11%, luvisols , 8%, solonetz 6%, planosols 6%, ferralsols 6%, arenosols 5%, calcisols 5% and lixisols 5%.

Figure 25: Map showing distribution of major soils Source; Kenya Soil Survey, KARI

5.2.2 Soil Degradation Soil erosion is a major factor in land degradation and has severe effects on soil functions, such as the soil’s ability to act as a buffer and filter for pollutants, its role in the hydrological and nitrogen cycle and its ability to provide habitat and support to biodiversity. Soil erosion also causes increased rates of siltation of dams and rivers and increased risk of flooding in rivers and estuaries. Thus, soil erosion reduces the productivity of land, requiring farmers to apply more and more fertilizers and other chemicals that help check declining productivity. The resultant excessive use of fertilizers and other chemicals contributes to soil degradation and water pollution.

Policy Decision The State Department through the line Ministries ensure the protection of wetland riverbanks, hilltops and slopes from unsustainable practices to prevent soil erosion and environmental degradation, meanwhile enhancing or promoting good soil management practices to avert landslides, mudslides, floods and other disasters that are preventable thus the element of communities involvement and empowerment in soil conservation is key .

CHAPTER 6: FOREST, WOODLANDS AND GRASSLANDS

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Forests are distinguished by tall trees and a closed-canopy. Little light penetrates to the forest floor in mature stands, resulting in a fairly sparse understory of plants. Kenya has several types of forest, including coastal, mangrove, mountain and upland, bamboo, the equatorial forests e.g. Kakamega and plantation forests.

Globally the forest cover constitutes 31% of total land area. 64 countries have less than 10% forest cover. The internationally recommended level of forest cover is at least 10% of total country’s land. The East Africa forest cover is 14.5%, with Kenya having only 4.4%. The Kenya Constitution 2010 and Vision 2030 requires the country to attain a minimum of 10% forest and tree cover.

Forests provide important employment and livelihood prospects and play important roles in meeting cultural and spiritual needs of local communities. On top of these, forests also provide energy, food, timber and non-timber products and hence are important contributors to wealth and health at the household, community and national levels. Forests have critical environmental benefits including acting as carbon sinks, reservoirs of biodiversity and as habitats for wildlife. They also help in improving soil fertility by conserving soil moisture and serve as catchments for recharge of rivers and dams which supply water for domestic and other uses such as hydroelectric generation and irrigation. Forests on water towers help in combating land degradation and climate change as well as in the conservation of wetland and freshwater systems (NEMA, 2010).

Grassland ecosystems like the woodlands and shrublands, a mixture of habitats, depending on topography, drainage and soils. Grasslands unbroken by other habitats are a rarity in Kenya, confined largely to areas of volcanic soils such as the Athi Plains, ancient lakebeds such as Amboseli, and floodplains such as the ox-bows of the Galana River, and estuaries and deltas such as the lower Tana River.

The woodland ecosystems of Kenya cover some 15 per cent of the land surface lying along the rainfall and altitudinal gradient between moist forests and dry savannahs. Woodlands include trees of lower stature and more open canopy, allowing light to penetrate to the ground and support rich understory vegetation.

Kenya’s shrublands are not uniform but rather a mixture of habitats occupying the semi-arid lands dominated by low trees and shrubs, and scattered grasslands. Trees are typically short due to low soil moisture and canopy cover is sparse that the herb layer is usually far more productive than the canopy layer. The

characteristic shrubland appearance is due to predominance of small trees such as acacias, Commiphora species, Combretum and abundant shrubs.

6.1 .1 FORESTS Kenya has 3.5 million ha of forests, including indigenous forests, open woodlands, and plantations, and an additional 24.6 million ha of ‘bushland’. These are highly fragmented and degraded forests patches. An estimated 10 per cent of the original wet montane forest remains. Much of the forest cover was lost in the early stages of expanding human cultivation that began some 2 000 years ago and accelerated with the fivefold increase in population, and extensive agricultural expansion since the early 1900s. The demand for timber, fiber and fuel wood spawned by Kenya’s economic growth over the last half century, coupled with an insufficient forest plantation, settlement schemes, and illegal farming and herding, greatly accelerated forest loss and degradation.

Kenya has 56.9 million hectares of land of which 3.47 million hectares are covered with forests, equivalent to 5.6% of the country, according to the 2010 Forest Resources Assessments (FAO, 2010). Kenya has a low deforestation rate and since 1990, the annual rate of forest cover loss decreased from 0.35% to the rate of 0.31% for the period 2005-2010 (FAO, 2010). The most immediate threats to Kenya's forests are linked to the rapidly increasing population numbers, agricultural expansion, unsustainable wood utilization levels, high energy demand, and over-grazing.

Kenya’s forest resources are of immense importance for the environmental and ecosystem services they provide, for their contribution to economic development, for their contribution to rural livelihoods. The contribution of forests in water catchments is critical to Kenya’s rural and urban water supplies, and approximately 70% of power is hydro generated. Much of Kenya’s biodiversity and wildlife resources depend on forests, woodlands and dry land forest, being a major factor in attracting foreign tourism. A large rural population depends on woodland and bush resources to provide firewood, charcoal and other forest products which are critical to rural livelihoods. The plantation resources make a substantial contribution to economic development in Kenya and are an important source of raw materials for economic development in the wider region. In the mid 1990s, it was estimated that the saw milling industry provided 30,000 direct jobs and 300,000 indirect jobs in Kenya. In 2007, the forest sector was estimated to contribute about 1% to GDP (Kshs 16.4 billion) to the economy, and that more than 10% of households living within 5 kilometers from forest reserves depend on them for subsistence resources (FAO, 2010).

The figure 26 shows the forest cover as of 2010 survey. As can be seen most of the forests in country are located in the Central, Rift Valley and Western regions. The coastal region is known for the mangrove and Kaya forests.

Figure 26: Forest cover by 2010 in the country Source: KFS 2012

Kenya Forest Service continues to focus on the overriding goal of increasing forest cover to 10%. In line with this; in the year under review, an additional 98,000 ha of forest were gazzetted as state forest areas; over 180million seedlings both in our tree nurseries and those that are privately owned; 27,800 ha of forest and woodlots were established with 12,750 ha being private commercial forest. The implementation of the school greening programme was carried out in 1,907 schools. The Service continued to enhance security and forest protection leading to the rehabilitation of 600,682 ha of degraded forest areas. In addition over 376 km of boundaries were realigned. A total of 22,000 ha were recovered from illegal settlements in Embobut forest reserve. 94

6.1.2 Kenya Water Towers

The term “Water Towers of Kenya” has been used to refer to the mountainous and mainly forested regions that are sources of water. Initial reports on Monitoring Water Towers of Kenya (DRSRS and KFWG, 2006) listed five water towers namely; the Mau Forest complex, Mt Kenya, the Aberdares, the Cherangany hills and Mt Elgon. These are the extensive montane forest blocks that are sources of rivers and streams for the main drainage systems of Kenya. However, the Kenya Water Master Plan of 2012 noted that there were other significant but smaller catchments that provide water to the local populations. These include hilly and mountaineous forested areas in the dry lands. An example of such water towers is the Endau hill, in Kitui County.

6.1.3 Afforestation and Rehabilitation of Forest Degraded Areas During the year under review the forest sector planted over 29,775.7 ha with various tree species. In addition a total of 600,682 ha of degraded natural forest were rehabilitated. Through enrichment planting, 5,682 ha were rehabilitated through protection for natural regeneration.

Protection for regeneration is normally done to protect forest areas from interference, to allow natural regeneration. Normally done in forests that are not seriously degraded, the protection is sufficient to ensure the survival and diversity of seedlings that occur naturally. During the year under review 595,000 ha of degraded state forests were rehabilitated through protection for natural regeneration.

6.1.4 Plantation Forests Forest plantations are usually grown of a single species, uniform planting densities and even age classes. Globally they only account for 5% of the forest cover and supply 35% of the roundwood. In Kenya, plantations account for slightly over 10% of the gazetted forest area (140,000ha of the total 1.24million ha), with a planting regime of Cypress, Pine and Eucalyptus. On the non state land areas, farmers have also started growing forest plantations to meet the needs.

During the year under review, a total of 2,343 ha of degraded areas outside state forests were rehabilitated while 12,750 ha of commercial woodlots were established in conjunction with various stakeholders. During the period under review 1,907 schools were covered through the school greening program approach.

6.1.5 Seedlings Production In order to increase the tree cover, production of healthy seedlings of diverse species with high survival rate is of essence. During the year under review the forestry sector raised over 180 million tree seedlings earmarked for various 95

plantings. Indigenous tree seedlings totalling over 3.5 million for rehabilitation of the degraded natural forest areas were produced. Farm and Dry land forestry seedlings totalling 163 million are meant for various purposes such as commercial, agro-forestry, aesthetic, cultural and medicinal. Plantation forest establishment seedlings totalling over 14 million which were mainly of fast growing tree species for industrial use were produced. On top of these, 14 million exotic seedlings were raised and used to establish 7,093.7 Ha of new plantations in various conservancy areas.

6.1.6 Gazettement of Forest Land Forest land was set aside as state land through a gazettement process. This was to ensure that there is sound conservation and ecological conservation of fragile areas, sustainable and productive management of land resources and working to achieve and maintain a tree cover of at least 10% of the land in Kenya. Benefits accrued include protection of genetic resources and biological diversity while utilizing the environment and natural resources for the benefit of the people of Kenya. During the period under review a total of 98,092.60 ha of forests were gazzetted, details of which are shown in Table 25.

Table 25: Summary of newly gazetted forests No. County Name of Forest Area (Ha) Boundary Plan No. 1 Tana River Hirimani 1 & 11 98,020 175/429 2 Kisumu Karateng A & B 41.6 175/428 3 Homa Bay Rabuor Hill 3.6 175/430

4 Homa Bay Kolosasi Hill 17.0 175/431 5 Homa Bay Simenya Hill 10.0 175/432 Total 98,092.60

Source: KFS Annual report 2014

6.2 DRY LANDS

Dry lands are defined by water scarcity and characterized by seasonal climatic extremes and unpredictable rainfall patterns. Yet despite their relative levels of aridity, dry lands contain a great variety of biodiversity, much of which is highly adapted to dry land ecology. As a result, there are many animal and plant species and habitats found only in drylands.

6.2.1 Status of Dry-land Forests in Kenya Dry land areas (or ASALs – arid and semi-arid lands) make up more than 83% of the country, and Northern Kenya constitutes most of this area. These areas provide critical habitats for wildlife and ecosystem diversity, including grasslands and wetlands for migratory species. Dry lands are fragile but very resilient

ecosystems that receive very low and unreliable rainfall. The main form of land use in dry lands/ASALs is livestock grazing mainly camels, cattle, goats and sheep, accounting for a large proportion of the total livestock population in the country.

The potential for economic growth and development in the arid and semi-arid lands of northern Kenya is arguably higher than in more humid parts of the region because of their relative under-development in terms of economic activities and natural resource endowments.

Tropical montane forests are important ecosystems, because: 1) they are rich in animal and plant species found nowhere else in the world, 2) they maintain a special micro-climate with higher rainfall and fog, than lower altitudes or deforested areas, 3) they provide several services (water, firewood, medicine) to surrounding communities, which often depend on them for their livelihoods. In northern Kenya, tropical montane forests are also important habitats for some endangered species, such as the African elephant and the Grevy’s zebra.

The bulk of wood in Kenya is outside state forests mainly in farmlands, and dry lands.

6.2.2 Threats to Dry land Forests The main threats to Rangelands include expanding agriculture, charcoal burning and fuel wood collection, uncontrolled fires, human settlements, land degradation, deforestation and overgrazing. Climate change influences the ability of ASALs to cope with these challenges

6.2.3 Sustainable Management of Dry lands Improved governance of natural resources is crucial for building climate resilient livelihoods and economies in Kenya’s arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs).

6.3 RESTORATION EFFORTS IN VARIOUS FOREST CONSERVANCIES

Rehabilitation efforts have been going on in various blocks of Mau with a mention of Eastern Mau block that had faced serious forest loses in favour of other land uses earlier on having a positive increase in the forest cover through funds from Community Development Trust Fund (CDTF) under the Mau development project. Various activities like tree planting by joint institutions, bee keeping, fish farming, fruit tree planting, provision of energy saving jikos to reduce the amount of fuel wood and charcoal used, building a forest guard outpost to better monitoring and community capacity building to enable for optimum conservation and management of the forest have been put in place. Leasing out land for the planting of indigenous seedlings has been an activity in some parts of Molo block. In other areas like Sururu seedlings had been planted in efforts to rehabilitate the lost 97

forest. Some blocks are undergoing fencing like Eburu to enable it to be protected from human encroachment for charcoal and poles

6.3.1 Conservation Initiatives Identified There are a number of initiatives for the conservation of forests in the country as shown in Table 26.

Table 26: Conservation initiatives Forest block Institutions Specific effects Initiative involved Tree planting in East Mau - Sakaitim MEMR, DOD, KFS Forest regenerating natural forests East Mau- Sururu AWF Trees growing West molo COFEG Trees growing West Mau – Kuresoi COFEG Trees growing South west Mau – Ndoinet West Mau CFA Tree growing Tree planting in West Mau Timsales Plantations growing plantations East Mau Timsales Plantations growing PELIS East Mau, West Mau CFAS Communities raising trees through forest farms Riverine rehabilitation West Molo, East Mau, Various initiatives Trees planted on river lines South west Mau, Molo Conservation by South west Mau ICS Formerly degraded sites reducing human recovering activities Research Varous blocks Universities and Research going on to others understand the forest better and propose better management and conservation Nature based West Mau, Maasai Mau, ICS and CFAs Communities developing enterprises Transmara – bamboo income generating activities sites Creation of Forest user All forest blocks CFAs and WRUAs Communities developing conservation developing income generating activities communities management plans Planting trees in lands Many initiatives around Commercial tree Communities developing adjacent to the forest forest blocks e.g. planting income generating activities FOMAWA and TFAK Alternative livelihoods West Mau, East Mau ICS improved jikos Communities developing to conserve the forest income generating activities Nature based West Mau, East Mau Bee keeping, Communities developing enterprises growing stevia income generating activities Source: DRSRS and KWTA, 2013

6.4 ACHIEVEMENTS IN 2014 There are a number of achievements in the forest sector in the year of reporting as shown below: • Recovery of illegally and irregularly acquired forestland. A total of 22,000 ha were recovered from illegal settlements in Embobut forest. The settlers were compensated in order to pave way for restoration of the degraded forest and to enhance the conservation and management of the forest. 98

• Fire, diseases and pests. During the year under review, there were no significant fire outbreaks in the country during the period. In collaboration with other stakeholders, the monitoring for disease and pest attacks was also enhanced.

• Forest boundary maintenance. The purpose of forest boundary maintenance is to clearly delineate the forest land from other lands; this is to secure the forest land and resource from encroachment and illegal activities. During the period under review 376.93 km of boundary realigned and lost beacons replaced as shown in the table 26;

• Plantation Establishment and Livelihood Improvement Scheme (PELIS). The PELIS was developed as a multiple land-use practice involving simultaneous production of forestry and agricultural crops. The scheme reduces problems created by the wasteful use of land under the traditional agricultural production systems, improves food and income security of the community and establishes forest plantations. The scheme is implemented by the Community Forest Associations (CFAs) in selected forest stations and was mainly used to establish 7,093.7 ha of new plantations in the year under review countrywide.

• Nature Based Enterprises (NBEs). These are enterprises which contribute to poverty reduction and forest conservation. The enterprises include tree nurseries, energy saving jikos, fish farming, dairy farming, water projects, prawn farming, and tour guiding, bee keeping, bamboo propagation, Eco- camp, sericulture, trout hatchery and rabbit production. Over the period under review, 625 NBEs were established. Communities were also involved in raising over 105,000 bamboo seedlings.

• Increasing capacity at the community level. The service was involved in developing the capacity of the CFA and communities adjacent to the forest areas by developing a CFA training manual, strengthening of 30 CFAs through capacity building, conflict resolution training to 3 CFAs, and implementation of 12 Participatory Forestry Management Plans. Table 27 highlights a summary of the realigned forest boundaries.

Table 27: Summary of re-aligned forest boundaries No County Forest Reserve Length (km) 1. Nakuru Maridas and Amaraa 20 2. Marakwet Embobut 4 3. Homa Bay Ruri hills 25 4. Marakwet Cherengani 17 5. Laikipia Rumuruti 45.13 6. Uasin Gishu Nabkoi 24.1 7. Nakuru Eburu 13.7 8. Kajiado Namanga hills 40 9. Embu Maranga 8 10. Embu Irangi 180 Totals 376.93

6.5 REDD IN KENYA Kenya recognizes the importance of forests and natural resources. The Constitution of Kenya 2010 sets a minimum 10% national tree cover target. The country’s economic blueprint, Vision 2030, through its support to the other primary sectors of the economy, aims to protect the five major water catchment areas (Mt. Kenya, Aberdares, Mau, Cherangani and Mt. Elgon) and increase the forest cover to 10% through an aggressive afforestation, reforestation and restoration programme. Kenya does not have a specific REDD+ legal framework in place, however several legislative instruments and policies, particularly the Land Policy, Draft Environment Policy, National Climate Change Response Strategy and Action Plans, Forests Act, Agriculture Act, and Environmental Management and Coordination Act informs its legal approach on forestry and natural resource management issues. Most of these policies and legislations are under review in order to align them with the Kenya Constitution 2010. The National Climate Change Response Strategy (NCCRS), has identified the forestry sector as a strong vehicle for undertaking both mitigation and adaptation efforts and intends to exploit incentives provided within the framework of UNFCCC, especially the REDD mechanism, to implement sustainable forest management approaches.

The development of REDD+ readiness activities in Kenya is well underway. Kenya is an observer country to the UN-REDD Programme (UN-REDD Programme, 2010) and it is a participant country to the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF). As part of its FCPF programme Kenya is developing its National REDD+ Strategy and implementation framework in addition to establishing a Forest Reference Level/ Reference Emission Level and a National Forest Monitoring System. The development of a roadmap to inform the establishment of a national reference level and a national forest monitoring system has been completed (Gichu, 2012).

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6.5.1 Institutional Arrangements In Kenya, the coordination of environmental and climate change policies at the highest level is the responsibility of the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources (MENR). The Departments of Forestry and Wildlife are responsible for the coordination of forest conservation and management (KFS, 2011). The National Climate Change Response Strategy (NCCRS) outlines country wide coordination efforts to holistically address climate change challenges.

The National REDD+ Management will have a four tier, bottom-up decision making process and is proposed to consist of a National REDD+ Steering Committee (RSC), the REDD+ Technical Working Group (TWG) and the National REDD+ Coordination Office (NRCO). The NRCO will coordinate with the REDD+ Component Task Forces and the REDD+ Officer of each Local Forest Conservancy (KFS, 2010). Both the Task forces and the REDD+ officers will report to the NRCO, which will collate results and strategies and forward proposals to the TWG for evaluation. The TWG will then advise the multi-sectoral and inter-ministerial RSC, where final decisions will be taken (KFS, 2010).

6.5.2 Stakeholder Engagement and Participation In Kenya, members of the REDD+ Steering Committee and Thematic Working Groups are extensively involved in providing expertise and implementing awareness activities in the country. Public participation in natural resources policy and legislative processes has been widely accepted in Kenya since the preparation of the National Environment Action Plan in 1994. The development of both the Forests Act (2005) and the National Climate Change Response Strategy (NCCRS) involved wide stakeholder engagement and consultation. The Forests Act (2005) contains provisions on public consultations on matters relating to ownership and management of forests.

The stakeholder engagement on REDD+ took place during workshops of the REDD+ Consultative Group of the NCCRS and during the Readiness Plan Idea Note (R-PIN) formulation in 2008 (KFS, 2010b). During the formulation phase of the Readiness Preparation Proposal (R-PP) a Consultation and Participation Plan (C&P I Plan) was implemented. The C&P II Plan describes that ongoing consultations, information sharing and awareness raising on REDD+ strategy, legislative and institutional proposals, and consultations related to demonstration activities will take place (KFS, 2010b). The C&P Plan II involves an online information clearinghouse managed by the National REDD+ Coordination Office, membership to the National Alliance of Community Forest Associations (NACOFA) and participation in the REDD+ Component Taskforces, (KFS, 2010b).

6.6 LAND TENURE ARRANGEMENTS AND CARBON RIGHTS It is estimated that 39% of forests are publicly owned and 61% of forests are under private ownership, inclusive of individual, business and local community

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ownership, in Kenya (FAO, 2010). There is a National Land Policy in the country that seeks to among others address the critical issues of tenure, land administration, access to land, land use planning and the restitution of historical injustices associated with land ownership. In Kenya, land ownership also means having ownership rights over the trees of the land (FAO, 2010). There is currently no framework for allocating carbon rights, although in some cases, the Kenyan Forest Service (KFS) offloaded all carbon rights to communities who have invested in management and conservation of specific forest blocks with climate change mitigation as an added benefit (KFS, 2010).

The Kenya Forest Reserve owns and manages all State Forest Reserves on behalf of the State, and regulates other types of public and private forests (KFS, 2010). In some sacred and cultural forests like the Kayas, the Ramogi and the Loita forests, communities do have rights over the use of forests. The process of decentralization of forest governance to communities has been established through formally agreed management plans, and the initiation of Community Forest Associations (Mogoi, et al., 2012). A study from 2012, however, noted that the decentralization process is still in its early stages and there are few management plans approved. In the absence of these plans, the communities have use rights limited to non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and dead wood.

6.7 FOREST MANAGEMENT It has been recognised by various institutions, that Kenyan forest governance has previously been hindered by inadequate structural and institutional capacities, poor participation by stakeholders and weak forest policies (KFS, 2007). However, with the introduction of the Forests Act 2005 and the establishment of the KFS (2007), new incentive and enforcement policies are gradually improving forest governance and law enforcement. The Forests Act in particular defines the forest law enforcement, for offences such as timber felling and livestock grazing. The Forests Act is currently reviewed to be aligned with the Constitution. The Kenya Forest Service, through its Enforcement and Compliance Division has Forests Guards, whom are tasked with patrolling and surveying the forests. Kenya has signed up to various regional agreements, most notably the East African Protocol on Environment and Natural Resource Management 2006 and the East African Forest Law Enforcement and Governance framework 2003 (KFS 2010).

6.7.1 Reference Levels Kenya has not developed any reference levels, however has begun to embark on the process recently. In conjunction with the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF) programme as part of the Readiness Preparation Proposal (R-PP) process, Kenya is planning to develop a historically adjusted reference level (RL), in order to quantify historical carbon emissions and develop different development scenarios and future emissions/removals trajectories (KFS, 2010). Reference levels will be coordinated alongside the development of the national Monitoring, Reporting and Verification (MRV) system as defined by the R-PP process. 102

Progress has been made on identifying institutional capacity requirements, reference systems and standards to be used, forest and land use maps and satellite imagery (Gichu, 2012).

6.7.2 Monitoring, Reporting and Verification The process of developing a national Monitoring, Reporting and Verification (MRV) system is discussed within Component 4a of Kenya’s REDD Readiness Preparation Proposal (R-PP). This system will have MRV capability with monitoring and reporting occurring at sub-national and local scales. Deforestation and degradation will be monitored using a combination of remote sensing and ground based capabilities (KFS, 2010a). Community participation will be used for ground-truthing and where remote sensing techniques are not cost effective (KFS, 2010a). Data gathering and sharing at the local level is also likely to be shared via mobile communication networks (KFS, 2010a). The R-PP also outlines a monitoring system for social, environmental and other impacts of REDD+ implementation (Component 4b) and a Program Monitoring and Evaluation Plan (Component 6).

According to Silvestrum (2012), Kenya has an advanced ranking in terms of greenhouse gas (GHG) inventory completeness, yet has limited technical and forest monitoring capacities. To this end, national level activities are in place to build capacity, such as the development of the National Carbon Accounting System (NCAS), (Africa Geospatial Forum, 2011) and forest mapping and forest resource assessment capacity building under the Forest Preservation Programme, which is supported by the Japanese Government.

6.7.3 Safeguards Social and Environmental Safeguards Assessment (SESA) are being developed as part of Kenya’s REDD Readiness Proposal (R-PP) Implementation Phase. The SESA is intended to be a participatory and closely linked to the Consultation and Participation Plan (C&P Plan) of the R-PP. The SESA will also draw on previous lessons from the Strategic Environment Assessment of the Forests Act by the World Bank (2007) and on the social and environmental safeguards of the Sustainable Forests Management Criteria and Indicators by the Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) (KFS, 2010). Four projects have been validated under the Climate Community and Biodiversity Standards (CCBS) and two projects by the Verified Carbon Standard (VCS), demonstrating they meet the set social and environmental safeguard standard requirements (CCBD, n.d. and VCS, n.d.).

6.7.4 Gender Equality References to gender equality exist in plans and policies in Kenya which may be important to take into account for REDD+ development and implementation. For example, Kenya’s Vision 2030 spells out the goal to achieve equity in terms of power, resource distribution between the sexes and improved livelihoods. More

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recently, in 2011, Kenya enacted a Gender Policy to promote gender equality and mainstream gender issues in all policy fields.

Kenya’s revised R-PP from August 2010 makes some references to the need to ensure gender equity and strengthen women’s participation in REDD+. For example, under Component 1(1a) (national readiness management arrangements) the National REDD+ Coordination Office has oversight for particular gender concerns for all aspects of R-PP implementation.

The R-PP also states that feedback on the activities occurring from the R-PP’s implementation can come from a range of entities and sources including from Maendeleo ya Wanawake, a national gender advocacy organisation that has elected representation from the national to the local level (Component 1(1b) on stakeholder consultation and participation). Finally, Kenya’s R-PP makes a reference to the application of safeguards to ensure that social and environmental impacts are minimized and mitigated. This may include addressing some gender imbalance or inequality issues (Component 2c).

Currently, some gender activities are performed in the context of REDD+ projects. For example, the Kasigau Corridor project/Rukinga Sanctuary aims to respond to forest conservation by providing alternative livelihoods. One way to encourage alternative livelihoods is the provision of elephant dung to a mushroom farm run entirely by women. Further, villages participating in the project are represented by committees which are subject to compositional requirements, for instance, for women.

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CHAPTER 7: BIODIVERSITY

INTRODUCTION

Kenya is one of the world’s 34 and Africa’s 6 biodiversity hotspots, she hosts two of the most important hot spots; eastern afro-montane and the coastal forests of Eastern Africa. The favourable climate, diverse landscapes, breath taking sceneries, ecosystems, habitats and convergence of at least seven bio-geographic units are home to rich and exceptional biodiversity and diverse cultures rendering the country as one of the most preferred destinations for holidays and scientific research. These areas hold enormous bio-prospecting potential for research, development and economic empowerment. Kenya’s known biodiversity assets are well represented within the protected areas and include microbes, over 159 species of trees and shrubs plants, 25, 000 invertebrates (21, 575 of which are insects), 1,133 birds, 315 mammals, 191 reptiles, 220 species of scleractinian corals, 5 species of Corals, 5 species of Dolphins, 3 species of Baleen whales, 180 freshwater fish, 692 marine and brackish fish, 88 amphibians and about 2,000 species of fungi and bacteria.

7.1 IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY Biodiversity as a variety of life forms are essential for providing numerous ecosystem goods and services. No organism lives in isolation from other living things and each has its own way of life which contributes to the balance of nature. The inter-dependence and successful functioning of all these parts is a key contributory factor to the well being of the planet as a whole. Benefits of biodiversity cannot be quantified; neither can one overlook the strong link between human health and biodiversity. Productivity often depends on diversity and it is important to balance trade-offs between development and conservation. Essentially biodiversity enhances the potential to support national food, energy and water security, ecosystem health, livelihoods, climate regulation and other development goals. The use of indigenous knowledge, innovations and practices for sustainable use of biological resources and human well-being is well recognized by the provisions of the CBD Convention (1992).

7.2 CHALLENGES FACING BIODIVERSITY

Increased anthropogenic and natural disturbances destabilize the ecosystem functions compromising it and the health of her dependants. In such context of rising population and growing dependence on natural resources, sustainable development needs to be fostered to minimize environmental impacts of production and reduce susceptibility of future generations to resource scarcity. Overexploitation of natural resources has fueled degradation of the environment, resources conflicts and other concomitant problems. 70% of the National biodiversity treasure are found outside protected areas, where there is even increasing pressure of destruction and loss of species and habitats. This is aggravated by inadequate policies, particularly focusing on search areas and lack of species inventory particularly for areas outside protected areas. 105

There is noticeable increase in threat to plant species, plant species are fundamental to ecosystems, food chain and survival to other species. In 2008 threatened species stood at 103 and in 2011 the number had increased to 126 in summary a total of 5.3% are red listed by CITES. Kenya has also recorded 18 extinctions including the Rocky River frog and the Kenyan Oribi.

Black rhino, Hirola, Grevy Zebra and Roan Antelopes are the four large ungulates whose populations have declined to critical levels in Kenya. Hirola recorded only 350 animals in 2011, and Roan Antelope only 35. The ungulates also recorded a general decline in population, probably due to unfavorable weather conditions resulting into decline of pasture.

7.3 BIODIVERSITY REVENUE GENERATION AVENUES • Butterfly farming • Botanical gardens and nature trails • Source for alternative medicines • Organic fertilizers for organic farming • Honey farming • Sell of gene pool for species breeding and restoration 7.4 PROPORTION OF TERRESTRIAL AND PROTECTED AREAS There are 24 national parks, 27 national reserves, 203 forest reserves, 4 marine national parks, 6 marine national reserves and 4 sanctuaries found in 43,969Km2 of protected aquatic environment and 47,960 km2 of protected terrestrial environments (Figure 27).

7.5 ECOSYSTEMS AND THEIR SERVICES The country has a wide variety of ecosystems namely mountains, forests, arid and semi-arid areas (ASALs), freshwater, wetlands, coastal and marine all offering many opportunities for sustainable human, social and economic development. These ecosystems are natural capitals which provide important regulatory services (such as forests and mountains serving to regulate water flow, sustain biodiversity), provision services (such as forests providing timber and fuel wood), cultural services (such as aesthetic, recreational or spiritual values and uses) and supporting services (such as soil formation, nutrient cycling and primary production).

7.6. WILDLIFE CONFLICTS Human wildlife conflicts are reported in all protected and wildlife unprotected areas. Human Wildlife conflict is largely due to the increased human population and the lack of a national land use policy. Land use changes are another contributing factor though wildlife can be compatible to a greater or lesser degree with some form of land use, particularly pastoralism and ranching. However, densely settled areas and agricultural land are not compatible with many kinds of wildlife. The increase of human-wildlife conflicts has contributed to 106

bio-diversity loss (Table 28). Priority biodiversity issues which need response are illustrated in Table 29.

Figure 27: Kenya’s wildlife protected areas Source: KWS 2014

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Table 28: Human- wildlife conflicts and response Types of human/wildlife Response/Action conflict Human Injury and death i) Hasten Compensation on wildlife attacks on humans ii) Translocation of wildlife to mitigate human-wildlife conflicts Crop, livestock predation i) Increase erection of electric fences and other forms of wildlife and other property proof barriers along the perimeter of certain parks and damage reserves These barriers are erected where they serve as appropriate solution to persistent problem of damage to agricultural crops to or to property or other threats to people’s livelihoods. ii) Facilitate legislation process for the bill on compensation for crop destruction has been tabled in parliament. Human threats i) Encouraging community participation and collaboration in managing wildlife resources through devolved structures

ii) Increase education and awareness through direct visit by community officers to the target individuals, short training courses/ workshops to sensitize and educate local people, preparation and presentation of specific wildlife related messages at Baraza’s, organize exchange visits of the target groups to various wildlife areas, use of mass media in community education and sensitization programs and building capacity of local institutions and local communities to instill a sense of ownership and responsibility of the wildlife resource.

iii) Augment social support programs through giving more incentives to local people who live in wildlife areas (dispersal area, & corridors) and who tolerate wildlife and, bear the cost of wildlife conservation.

Table 29: Prioritized biodiversity issues that need intervention Impacts on Mitigation measures (Action to be taken) Responsible Biodiversity environment Agency issue Poaching • Declining wildlife • Increasing security teams and stationing of KWS species anti-poaching teams. • Strong campaigns against poaching • Compromised • Profiling of wildlife crime as an important ecosystem agenda among governments, partners and balance and also stakeholders leading to increased political loss of habitat for goodwill and strategic interventions other detritus and • Collaboration with other law enforcement other lower agencies to curb and prevent wildlife crime organism as well seize wildlife contraband and arrest provided by and assist in prosecution of suspects. poached species. • MOUs with local communities. • Protection through patrols

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7.7 PAYMENTS FOR ECOSYSTEMS SERVICES: CASE STUDY An example of the biodiversity benefits include the Payment for Ecosystem Services. Below is a case study from the Chyulu Hills REDD+ project.

The Chyulu Hills REDD+ Project (CHRP) is a multi-partner initiative designed to promote climate change mitigation and adaptation, restore biodiversity and create alternative livelihoods under the United Nation scheme of Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+). It is located in the Tsavo - Amboseli ecosystem, Southeastern Kenya and stretches over an area of 410,533.84 ha. Its main geographic feature is the volcanic Chyulu Hills mountain range, from which the project derives its name.

The Project Area comprises a great diversity of ecosystems, ranging from montane cloud forests to grassland savanna. A large variety of charismatic wildlife roams these landscapes, including populations of the increasingly threatened African Elephant (Loxodonta africana) and the critically endangered Black Rhino (Diceros bicornis). This wildlife has been living alongside traditional communities for generations. The Chyulu Hills also present a locally and regionally important water tower, which provides much of the surrounding landscape, as well as the coastal city of Mombasa, with a water source. This is just one example of the many ecosystem services in the Chyulu Hills area.

7.8 RAMSAR SITES Table 30 shows the various Ramsar sites in Kenya and their sizes plus when they were fully designated as Ramsar sites.

Table 30: Ramsar sites in Kenya Site Size Designation date Lake Nakuru 5 to 45km2 05/06/1990 Lake Naivasha 139km2 10/04/1995 Lake Bogoria 34km long by 3.5 km Wide 27/08/2001 Lake Baringo 130km2 10/01/2002 Lake Elementaita 18km2 05/09/2005 Tana Delta 1636km2 07/09/2012 Source: www.ramsar.org/cda/en/ramsar-news-archives-2012-kenya-tana/main/ramsar/

7.9 THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

Wildlife resources contribute directly and indirectly to the local and national economy through employment, revenue generation and wealth creation. The increasing population, growing numbers of refugees, human–wildlife conflicts, widespread pollution, climate change and the transformation of vast wildlife areas

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into other land-uses threaten the continued existence of wildlife in the country. Kenya is a global conservation hotspot for wildlife especially the large mammals.

7.9.1 Invasive species

Kenya has had several invasions of alien species that have had negative impacts on biodiversity, agriculture and human development. Studies show that Kenya has been invaded by 34 species: 11 arthropods, ten microorganisms, nine plant species and four vertebrates. Management strategies have included quarantine measures for unintentional and intentional introductions, eradication, containment and control, monitoring and research, regional cooperation and public awareness. More cooperation, assistance and capacity building is required to effectively manage the problem of invasive species. Nairobi National Park and the Maasai Mara National Reserve are among many wildlife areas that have been adversely affected by invasive species in the country. Other affected national parks include Lake Nakuru, Amboseli and the Tsavo. Saiwa Swamp National Park is one of the success stories of controlled invasive species in Kenya.

7.9.2 Poaching As shown in the Ffigures 28 and 29 poaching of Elephants and rhino for the tusks and horn has been on the increase for the last 10 years. This trend if not addressed will lead to extinction of the two species in Kenya. Table 31 shows comparison in the number of elephants in the years 2011 and 2014 respectively. Tables 32, 33 and 34 list some of the critically endangered animal species, endangered amphibian and threatened insect species in Kenya.

Figure 28: Elephant poaching trends

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Figure 29: Rhino poaching trends

Table 31: Comparison and distribution of elephants between 2011 and 2014 Region 2014 2011 % decrease/increase n % n % Tsavo East NP North 1257 11.21 2094 16.65 -39.97 Tsavo East NP South 5329 47.51 4120 32.77 29.34 Tsavo West NP 2918 26.01 2142 17.04 36.23 Chyulu NP 42 0.37 135 1.07 -68.89 South Kitui NR 0 0.00 0 0.00 0.00 Galana 12 0.11 398 3.17 -96.98 Taita 1420 12.66 2751 21.88 -48.38 Nkomazi NP 59 0.53 256 2.04 -76.95 Others 31 0.28 509 4.05 -93.91 Rombo 149 1.33 0 0.00 N/A Total 11217 12573

Table 32: Critically endangered species 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Black - 539 565 577 609 609 597 623 rhino Hirola, 600 - - - - 90 - 350 Grevy’s - - - - 2,432 2,600 - - zebra Roan - 48 42 33 22 56 24 32 Antelopes

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Table 33: Endangered amphibian species Species name Scientific Name

1. Du Toit's Torrent Frog Petropedetes dutoiti 2. Forest Banana Frog Afrixalus sylvaticus 3. Irangi River Frog Phrynobatrachus irangi 4. Jozani River Frog Phrynobatrachus ungujae 5. Lonnbergs Toad Mertensophryne lonnbergi 6. Sagalla Caecilian Boulengerula niedeni 7. Shimba Hills Reed Frog Hyperolius rubrovermiculatus 8. Tigoni Reed Frog Hyperolius cystocandicans

Table 34: Threatened insects No Species name Scientific Name 1 Chlorocnemis abbotti Chlorocnemis abbotti 2 Chlorocnemis pauli Chlorocnemis pauli 3 Chlorocypha jacksoni Chlorocypha jacksoni 4 Coryphagrion grandis Coryphagrion grandis 5 Montane Dancing-jewel Platycypha amboniensis 6 Notogomphus maathaiae Notogomphus maathaiae 7 Onychogomphus styx Onychogomphus styx 8 Pseudagrion bicoerulans Pseudagrion bicoerulans 9 Red Jungle-skimmer Hadrothemis scabrifrons 10 Seychelles Fineliner Teinobasis alluaudi 11 Thermochoria jeanneli Thermochoria jeanneli

7.9.3 Other threats to Wildlife The other threats facing wildlife in Kenya are as follows: • Hunting and illegal trade of endangered species, • Expansion of agricultural activities • Human Wildlife conflict • Demand for land for human settlement • Mining, oil and gas exploration and exploitation • Infrastructural developments • Climate change • Introduction of exotic plant species • Pollution (point and non-point sources).

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7.10 COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT FOR PROTECTION OF WILDLIFE The evolution of Community Conserved Area Concept (CCA) has taken root in many localities particularly pastoral communities who own land communally. The first community conservancies were formed mainly among the Samburu and Maasai pastoralists but other communities have taken it up. During the reporting period, local communities set aside 46 community conserved areas in and around the important bird areas (IBAs). These include 6 CCAs in Dakatcha Woodland and 40 in Kakamega, Nandi and Chereng’any areas. In total, we have about 102 conservancies that have been recorded in the country.

7.11 AGRICULTURAL BIODIVERSITY Agricultural biodiversity is a broad term that includes all components of biological diversity of relevance to food and agriculture, and all components of biological diversity that constitute the agro-ecosystems. Biodiversity is the basis of agriculture and contemporary food security depend on its quantity and quality. In the Africa context, agro biodiversity is very essential to support small scale farming. Biodiversity and agriculture are strongly interrelated because while biodiversity is critical for agriculture, agriculture can also contribute to conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. Therefore, sustainable agriculture is essential for the sustainable production of food and other agricultural products and the benefits these provide to humanity, including food security, nutrition and livelihoods.

7.12 BIRDS The total number of bird species in Kenya is 1034; Land bird species are 856, with 277 migratory species, 31 Sea bird species and 170 water bird species. Number of IBAs has increased to 64 hence covering an area of 6,602,720ha. Table 35 shows distribution of important bird categories in Kenya and level of endemicism.

Table 35: Distribution of important bird categories Total 1034 Endemic 9 Land birds 856 Critically endangered 6 Migratory 276 Endangered 15 Seabirds 31 Vulnerable 18 Water birds 170 Near threatened 30 Source: Government of Kenya (2012)

7.12.1 Status of Habitats and Species Under The IBA Programme The mean state score of the habitats improved slightly from 1.23 in 2011 to 1.25 in 2012 and but declined again to 1.20 in 2013. In 2012, Dandora ponds, Dunga Swamp, Kianyaga Valleys, Lake Ol Bolossat, and Tana River Delta were reported to be in very unfavourable state and only Shimba Hills was reported to be in

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favourable state. Some of the IBAs in very unfavourable state in 2013 included Busia and Kinangop Grasslands while those in favourable conditions were Arabuko-Sokoke, Dzombo and Marenji forests. Table 36 shows the wildlife populations of various species in the Kenyan rangelands.

Table 36: Wildlife population estimates in the rangelands SPECIES 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014* Buffalo 17.5 16.2 15.2 13.0 15.6 Burchell’s Zebra 102.0 101.7 100.0 100.3 149.1 Eland 7.9 7.4 6.8 5.8 5.0 Elephant 22.0 20.5 18.5 16.0 15.9 Genenuk 20.2 19.8 18.5 16.0 15.9 Giraffe 24.0 23.0 23.1 19.0 18.9 Grant’s Gazzele 112.5 112.7 112.0 111.7 111.9 Grevy’s Zebra 3.6 3.4 3.1 3.0 3.0 H. Hartebeest 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.3 Impala 62.6 61.0 60.5 61.8 59.9 Kongoni 8.4 7.8 6.9 5.0 4.9 Kudu 10.5 11.2 11.1 11.0 11.0 Oryx 17.8 16.4 15.2 14.5 14.0 Ostrich 28.0 28.0 28.2 28.5 27.8 Thomsons’s Gazzele 47.0 46.0 43.5 42.0 43.4 Topi 23.3 21.0 20.0 20.5 15.3 Warthog 18.6 17.0 18.0 18.4 17.0 Waterbuck 4.0 3.0 2.9 3.5 2.9 Wildebeest 294.6 295.0 288.0 276.0 449.4

7.13 INITIATIVES FOR PROTECTION OF ECOSYSTEMS The Government has some initiatives for the protection of Ecosystems (Table 37). Table 37: Initiatives for protection of ecosystems

Theme Description Poaching Rhino and Elephant poaching status report – 2012-2013 Climate change KWS initiatives on adaptability and mitigation measures – wildlife Wildlife conflicts Conflicts, wildlife hot spots .Improved policies and legislation e.g. wildlife ACT 2013. Payments for Ecosystems Case study in protected areas Management plans Newly developed ecosystems management plans. Community conservancies List of conservancies and dates of establishments More Important biodiversity Newly international protection status , Ramsar, Heritage sites sites Endangered species Monitoring technology used censures 2012, 2013, Management action and Disease innervations Wildlife population Wildlife censures 2012, 2013 Wildlife Act (2013) Compensation to farmers and loss of life.

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CHAPTER 8: COASTAL, MARINE AND WETLANDS

8.1 INTRODUCTION

Coastal and marine ecosystems are composed of multiple interacting systems – maritime, terrestrial and aquatic and include the islands and the 200 nautical miles exclusive economic zone (EEZ). Coastal and marine ecosystems provide a wide range of important goods and services. The services include storing and cycling nutrients, regulating water balances, buffering land and protecting it against erosion from storms and waves, and filtering pollutants. On a larger scale, the oceans also play an important role in regulating planetary balances in hydrology and climate.

The conservation and sustainable development of forest ecosystems and their associated resources is essential for sustainable poverty reduction and sustainable development. Forest ecosystems are important in conservation of soil, water and biodiversity as well as in moderation of climate. They are the richest terrestrial habitats for biodiversity. Maintaining forest biodiversity safeguards the economic potential of future opportunities for new non-timber products such as food and medicine as well as social sustainability by offering aesthetic, spiritual and recreational settings for people.

8.2 MANGROVES Mangroves are coastal forests found in sheltered estuaries and along river banks and lagoons in Kenya’s 600 km coastline that runs from the Tanzania boarder in the south to the Somalia boarder in the north between latitudes 1°40’S and 4°25’S and longitudes 41°34’E and 39°17’E . The bulk of these forests (about 70%) occur in Lamu and surrounding islands; while smaller acreages occur south of Tana River in Malindi Kilifi, Mombasa and Kwale counties (Figure 30).

8.2.1 Distribution

The total mangrove cover currently stands at about 46,000 ha having experienced a reduction of 20% between 1985 and 2010. This represents an annual loss of 0.7%, which is much lower than the global mean of 1-2%. However, recent mapping of Mombasa mangroves indicate alarming cover reduction extents of between 45%-87% between 1982 and 2009 representing the highest ever recorded mangroves loss rates of 2.6-5.1%. For instance, Tudor Creek one of the mangrove forests within Mombasa has reduced in cover from 1,641 to 215ha (Figure 30). This is mainly due to illegal wood extraction and needs urgent attention to enable recovery.

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Figure 30: Coastal Kenya showing counties with major mangrove sites Source: Bosire (2012).

8. 2.2 History of Exploitation Previously, mangrove exploitation was based on quota system; whereby the Kenya Forest Service approved the quantity of mangrove poles to be removed from a particular area relying on subjective assessment of forest conditions. The earliest mangrove forest survey for the entire Kenya coast was carried out in 1950. This was followed by a survey of Lamu mangroves in 1967 and 1982. In 1993 the entire mangroves of Kenya were surveyed again but no management plan was developed. Effective management of mangrove resources in Kenya is a challenge due to inadequate management prescriptions.

8.2.3 Importance of Mangroves Mangroves provide goods and services that are of economic, ecological, and environmental value to local, national and international levels.

Provisioning functions Mangroves provide diversity of wood and non-wood forest products; including building poles, firewood, local medicine and fishery resources that are caught inside the forest. Building poles and firewood constitute the major wood products extracted from the mangrove forests and hence their extraction contributes the 116

most in terms of economic importance through revenue generation and job creation. Additionally, local communities harvest honey and collect traditional medicines from mangrove forests.

Regulating services Mangrove ecosystems provide coastal protection against storm surges and extreme events such as tsunamis. The protective functions of mangroves vary from one site to the other depending on forest conditions, species, tree density, and areal extent. In the context of climate change, the global role of mangroves as carbon sinks has become more appreciated as they sequester more carbon than any productive terrestrial forest. Finally, mangroves are capable of absorbing pollutants such as heavy metals and other toxic substances, as well as nutrients and suspended matter. This makes them natural wastewater filters, preventing many pollutants from reaching deeper waters.

Supporting Services Mangrove ecosystems provide numerous support services which include; structural habitat, nutrient cycling, primary production, soil formation, among others. They support sustenance of coastal biodiversity by acting as nurseries, breeding, spawning, hatching and feeding, habitats for fish, as well as refuge for juvenile fish.

Cultural Services Mangrove ecosystem represents a closely woven long-term relationship between people and the environment. The rich biodiversity of mangrove ecosystem has provided a variety of food and material resources, which had sustained ecosystem balance as well as traditional and sustainable means of livelihoods for centuries.

Mangrove ecosystems support research activities and education, in addition to providing opportunities for tourism and recreation. The tourism industry around the mangrove ecosystem promotes employment both directly and indirectly.

8.2.4 Threats to Mangroves Mangrove forests in Kenya face a number of threats arising from both anthropogenic as well as natural factors as highlighted in Figure 31.

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Figure 31: Mangrove loss at Tudor Creek Mombasa Source: Bosire (2012).

Human threats a. Over-exploitation of wood products Mangrove forests are currently the only natural forests in Kenya under concession. The quantity of poles to be removed from a particular mangrove area is based on subjective assessment of forest conditions rather than actual resource base. As a result, good quality wood is rapidly disappearing and some areas risk some mangrove species becoming locally depleted, such as Xylocarpus granatum and Heritiera littoralis. b. Conversion of mangrove areas to other land uses There has been clearing of mangroves for salt extractions quite extensive at Gongoni-Kurawa area in Malindi. Large rectangular tracts of mangroves are converted into salt pans where seawater is entangled and allowed to evaporate after which the salt is collected. A total of eight operational salt works operate in 118

Kenya. In addition, conversion of mangroves for salt works has resulted in social problems in the areas, such as contamination of fresh water tables through increased salinities and restriction of access to the sea. c. Pollution and sedimentation Mombasa is a major sea port in Kenya. It is also the site of the largest oil refinery in the East African region. The port is subject to accidental oil spills from vessels during loading, discharging, and bunkering. These accidental spills severely damages mangrove ecosystems. A major spill in 1988 totally destroyed the mangroves of Makupa creek. No recovery of mangroves has been observed in Makupa Creek 25 years later. With the development of the Lamu Port which will be larger than Mombasa Port and discovery of oil in the region, spill incidences are expected to increase. Development projects in urban areas and poor land-use practices upstream are also likely to lead to increased sediment loading of the adjacent marine environment including the mangrove ecosystems thus resulting into degradation of the ecosystem. The lack of functional sewage treatment plants in most urban areas has resulted in mangrove swamps being used as sewage dumping sites d. Diversion and damming of rivers Due to the ongoing titanium mining in Kwale County, the Mukurumdzi river that drains into the Indian Ocean through the Gazi bay mangroves has been dammed for extraction of water for the mining exercise. This will impact negatively on the Gazi Bay mangroves, altering structure and function of the forest. e. Infrastructure and development The rapid urbanization of the coastal zone potentially threatens the mangrove resources through both encroachment and increased demand for mangrove resources. The increasing level of infrastructure development, including the Lamu port could be a potential environmental threat. f. Natural threats Mangroves in Kenya do not seem to suffer a great deal from natural causes. A few cases exist, however, where mangroves have died due to massive sedimentation caused by extreme events. During the 1997/8 El Nino phenomenon, sedimentation and prolonged water stagnation triggered by abnormally heavy rainfall caused widespread mangrove die-backs in areas such as Lamu, Tana River, Mombasa and Gazi bay. Other reported natural causes of mangrove degradation in Kenya include pest infestation and desiccation. Predicted sea-level rise due to climate change is very likely to affect the low lying mangrove areas.

8.2.5 Opportunities for Improved Management

Management Plan: The country has lacked a management plan for mangroves which has seen wanton destruction and haphazard management of this important resource. A management plan is currently being drafted to manage the Kenyan

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mangroves. A management plan if implemented strictly will ensure sustainable exploitation of the mangrove resource. The Plan is being developed under the Kenya Coastal Development Plan (KCDP)- a world bank funded project.

Forest Act 2005: The Forest Act strongly supports community involvement in forest management. Community Forest Associations (CFAs) are currently been formed to aid and oversee the management of mangroves. This grass-root management approach will be more effective than the top-down which has been applied in the past but with widespread failures.

Payment for Ecosystem Services: Mangroves provide various ecosystem services which can be monetized and traded. Unfortunately, many ecosystem services haven’t been assigned a monetary value yet and even where some have been monetized, ready markets for such doesn’t exist. One service which is being internationally traded is carbon storage under carbon financing schemes such as the REDD+ (reduced emissions from deforestation and degradation) under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The Mikoko Pamoja Project in Gazi, south Coast, is a practical example of this.

Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM): At the coast the Government has identified various measures and strategies that need to be implemented in order to reverse environmental degradation and promote sustainable utilization of coastal and marine resources using an integrated approach. This is crucial for mangrove forests, which often suffer from impacts originating from upstream e.g. massive sedimentation. The government developed an Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) framework.

8.3 CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEM 8.3.1 Coral Reefs Coral reefs are critically important for the maintenance of biodiversity and the ecosystem services they provide. In Kenya, coral reefs have played an important role in supporting the livelihood of the coastal community because it harbours many of the resources that are exploited by them. These include reef fish and commercially important invertebrates like lobsters and octopus. These are either directly used as a food source or they are traded at local markets like the tourist hotels or other households. Also, coral reefs attract tourists and hence have a large contribution in the coastal tourism industry as well as the national revenue as a whole. In addition, coral reefs are very important because they protect coasts from strong currents and waves by slowing down the water before it gets to the shore.

8.3.2 Cover/Current status The total area of coral reef is approximately 50,000 ha. The living coral however occupy just a fraction of this and the distribution varies depending on the physical

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and human activities prevailing at a certain area. For example, areas with river systems like Malindi have conditions of low salinity and high turbidity which limit coral growth; while areas with offshore patch reefs that have limited influence from onshore activities have a high abundance of coral cover. Also, marine parks contribute a lot towards maintaining high cover of hard corals as shown in Figure 32 whereby coral cover was highest within marine parks 35%. Areas with limited protection (reserves) as well as areas that were completely unprotected had a lower coral cover.

Figure 32: Percentage cover of hard corals within parks, reserves and unprotected areas Source: CORDIO EA unpublished data, 2009. Coral distribution is however very fragmented and some individual sites can show as high as 85 % cover while other sites may show as low as 1% cover over an area of 500 m2.

Kenyan reefs have a round 220 species of hard corals. A total of 53 coral genera were recorded in a rapid assessment in 2009 with Porites massive forms dominating and being followed by branching corals like Pocillopora Acropora, and branching forms of Porites. Figure 33 show Relative Abundance of Coral Genera

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Figure 33: Relative abundance of coral genera Source: CORDIO EA unpublished data, 2009

8.3.3 Biodiversity Hard coral is the integral component of a coral reef ecosystem as it forms the foundation for other organisms to inhabit.

Fish: Many fish species are commercially important, particularly in coastal regions, in addition to be a food source for local communities. However, reef-associated fishes are vulnerable to natural disturbances and anthropogenic activities, particularly those that impact the physical structure of the habitats in which they reside.

The extensive and diverse reef systems along the Kenyan coast are known to harbor relatively high diversity of reef fishes. The latest research and surveys carried out recently identified about 252 species of fish in 45 families as preliminary inventory of species and patterns in diversity around southern reefs of Kenya.

The majority of fishermen fish in inshore areas, lagoon and outer reef areas using a dugout and trigger canoes. The peak season for fishing is between August and March, when the seas are calm. Snappers, rabbit fish, parrot fish, wrasse, emperor fish and grouper, and king fish account for the bulk of fish catch and lobster and sea cucumbers are also caught (Figure 34).

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Figure 34: Picture of Sea Cucumber

The livelihoods are very limited in scope, and there is a high level of high dependence on the continued exploitation of reef fisheries resources and tourism for local subsistence, income and employment. As a result of extensive exploitation occasioned by rising number of young fishermen, with little regulation of destructive fishing techniques, most reefs are generally overfished and evident by reduced amount of important fish species including groupers, snappers, sweet lips and emperors.

A small trade of aquarium fishes has recently developed in many parts of the coast. Approximately 192 aquarium fish species belonging to 35 families are targeted for export; most commonly being anemone fish, angel fish, wrasse, gobies and blennies.

The continued assessment and monitoring carried out by KMFRI indicates marine protected areas are being effective in terms of biodiversity conservation (high fish diversity and abundance) followed by community managed areas (CCAs). However, the unprotected areas adjacent to these MPAs have not benefited from the spillover and therefore evident to have very low abundance and diversity in fish and corals. Figure 35 shows total fish families, genera and species identified and average fish abundance within each management regime benthic cover. Coral reefs and other marine ecosystems are largely dependent on functional groups that form key components of the benthic community. Based on a recent assessment,

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Figure 35: Species composition in protected and unprotected areas at the Coast Source: KMFRI State of the Marine Environment Report

Reefs of Kenya were identified as being of ‘fair’ health condition with 25-50% live hard coral cover. The health conditions as judged by percentage of hard coral cover was highly variable among sites, with the highest levels found in marine protected reefs (57.5%), followed by co-managed areas (34%) compared to the reserve (29%) and unprotected areas with lowest percentage coral cover (23.5%). The no-take reefs have relatively lower algal turf and macro-algae compared to unprotected reefs . Extensive use of destrcutive fishing gears such seine nets and spear fishing are thought to be responsible for lower hard coral cover, although reoccuring coral bleaching effects are also partly responsible.

8.3.4 Threats/ Threats Forecast As a result of extensive use with little effort control, reefs have been generally over-fished and suffer from destructive fishing techniques. In recent years coral reef communities have experienced major declines, suffering from a series of large scale impacts, including mass coral bleaching events, infectious disease outbreaks and substantial die-offs of important species (Figures 36 and 37).

Climate change related coral bleaching is now considered as the greatest threat to coral reefs worldwide and Kenyan corals are of no exception. Coral bleaching events have been occurring more frequently as the world’s atmosphere and waters warms up. It is estimated that 60% of coral reefs may disappear before 2050 from various causes unless urgent management action is implemented.

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Figure 36: Coral reef with different functional groups

Figure 37: Health conditions of the reefs at the Coast

8.3.5 Interventions There is need to have serious local solutions to handle both global and local causes to coral reef degradation. In order to increase the cover of corals, there is need to increase coral reef protected areas. Already, there is a strong advocacy for fisher communities to initiate Locally Managed Areas (LMAs) or sometimes known as Community Conservation Areas (CCAs). Currently, there are about 17 proposed CCAs of which at least 4 CCAs are already operational.

Also, there is need for stronger enforcement of the fisheries laws so as to ensure there is responsible fishing in order to curb destructive fishing activities. Similarly, enforcement should be tightened so as to avoid overfishing since this 125

situation results into an imbalanced ecological system which can drive a coral reef ecosystem into a phase shift in the event of a disturbance.

8.3.6 Legislations

Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute (KMFRI) together with other line agencies focusing on the provision of information on these valuable resources which contributes directly to the management of Kenya’s coastal and marine resources and also indirectly through capacity building and national policy development. Research is focused on critical habitats which cover mangroves, sea-grass beds, coral reefs and benthic ecology. Various research teams under this unit investigate the status of these major ecosystems and associated biodiversity, threats to these ecosystems and provide recommendations for their wise use and improved management which include:- restoration of degraded ecosystems, initiation of alternative livelihoods to reduce human pressure among other approaches.

The Kenya Government has put up in place the Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) which is an important step towards sustainable utilization of coastal and marine resources. Through EMCA (1999) the Government of Kenya is committed toward development and implementation of ICZM as a sure means of sustaining the uses of marine and coastal resources. The government is in the process of implementing pilot ICZM projects along the coast. Kenya is also a signatory to, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), London Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, Convention for the protection, Management and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the East African region, Kyoto Protocol, United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), and the Ramsar convention among others. Additional interventions through research by government institutions are undertaken constantly to inform policy and decision making in order to mitigate the risks faced by Kenya’s coastal and marine resources. Figure 38 shows distribution of protected areas at the Kenyan Coast.

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Figure 38: Kenya’s coastline with major towns and nationally gazetted marine parks and reserves

Source: Map prepared by R. Lamprey, FFI

8.3.7 Other Threatened species in the Coastal and Marine Ecosystems

A number of species have been identified as threatened through surveys and research carried out on the Kenyan coastal regions.

8.4 WETLANDS Wetlands are defined as areas of land that are inundated for at least part of the year, leading to physico-chemical and biological conditions characteristic of shallowly flooded systems. The Environmental Management and Coordination Act (EMCA 1999), which is Kenya’s framework environmental law defines wetlands simply as ‘areas permanently or seasonally flooded by water where plants and animals have become adapted. Broadly, Ramsar Convention, define wetlands as ‘areas permanently or seasonally flooded by water where plants and animals have become adapted; and include swamps, areas of marsh, peat land, mountain bogs, banks of rivers, vegetation, areas of impeded drainage or brackish, salt or alkaline; including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters. Tables 38 and 39 show the DPSIR and Opportunity Frameworks for Marine and Wetlands

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Table 38: DPSIR for marine and wetlands ISSUE Drivers Pressure State Impacts Responses

Coastal, Marine -Population -Invasive species -Proportion of -Coastal, -initiatives for and wetland growth and -Pollution Marine Protected Marine and protection of resources development -Overexploitation Areas wetland ecosystems e.g. -Climate change -Agricultural -Coastline extent resources bioscience policy, -Poverty expansion -Proportion of degradation NBSAP, -Agriculture -Settlements marine species -bio-prospecting -Lack of wetlands -Encroachment threatened with Loss of strategy, –policy -Land use change extinction livelihoods -draft Natural -Non -Live Coral reef products policy, reinforcement of spatial coverage - focused species -Increased existing -Marine atrophic management Poverty legislation index strategies, Levels -Proportion area -traditional under mangrove medicine forest -Draft ICZM policy, -No of sites with up -community to date initiatives for management plans sustainable biodiversity use and conservation -National wetlands Atlas draft -National wetlands policy underway

-ICZM National Action Plan 210- 2015 -Shoreline Management Strategy -Draft Coastal Zone Pollution Prevention and Control Guidelines -Tana Delta Land Use plan -Draft mangrove management plan

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Table 39: Opportunity framework for marine and wetlands Thematic Key natural resource Opportunities Issues/threats area Asset Coastal and • Existence of extensive • Ecotourism potential • Coastal erosion and sea marine and diverse coastal based cultural set up level rise and marine resources • Coastal and marine • Destruction of coral reefs e.g. Sea grasses, biodiversity and loss of mangroves and sea Mangroves, sea grass products, e.g. Wood, grass beds and coral reefs timber, fish and other • Lack of Integrated coastal • Long coastline with a aquatic organisms area management (local large Exclusive • Energy potential (tidal and international Economic Zone with a waves, oil and gas) legislation) Infrastructural lot of potential for • Potential for development e.g. Lamu marine fisheries, development of port, seaweed harvesting, international maritime • Poverty tourism, oil industry • Population increase exploration • Mariculture (fish sea • Pollution • Coastal beaches weeds, and other marine • Wrong gears and methods organisms) for harvesting marine • Ecological services (fish resources breeding ground, habitat • Lack of capacity and for migratory birds, knowledge base climatic modification, • Salt intrusion in low-lying seasonal pastures, areas carbon sinkers) • Open access to marine • Source of employment resources opportunities for • Lack of legislation capacity building and enforcement research • Encroachment to the • Biodiversity hotspot e.g. shoreline Tana delta • Retrogressive cultural • Food production(Flood beliefs and practices plain agriculture) • Poor Water management • Tourism activities • Low investment (technology), • exploration and assessment of freshwater potential • Legislative and institutional framework • Water-borne diseases, e.g. bilharzias, river blindness, sleeping sickness

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CHAPTER 9: AGRICULTURE, LIVESTOCK AND FISHERIES

INTRODUCTION

Agriculture contributes 57% of Kenya’s GDP and offers employment to 80 % of the Kenya population in the rural areas. The sector was guided by the Strategy for Revitalizing Agriculture (SRA 2004–2014) currently succeeded by the Agriculture Sector Development Strategy (ASDS, 2010-2020) as the main reference document which is supplemented by specific Agriculture sector Ministries’ Strategic Plans. Vision 2030 specifically isolates agriculture as a key sector in the strategy that will drive the country into realizing the targeted average GDP growth rate of 10% annually in the next 25 years. The sector recorded a lower growth rate of 3.5 % in 2014 compared to the 5.2 % growth in 2013. The decline in performance of the agriculture sector was mainly attributable to erratic rains in 2014. Crop growing, animal production and fishing and aquaculture contributed 19.7 percent, 4.9 % and 0.8 % respectively (Figure 39).

Figure 39: Trends in national GDP and agri.GDP

9.1 AGRICULTURE SYSTEMS

Kenya has two agriculture production systems; Rainfed and irrigated agriculture.

Rain-fed Agriculture Rainfed agriculture is the major system which is dependent on bimodal rainfall pattern (Oct- Dec and March- May). The performance of rainfed agriculture system varies due to the diverse agro- climatic zones. In the humid, high-altitude areas productivity as well as predictability of a good crop is high. However, the population density in high rainfall areas has increased and land has been

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subdivided in to such small sizes hence becoming uneconomical for farm enterprises. In the medium altitude and moderate rainfall areas, arable rain fed farming is moderately suitable but with high risk of crop failure due to increased frequency of dry spells and uneven rainfall distribution. Increasing productivity in these areas requires better selection of crops, adoption of improved technologies and better crop husbandry.

A large proportion of the country, accounting for more than 80 percent is semi- arid and arid with an annual rainfall average of 400mm. Droughts are frequent and crops fail in one out of every three seasons. Most of the area is rangeland suitable for ranching and pastoralism. Farm enterprises comprise mixed crops that are not suitable for this rainfall regime or for the soils. These areas require better planning, careful selection of farm enterprises and greater investment in infrastructure.

Irrigated Agriculture Kenya has an estimated irrigation potential of 1.3 million ha. Out of this, 540,000 ha can be developed with the available water resources and remaining 800,000 ha require water harvesting and storage (water storage capacity of 25 billion m3).

Though not fully exploited, irrigation directly contributes between 10 – 15 % of total GDP and provides the bulk of the value of all agricultural produce. Irrigation agriculture in Kenya is carried out mainly in irrigation schemes and in large-scale irrigation of crops such as rice and coffee. Individual farmers have developed their own systems of irrigation especially for export crops such as coffee and horticulture.

With a national average rainfall of 400mm, the country should harvest and store adequate water for agriculture and other uses. Groundwater resources that can be exploited for agriculture need to be assessed and quantified.

9.2 CROP PRODUCTION

The crops sub sector is important in agriculture development and industrialization for the nation. The sub sector contributes substantially to the agricultural GDP and is broadly categorized into industrial, food and horticultural crops. Crop production contributes an average of 19.7 percent of the total GDP. Key among these include tea, coffee, sugarcane, tobacco, cereals, pulses, vegetables, fruits and flowers, all of which contribute to about 55 percent of all agricultural exports. Tea is the leading foreign exchange earner and fetched Kshs.101 billion while horticulture earned Kshs. 84 billion in 2014.

9.2.1 Food Crops Food crops are classified into cereals (maize, wheat, sorghum, rice, millet); pulses (beans, pigeon pea, cowpea, chicken pea, green grams) and roots and tubers 131

(sweet potato, Irish potato, cassava, arrowroot and yam) and horticultural crops (fruits, vegetables and flowers).

9.2.2 Industrial Crops The main industrial crops are tea, coffee and sugar cane while others include cotton, sunflower, pyrethrum, barley, tobacco, sisal, coconut and bixa, all of which contribute 55 percent of agricultural exports.

9.3 CROP YIELDS

9.3.1 Major Cereals Maize is the most important staple food crop in the country and contributes significantly to food security. In 2014 the national maize production slightly decreased by 2.2 percent from 39.9 million bags in 2013 to 39.0 million bags (90kgs). Wheat production decreased by 23 percent from 4.9 million bags in 2013 to 3.6 million bags (90kgs). Rice production also declined from 125,256 MT in 2013 to 112,263 MT in 2014. However the production for sorghum and millet has been on the increase for the past three years especially in the ASALs. Sorghum production increased by 5 percent from 1.8 million bags in 2013 to 1.9 million bags in 2014. Similarly millet production increased by 37.8 percent from 1.4 million bags in 2013 to 1.9 million bags (90kgs) in 2014 as shown in Table 40.

The low production on maize, wheat and rice was attributed to poor/ insufficient rainfall experiences in different regions in the country. On the contrarily the low amounts of rainfall were sufficient for sorghum and millet production in ASAL regions of Eastern and Nyanza which are major growing zones of the crops. Although the acreage for sorghum and millet decreased, a remarkable production was realized. These were also boosted by the ministry’s efforts to revitalize the crops through Traditional High Value crops project and linking with ready market.

Table 40: Trends in acreage, production and imports of major cereals Crop Parameter 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Maize Area (Ha) 2,008,346 2,131,887 2,159,322 2,123,138 2,116,141 Production (90 Kg bags) 38,494,899 37,520,694 41,846,213 39,918,751 39,035,228 Import (tonnes) 229,500 359,100 324,600 93,400 458,900 Wheat Area (Ha) 160,043 131,509 148,703 162,900 147,210 Production (90 Kg bags) 5,688,817 2,983,130 4,908,381 4,996,012 3,651,528 Imports (tonnes) 848,100 1,002,710 1,044,848 1,033,054 1,225,690 Rice Area (Ha) 20,181 22,966 30,095 31,349 28,390 Yield in tonnes 110,494 111,229 138,204 125,256 112,263 Sorghum Area (Ha) 225,782 254,125 223,799 223,799 213,520 Production (90 Kg bags) 1,822,950 1,776,412 1,851,411 1,876,192 1,972,810 Millet Area (Ha) 99,124 111,271 118,289 168,291 138,829 Production (90 Kg bags) 598,678 815,509 832,398 1,431,311 1,972,810 Source: Economic Review of Agriculture 2015

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Outlook: The production trends for maize and wheat are impacted negatively by poor rainfall and with changing climate the scenario is likely to get worse. The production trends for sorghum and millet have been on the increase in the past three years despite the insufficient rainfall hence thechanging climate is likely to have insignificant impact on the their production.

Policy Statement: Ministry should formulate policies that are aimed at increasing production, supporting marketing and local consumption of Sorghum and millet in the country.

9.3.2 Major Legumes The major legumes grown in the country are; beans, pigeon peas, cowpeas and green-grams. Beans registered a decline of 13.8 percent in 2014 from a production of 7.9 million bags in 2013 to 6.8 million bags (90kgs), a decline which was attributed to insufficient rainfall. However the production of cowpeas and green grams has increased in the past three years. Cowpea production increased from 1.48 million bags in 2013 to 1.5 million bags while green grams production increased from 1.0 million bags in 2013 to 1.3 million bags in 2014 (Table 41). The increase in production was associated to efforts by the ministry to promotion of drought tolerant crops; also the amount of rainfall received was sufficient to sustain the crops.

Table 41: Trends of acreage and production of legumes (2010-2014) CROP 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Beans Area (Ha) 689,377 1,036,738 1,058,920 1,083,604 1,052,408 Production 4,339,980 6,418,596 7,162,132 7,938,805 6,844,357 (90 Kg bags) Pigeon Area (Ha) 158,746 138,708 271,136 256,396 276,124 Peas Production 1,147,040 936,812 1,862,478 1,840,397 2,181,380 (90 Kg bags) Cowpeas Area (Ha) 168,273 197,980 212,730 250,798 281,877 Production 803,046 668,361 1,254,976 1,486,180 1,540,813 (90 Kg bags) Green Area (Ha) 147,352 159,910 188,416 258,407 259,167 grams Production 680,528 780,283 1,020,270 1,075,554 1,345,294 (90 Kg bags) Source: Economic Review of Agriculture 2015

Outlook: Among the four major legumes grown in the country beans production recorded a decline associated with poor rainfall while the others recorded an increase in production for the past three years. To address the impacts of changing climate and ensuring food security in the country the drought tolerant legumes should be promoted.

Policy Statement: Policies to support production, marketing and storage of cowpeas, green grams and pigeon peas in ASAL areas should be put in place 133

9.3.3 Horticultural Crops The horticultural crops in the country are flowers, fruits and vegetables. The volume and value of the horticultural crops has recorded an increasing trend from 2010 to 2012 but a decline was recorded in 2013 and 2014 which was attributed to low production on the flowers due to incidences of pest and diseases (Table 44 and Figure 36).

9.3.4 Major Tuber crops Tuber crops in the country mainly include Sweet potatoes, Cassava and Irish Potatoes. The production for sweet potatoes increased by 4.7% from 729,645 tonnes in 2013 to 763,64 tonnes in 2014 (Table 42). The production for cassava declined from 935,089 tonnes in 2013 to 858,461 tonnes in 2014 but the average yield per hectare increased from 12.7 MT/ha to 14.2 MT/ha which was attributed to availability of clean planting materials of high yielding varieties. The area under Irish potato increased by 11% in 2014 but the production declined by 2% in 2014 which was attributed to limited use of certified seeds resulting to poor performance.

Table 42: Trends of acreage and production of tuber crops 2010- 2014 Crop 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Sweet Area (Ha) 42,312 61,902 66,971 58,509 61,067 Potatoes Production 383,590 759,471 859,549 729,645 763,643 (Tonnes) Cassava Area (Ha) 61,573 60,473 69,169 65,634 63,725 Production 323,389 679,167 893,122 935,089 858,461 (Tonnes) Irish Area (Ha) 121,542 135,924 143,325 104,560 115,604 Potatoes Production 1,846,576 1,846,576 1,436718 1,667,690 1,626,027 (Tonnes) Source: Economic Review of Agriculture 2015

Table 43 shows trends in Fresh Horticultural Exports for the period 2010-2014.

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Table 43: Fresh horticultural exports 2010-2014 Crop/ 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Year Volume Value Volume Value Volume Value Volume Value Volume Value Type Tonnes Million Tonnes Million Tonnes Million Tonnes Million Tonnes Million Kshs Kshs Kshs Kshs Kshs Flowers 67,731 24,379 109,950 58,835 108,306 64,964 105,554 55,976 114,764 59,893

Fruits 19,313 2,047 27,051 3,535 31,070 4,680 31,107 4,483 35,149 5,411 Vegetab 60,090 13,744 79,246 26,251 66,352 20,226 77,172 22,923 70,335 18,781 les Total 147,135 40,170.39 216,246.92 88,621.68 205,728.47 89,869.57 213,833.73 83,381.48 220,247.52 84,084.33

Source: Economic Review of Agriculture 2015

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Trends in horticultural exports and their value are highlighted in Figure 40.

Figure 40: Trends in horticultural exports 9.3.5 Industrial Crops There was significant increase in coffee production by 30 percent from 38,800 tonnes in 2013 to 51,500 tonnes in 2014 (Table 44). This was attributed to better management practices at the estate and cooperative level. Cane production decreased by 1.25 percent from 600,179 tonnes in 2013 to 592,668 tonnes in 2014 which as attributed to low mill capacity utilization, obsolete milling technology and poor transport infrastructure. Tea production increased from 432,453 tonnes to 445,105 tonnes in 2014 which was attributed to increase in area under tea and good rains received in 2014.

Table 44: Trend of acreage and production of industrial crops 2010- 2014 CROP 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Coffee Area (Ha) 160,000 160,000 109,795 109,800 110,000 Production 42,000 36,260 49,000 39,800 51,500 (Tonnes) Sugar Area under 157,583 179,269 213,710 213,920 211,342 cane (Ha) Production 5,475,180 5,338,562 5,822,633 6,673,725 6,477,651 (Tonnes) Tea Area (Ha) 171,916 187,855 190,600 198,657 203,006 Production 399,006 377,912 369,400 432,453 445,105 (Tonnes) Source: Economic Review of Agriculture 2015

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9.3.6 Crop Research and Development Towards addressing challenges such as erratic rains, frequent droughts, increased incidences of pests and disease due to climate change; local research institutions such as Tea Research Foundation Kenya, KARI, Kenya Sugar Research Foundation (KESREF), Kenya Seed Company and Western Seed Company among others have released various crop varieties to address specific challenges. Table 45 shows some selected crop varieties and characteristics associated with them.

TABLE 45TABLE 46: CROP VARIETIES RELEASED 2008- 2014

Crop No. of Varieties Year Duration to Special attributes of the varieties released released maturity

Tea 3 2008 -2011 3-5 yrs Drought tolerant, High quality for tea manufacture & extraction of polyphenols for green tea, Resistant to mites and root knot nematode, Upright growth habit ideal for machine harvesting Wide adaptability and suitable for all designated tea growing regions Coffee 3 2010 18 months Fine cup quality with relatively lower caffeine content Resistant to CBD and Leaf Rust True breeding Late cherry ripening Produce very large berries Suited for all coffee agro-ecological zones in Kenya Sweet- 11 2010- 2013 3-5months -Light orange fleshed high ß carotene Potato content , dual purpose -Very Resistant to virus disease High dry matter content; Sugar 3 2008-2010 15- 18 months -High sucrose content, intermediate cane resistance to smut -Early maturity. High cane yield. Heavy Tillering. Cassava 12 2008- 2010 8-10 months -Resistant to Cassava Mossaic Virus, Tolerant to Cassava Borer Stem Disease, Straight stems ideal for intercropping -Early maturing, Low Cyanide, Sweet, Poundable Irish 7 2008-2013 3-4 months Moderately resistant to late blight potatoes Good storability/resistant to greening High tuber uniformity (80%) Long dormancy Round tubers Dark purple skin colour Shallow eye depth Very good crisping qualities, High number of tubers per plant. Maize 67 2008-2013 3-8 months -High yielding, Wide adaptability, , Tolerant to leaf diseases, Early maturing, -Tolerant to leaf diseases, Resistant to rust, Lodging resistant, Tolerant to GLS and blight, Source: KEPHIS Annual Report 2013

9.4 IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE

A total area of 161,840 hectares of irrigation land has been developed under various categories comprising; Private Schemes (36%), Public Schemes (13%), Smallholder Schemes (51%). Exploitation of irrigation potential in the country has 137

been on increase since 1963 though it still falls below 20%. Agriculture production has mainly been rain fed but with the changing climate focus on development of irrigation infrastructure has received emphasis especially in the country’s Medium Term Plan II (MTP 11). Table 47 shows the Irrigation Potential and Development per water catchment. Over the years the Country has also experienced increase in irrigation (Figure 41).

Table 47: Irrigation potential and development per water catchment Water Basin catchment Existing Area Development Area Development as areas potential ( Ha) as at 2010 Area ( Ha) at 2013 ( Ha) Lake Victoria 297,213 15,094 19,206 Rift Valley 101,753 9,587 13,589 Athi River 233,628 44,898 45,710 Tana River 482,450 64,425 67,427 Ewaso Ng’iro North River 142,665 7,896 7,908 Total 1,257,709 141,900 161,840

Figure 41: Trend of acreage under irrigation

9.5 AGRICULTURAL INPUTS The major inputs in agriculture are seeds, fertilizer, pesticides and farm machinery. Agricultural production and productivity has been hampered by low level of input use. The volume of various inputs increased steadily during the

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implementation of the first Medium Term Plan. A case in point is for fertilizer usage which has increased with the implementation of the Vision 2030 flagship project on fertilizer cost reduction (Table 48). In order to make fertilizer affordable and cushion farmers from price fluctuations, the government started the implementation of the Kenya Vision 2030 proposals of the three tier cost reduction strategy. These three tiers include local manufacturing of fertilizers, blending and Bulk procurement. Farmers accessed planting fertilizers at Kshs 3,000 compared to the market price of Kshs 6,500 per 50 kg bag in 2008. This reduced gradually to Kshs 1,800, as opposed to Kshs 3,400 in 2014. There is potential for increasing the use of technologies such as seed and machinery. Efforts have been made to ensure affordable farm inputs.

Table 48: Quantities of fertilizer procured under government bulk procurement initiative

Financial Total Quantity of Percentage of Quantity percent of Treasury Year fertilizer conventional conventional Procured conventional allocation requirement fertilizers fertilizers (MT) fertilizers for Fertilizer required procured procured Procure- ment (Kshs. M) 2009/2010 503,784 384,406 0.76 16,624 4.32 758 2010/2011 505,489 365,561 0.72 96,000 26.26 2,995 2011/2012 539,910 387,401 0.72 94,155 24.30 3,320 2012/2013 542,780 379,946 0.70 66,276 17.44 3,150 2013/2014 568,000 431,680 0.76 171,750 39.79 3,900

9.6 CREATION OF AN ENABLING ENVIRONMENT IN AGRICULTURE SECTOR To ensure the agriculture sector is transformed from subsistence and low productivity to commercial and globally competitive industry, six (6) policies and 4 Acts of parliament were finalized between 2011 and 2013 (Table 49).

Table 49: Policies and laws to spur production Policies Year 1 National Agricultural Sector Extension Policy 2012 2 National Seed Policy 2011 3 National Horticulture Policy 2012 4 National Food and Nutrition Security Policy 2012 5 National Agribusiness Strategy 2012 6 National Agricultural Research System Policy 2012 Acts of Parliament Year 1 Agricultural Fisheries and Food Authority ( AFFA) Act 2013 2 Crops Act 2013 3 Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Act 2013 4 Kephis Act 2012 Source: Economic review of Agriculture 2015. 139

9.7 LIVESTOCK

Kenya is endowed with a number of species of Animal Genetic Resources used for food and agriculture. These are cattle, sheep, goats, poultry, donkeys, camels, pigs, rabbits, bees and emerging livestock in the country. These animals are kept for various products such as milk, meat, skin, wool, honey, beeswax, manure used for crop production and ploughing using oxen.

Livestock production in Kenya is a major economic and social activity for the communities that live in the high rainfall areas for dairy production and in the arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs) for meat production. ASALs which covers over 80% of the country has about 60% of livestock and supports over 10 million people as the only source of livelihood and contributes a considerable proportion of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and agricultural labour force. Overstocking in ASALs leads to land degradation. In high potential areas, especially where zero grazing is practiced, the main issue in livestock production is waste management resulting in water pollution. In urban areas, disposal of effluents from abattoirs, butcheries and tanneries is a major concern.

9.7.1 Livestock Rearing and Carrying Capacity The wet areas Livestock carrying capacity had a mean of 1 to 2acres per Tropical livestock unit (TLU). Humid areas had 3 to 5 acres per TLU. Dry sub-humid carrying capacity was 6 to 8 acres per Tropical Livestock Unit per year. Semi-arid areas: 8 to 12 acres per Tropical livestock unit. Arid areas had 14 to 16 acres per TLU. Very arid areas had 20 to 25 acres per Tropical livestock unit. The potential carrying capacity was on a downward trend for the last five years attributed to frequent recurrent droughts that reduced plant biomass. Natural re-vegetation was hampered due to challenged flowering of forage material. Vegetation dynamics in dry land ecosystems experienced plant increasers and invasive species of poor foraging value e.g. increased annual grasses like Tetrapogon tenellus and Aristida adscensionisand bushes like opuntia spp and sensaveria spp etc.

9.7.2 Livestock Population

Overview Increase in livestock population indicated in Table 49, 50 and Figure 42, 43 and 44, was partially pegged on annual increase in households and subsequent investments by individuals, county governments and stakeholders. This was coupled with an increase in demand of livestock products arising from increased human population, urbanization and incomes in the country. In the rangelands, increase in livestock numbers is attributed to cross border movements but not improvement in productivity.

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Cattle Population The population for dairy and beef cattle has generally been increasing by 17.5 percent and 30.9 percent from 2010 to 2014 respectively (Table 50). This is attributed to increasing demand for beef and milk. However, the population for both dairy and beef cattle declined from 2013 to 2014 due to drought. Figure 42 shows cattle population trends between 2010 and 2014.

Table 50: Cattle Population Year Dairy Cattle Beef Cattle 2010 3,673,212 10,307,309 2011 3,739,161 10,388,135 2012 4,340,278 12,874,571 2013 4,505,582 13,632,918 2014 4,316,153 13,495,692 Source: State Department of Livestock SDL

Cattle population trends 2010 - 2014 16,000,000 13,632,91813,495,692 14,000,000 12,874,571 12,000,000 10,307,30910,388,135 10,000,000 8,000,000 Dairy cattle 6,000,000 4,340,278 4,505,582 4,316,153 3,673,212 3,739,161 Beef cattle 4,000,000 Population (Numbers) Population 2,000,000 - 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Year

Figure 42: Cattle population trends

Sheep and Goat Population Sheep and goat population has been on an increasing trend except for wool sheep whose population reduced by 21.2 percent from 1,094,048 in 2013 to 862,455 in 2014 (Table 51). The decline in wool sheep population may be attributed to competition with synthetic fiber. Figure 43 highlights goats trends.

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Table 51: Sheep and goat population Year Sheep Goats

Wool Hair Dairy Meat 2010 788,775 10,046,589 257,643 17,920,736 2011 798,289 10,140,621 294,279 17,694,066 2012 1,590,387 14,525,314 310,266 21,871,669 2013 1,094,018 15,506,893 360,495 24,276,898 2014 862,455 16,557,752 389,326 25,040,732 Source: State Department of Livestock SDL

FIGURE 43: SHEEP TRENDS

FIGURE 44: GOAT TRENDS

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Poultry Population The indigenous chicken has remained the most popular among Kenyan farmers largely due to low cost of production compared to exotic breeds and preference by consumers. Generally production of broilers and layers registered gradual increase. This could be attributed to rising population of the middle income group and more people shifting to urban areas.

Ostrich farming targeted particular markets, mainly tourists. The population reduced by a significant 20.2% from 3,668 in 2013 to 3,668 in 2014 due to poor performance of the tourism industry during the year (Tables 52 and Figure 45).

Table 52: Poultry population Year Broilers Layers Indigenous Chicken Ostrich Others* 2010 2,213,750 2,675,571 24,538,906 1,041 779,568 2011 2,600,924 2,847,225 26,219,935 978 684,243 2012 2,842,440 3,076,808 27,967,976 6,477 689,283 2013 2,745,188 3,675,425 32,569,198 3,668 878,991 2014 3,117,554 3,716,911 34,666,188 2,928 909,841 * Turkeys, Ducks, Quails, Guinea fowl, Geese, Pigeons and Doves

Source: Source: State Department of Livestock SDL

Poultry 40,000,000 Poultry population trends 2010 - 2014 34,666,188 35,000,000 32,569,198

30,000,000 27,967,976 26,219,935 24,538,906 25,000,000

Broilers 20,000,000 Layers Indigenous 15,000,000 Others Population (Numbers) Population 10,000,000

3,675,425 3,716,911 5,000,000 2,675,571 2,847,225 3,076,808

- 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Years

FIGURE 45: POULTRY TRENDS

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Emerging livestock Donkeys and camel population recorded a consistent increase rising by 9.9 percent and 1.7 percent from 2013 to 2014 respectively (Tables 53 and Figure 46). Camels are the main source of livelihood among pastoralists due to their resilience to adverse weather conditions. Pig population has fluctuated marginally from 2010 to 2014. Pig production targets hotel industry and the market dynamics have remained stable for the last five years.

Table 53: Population of other types of livestock Guinea Year Pigs Rabbits Donkeys Camels Crocodiles Pigs 2010 342,585 633,728 989,389 1,535,473 - - 2011 344,155 674,897 946,319 1,787,379 - - 2012 408,703 781,544 1,395,205 2,864,732 - - 2013 432,979 871,558 1,713,382 2,899,244 27,177 2,170 2014 430,844 874,565 1,882,785 2,937,262 71,500 3,420 - data not available Source: State Department of Livestock

Other livestock types

3,500,000

2,937,262 3,000,000 2,864,732 2,899,244

2,500,000

Pigs 2,000,000 1,882,785 1,787,379 1,713,382 Rabbits 1,535,473 Donkeys 1,500,000 1,395,205 Camels

Population (Numbers) Ostriches 989,389 946,319 1,000,000 871,558 874,565 781,544 Crocodiles 633,728 674,897 432,979 430,844 500,000 342,585 344,155 408,703

- 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Years

FIGURE 46: OTHER LIVESTOCK TRENDS Source: State Department of Livestock

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Bee Hives Log hives remain the most popular compared to other types of hives. This could be attributed to their low cost of production and ease of construction using local materials at the farm level compared to Kenya Top Bar Hives (KTBH), Langstroth and Box hives which are comparatively expensive. The decrease in population of log hives could be due to farmers adopting modern hives like KTBH (Table 54).

Table 54: Hives population

Year Hives Log KTBH Langstroth Box 2012 1,498,192 177,553 126,126 - 2013 1,478,737 190,719 123,268 3,559 2014 1,106,950 201,257 116,585 2,780 Source: State Department of Livestock

9.7.3 Degradation of Land due to Overstocking Overstocking of livestock, especially where mobility has been impeded, and breakdown of traditional customs of seasonal migration among herders and their cattle have led to considerable erosion on pasture land in the ASALs. This degradation has led to a shift in vegetation composition, with a reduction in the abundance of palatable/nutritional species such as Cenchrus ciliari and Themeda triandra and increased colonization by thicket and hardy grass species (Aristida spp. etc.) and woody impenetrable shrubs (Acacia nubica, etc.).

There was increased bare ground and decreased cover by perennial trees, shrubs and grasses. Annual grasses and herbs like Brachiaria leersioides, Justicia exigua, Eragrostis cilianensis, dominate most of the overgrazed areas. Woody shrub encroachment by Prosopis juliflora (ecotic), Tarconanthus camphoratus and Acacia Mellifera caused problems in vast areas.

The types of land degradation by ocular observation, but not yet quantified included: soil degradation, vegetation degradation and water resources degradation, leading to changes in the vegetation composition, structure and densities, decreasing the ability of the ecosystem to support livelihoods and economic development.

Livestock diseases incidences There was occurrence of three (3) notifiable cattle diseases reported from (15) counties; Foot and Mouth (6 counties), Lumpy skin (5) and anthrax (4).

All counties frequently reported cases of three (3) major diseases: Contagious caprine pneumonia (CCPP) and PPR in sheep and goats and Newcastle disease in Poultry. Rabies was reported countrywide. Endemic Livestock diseases like tick 145

borne diseases, foot and mouth and Helminthiasis were controlled. Table 55 highlights a Summary of trends of livestock disease incidences

Table 55: Summary of livestock disease incidences

2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Livestock Cattle: Cattle: Cattle: Cattle: Cattle: disease - Anhtrax, - Foot and mouth, - Foot and mouth, - Foot and mouth, - Foot and incidences - Foot and mouth - Contagious - Contagious Bovine - Contagious Bovine - mouth, - Contagious Bovine - Pleuropneumonia, - Pleuropneumonias - Lumpy Bovine Pleuropneumonia - East Coast fever, - Lumpy skin, skin, Pleuropneumonia , East Coast fever, - Helmithiasis, Trypanosomiasis. - Brucellosiss, - East Coast fever, - Helmithiasis, - Lumpy skin, Goats: - Anthrax - Lumpy skin, - Lumpy skin, - Trypanosomiass - Contagious - Trypanosomiasis - Trypanosomiasis. Goats: - caprine Goats: pneumonia, Goats: Goats: - Contagious caprine - Contagious - Helminthiasis, - Contagious - Contagious caprine pneumonia, - PPR. caprine pneumonia, -Helminthiasis, Sheep: Caprine pneumonia, - Helminthiasis, - PPR. Helminthiasis. - Helminthiasis, - PPR. - PPR. Pneumonia, Sheep: Camels: Mange, Sheep: Helminthiasis. Haemorragic - PPRand Sheep: Helminthiasis. Septicemia - Helminthiasis Helminthiasis. Camels: Mange. Poultry: Camels: Mange Camels: Mange - Fowl Pox, Poultry: Sheep: Poultry: - New Castle, - Fowl Pox, Helminthiasis Poultry: - Fowl Pox, - Fowl typhoid. - New Castle, Camels: - Fowl Pox, - New Castle, - Mange, - New Castle, - Fowl typhoid - Haemorragic Septicemia

Poultry:

- Newcastle

disease and

- Fowl pox

Source: State department of Livestock 2014

Priority diseases for the year 2014

The Figure 47, 48 and 49 highlight distribution of various diseases in Kenya.

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FIGURE 47: DISTRIBUTION OF DISEASES IN KENYA, 2014

FIGURE 48: CONFIRMED RABIES CASES 2010-2014

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FIGURE 49: REPORTED FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE (FMD) CASES, 2014

9.7.4 Resource Use Conflicts Resource use conflicts occurred frequently during drought periods due to water and forage scarcity, but poorly documented. The trend of occurrence based on field reports varied from County to the other depending on severity of the dry spell, especially in the ASALs. The potential for sustainable Pastoral livelihoods was challenged with violent conflicts, raiding and clashes over range resource use and cultural issues that continually undermined pastoral livelihoods. This was also partially attributed to limited economic opportunities, poverty and minimum economic integration with few economic alternatives to livestock keeping, especially in the Northern Rangelands.

The conflicts were usually clan-based, episodic and complex. At community level, customary institutions still play a major role in resolving and transforming conflicts especially during early stages. The conflicts also had regional implication given the volatility of some neighboring countries and pastoralists’ need for mobility. This applied most to international borders in Northern, Upper Eastern, North Eastern and Rift Valley.

9.7.5 Initiatives of Sustainable Livestock Management Four Projects were implemented by the Department: i. Sustainable land Management project (SLMP) – UNDP supported

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o Goal:“Sustainable Land Management” provided the basis for economic development, food security and sustainable livelihoods while restoring the ecological integrity of the ASALs. o Objective: Provided land users and managers with the financial incentives, enabling policy, institutional and capacity for effective adoption of SLM in four Agro-pastoral Sub-counties (Mbeere North, Kyuso, Narok and Dadaab). ii. Regional Pastoral Livelihood Resilience Project (RPLRP) - World Bank Supported: o Development objective is to develop and implement regional approaches that enhance livelihoods resilience of pastoral and agro- pastoral communities in the drought prone areas of the ASALs iii. The Drought Resilience and Sustainable Livelihoods Programme (DRSLP) – African Development Bank Supported, it hinges on: o Improved livelihoods and rural incomes o Improved resilience of pastoral production system o Strengthened regional economic and institutional integration iv. Disease Free Zoning Program o Establishment of Disease Free Zones to facilitate access of livestock and livestock products to local, regional and international markets while addressing animal health, productivity and handling infrastructure constraints in Livestock marketing.

9.8 FISHERIES Kenya is endowed with both marine and inland water resources that contribute to the overall fish production; the coastal marine resource includes the EEZ. The inland water resources include lakes, dams, and rivers of varying sizes. Fisheries contribute a significant proportion to Kenya’s GDP. It also plays an important role in ensuring food security. A large population depends on fisheries both directly and indirectly for livelihood through fishing and linkages to fish processing and trade. The fisheries sector is identified as one with great potential for value addition and provision of rural incomes in the country

Apart from deep sea marine fishery, the overall state of Kenya’s fishery resources and their ecosystems is deteriorating due to unsustainable fishing practices, habitat destruction, pollution and weak management structures. Other challenges include uncoordinated development approaches, low investment and inadequate aquaculture development, weak linkages between research and management and cross-border conflicts. To reverse this trend and achieve sustainability of fisheries, careful stewardship is required to conserve and protect all aquatic habitats for present and future generations.

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9.8.1 National Fish Production and Utilization In the year 2014, fish production from Inland, Aquaculture and Marine artisanal fisheries amounted to 168,413 metric tonnes with an ex-vessel and farm gate value of Kshs. 22,381,573,000 (Table 56). This was an increase of 3.1% in quantity and 5.2% in ex-vessel and farm gate value compared with 2013 values of 163,293 metric tonnes with an ex-vessel value of Kshs. 21,283,592,000. The small increase in quantity can mainly be attributed to increase in production of fish from Lake Victoria and Tana River dams which during the same period increased by 3.3% and 5.4% respectively. The increase in production from Lake Victoria was attributed to the increase in Rastrine obolaargentea (Omena) and Oreochromis niloticus production which increased by 4.3% and 6.5% respectively during the same period (Table 57 and Figure 50).). In general fish production has been on gradual increase since 2007 fetching higher and higher ex-vessel value year after year.

Kenya is endowed with both marine and inland water resources. The inland water resources include lakes, dams and rivers of varying sizes. Some of the major lakes include: Lake Turkana (6,405 Km2), Lake Victoria-Kenyan side (6% of the whole lake 4,128 km2), Naivasha (210 Km2), Baringo (129 Km2), and Lake Jipe (39 Km2). Major rivers include Tana (700 Km), Athi/Galana/Sabaki (530 Km), Ewaso-Ng’iro- North (520 Km), Kerio (350 Km), Suam-Turkwel (350 km), Mara (280 km), Nzoia (240 km), Voi (200 km), Yala (170 km), Ewaso-Ngiro-south (140 km), Sondu (105 km), Malewa (105 km) and Kuja (80 km.Further to these inland water resources, Kenya also enjoys a vast coastline of 640 km on the Western Indian Ocean, besides a further 200 nautical miles Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) under Kenyan jurisdiction. The country’s coast is located within the richest tuna belt in the South West Indian Ocean.

However, the Kenyan marine fishery is mainly artisanal with very few commercial/industrial vessels targeting mainly shrimps and several tens of purse seines and long liners owned by Distant Water Fishing Nations (DWFN) which operate under Kenyan license in our Economic Exclusive Zone (EEZ) targeting Tuna and Tuna like species. The artisanal fishery is important and significant as it accounts for most of the inland and marine water catches reported in this report. On the other hand our EEZ which is mostly exploited by commercial/industrial fishing vessels is under exploited with an estimated potential of between 150,000 to 300,000 metric tonnes. The fisheries sector plays a significant role in employment and income generation. During the year under review the sector supported a total of 61,311 fishermen and 73,839 fish farmers with 69,688 stoked fish ponds. Overall the sector supports about 1.2 million people directly and indirectly, working as fishers, traders, processors, suppliers and merchants of fishing accessories and employees and their dependents. Besides being a rich source of protein, the sector is also important for the preservation of culture, national heritage, and recreational purposes.

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Table 56: Quantity and value of fish landings

2012 2013 2014 FRESH WATER M. 000 Kshs M. 000 Kshs M. 000 Kshs tonnes tonnes tonnes L. Victoria 118,992 11,775,377 124,643 13,858,682 128,708 14,601,790 L. Turkana 3,001 307,382 4,338 438,646 4,166 433,790 L. Naivasha 143 15,460 231 17,542 633 68,070 L. Baringo 251 23,514 263 25,008 302 86,595 L. Jipe/Dams 112 16,715 116 16,910 115 19,249 Lake Kanyaboli 125 8,479 194 12,004 134 10,466 Lake Kenyatta 33 2,182 54 3,770 51 3,899 Tana River 967 81,609 705 73,024 1,024 98,311 Dams Takwel dam - - 59 11,849 56 11,547 Fish Farming 21,487 4,633,634 23,501 5,522,735 24,096 5,601,722 Tana delta 39 2,409 46 3,204 47 3,574 Riverine - - 9 2,046 8 1,894 TOTAL 145,150 16,866,761 154,159 19,985,420 159,340 20,940,907 MARINE FISH Lamu County 2,062 170,483 2,147 177,666 2,227 203,119 Tana River 596 43,979 698 66,158 312 36,969 County Kilifi County 2,061 335,820 2,136 319,831 2,154 346,560 Mombasa 782 129,236 855 158,104 996 204,781 County Kwale County 1,976 198,066 1,867 222,039 2,183 280,849 TOTAL 7,477 877,584 7,703 943,798 7,872 1,072,278 CRUSTACEA Lamu County 132 69,905 215 113,073 174 92,777 Tana River 129 21,654 68 10,747 62 28,828 County Kilifi County 164 64,125 93 32,407 49 21,314 Mombasa 207 48,374 247 57,717 164 53,224 County Kwale County 108 29,195 140 36,907 106 46,889 TOTAL 739 233,253 762 250,851 555 243,032 MOLLUSCS Lamu County 86 19,842 90 36,889 55 18,163 Tana River 18 1,563 37 2,402 25 2,745 County Kilifi County 178 28,335 116 14,681 153 30,439 Mombasa 77 11,494 74 9,048 59 10,965 County Kwale County 289 35,026 351 40,503 354 63,044 TOTAL 649 96,260 669 103,523 646 125,356 MARINE 8,865 1,207,098 9,134 1,298,172 9,073 1,440,666 TOTAL GRAND 154,015 18,073,859 163,293 21,283,592 168,413 22,381,573 TOTAL

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Table 57: Fresh water and marine fish catches by species, weight and value Species 2012 2013 2014 M. M. FRSH WATER tonnes 000 Kshs M. tonnes 000 Kshs tonnes 000 Kshs Alestes 276 23,456 329 27,359 318 26,871 Bagrus 49 4,123 105 8,550 101 8,398 Barbus 10 848 94 8,443 101 10,777 Black bass 2 100 1 133 3 461 Clarias 6,596 1,048,549 6,918 1,196,823 7,174 1,252,514 Rastreonobola 52,948 2,813,882 66,717 3,552,513 69,561 4,129,707 Labeo 480 40,263 659 60,785 622 61,135 Haplochromis 723 63,272 1,126 85,212 929 73,211 Lates niloticus 53,023 7,547,723 44,319 8,589,887 43,399 8,473,050 Protopterus 1,196 95,886 1,318 115,852 1,339 158,834 Synodontis 15 1,283 141 11,885 136 11,672 Tilapia niloticus 22,196 4,525,560 25,071 5,531,254 26,278 5,746,526 Tilapia others 1,935 190,740 2,395 253,577 2,612 300,187 Trout 215 118,177 235 140,853 241 142,943 Carps 1,727 155,993 1,920 182,300 2,083 202,237 Eels 1 114 - - - - Citharinus 14 1,188 120 14,118 116 13,866 Hydrocynus 60 5,121 109 9,826 106 9,650 Distichoduniloti cus 298 25,289 330 34,562 319 33,946 Unspecified 3,386 205,194 2,251 161,488 3,903 284,922 TOTAL 145,150 16,866,761 154,159 19,985,420 159,340 20,940,907 MARINE FISH Demersal 4,300 486,451 2,147 177,666 4,519 603,235 Pelagic 2,297 288,152 698 66,158 2,506 347,725 Sharks/Rays 373 46,064 2,136 319,831 293 48,085 Sardines 194 17,449 855 158,104 239 32,056 Unspecified 313 39,468 1,867 222,039 314 41,178 TOTAL 7,477 877,584 7,704 943,799 7,871 1,072,279 CRUSTACEA Spiny Lobster 96 94,255 123 114,952 107 108,857 Prawns 408 83,747 365 77,752 269 87,484 Crabs 235 55,251 274 58,146 180 46,691 TOTAL 739 233,253 762 250,851 555 243,032 MOLLUSCS Oysters 74 6,942 32 2,179 35 1,395 Beche-de-mers 36 18,676 48 35,296 24 18,575 Octopus 394 49,402 446 45,899 437 70,714 Squids 144 21,241 143 20,149 151 34,673 TOTAL 649 96,260 669 103,523 646 125,356 TOTAL MARINE 8,865 1,207,098 9,135 1,298,173 9,073 1,440,667 GRAND TOTAL 154,015 18,073,858 163,294 21,283,593 168,413 22,381,574

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FIGURE 50: FISH PRODUCTION BY QUANTITY AND VALUE 2005-2014

9.8.2 Capture Fisheries Capture fisheries in Kenya is mainly from lakes Victoria, Turkana, Naivasha, Baringo, Jipe, Tana River dams, Tana river delta and the Indian Ocean and it accounted for 85.7% of the country’s total fish production in 2014 slightly up from 86.6% the previous year. In 2014 capture fisheries fish production was 144,317 metric tonnes compared to 139,792 metric tonnes in 2013. Lake Victoria accounted for 89.18% of all the fish from capture fisheries in 2014. Lake Turkana contributed 2.89%, Tana river dams 0.71%, Lake Baringo 0.21%, Lake Naivasha 0.44%, Lake Kanyamboli 0.09%, Lake Jipe 0.08%, Lake Kenyatta 0.04%, Tukwel dam 0.04%, Tane river delta 0.01%, Riverine 0.01% while marine artisanal fisheries contributed 6.29% of all the fish from capture fisheries.

In capture fisheries, gill netting was the most used fishing method during the year. The other methods included use of gears such as long line hooks, hand line, traditional traps, trolling, ring nets, cast nets and small (mosquito) seines for Rastrine obolaargentea fishing. There are other methods which were used but are currently prohibited due to their destructive nature. They include; Beach seining, Monofilament gill netting, Trawl netting, Scuba diving, spear gunning and vertical integration of gears.

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Lake Victoria Fishery Lake Victoria’s contribution to total national annual fish production is enormous (76.4% in 2014) even in the face of rapidly declining fish stocks in the lake. Capture fisheries of Lake Victoria are a source of livelihood to many people employed directly as boat owners, fishermen (40,137), fish traders, fish processors, etc and indirectly as fishing gear manufacturers, boat builders, and ice producers among others. Lake Victoria is a multi-species fishery with hundreds of known species, but only Rastrien obolaargentea (Omena), Lates niloticus (Nile perch), and Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia) are of economic significance which contributed 93.5% of total catches from the lake (Kenyan side) in 2014 (Table 58). This has been the case for a number of years. However, for the last few years there have seen a rapid decline of fish stocks in Lake Victoria thereby creating a wide gap between supply and demand for fish in the country. In response to this undesirable situation, the government has taken concrete steps to promote aquaculture development in the country. It introduced and implemented the Fish Farming Enterprise Productivity Program (FFEPP) to bridge the existing supply-demand gap.

During the year 2014, fish production from Lake Victoria increased to 128,708 metric tonnes with an ex-vessel value of Kshs 14,601,790,000 compared to 124,643 metric tonnes with an ex-vessel value of Kshs 13,858,682,000 landed in 2013. The 2014 figures translate into an increase of 3.3% in quantity and 5.4% in ex-vessel value compared to the previous year. For the three species of commercial value, Lates niloticus’ production decreased by 2.1% while Rastrien obolaargentea and Oreochromis niloticus increased by 4.3% and 6.5% respectively compared to the previous year (2013). In terms of species contribution to the total weight of fish landed from the lake, Rastrien obolaargentea took the lead with 54.0%, Lates niloticus, 33.3%, Oreochromis niloticus, 6.2%, Clarias spp, 1.9%, Protopterus aethiopicus, 0.9%, Haplochromis, 0.7% and the others species combined contributed 3.0%. Homabay County contributed 63.2% of the total landings, Siaya 22.1%, Migori 6.1%, Kisumu 4.3% and Busia 4.2%, (Figures 51, 52 and 53).

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Table 58: Lake Victoria annual fish landings by species, weight, value and counties 2014 County Busia Siaya Kisumu H/Bay Migori Total Species Metric 000 Metric 000 Metric 000 Metric 000 shs Metric 000 Metric tonnes 000 Kshs tonnes Kshs tonnes Kshs tonnes Kshs tonnes tonnes Kshs L.nilotucus 777 172,578 8,222 1,699,242 786 160,081 30,422 5,865,824 2,631 507,483 42,838 8,405,209 R.argentea 2,944 166,159 15,093 1,011,616 1,786 159,650 45,139 2,535,385 4,599 256,896 69,561 4,129,707 O. niloticus 1,630 289,642 3,740 594,485 1,172 208,784 961 171,268 425 67,491 7,927 1,331,671 Clarias - - 75 4,133 875 63,709 1,448 202,801 41 2,684 2,439 273,328 Protopterus - - 1 33 326 6,789 651 87,105 146 10,575 1,122 104,502 Haplochromis - - 57 2,559 125 6,183 682 61,360 56 2,499 919 72,601 Others 118 13,819 1,198 57,675 487 37,398 2,097 175,693 3 188 3,901 284,773

Total 5,468 642,198 28,385 3,369,743 5,556 642,595 81,399 9,099,437 7,899 847,817 128,708 14,601,790

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FIGURE 51: LAKE VICTORIA SPECIES CATCH COMPOSITION 2005-2014

FIGURE 52: LAKE VICTORIA SPECIES CATCH COMPOSITION 2014 156

FIGURE 53: LAKE VICTORIA FISH LANDING BY COUNTIES 2014 Challenges facing Lake Victoria fishery include: i. The declining trend in species fish catches apart from Rastrine obolaargentea and Oreochromis niloticus, an indicator of reduced fish stocks particularly Lates niloticus; ii. Infestation of the lake by aquatic weeds i.e. Water Hyacinth and the Hippo grass; iii. The major challenge afflicting the fisheries of Lake Victoria is still mainly attributed to over fishing and habitat degradation. These have had adverse impacts to the fishery by changing the species diversity and reduction in total harvestable biomass; iv. Increase in illegal fishing gears and methods; v. Lack of appropriate fish handling and preservation facilities that usually lead to high post-harvest losses and poor quality of fish and fishery products; vi. Weak and unfavorable fish marketing systems along the fish landing sites leading to poor prices and therefore resource deterioration; vii. Inadequate resources (human and funds) to ensure efficient Monitoring, Control and Surveillance for sustainability.

The State Department of Fisheries is concerned about the sustainability of Lake Victoria fisheries. Scientists have advised that the fish stocks are continuously declining and unless this is effectively dealt with, the sustainability of the fishery remains under threat. This will eventually have a negative impact on other businesses and the fishers.

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All stakeholders especially fish processors and gear distributors should collaborate with the State Department of Fisheries in order to manage Lake Victoria fisheries resources sustainably. Many illegal gears are still in use and this can only be controlled with the cooperation of all the stake holders.

9.8.3 Marine Capture Fishery

The marine capture fishery is composed of coastal and near shore artisanal, semi- industrial and offshore industrial fisheries. Artisanal and semi-industrial fisheries are exploited by the coastal local communities while the industrial fisheries are exploited by foreign fishing companies. The inshore waters which are fishing grounds for artisanal fishermen are over-exploited and degraded. Great potential exists in the exploitation of the Kenyan EEZ where estimates done in 1975-1980 indicate potential of 100,000 to 150,000 metric tonnes annually (FAO, 1980) and more recent estimates indicate potential of 300,000 metric tonnes . This fishery is currently exploited by Distant Water Fishing Nations (DWFN) upon payment of access fees to the State Department of Fisheries. The State Department has limited capacity for Monitoring, Control and Surveillance (MCS) to ensure compliance with the established fisheries management standards, besides it is possible that these vessels could be accessing our EEZ resources without payment of access fees. However the challenge at hand is large and needs a comprehensive approach in order to establish and deploy a national fisheries enforcement unit. A well trained and a disciplined law enforcement unit is critical toward the management of every fishery particularly when its operation is based on best scientific information.

The artisanal fishing activities are affected by Kenya’s coastal oceanographic conditions which are caused by changes in the monsoon wind system that results to seasonal reversal process with North East monsoons between November-March and South East monsoons between May-September. These oceanographic processes cause distinct seasonality in the artisanal fishery, with high catches during the NE monsoon than the SE monsoon. These two seasons are referred to as Kazikazi and Kusi by the locals. During Kazikazi the sea is calm and there is a lot of fishing activities and fish landings are normally high while during Kusi the winds render the sea rough thus unfavorable to fishing trips.

A total of 9,073 metric tonnes of assorted fish species with an ex-vessel value of Kshs.1,440,667,000 were landed by the artisanal fishers in 2014. This production reflected a small decline of 1% from the previous year’s production of 9,134 metric tonnes with an ex-vessel value of Kshs. 1,298,172,000 (Table 59).

Landings from artisanal fishery have been increasing, declining then increasing in cycles while the value of the fish has maintained an upward trend over the years. Fish production from the marine artisanal fishery for the last ten years (2005-2014)

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has remained fairly constant between 7,000 and 9,000 metric tonnes only showing marginal fluctuations as shown in Figure 54.

Table 59: Marine fisheries landings by species, weight and value (comparative)

SPECIES 2012 2013 2014 M. tonnes 000 Kshs M. tonnes 000 Kshs M. tonnes 000 Kshs DEMERSAL Rabbit fish 645 81,776 794 105,666 722 98,217 Scarvenger 602 71,633 685 81,641 686 107,033 Snapper 432 54,197 347 49,224 319 47,799 Parrot fish 416 44,969 540 53,973 508 63,986 Surgeon fish 104 11,295 94 10,668 130 16,193 Unicorn fish 133 13,680 154 18,812 175 24,187 Grunter 161 19,855 161 19,103 160 20,750 Pouter 168 17,277 165 18,442 194 25,977 Black skin 225 20,890 175 18,114 194 21,681 Goat fishr 125 14,940 115 14,674 117 15,464 Steaker 45 4,186 49 4,128 32 4,085 Rock cod 248 30,391 199 24,151 160 20,628 Cat fish 215 21,833 174 19,776 184 21,712 Mixed dermasal 781 79,531 781 84,780 939 115,523 TOTAL 4,300 486,451 4,433 523,153 4,519 603,235 PELAGICS - Cavalla jacks 241 29,096 274 33,108 243 31,356 Mullets 292 31,381 220 27,962 312 42,136 Littla mackerels 329 37,998 328 39,457 448 58,276 Barracudas 260 31,386 317 41,523 301 42,416 Milk fish 79 9,521 61 6,839 83 10,562 King fish 121 17,942 168 25,544 127 21,979 Queen fish 179 20,889 192 25,393 151 21,278 Sail fish 142 21,193 140 21,743 176 30,326 Bonitos/Tunas 201 30,807 292 41,563 193 29,085 Dolphins 61 5,756 17 2,219 44 6,199 Mixed Pelagics 391 52,183 353 44,543 428 54,112 TOTAL 2,297 288,152 2,362 309,893 2,506 347,725 Sharks &Rays 373 46,064 314 46339 293 48,084 Sardines 194 17,449 217 22344 239 32,056 mixed fish/Others 313 39,468 377 42069 314 41,178 TOTAL 881 102,981 908 110,752 847 121,318 CRUSTACEANS - Lobsters 96 94,255 123 114,952 107 108,857

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SPECIES 2012 2013 2014 M. tonnes 000 Kshs M. tonnes 000 Kshs M. tonnes 000 Kshs Prawns 408 83,747 365 77,752 269 87,484 Crabs 235 55,251 274 58,146 180 46,691 TOTAL 739 233,253 762 250,851 555 243,032 MISCELLANEOUS - Oysters 74 6,942 32 2,179 35 1,395 Beche-de-mers 36 18,676 48 35,296 24 18,575 Octopus 394 49,402 446 45,899 437 70,714 Squids 144 21,241 143 20,149 151 34,673 TOTAL 649 96,260 669 103,523 646 125,356 TOTAL MARINE 8,865 1,207,098 9,134 1,298,172 9,073 1,440,667

FIGURE 54: TRENDS OF MARINE FISH PRODUCTION BY QUANTITY AND VALUE In 2014, dermersal fish species category dominated the marine artisanal fish landings by contributing 4,519 metric tonnes (49.8%) of the total marine artisanal landings while pelagic fish category contributed 2,506 metric tonnes (27.6%), the sharks, rays and sardines category made up 847 metric tonnes (9.3%) of the landings, crustaceans 555 metric tonnes (6.1%) and molluscs 646 (7.1% ) Figure 55. This trend has been the same over a number of years, Figures 55 and 56.

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FIGURE 55: PERCENTAGE CONTRIBUTION OF MARINE FISH SPECIES GROUPS 2014

FIGURE 56: TRENDS OF LANDINGS OF MARINE FISH SPECIES GROUPS 2012-2014 In 2014, Kwale County contributed the highest quantity of marine artisanal landings of 2,643 metric tonnes (or 29.1% of the total landings) with an ex-vessel value of Kshs 390,782,000 (or 27.1% of the total ex-vessel value). Kwale was sequentially followed by Lamu 2,456 metric tonnes (27.1%) with an ex-vessel value of Kshs 314,059,000 (or 21.8%), Kilifi 2,356 metric tonnes (26.0%) with an ex-vessel value of Kshs 398,313,000 (27.6%), Mombasa 1,219 metric tonnes (13.4%) with an ex- vessel value of Kshs 268,969,000 (18.7%), and lastly was Tana river county with a contribution of 399 metric tonnes or 4.4% with an ex-vessel value of Kshs 68,543,000 or 4.8% of the total ex-vessel value of all the marine artisanal landings.

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FIGURE 57: MARINE FISH PRODUCTION BY QUANTITY, VALUE AND COUNTIES 2014 The most common fishing gears used by the artisanal fishers were gillnets, traditional traps (usio, malema), seine nets (which include beach, prawn and reef seines), long line hooks, hand lines, cast nets and trammel nets among others. Figure 57 highlights fish landing quantity and value per county at the coastal region.

9.8.4 Other Capture Fisheries

As mention above, apart from lake Victoria and marine capture fisheries, the other capture fishery areas in 2014 included lake Turkana which contributed 2.89%, Tana river dams 0.71%, lake Baringo 0.21%, lake Naivasha 0.44%, lake Kanyamboli 0.09%, lake Jipe 0.08% , lake Kenyatta 0.04%, Tukwel dam 0.04%, Tane river delta 0.01% and Riverine 0.01%.

9.8.5 Aquaculture

The State Department of Fisheries has aggressively been promoting aquaculture development in the country to counter the declining production from capture fisheries. Aquaculture, being a food production sub sector, is being mobilized to positively contribute towards food security, generate income and create employment to our young generation.

Fish farming production during the year (2014) was 24,095,999 Kgs (24,096 metric tonnes) with a farm gate value of Kshs. 5,601,721,944 compared to 23,500,812 Kgs (23,501 metric tonnes) valued at Kshs. 5,522,735,483 in 2013. This production was

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from 69,688 ponds with an area of 20,906,400 meters square (2,091 hectares), 161 tanks measuring 23,085 meters square and 124 reservoirs with an area of 744,000 square meters throughout the country. Over the last ten years, fish production has increased from as low as 1,047metric tonnes produced in year 2005 to the present production of 24,096 metric tonnes shown in Figure 58.

FIGURE 58: AQUACULTURE PRODUCTION 2005-2014 The following constraints continued to affect aquaculture activities during the year under review: • Inadequate readily available and affordable quality fish seed (fingerlings); • Inadequate good quality and affordable fish feeds; • Poor adoption of fish husbandry techniques by some farmers even after being trained on basic pond management; • Water scarcity due to other competing uses – industry, domestic and agriculture; • Inadequate market information for use by fish farmers; • Lack of good credit facilities and schemes for fish farmers; • Security and safety of fish in ponds posed by thieves and predators; • Poor book keeping and record management leading to inaccurate data from farmers along the aquaculture value chain e.g. input costs, management cost, quantities of fish harvested and value; • Sub optimal staffing levels especially extension personnel; • Inadequate facilitation in terms of transport and timely funds towards carrying out of fisheries extension service provision.

The State department of fisheries policy on shifting fish farming from subsistence to commercial enterprise demands increased and reliable fish seed and feed production for the farmers.

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CHAPTER 10: ENERGY, TRANSPORT, COMMUNICATION AND MINING

10.1 INTRODUCTION Energy is essential for socio-economic development. Deliberate efforts have been made by the Government to provide power to remote areas in Kenya in order to spur development and improve livelihoods. The main sources for the country’s power production are hydropower, petroleum and geothermal. It is projected that the country’s energy requirements will substantially increase. The country’s energy policies must ensure a robust and efficient energy system that is secure and sufficient. In order to facilitate industrial competitiveness and economic growth, the energy system should focus more on diversifying energy development.

The energy sector plays a critical role in the socio-economic development of a country. The Kenya Vision 2030 identified energy as one of the infrastructure enablers of its social and economic pillar. Sustainable, affordable and reliable energy for all citizens is a key factor in realization of the Vision. The main sources of energy are hydro-electric power, fossils fuels, geothermal, biomass, wind and solar. The country heavily depends on imported petroleum as a source of energy to drive its industrial and manufacturing sectors. However, in the year 2013 Kenya made a major discovery of oil reserves in Turkana county. The discovery will be turning point in the transformation of the Kenyan economy from being depended on agricultural exports to industrial economy.

At national level, wood fuel and other biomass fuels accounts for about 68% of the total primary energy consumption, followed by petroleum at 22%, electricity at 9% and other sources of fuel (including coal) standing at less than 1%. Solar energy is used for drying grains and other agricultural products, for heating and lighting. The consumption of solar energy in Kenya is low standing at 121 KWh per capita yet the potential is high.

10.1.1 Energy Resources in Kenya

Fossil Fuels Fossil fuels encompass petroleum (oil, and gas) and coal resources. In 2013 petroleum accounted for 22% of the total primary energy consumed in the country. Petroleum is mainly used in the transport, commercial and industrial sectors. Coal provided about 1% of the primary energy consumed in the country mainly by cement manufacturers. The petroleum industry is broadly divided into three categories namely: upstream (exploration and production), mid-stream (storage, refining and transportation) and down-stream (supply and distribution). Tables 60 and 61 show petroleum consumption in the country.

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Table 60: Consumption of petroleum

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Liquefied petroleum 77.4 84.4 74.6 87.8 91.6 93.6 92.9 gas Motor spirits(premium 367.1 461.7 599.2 562.1 618.5 774.5 and) 381.3 Aviation regular spirit 2.2 1.4 2.5 2.8 1.8 2.2 2.5 Jet/Turbo fuel 638.5 570.9 539.6 670.6 671.0 551.3 559.2 Illuminating Kerosene 265.2 332.8 316.0 269.6 309.0 296.1 244.7 Light diesel oil 1,116.5 1,416.1 1,517.3 1,461.8 1,486.3 1601.2 1,141.1 Heavy diesel oil 40.1 23.9 25.0 27.6 20.8 18.7 30.0 Fuel oil 614.8 729.4 771.8 437.0 371.0 690.0 680.3 Total 3,121.8 3,133.2 3,610.8 3,857.9 3,686.0 3707.9 3,765.7 Source: Gok, Economic Survey, 2014

Table 61: Net domestic use of petroleum fuels by consumer category User 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Agriculture 56.5 37.1 26.3 33.9 30.4 22.5 Retail Pump outlets and 1,570.4 1,609.3 2,054.5 2,362.5 2,159.5 2,234.7 road transport Rail transport 16.4 13.5 8.5 0.2 7.3 11.6 Tourism 11.6 8.1 8.3 7.4 7.7 6.2 Marine (excluding natural 0.7 0.8 7.3 16.1 26.8 13.1 forces) Aviation (excluding 635.7 567.0 592.4 625.1 665.7 665.5 government) Power generation 399.9 360.4 373.2 300.3 328.7 118.7 Industrial, Commercial 408.8 482.0 570.0 414.6 632.5 566.1 and others Government 8.3 12.5 18.9 15.8 21.0 12.6 Balancing Item 13.5 42.3 47.5 10.2 21.7 13.0 Total 3,121.8 3,133.0 3,610.8 3,765.7 3,851.9 Source: Gok, Economic Survey, 2014

Petroleum Exploration Kenya’s oil exploration efforts paid off in January 2012 when commercial reserves were discovered at Lokichar in Turkana County, North Western Kenya, by Tullow Oil Company Ltd, in Ngamia I Well. By the end of 2013, Tullow had drilled four more exploration wells (Etuko, Twiga, Ekales and Paipai) three of which had oil. The API gravity of the oil is estimated to be between 300 and 350, indicating high quality oil. Further petroleum exploration continued to be undertaken during this reporting time, both on-shore and off-shore in the country’s four major Sedimentary Basins.

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Natural Gas Natural gas could be found as pure methane or in conjunction with higher hydrocarbons. Natural gas is categorized in the following three types: • Oil and associated gas, • Rich condensate and gas, • Dry gas. Natural gas has the potential of meeting future energy needs of the country and offers a number of significant environmental benefits over other fossil fuels mainly due to its chemical simplicity and burns cleaner than all other fossil fuels. Kenya had no known reserves of natural gas until September, 2012 when gas discoveries were made offshore at Mbawa 1 near Malindi. The commercial viability is yet to be established.

The options available for importation are either through natural gas pipelines from producing fields in neighboring countries or by Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) ships supplying LNG to onshore gasification plants. The main use of natural gas is through gas-fired power generation, preferably Combined Cycle Gas Turbines (CCGT) to ensure maximum efficiency. Generation of power through gas fired plants has several advantages over other fossil fuelled power plants in that it has much lower environmental impact. Natural gas pipeline would need to be constructed from the field to the Power plant or from the LNG import handling facility or import pipeline.

The following industries are feasible when sufficient quantities of natural gas are available at reasonable cost:

(a) Manufacture of ammonia for fertilizer production. More than 97% of the world’s strategic fertilizer is produced from synthetically produced ammonia derived from natural gas. The natural gas is both a feedstock and fuel.

(b) Manufacture of fuel additives, plastics detergents, and formaldehyde, among others.

(c) Manufacture of steel through the modern Direct Reduced Iron method which directly removes oxygen by reacting the ore with a hydrogen-rich and CO-rich gas produced by catalyzing methane derived from natural gas. The natural gas is both a feedstock and fuel.

Gas to Liquids This application is used to produce diesel and other fuels. However the technology for Gas to Liquids (GTL) has not yet been commercially proven and therefore is not an option until such technologies are well developed and available at reasonable cost.

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Transport (Compressed Natural Gas) Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is methane pressured at 200 to 250 bars (2900 to 3,500 psi) at which it is stored and distributed. In this case, Methane is compressed to less than 1% of the volume it occupies at standard atmospheric pressure. CNG technology shall be applied in Kenya for transport.

Coal Energy The Ministry of Energy identified coal as one of the indigenous sources of energy that will drive the development of strategic initiatives for Vision 2030. It was recognized that the key to increased development lay in early identification of indigenous energy sources, exploiting these resources and establishing an appropriate institutional framework for delivery to the consumers. Coal is a readily combustible rock containing more than 50% by weight and more than 70% by volume of carbonaceous material formed from compaction of variously altered plant remains. It is used as a source of energy, including electricity generation. It is the most affordable fuel worldwide and has a potential to become the most reliable and easily accessible energy source. The introduction of clean coal technology (CCTs) in coal fired power plants reduces emissions and extracts sulphur for other applications such as chemical and fertilizer production while capturing carbon for storage (CCS). Current world coal energy consumption by sector is 42% electricity, 25% industrial and 33% other uses. The country has adequate coal deposits for commercial exploitation and the Government is fast tracking exploration and development of the resource for power generation and industrial use.

In Kenya, coal is mainly used by cement manufacturers to complement heavy fuel oil for process heat. As at 2013, all coal utilized in Kenya was imported. Between 2006 and 2013 consumption of coal averaged 140,000 metric tonnes per annum. This constitutes less than 1% of the total primary energy consumed in the country. Coal consumption is expected to increase with the discovery and mining of coal deposits in Mui Basin in Kitui County and other parts of the country.

There is commercially viable coal reserves in the Mui Basin situated in Kitui County. The basin is sub-divided into four blocks, namely; A, B, C and D. In 2010 four hundred million tonnes of coal reserves were confirmed in Block C. The coal has been analyzed and found to range in ranking from lignite to sub-bituminous with calorific values ranging from 16 to 27 MJ/kg. Further exploration work is ongoing in Blocks A and B. Blocks C and D are under concession. The Government is also carrying out exploration for coal at the Coastal Region in Taru Basin in Kwale and Kilifi Counties and has extended the activities to other parts of the country and in this it has established 31 more coal blocks for the purpose of establishing coal potential and delineating the blocks for concessioning.

The Government has concessioned Blocks C and D in the Mui Basin for coal resource development with the objective of generating 960MW from a coal fired

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plant in Kitui County. As per the 2013 least cost power development plan (LCPDP), coal is projected to provide 4,500MW of electricity by 2030.

The Government is working with a strategic investor to build a coal fired power plant in Lamu County in the coastal region. Phase 1 of the plant will have a capacity of 960MW. Construction of the plant is expected to commence in 2014 with a commissioning date of 2016. However, there is need to develop adequate and appropriate coal handling and storage facilities onshore.

10.1.2 RENEWABLE ENERGY Renewable energy is derived from naturally occurring resources, principally the movement of wind and water, the heat and light of the sun, plant material and animal waste, and geothermal (the heat in the earth’s crust). All these resources can supply our needs and those of future generations in a sustainable way. Effectively harnessing these renewable resources requires careful planning and advanced technology. Renewable energy has the potential to enhance energy security and reliability; generate income and create employment; enable the country to make substantial foreign exchange savings by reducing dependence on imported fuels and its attendant price volatility, and mitigate climate change as it has minimal adverse effects on the environment. According to the Economic Survey 2013, biomass provides 69% of the country’s overall energy requirements while petroleum accounts for about 22% and electricity 9%. 74.5% of the electricity component is generated using renewable energy sources with fossil fuels providing the balance of 25.5% (Tables 63 & 64).

Geothermal Energy Below the earth's crust, there is a layer of hot and molten rock called magma. Heat is continually produced there, mostly from the decay of naturally radioactive materials such as uranium and potassium. The amount of heat within 10,000metres of the earth's surface contains 50,000 times more energy than all the oil and natural gas resources in the world.

The areas with the highest underground temperatures suitable for geothermal energy production are in regions with active or geologically young volcanoes. These occur at plate boundaries or at places where the crust is thin enough to let the heat through. In Kenya, more than 14 high temperature potential sites occur along Rift Valley with an estimated potential of more than 10,000MWe. Other locations include Homa hills in Nyanza, Mwananyamala at the Coast and Nyambene Ridges.

Geothermal power plants use steam or hot water from a natural underground reservoir to generate electrical energy.

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Hydro Energy Hydropower is electricity generated using the energy of moving water. Rain or melted snow, usually originating in hills and mountains, create streams and rivers that eventually run to lakes, seas or oceans. This energy has been exploited for centuries. In the late 19th century, hydropower became a source for generating electricity. A typical hydro plant is a system with three parts: an electric plant where the electricity is produced; a dam that can be opened or closed to control water flow; and a reservoir where water can be stored. The amount of electricity that can be generated depends on how far the water drops and how much water moves through the system. Hydropower is also readily available; engineers can control the flow of water through the turbines to produce electricity on demand. In addition, reservoirs may offer recreational opportunities, such as swimming and boating. But damming rivers may destroy or disrupt wildlife and other natural resources. Hydropower is, to date, the most successful form of renewable energy. The amount of electrical energy generated depends upon the quantity of available water. Adverse hydrology can have a devastating effect on an economy that is heavily dependent on hydropower such as Kenya.

Currently Kenya has an estimated hydropower potential of about 6,000MW comprising of large hydros (sites with capacity of more than 10MW) and small hydros. Of the large hydros, 807MW has been exploited and accounts for about 50% of installed generation capacity as at 2013 while about 1,450MW remains unexploited. Potential for small hydros is over 3,000MW, of which less than 25MW has been developed.

Large Hydros As of June, 2013 the installed capacity of hydropower generation was 807MW equivalent to 49% of total installed capacity. It is estimated that the undeveloped hydroelectric power potential of economic significance is 1,449MW out of which 1,249MW is for projects of above 30MW. Average energy production from these potential projects is estimated to be at least 5,605 GWh per annum. This hydropower potential is located in five geographical regions, representing Kenya’s major drainage basins: Lake Victoria (295MW), Rift Valley (345MW), Athi River (84MW), Tana River (800MW) and Ewaso Ng’iro North River (146MW). By December 2011, a feasibility study for a multi-purpose hydropower project on Tana River after Kiambere hydropower plant (HPP), High Grand Falls Power Project, revealed a capacity of 700MW of power together with water storage capacity of 6 million cubic meters. A further study in the same area also showed potential for 100MW at the Karura HPP. In order to increase generation capacity, the Government has upgraded some of the existing hydro power plants. These upgrades include Tana, Kiambere and Kindaruma adding a total of 72MW in the system. Feasibility studies have also been carried out for three projects on Ewaso Ng’iro South River in the Rift Valley basin with a total capacity of 220MW. In the

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North Rift Valley basin, a feasibility study for a high head hydropower plant (Arror HPP) was completed in 2011 and revealed a potential of about 70MW.

Small hydros are hydropower schemes whose potential does not exceed 10MW of installed capacity. The total estimated potential of small, mini and micro hydro systems is 3, 000MW. Most of this potential is situated within the country’s five main drainage basins. The implementation of some of these schemes is undertaken by both the Government and private investors. By 2013, Government run schemes were a total of 15 MW while those by private developers were 10 MW.

Small Hydros Of the more than 3,000MW small hydro potential, only about 30MW has been developed. With the introduction of the Feed-in-Tariff (FiT) policy in 2008 small- scale candidate sites are expected to be developed to supply villages, small businesses or farms, as well as grid supply. The Ministry of Energy and Petroleum has carried out feasibility studies for small hydros in tea growing areas covering twelve sites with an estimated combined potential generation capacity of 33MW. Feasibility studies are on-going at 14 other sites and will be expanded to cover other areas and the results used for capital mobilization for development of the sites. As at 2013, only a few schemes had been developed as stand-alone systems or to feed to the national grid. By the end of 2013, more than 260 small hydropower sites had been identified but the largest number of sites are found in the Tana River drainage basin, mainly in the counties of Kirinyaga, Muranga, Meru and Tharaka Nithi. Table 62 Shows trends in Electricity generation while Table 63 shows trends in consumption patterns

Table 62: Electricity generation by sources, 2005-2013 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Hydro 3,039 3,025 3,592 3,267.0 2,160 3,224 3,217.2 4015.9 4435 Thermal 1,505 1,819 1,736 2,145.4 2,997 2,201 2,800.5 2200.4 2162 Geothermal 1,002 1,046 989.0 1,039.0 1,293 1,442 1,443.7 1515.9 1781 Cogeneration -- 5.6 8.3 4.0 50.0 92.0 80.9 104.7 56 Wind 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.2 7.2 16.8 17.6 14.4 15 Imports 27.9 10.8 22.5 25.0 9.0 30.0 33.9 49 Total 5,575.2 5,906.7 6,47.9 6,480.6 6,546.2 7,005.8 7,593.8 7851.3 8497 Source: Gok, Economic Survey, 2014

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Table 63: Electricity consumption 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Domestic and Small 1,741.8 2,000.8 2,058.1 2,169.3 2,433.9 2,568.5 2866.1 Commercial Large and Medium 3,140.6 3,019.8 3,058.1 3,204.9 3,440.9 3,409.2 3585.3 (Commercial and Industrial) Off-peak 49.2 66.2 36.8 69.2 75.4 36.0 32.7 Street Lighting 12.2 26.3 21.3 20.5 17.9 20.6 17.2 Rural Electrification 212.8 239.1 254.4 290.8 306.1 380.1 426.8 Total Domestic 5,156.6 5,352.2 5,428.7 5,754.7 6,273.6 6414.4 6928.1 Export to Uganda 58.3 41.0 27.0 29.6 37.3 32.7 Source: Economic Survey, 2014

Biomass Energy Biomass is organic matter that can be used to provide heat, make fuel and generate electricity. Wood-fuel, the largest source of biomass has been used to provide heat for thousands of years. Many other types of biomass are also used as an energy source such as plant residue from agriculture or forestry and the organic component of municipal and industrial wastes. Landfill gas is also considered a biomass source. Biomass resources can be replenished through cultivation of crops such as fast growing trees and grass.

Biomass fuels are the most important source of primary energy in Kenya with wood-fuel (firewood and charcoal) accounting for over 68% of the total primary energy consumption. About 55% of this is derived from farmlands in the form of woody biomass as well as crop residue and animal waste and the remaining 45% is derived from forests.

Studies on biomass energy point to a widening gap between supply and demand for wood-fuel, a challenge that requires dedicated policy interventions to redress. Wood-fuel supply does not match demand over various parts of the country. In spite of past efforts to promote wood fuel substitutes, the number of people relying on wood fuel is not decreasing. Consequently, wood fuel will continue to be the primary source of energy for the majority of the rural population and urban poor for as long as it takes to transform the rural economy from subsistence to a highly productive economy.

Unlike other renewable sources, biomass can be converted directly into liquid fuels called bio-fuels to meet energy needs.

Bio Fuels Unlike other renewable resources, biomass can be converted directly into liquid fuels called biofuels to meet energy needs. The use of bio-fuels would reduce vehicle emissions and save on foreign exchange required for importing petroleum

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fuel, improve on the balance of trade and create employment. A strategy for introduction of bio-fuel blends in the market was developed by the Government in 2010. Facilities for ethanol-gasoline blending have been completed in Kisumu to be followed by Eldoret and Nakuru. However, commercial extraction of biodiesel for blending has yet to be initiated. Land will need to be set aside for the production of energy crops as feedstock for bio-fuels. This calls for the formulation of strategies to optimize land use, as well as to harmonize land use policies with the energy policy. Most bio-fuel projects underway or being planned involve sugarcane and sweet sorghum as the main feedstock for ethanol; and other vegetable oil crops such as, coconut, croton and cotton seed for biodiesel.

Biogas Large-scale biogas plants using waste from slaughter houses, agro-processing or municipal waste present good opportunities for electricity generation. A number of pilot and small commercial biogas facilities for heat and electricity generation have been identified (Biopower Limited in Kilifi County generates 150 kW from a mixture of sisal waste and cattle dung, while banana leaves have been used to generate 10 kW at Kamahuha in Muranga County). An example of a large biogas facility using industrial organic waste is the Agro-Chemical & Food Company’s bulk volume fermenter (BVf) at Muhoroni, generating 23,000 m3 of gas per day from the distillery effluent. This biogas has been used to substitute fuel oil in running two medium- size boilers. Out of a crop of a cut flower 80% constitutes waste which acts as a source of biomass the remaining 20% is what is commercially marketable. Assuming the same biogas production rates as the waste from gardens or parks, a daily power generation of roughly 200kWh/ton could be realized. Total power that could be generated from members of the Kenya Flower Council is estimated at 87 GWh/yr, corresponding to an installed capacity of about 20MW (depending on usage and design load factor).

The highest potential for energy generation from cut flower waste is found in Nakuru County. In 2011 the Ministry of Energy initiated pilot projects for electricity generation from cut flower wastes in Kiambu and Kajiado counties with a view to scaling up the generation of electricity from other biogas sources. It is estimated that the potential electricity generation capacity from the floriculture industry could be 20MW. It is estimated that the potential electricity generation capacity from the sisal industry could be 10MW. The Government is involved in the “Biogas for Better Life” which offers business opportunities as well as improved livelihood and aims at providing 2 million households in Africa with biogas digesters by 2020. A feasibility study carried out under this initiative established that it is possible to construct 6,500 biogas digesters in Kenya every 5 years. Several biogas projects are being undertaken by MoE and REA in public institutions. The private sector is also implementing a number of similar initiatives all over the country. Various prisons including Embu GK prison and schools in the country currently utilize biogas for their cooking and lighting requirements.

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Solar Energy Solar energy can be used for lighting, heating, drying and generating electricity. Kenya’s geographical location astride the equator gives it unique opportunity for a vibrant solar energy market. The country receives good solar insulation all year round coupled with moderate to high temperatures estimated at 4-6 kWh/m²/day. Solar energy is widely used for drying coffee, cereals, vegetables, fish, hides and skins; for water heating; and for electricity generation using photovoltaic systems.

Solar water heating systems are mainly used in homes, hotels, hospitals and learning institutions. The demand for solar water heating (SWH) is projected to grow to more than 800,000 SWH units by 2020 equivalent to 300,000 TOE. This represents a growth rate of 20% per annum. This demand will mainly be from domestic, institutional and small commercial consumers spurred by the operationalization of the Energy (Solar Water Heating) Regulations,2012. Kenya is well known for a large-scale market-driven penetration of small PV systems with capacity of 12 – 50 watts power (Wp) consisting of low cost amorphous silicon modules and both mono- and polycrystalline silicon modules. It is projected that by 2020, the installed capacity of solar photovoltaic systems will reach 10MWe generating 22 GWh annually. The Government initiated a programme for electrification of institutions far from grid using solar PV systems. As at 2012 solar PV systems had been installed in 945 institutions including primary and secondary schools, dispensaries, health and administrative centers.

The Government has also embarked on a programme to provide solar/diesel and solar / wind hybrid generation capacity to off-grid stations including the following: • 60 kW solar / diesel at Lodwar. • 30 kW solar / wind at Habaswein. • 10 kW solar / diesel at Merti in Isiolo. • 60 kW solar / diesel at Hola. • 50 kW solar / diesel at El Wak in Wajir.

Wind Energy Wind energy uses naturally occurring energy of the wind for practical purposes like generating electricity, charging batteries, or pumping water. Large, modern wind turbines operate together in wind farms to produce electricity for utilities. Kenya has a proven wind energy potential of as high as 346 W/m2 and speeds of over 6m/s in parts of Marsabit, Kajiado, Laikipia, Meru, Nyandarua, Kilifi, Lamu, Isiolo Turkana, Samburu, Uasin Gishu Narok, Kiambu Counties among others. The Ministry of Energy developed a Wind Atlas in 2008 with indicative data.

With the rising cost of oil, exploitation of wind energy has become more attractive. Substitution of thermal generation with wind power plants will cut down on the large amounts of foreign exchange required to import fossil fuels for the thermal power plants. Further, partial substitution or combining wind with gen-sets (wind–

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diesel hybrid) and some form of renewable energy storage such as pumped storage in hydropower could cut down on running or overall costs by substituting renewable energy sources for significant amounts of diesel. Using wind the emissions can be sold as certificates of emission reduction. The installed wind energy capacity to the grid is 5.45MW as at June, 2012 and a further 20MW is expected to be commissioned by end of 2013. The 300MW Lake Turkana Wind power project is expected to be commissioned in 2017. Other committed projects include 110MW at Kinangop and Ngong. As of 2012, proposals for development of 650MW have been received for wind energy capacity at Marsabit, Isiolo and Ngong. Local production and marketing of small wind generators has started and few pilot projects are under consideration. However, only a few small and isolated wind generators are in operations so far.

Biomass Co-Generation Co-generation refers to the simultaneous production of heat and power from one single fuel source. It is common where plant processes require both heat and power such as sugar processing and offers opportunity for improved plant energy efficiency besides reducing energy costs and providing additional revenue stream through surplus power export to the national grid. A pre-feasibility study on cogeneration by the Ministry of Energy completed in 2007 established that there is potential for generating up to 120MW of electricity for export to the national grid without major investments and about 200MW with modest investments in terms of expanding cane fields and cane crushing capacity. Mumias Sugar Company took advantage of its co-generation potential from sugarcane bagasse by generating 38MW out of which 26MW is exported to the national grid. Other sugar companies are expected to diversify into the use of sugar processing by-product value addition through co-generation and bio-ethanol production. The planned generation capacity from all sugar companies is estimated to be 90MW by 2014.

10.1. 3 OTHER RENEWABLE SOURCES

Other renewable energy sources and technologies are not yet widely demonstrated or commercialized. These include ocean energy, biomass gasification, bio-refinery technologies and concentrating solar power. Of particular interest is ocean energy, owing to the long coastline which Kenya is endowed. The oceans contain huge amounts of power that can be drawn from different sources and exploited for generating useful energy. The most developed conversion systems use tidal energy, thermal energy, marine currents and ocean waves. A private investor has expressed interest to develop a 100MW electric power plant utilizing tidal waves.

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10.1. 4 KENYA NUCLEAR ENERGY QUEST

Kenya Vision 2030 points to energy as an enabler. The Nuclear Electricity Project Committee was established through a Kenya Gazette Notice No. 14188 of November 2010 which has since then transformed into a statutory body named the Kenya Nuclear Electricity Board in 2012. Its mandate is to fast track the development of nuclear power in order to enhance production of affordable and reliable electricity. So far the board has carried out the following: i. Established the Secretariat ii. Pre-feasibility Study of the Nuclear Power Programme iii. Preparation of a 15-year Strategic Plan iv. Developed draft nuclear legislation development v. Undertaken human Resource capacity building in different nuclear related subjects vi. Undertaken Up-front siting activities geared at finding the ideal location for the plant(s) vii. Undertaken an electric grid study to evaluate the integration of nuclear power plants viii. Carried out Stakeholder engagement ix. Held Public out-reach programmes

10.1.5 CHALLENGES IN ENERGY SECTOR The major challenges facing the energy sector include: • Increasing quantity and improving quality energy • Enhancing efficiency and reliability of energy supply. • High initial capital investment outlay • Long lead times from feasibility studies to development of energy infrastructure • Mobilizing financial resources to undertake massive investment in the power sector, • High cost of energy, • Low income per capita • Low levels of industrialization in the country • Adoption of appropriate technology • Capacity for Nuclear Energy introduction

10.2 TRANSPORT

The transport sector is vital in facilitating economic growth and sustainable development. The government of Kenya through the ministry of Transport and Infrastructure has been intensifying efforts aimed at improving transport infrastructure comprising; roads, railways, airport, pipelines and ports. Recently, the performance of the transport sector has continued to improve with the sector total output value expanding by 13.7 per cent in 2014. Despite the significant performance, the sector has consequently registered negative impact to the

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environment. This is because the sector heavily relies on petroleum, including the related activities of upstream, midstream and downstream of petroleum products.

The impact has seen the transport sector in Kenya responsible for 23% of the greenhouse gas emissions. Major environment, health and safety impact in the petroleum industry are fire outbreaks and oil spills. For example, since the year 2000 to 2013, the country has witnessed a number of incidents involving petroleum products which have led to approximately 315 fatalities and 375 serious injuries, loss of property and man hours. Other negative impacts include the exposure of personnel handling petroleum products to the risks associated with inhalation of product fumes and dermal contact, and the disposal mechanisms of the petroleum related products including accidents in transport sector. The demand for petroleum products increased to 3939.5 thousand tonnes in 2014 from 3745.4 thousand tonnes in the 2013.

The total quantity of petroleum product imported expanded by 11.7% to 4464.5 thousand tonnes in 2014 compared to 2013, out of which the importation of lubricating greases increased from 442.8 thousand tonnes in 2013 to 717.7 thousand tonnes in 2014. At the same period, the demand for motor gasoline increased by 16.7% to record 903.8 thousand tonnes in 2014. Generally, the transport sector remained the main consumer of petroleum fuels, jointly accounting for 89.6% of total sales, and on average, the retail and pump outlets and road transport, accounted for approximately 61.3% of petroleum consumption between years 2009 and 2013 (Table 64).

Table 64: Demand of petroleum for selected purpose, 2010-2014 Year/demand 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Motor gasoline ( premium and 597.2 562.1 618.5 774.5 903.8 regular) Aviation spirit 2.5 2.8 1.8 2.2 2.3 Jet/ turbo fuel 539.6 670.6 671.0 551.3 529.3 Light diesel oil 1,517.3 1,461.8 1,486.3 1,601.2 1,721.4 Heavy diesel oil 25.0 27.6 20.8 18.7 3.0 Fuel oil 680.3 771.8 437.0 371.0 328.1 Liquefied petroleum gas 87.8 91.6 93.6 92.9 149.7

Table 65 shows the trends of Kenya CO2 emission from oil, international marine bunker and international aviation banker (million tonnes).

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Table 65: Co2 emission by sector by year 2012 Year 2000 2005 2010 2011 2012 Oil 7.5 7.2 10.7 10.6 9.8 International marine bunker 0.21 0.00 0.05 0.08 0.04 International aviation banker 1.36 1.76 1.70 2.12 2.12

Table 66 indicates that carbon emission from fuel combustion, though jointly, records the highest at 10.6 million tonnes followed by transport with 4.8 million tonnes of which 4.7 is on road emission.

Table 66: Carbon emissions from different sectors

Total Co2 Electricity Other Manufacturin Tran- Of which Other Of emission and heat energy g industry sport road sector which from fuel production and and emission reside combustion industrial construction ntial own use

10.6 1.9 0.1 2.7 4.8 4.7 1.1 1.0

Source: IEA study, 2015

10.2.1 Transport Infrastructures

Railways The Kenya Railways Corporation and its concessionaire, Rift Valley Railways do not have adequate capacity for petroleum product transportation. To this end only about 1% of petroleum products were transported by rail from Mombasa in 2014. However, railway transportation has been found a much safer mode of transport than road due to the potential risks involved especially in LPG handling coupled with the destruction of the roads. Despite the limited capacity of petroleum product transportation by rail, cargo traffic transported by rail increased by 24.3% to 1509.0 thousand tonnes in 2014.

The construction of the standard gauge railway line is expected to increase the transportation of petroleum products by rail. The increased use of railway over road transport will reduce carbon emissions from trucks, and related costs arising from road damage and frequent accidents. It is expected that the standard gauge railway will receive political goodwill for transportation of bulk goods and petroleum products from the port of Mombasa to the Kenyan as well as the regional market.

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Water Transport In maritime sub-sector, the port of Mombasa recorded an increase of 11.5 % of the total cargo through put to stand at 24,875,000 tonnes in 2014. The container traffic registered a growth of 13.2% from 894,000 twenty foot equivalent units handled in 2013 to 1,012,000 in 2014. Bulk liquids handled at the ports posted a growth of 10.8% to 7.2 million tonnes in 2014 compared to 2013. Out of this, the volume of the bulk liquids exports handled declined to less than half the amount handled in 2013 (Table 67).

It is speculated that the discovery of oil in the country including the neighboring countries, Uganda and independence of South Sudan will provide an opportunity for transportation of petroleum products over the water bodies.

Table 67: Traffic at Mombasa port for bulk liquids Year 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Imports 6,386 6,607 6,665 6,537 7,192 Exports 95 158 160 100 45 Source: Kenya Ports Authority

Air Transport Demand for jet fuel and fuel oil declined by 4.0 per cent and 11.6 per cent respectively. Light diesel oil accounted for 43.7% of the total domestic demand in 2014 as compared to 42.8 per cent in 2013.

Road Transport Road transport has over the years been a dominant mode used to move petroleum products, mainly from Mombasa, Nairobi, Nakuru, Eldoret and Kisumu. Road transport has recorded registration of new motor vehicles to 102,606 units in 2014 which was a growth of 9.1per cent from 2013. Newly registered motor cycles in this sector dropped from 125,058 units in 2013 to 111,124 units in 2014, reflecting a decline of 11.1%.

The Energy Regulatory Commission indicates that the average fuel consumption for vehicles in Kenya in 2010 was 7.4 L/100km with a corresponding CO2 emission of 178.2g/km, the fuel consumption figure in 2011 was 7.6L/100km with a corresponding CO2 emission of 182.04g/Km, while in 2012, fuel consumption figure stood at 7.7 L/100km, with a CO2 emission of 185.4g/km. The grand average figure of fuel consumption for the period of study was 7.5 L/100km with a corresponding CO2 emission of 181.7g/km (Table 68).

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Table 68: Fuel consumption and Co2 emissions in Kenya 2012 by vehicle make

Vehicle Average fuel consumption Average CO2 emission (L/100KM) (g/km) Lexus 10.36 244.72 Land Rover 10.32 262.69 Jaguar 9.18 220.29 BMW 8.80 215.89 Audi 8.17 205.56 Suzuki 8.15 199.07 Volkswagen 8.14 200.85 Mitsubishi 7.95 191.26 Nissan 7.63 186.99 Mazda 7.59 182.11 Subaru 7.59 180.07 Honda 7.51 176.21 Mercedes Benz 7.46 180.93 GM Chevrolet 7.41 178.42 Toyota 7.32 174.71 Peugeot 6.79 161.59 GM Opel Astra 5.57 137.72 GRAND AVERAGE 7.50 181.70 Source: Energy Regulatory Commission

Pipeline Transport The primary mode of transport for petroleum products is the pipeline system which is managed by the Kenya Pipeline Company Limited (KPC). The main products transported by the pipeline system are super petrol, regular petrol, diesel, illuminating kerosene and aviation fuel. Pipeline transport in Kenya is marked by the oil pipeline running from Mombasa through Nairobi to Eldoret and Kisumu, and is 896 km long. This pipeline had for a long time been serving the local market and neighboring countries. The pipeline system handles approximately 450 million litres of the petroleum products a month. It is connected to the KOSF with provision to draw products from the KPRL after the crude oil has been processed.

Total pipeline through put in Kenya has continued on upward trend. The throughput of white petroleum products indicated an expansion by 7.7 per cent from 5.2 million cubic meters in 2013 to 5.6 million cubic meters in 2014. The export of petroleum products posted a slowed growth of 1.7% in 2014 compared to a growth of 7.2 per cent recorded in 2013, with motor spirit and jet fuel exports rising by 5.4 and 34.9 per cent respectively in 2014. 179

10.3 COMMUNICATION

The environmental impacts of infrastructural development in the communication sector are distinct and unique. These have effects on flora and fauna, social and psychological disruption, vegetation clearance, excavation works and spillages during construction.

10.3.1 Mobile Telephony Mobile telephone connectivity started in 1995. The registration of mobile telephone holders started in 2007 due to different factors. The connections has been growing constantly from 9,000,000 subscribers in 2007 to 26,000,000 million subscribers in 2011 while the capacity for the telephone phones in the country increased from 18,000,000 in 2007 to 47,000,000 in 2011 (Figure 59).The lifespan of most of the mobile phones is usually estimated at five years when it is discarded and replaced. There is no control of the discarded phones and batteries although most users are aware that the batteries are highly toxic. The expired phones form part of the e-waste the country is struggling to control. The more the phones are discarded into the environment the more the pollution. The figures do not include the unregistered subscribers meaning the environmental pollution is higher than is known.

FIGURE 59: TELEPHONY CONNECTIVITY Source: Communications Commission of Kenya 2013

10.3.2 Data on E-Waste Licensed internet services providers (ISPs) and internet subscriptions are shown in the Figures 60 and 61. In Kenya the number of licensed internet providers has increased from 45,000 in 2007 to above 80,000 in 2011 while the subscribers increased from almost zero in 2007 to more than 6,000,000 subscribers in 2011. This is a fast growing industry supported by both the government and the donors. It is one of the most requirements for promotion of business growth not only in Kenya but in the entire world. It is one of the main projects of the vision 2030. Recently the government and the donors connected several cables to enhance data connectivity. The internet providers use electronics that usually expires very fast.

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The fast growth of the industry therefore shall contribute to high production of E- waste that will pose a hazard to the environment.

FIGURE 60: LICENSED INTERNET SERVICES PROVIDERS Source: Communications Commission of Kenya

FIGURE 61: LICENSED INTERNET SUBSCRIPTIONS

Source: Communications Commission of Kenya

During a controlled audit of flower farms in Naivasha one farm confirmed having 600 absolute computers in their store that they were looking for a buyer. These are figures of registered providers and subscribers and there might be an equivalent number that are not registered meaning that what is seen is just a tip of an ice berg of pollution.

The government has developed guidelines for e-waste management in the country (E-waste guidelines of 2010). The guidelines shall help institutions inventorize and manage their e-waste properly.

10.4 MINING

Kenya is endowed with a variety of mineral resources including base metals (gold, silver and copper), dimension stonnes (granite, marble and limestone), industrial minerals (fluorspar, titanium and limestone), gemstonnes (ruby, sapphire and

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rhodolite) and chemical minerals (soda ash, carbon dioxide, salt and hydrocarbons), and recently, fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas). Minerals occur in a variety of locations in Kenya, and some of these areas have limited alternative sources of economic activity. The Country is under-explored as far as petroleum and natural gas are concerned with improved countrywide coverage of geological surveys and mineral exploration; it is possible to fully exploit the mineral potential. Mining activity, including quarrying and harvesting of sand, may result in environmental degradation unless measures are taken to guide and control operations, in the mining sub-sector.

There are positive indications of hydrocarbon potential in the form of oil seeps, gas and oil, but only relatively few exploration and development wells have been drilled.

The policies, laws and institutions that presently govern the mineral sector in Kenya need significant reform if the sector is to grow sustainably and contribute to economic development and poverty reduction in the counties. The highest priority must be given to finalizing the Mining Bill, which has remained in draft form for so many years.

The Bill must define the role and mandate of the state and its public mining institutions, and make very clear what public institutions at the county level will exercise; what the regulatory roles are and the relationships between them; how, if at all, decentralization might apply to governance of the mineral sector; specify the environmental obligations of operators consistent with internationally recognized safeguard standards; define arrangements governing provision for community development and benefits sharing, including the roles to be played by different stakeholders.

The Bill must also address the rights of vulnerable groups that might be impacted adversely by mineral sector development and measures for their protection.

The development of a productive and profitable mineral sector can provide a new source of government tax revenues that could be substantial relative to non- mineral revenue sources.

It will be important to ensure that Kenya obtains a fair share of mineral rents but, in doing so, it must strike the right balance between inducing investment at the counties and generating tax revenue.

This calls for a fiscal regime for the mineral sector that takes account of the uncertainty, risks and rewards inherent in mineral operations and recognizes that Kenya, particularly in this early phase of oil and gas sector development, competes for investment with countries that may offer equal or better investment opportunities within the region.

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Oil and natural gas development faces political and environmental issues. Political issues stem from the overlapping and disputed claims of economic sovereignty. Environmental issues pertain to the preservation of animal and plant species unique to the areas where oil, gas or other minerals have been discovered, particularly Turkana and Kwale.

The environmental impact of oil exploitation is a dominant driver for most technology development in the industry today. Although much of this effort is focused on waste treatment and disposal, a significant amount of waste prevention will be crucial.

Development of technologies to displace less material during mining will result in reduced environmental impact. A long-term vision for the industry would find constructive use for all material removed in the oil drilling area.

Kenya has a maritime boundary dispute with Somalia, in the Indian Ocean waters. There is also gazetted oil and gas exploration blocks that are located in the disputed area offshore the Lamu Basin, and resolution of the dispute will be required to avoid resource-fuelled disputes, which are even harder to mediate than others. The disputed Ilemi triangle between South-Sudan and Kenya also lies in the Tertiary Rift Basin stretching over three exploration blocks in that region. Although it takes time to resolve sovereign boundary disputes, it is important that faster solutions are sought to foster confidence with international companies.

There has not been disagreement between exploring companies in Kenya, but the Ugandan scenario should be a strong lesson for Kenya in formulating laws to govern such partnerships.

Like most mineral resources, oil exploration and exploitation takes place in the location of the resource and, subsequently, transformations (physical and socio- economic) are bound to occur in the area of discovery as it accommodates this new activity. With such transformations, especially in remote areas where oil and other minerals are, sensitive issues will arise which, if not addressed may cause unnecessary tension and civil strife. Specifically, different stakeholders have different expectations regarding the economy of the country and especially those in the location where the resource is located.

Turkana County has the highest poverty level of about 94%, and is the sixth least densely populated county in Kenya. The county is among the five least developed in terms of infrastructure and other supporting socioeconomic facilities.

The question in the minds of the locals is what the national government will do to ensure citizens (especially those domiciled next to resource sites) have the correct information, capacity and expectations to avoid unwarranted anxiety and excitement.

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Although development of the oil resource will take a few years to commence, there has not been any systematic attempt to establish opinions and expectations of the public, who will be largely affected by the projects. There exist a lot of expectations at different levels of society with respect to the resource.

There has not been any identification of these expectations and ways to manage them. This has the potential of breeding negative sentiments in future, if the unidentified expectations of different groups are not met, and are not managed early enough.

10.4.1 Licensing in the Mining Sector NEMA has issues EIA licenses over the years as shown in the Table 79 while the Mines and Geology Department has been issuing mining and prospecting licenses including for use of explosives in quarrying (Figures 62 and 63).

Table 69: EIA licenses issued for mining sector Year 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 No. of mining 201 216 245 279 298 339 348 370 370 379 licenses No. of licenses 7 7 7 7 8 8 9 10 10 10 (mining leases) Source: Mines and Geology(2014)

FIGURE 62: MINING LICENSES

Source: Mines and Geology

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FIGURE 63: ANNUAL REGISTRATION OF QUARRIES Source: Mines and Geology

The upgrading of the former Department of Mines and Geology into Ministry of Mining by the government came with lots of challenges. The challenges included among others, the establishment of a Ministerial Structure and working within the budget of the former Department. It is from the challenges stated above that there were no new licenses issued or cancelled in the year 2013.

However, there were notable positive steps in some licenses like Base Titanium, a subsidiary company of Base Resources incorporated in Australia. The Company commenced the export of substantial amounts of heavy mineral sands (titanium) in form of Zircon, ilmenite and Rutile from November, 2013. The types of licenses issued by the Ministry of Mining are:- exclusive prospecting licenses, special prospecting licenses, mining location licenses, mining leases and blasting licenses for quarries using explosives. It is only mining leases that require extensive environmental and social impact assessments before licensing.

10.4.2 Emerging Issues Some of the emerging issues include:

i. The uncoordinated artisanal gold mining in various parts of the country using dangerous chemicals like mercury poses a great danger to both the artisanal miners and the ecosystem.

ii. The discovery of sufficient quantities of coal in Mui Basin in Kitui poses great environmental challenges in its exploitation.

iii. The discovery of natural gas along the Kenyan Coast and petroleum oil in Ngamia I in Turkana will pose serious environmental challenges in their exploitation. 185

iv. The establishment of the Ministry of Mining with an Environment and safety Division in collaboration with NEMA will help tackle environmental issues resulting from mining and quarrying activities. Rehabilitation and restoration of disused mines is one of the regulatory requirements under the Ministry of Mining and NEMA regulations.

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CHAPTER 11: TOURISM, TRADE AND INDUSTRALIZATION

11.1 INTRODUCTION

Tourism sector has always continued to be an important source of foreign exchange earnings. In 2014, the sector experienced decreased performance due to insecurity associated with terror attacks, adverse travel advisories by key source markets and continued spread of Ebola in West African countries. The tourism earnings decreased by 7.3 per cent from Kshs 94.0 billion in 2013 to Kshs 87.1 billion in 2014. This was attributed to a decrease of 11.1 per cent in the number of international visitor arrivals over the same period.

The number of bed-nights occupied in hotels decreased by 4.8 per cent from 6,596.7 thousand in 2013 to 6,281.6 thousand in 2014 translating to the drop in average length of stay to 12.3 days from 13.2 days in 2013. The number of local conferences held increased by 8.0 per cent from 2,849 in 2013 to 3,077 in 2014. However, international conferences decreased by 19.4 per cent in 2014.

The number of visitors to national parks and game reserves declined from 2,337.7 thousand in 2013 to 2,164.6 thousand in 2014. Similarly, number of visitors to museums, snake parks and other historical sites went down by 10.4 per cent to stand at 690.9 thousand in 2014 compared to 770.8 thousand in 2013. These declines were mainly attributable to the decrease in the number of international visitor arrivals particularly through Moi and Jomo Kenyatta international airports.

11.1.1 Tourism Arrivals and Earnings Figure 64 presents the international visitor arrivals and tourism earnings from 2010 to 2014. Both visitor arrivals and tourism earnings have maintained a downward trend since 2012. This was associated with continued insecurity, Ebola outbreak in West African countries and travel advisories.

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FIGURE 64: INTERNATIONAL VISITOR ARRIVALS AND TOURISM EARNINGS Figures 65 and 66 present the monthly international visitor arrivals through Moi and Jomo Kenyatta international airports for 2013 and 2014. The number of tourists who arrived through Moi International Airport (MIA) in Mombasa went down significantly by 39.2 per cent from 194.2 thousand in 2013 to 118.0 thousand in 2014. A similar trend was reflected at Jomo Kenyatta International Airport (JKIA) in Nairobi whose arrivals contracted by 18.5 per cent from 912.9 thousand in 2013 to 743.6 thousand in 2014. The highest arrivals for MIA were registered during the first quarter of 2014 while at the JKIA the peak was recorded during the third quarter of 2014. Generally, arrivals in the two major international airports were lower in 2014 compared to 2013.

The trends of international visitor arrivals from the two major international airports and cross borders from 2010 to 2014 are depicted in Figure 66. Over the last five years MIA and JKIA have continued to account for the largest share of arriving visitors.

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FIGURE 65: MONTHLY VISITOR ARRIVALS THROUGH JKIA

FIGURE 66: INTERNATIONAL VISITOR ARRIVALS 11.1.2 Number of Visitor-Days Stayed Figure 67 shows the details of the number of visitor-days stayed. The overall number of visitor-days stayed by all categories of departing visitors excluding “Other” visitor contracted by 9.4 per cent from 17,779.3 thousand in 2013 to 16,114.3 thousands in 2014. This was mainly on account of the decrease in visitor- days by holiday makers from 14,881.8 thousand in 2013 to 13,276.2 thousand in 2014. Departing visitors on transit stayed for 64.1 thousand more visitor-days in

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2014 compared to 2013. However, the average length of stay reduced from 13.2 days in 2013 to 12.3 days in 2014.

FIGURE 67: VISITOR – DAY STAY IN KENYA

11.1.3 Hotel Occupancy Trends in monthly bed and room occupancy rates are depicted in Figure 68. The overall rate of bed occupancy decreased from 36.1 per cent in 2013 to 31.6 per cent in 2014. Similarly, the mean occupancy rate for bed-rooms contracted from 41.9 per cent in 2013 to 38.1 per cent in 2014. This is consistent with the low visitor arrivals and reduced length of stay. Occupancy for both bed and room was nearly equal in August while there was a high spread during the months of April and November showing the high level of bed underutilization.

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FIGURE 68: MONTHLY BED AND ROOM OCCUPANCY Figure 69 highlights hotel bed-nights occupancy from 2010 to 2014. The number of hotel bed-nights available expanded by 8.7 per cent from 18,292.2 thousand in 2013 to 19,877.2 thousand in 2014. The number of hotel bed-nights occupied declined from 6,596.7 thousand in 2013 to 6,281.6 thousand in 2014, representing a 4.8 per cent decrease. The drop can partly be attributed to the continued contraction since 2011 of the number of bed-nights occupied by clients that went down from 2,320.6 thousand in 2013 to 1,802.2 thousand in 2014, reflecting a 22.3 per cent decrease.

FIGURE 69: HOTEL BED OCCUPANCY TRENDS Figure 70 shows the bed-nights occupied at the coast by zone in 2013 and 2014. There was a general reduction in the bed-nights occupied at the North Coast, South 191

Coast, Mombasa Island, and Kilifi, Malindi and Lamu over the period. This was as a result of negative travel advisories due to security concerns. The subsequent dusk to dawn curfew that was imposed in Lamu affected the tourism sector as it resulted to restricted movements and closure of some hotels.

FIGURE 70: BED NIGHT OCCUPANCY AT THE COAST Table 70 presents occupancy in game lodges for the last three years. The decrease in the number of visitors to national parks and game reserves that was observed in 2014 had a direct impact on the number of bed-nights occupied in hotel establishments located in these areas. The number of bed-nights occupied in game lodges dropped from 544.3 thousand in 2013 to 540.4 thousand in 2014. Over two thirds of the total bed-nights occupied were by foreign residents, though the number dropped by 13.8 per cent to 366.5 thousand in 2014.

Table 70: Game Lodges occupancy in national parks and game reserves

Bed-Nights Occupied Foreign Residents E.A Residents Total in ‘000 Years 2012 2013 2014 2012 2013 2014 2012 2013 2014 Game Reserves 91.8 112.1 106.2 36.9 47.0 69.9 128.7 159.1 176.1 National Parks 313.1 313.0 260.3 59.6 72.2 104.0 372.7 385.2 364.3 TOTAL 404.9 425.1 366.5 96.5 119.2 173.9 501.4 544.3 540.4 Full catering 355.7 372.8 311.5 81.0 98.2 132.6 436.7 471.0 444.1 Self Service 49.2 52.3 55.0 15.5 21.0 41.3 64.7 73.3 96.3 *Provisional

11.1.4 Visitors to National Parks and Game Reserves The trend in the number of visitors to national parks and game reserves from 2010 to 2014 is detailed in Table 71. The number of visitors to these attractions has been on a downward trend for the last five years. During the review period, the number

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of visitors dropped by 7.4 per cent from 2,337.7 thousand in 2013 to 2,164.6 thousand in 2014. The drop in the number of visitors resulted from the continued decline in international visitor arrivals over the same period. Major declines were observed at Nairobi, Nairobi Mini Orphanage, Tsavo West, Lake Bogoria, Lake Nakuru and Amboseli national parks. However, Maasai Mara registered significant increase in the number of visitors from 103.8 thousand in 2013 to 166.0 thousand in 2014. This may be another alternative to the coastal beaches following adverse travel advisories. Table 71: Number of visitors to national parks and game reserves

Non-resident adults continue to constitute the largest percentage of visitors to the national parks and game reserves. In the category of students, student citizens were the majority in 2012 compared to 2013 and 2014 (Figure 71).

The months of August and October recorded the highest number of visitors.

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FIGURE 71: VISITORS TO NATIONAL PARKS AND GAME RESERVES, 2012-2014

11.1.5 Museums, Snake Parks and Historical Sites

Museums, Snake Parks and Historical Sites recorded depressed performance in the number of visitors in 2014 compared to 2013 (Figure 72). It shows the number of visitors to these attractions dropped by 10.4 per cent from 770.8 thousand in 2013 to 690.9 thousand in 2014. The Nairobi National Museum main gate and the Snake Park recorded decreased performance of 59.9 per cent to record 52.5 thousand visitors and 65.2 per cent to record 33.0 thousand visitors, respectively, in 2014. Visitors to Kisumu and Kitale Museums recorded increases of 45.1 and 19.3 per cent, respectively, in 2014 as a result of devolution that has led to increases. The number of visitors to Fort Jesus, Gede and Lamu in the Coast decreased in 2014.

FIGURE 72: NUMBER OF VISITORS TO MUSEUMS, SNAKE PARKS AND HISTORICAL SITES

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11.1.6 Conference Tourism

There was increased activity in terms of local conferences compared to international conferences in 2014 as presented in Table 72, Figures 73 and 74. During the same period, the number of local conferences and delegate-days increased by 8.0% to 3,077 and 4.6% to 547,262 respectively. However, international conferences and delegate-days dropped by 19.4 and 27.1 per cent, respectively, over the same period while the average occupancy rate of conference facilities, declined by 0.7 percentage points to 5.7 % in 2014.

Table 72: Indicators on conference tourism 2012 2013 2014 Local International Local International Local International No of conferences 3338 328 2849 299 3077 244 No of delegates 413037 35663 401809 40109 432998 77848 No of delegate days 55443 209910 523224 179922 547262 131193 No of delegate days 5652611 5652611 5498958 5498958 5925801 5925801 available % occupancy 9.8 5652611 9.5 3.3 9.2 2.2

FIGURE 73: NUMBER OF CONFERENCES HELD

FIGURE 74: NUMBER OF DELEGATES TO CONFERENCES

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11.1.7 Training

The Kenya Utalii College (KUC) continues to offer training for the middle and high- level manpower for the country’s tourism industry. Total number of graduates declined from 3,001 in 2013 to 2,350 in 2014. The number of graduates in regular professional courses rose by 9.6 per cent in 2014 compared to 2013 mainly due to increase in enrolments in food and beverage service basic course, food production and front office courses. However, the competition for training institutions on hospitality courses has increased in the recent years causing the decline on enrolment at the Kenya Utalii College as shown in Table 73 and Figure 75.

Table 73: Training courses offered Year Pioneer In-Service Professional Courses Grand Course Refresher MDP Regular Short Sub- Total courses courses total 2010 1052 1178 192 533 30 563 2985 2011 561 1494 264 613 30 643 2962 2012 458 1644 224 627 17 644 2970 2013 -- 1450 252 541 758 1299 3001 2014* -- 936 237 593 584 1177 2350 * Provisional -- Data not available Pioneer is a 3 month course MDP – Management Development Programmes

FIGURE 75: NUMBER OF TRAINEES FOR VARIOUS COURCES

11.1.8 Challenges There are various challenges affecting the tourism sector, despite the government’s commitment to providing an enabling environment coupled with successful tourism promotion and diversification of source markets. There has been an increase in number of visitors (cross border arrivals) associated with

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political stability and re-branding of Kenya. The decreasing trends on the number of visitors exert pressure, loss of revenue and employment respectively.

In addition, unregulated tourism, especially in unprotected areas, may portend serious and deleterious effects on the environment either through pollution loadings from the facilities such as hotels, increasing water usage/demands and/or plastic waste.

Tourism also brings about other socio-evils including bio-piracy, proliferation of illegal drugs (narcotics), prostitution, child pornography and child abuse.

Tourism is a strong economic instrument, contributing greatly to the livelihoods of thousands of Kenyans. The country ought to improve policing to ensure that proper tourist laws and a code of ethics are enforced to ensure proper carrying capacity in most national parks is one bed for every 350 acres of land. Entry of private vehicles to the parks should be regulated.

It is therefore imperative to promote sustainable tourism measures and practices within the tourist hotspot areas.

11.1.9 Conclusion

In 2014, the Government came up with strategies aimed at promoting the tourism industry. This was in response to the declining trend in the performance of the tourism sector. Among the strategies taken to spur growth within the sector include allowing all corporate and business entities to pay vacation expenses for their staffs who wish to go for holidays in the country and deduct such expenditures from their institution taxes. Through this measure, Kenyans have a chance to go for holidays at the expense of their employers.

All air ticketing services supplied by travel agents were exempted from the VAT Act, 2013 to create employment and demand for air transport services. Similarly, all park fees that were at USD 90 per non-resident and Kshs 1,200 per resident guest were reduced to USD 80 and Kshs 1,000, respectively.

The Government revoked the National Treasury Circular restricting the public service from holding conferences and other meetings in private hotels. This was to ensure private sector tourism players equally enjoy the participation of the public sector.

Budgetary resources earmarked for foreign travel by the National Government were reallocated to domestic travel in the supplementary budget 2014/15. Similarly, the County Governments were urged to reallocate some foreign travel budgets to domestic travels in order to spur growth of domestic tourism and sustain employment.

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The landing charges were reduced by 40 per cent in Moi International Airport and Malindi Airport. Subsequently, the Government allocated adequate resources to expand Malindi Airport to international standards to allow for larger commercial aircrafts to land.

To improve the sector liquidity and cash flow, the Government directed that all outstanding income tax related refunds owed to the tourism industry players be paid out by Kenya Revenue Authority promptly.

11.2 TRADE 11.2.1 Introduction Key indicators of international trade show that in 2014, Kenya’s merchandise trade deficit continued to widen due to a high import bill. This was mainly occasioned by the imports of the aircrafts and associated equipment, road motor vehicles, industrial machinery and petroleum products. The balance of trade deteriorated from a deficit of Kshs 911.0 billion in 2013 to a deficit of Kshs 1,081.1 billion in 2014, translating to an increase of 18.7%. During the review period, the import bill increased by 14.5% while the earnings from exports registered a smaller increase of 7.0%. This led to the export-import ratio deteriorating from 35.5% in 2013 to 33.2% in 2014. Tea, horticulture, articles of apparels and clothing accessories; and coffee were the leading export earners in 2014 collectively accounting for 52.1% of the total export earnings (KNBS 2015).

11.2.2 International Trade The balance of payments position improved from a surplus of Kshs 31.8 billion in 2013 to a surplus of Kshs 126.1 billion in 2014. This was on account of increased international reserves largely attributed to proceeds received from the sale of the Eurobond. The current account deteriorated further by 30.2 per cent from a deficit of Kshs 411.7 billion in 2013 to a deficit of Kshs 536.1 billion in 2014 mainly due to the widening of the visible trade deficit. It is also reported that the financial account surplus, increased by 67.6 % from Kshs 424.1 billion in 2013to Kshs 710.6 billion in 2014, due to increased capital flows.

Export earnings from the East African Community (EAC) member states grew marginally from Kshs 124,957 million in 2013 to Kshs 125,798 million in 2014. Despite a 7.0 % decline in the value of exports to Uganda, it remained the leading destination of Kenya’s exports in 2014. Cement flat rolled products of iron and steel and salt were the main exports to Uganda during the period under review. In contrast, export earnings from Tanzania registered a 5.5 per cent increase to Kshs 42,725 million in 2014. Similarly, the value of total exports to other COMESA countries expanded from Kshs 79,210 million in 2013 to Kshs 86,904 million in 2014. Total exports to the Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Egypt and South Sudan also increased during the period under review. Tea exports were the main source of earnings from Egypt at Kshs 15,645 million in 2014. Other African 198

countries Kenya registered increases in the value of exports in 2014 included South Africa (81.2 %), Mozambique (28.6 per cent) and Nigeria (3.4 %). However, the value of exports to Somalia contracted by 22.1 per cent from Kshs 16,940 million in 2013 to Kshs 13,202 million in 2014.

Africa accounted for 9.0 per cent of the total import expenditure in 2014. Imports from EAC grew by 27.2 % to Kshs 36,659 million in 2014 with those from Uganda and Tanzania jointly amounting to Kshs 35,914 million. Tobacco, raw cane sugar and unmilled maize constituted slightly more than half of the total value of imports from Uganda during the review period. Unmilled maize accounted for 35.9 % of the total imports from Tanzania. Egypt remained the major source of imports in the COMESA region during the review period, with the value of total imports amounting to Kshs 25,532 million. Swaziland, Zambia and Mauritius were some of the other major sources of imports from the region with imports valued at Kshs 5,594 million, Kshs 4,380 million and Kshs 2,794 million, respectively, in 2014. The value of imports from South Africa contracted decreased from Kshs 70,724 million in 2013 to Kshs 63,893 million in 2014 and comprised mainly of flat rolled products and motor vehicles. The value of imports from Mozambique and Nigeria also dropped by 59.9% and 56.3 %, respectively, in 2014

11.2.3 Trade and Export Promotion The Economic Partnership Agreement between the EAC and the EU was signed in 2014. The agreement presented opportunities for global oriented businesses for exporting economies such as Kenya. While export market focus in 2014 had global orientation, the COMESA and the EAC markets formed part of the wider export development strategy, the regional focus and market development activities in the African region were intensified.

The Export Promotion Council initiated the process of adopting the international harmonized system of customs control, International Road Transport, whose overall goal is to enhance the export trade competitiveness of Kenya through improvements on its trade logistics systems and processes. It is a universal transit system that allows the goods to transit from a country of origin to a country of destination in sealed load compartments with customs control recognition, along the supply chain. This facilitates trade and transport while effectively protecting the revenue of the country through which goods are ferried.

In 2014, the Council undertook capacity building programmes for Small and Medium Enterprise (SME) exporters and also facilitating business enterprises to develop new products which were test-marketed in the regional markets of EAC, COMESA and rest of Africa through participation in trade fairs and exhibitions. The SMEs were also linked to mainstream local exporters for experience. A total of 25 enterprises in the agricultural and livestock as well as the light manufacturing sectors were facilitated to develop new products. Approximately 1,013 SMEs were

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trained on export trade and export awareness at the county level so as to enable them understand the requirements for getting into export business

11.2.4 Impact of Trade to the Environment Although many issues in the trade and environment debate are contentious, a consensus appears to emerging on a few matters. Many participants in the debate now agree that (a) more open trade improves growth and economic welfare, and (b) increased trade and growth without appropriate environmental policies in place may have unwanted effects on the environment. However, in some situations more open trade may also reduce pressure on the environment. This ambiguity occurs because trade policy and trade flows have several conflicting effects on both the environment and resource use. It has proven useful to view the various effects of trade liberalization in three categories: scale, composition, and technique effects. This is now a standard way of thinking about the problem and a helpful tool for analyzing the issues involved. Only through a firm understanding of the linkages involved can well−founded policy advice be formulated.

Scale effect The scale effect refers to the fact that more open trade creates greater economic activity, thus raising the demand for inputs such as raw materials, transportation services, and energy. If output is produced and delivered using unchanged technologies, an increase in emissions and resource depletion must follow.

Composition effect The composition effect stems from changes in the relative size of the economic sectors following a reduction in trade barriers. Lowering trade barriers changes the relative prices between goods produced in different sectors, so that producers and consumers face new trade−offs. Countries tend to focus production in sectors in which they have a comparative advantage; this tendency becomes more pronounced with freer trade. If the difference between abatement costs and the price of resource extraction is sufficiently large, making environmental regulations more important in the determination of comparative advantage, countries with lax regulations are likely to shift away from relatively clean sectors and specialize in more polluting or resource−dependent sectors, thus damaging the environment. If, on the other hand, the base for international comparative advantage is differences in the supply of labour and capital or in the efficiency of technologies, then the impact of changing sector composition (in response to trade liberalization) on environmental quality and resource extraction will be ambiguous. More open trade encourages countries to shift production into sectors that make heavy use of their relatively abundant factors and in which they have a comparative advantage. The final effect depends on whether the new sector composition is more or less polluting than the original one depends on the relative pollution−intensity of the expanding sectors compared to the contracting ones. Developing countries like Kenya tend to have a comparative advantage in labour−intensive sectors, which 200

are generally cleaner than capital−intensive sectors. But developing countries rich in natural resources may experience an expansion of resource extraction following trade reform. Countries just beginning the industrialization process will naturally experience a rapid increase in the size of the manufacturing sector.

Technique effect The technique effect refers to changes in production methods that follow trade liberalization. Pollution emissions per unit of output do not necessarily stay constant and final intensity depends on a number of sub−components

11.2.5 Green Economy Initiatives in Kenya Kenya affirms, cognisant of the challenges facing us today, that it is committed to undertaking a transition to a green economy in line with the outcome of the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (UNCSD) held in 2012.

The outcome document of the Rio+20 summit; The Future We Want, (UNCSD, 2012) highlighted transition to a green economy as a means towards sustainable development.

Transitioning could contribute to “eradicating poverty as well as sustained economic growth, enhancing social inclusion, improving human welfare and creating opportunities for employment and decent work for all, while maintaining the healthy functioning of the Earth’s ecosystems.”

The Government has developed a green economy strategy to support development efforts towards addressing key challenges such as poverty, unemployment, inequality, environmental degradation, climate change and variability, infrastructure gaps and food insecurity. The Kenya Green Economy Assessment Report launched by UNEP in 2014 concluded that Kenya is already implementing various green economy approaches and policies, and that a transition to green economy has positive impacts in the medium and long term across all the sectors of the economy. A green growth path results in faster growth, a cleaner environment and high productivity, relative to the ‘business as usual’ growth scenario. In the Medium Term Plan 2013-2017 of the Vision 2030, the Government committed to develop a green economy strategy.

There is also a need to ensure that work designed to transition to the green economy is consistent with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) envisioned at the Rio+20 process. The SDGs cover various aspects of sustainable development from ending poverty and hunger, to health, equality and inclusivity as well as access to energy. Green Economy provides an avenue for functional interaction between Economy and the SDGs. The 17 SDGs provide a framework in which green growth targets can reorient national economic development planning as well as guide the behavior of both the public and private sectors.

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11.3 INDUSTRALIZATION 11.3.1 Food Processing Industry Meat and daily production grew by 5.7% due to increase in processing of sausages. Processing of Chicken and cheese, canned vegetables fruits and fats grew by 3.1% due to increased production of edible oils, canned fruits and processed vegetables. Bakery products dropped by 1.5% in the year 2011 while the sugar and confectionaries dropped by 5.5% due to a decline in sugar production from 524 thousand tonnes in 2010 to 437 thousand tonnes in 2011. Food processing industries are classified as high risk facilities not only in Kenya but in the entire world.

11.3.2 Tobacco, Textiles, Wood Products, Industries The textile industry dropped by 1%, due to a decline in the growing of cotton in 2011 in the country. The clothing industry grew by 18.9% due to a removal of 16% VAT levied on locally produced and ginned cotton and imposition of taxes on imported textile. Leather and footwear grew by 4.9% due to measures taken to boost the growth of industry among the economic stimulus programme to build five min tanneries. Wood and Cork products registered a 2 % growth as a result of rise in products of sawn timber from 264.9 thousand tonnes in 2010 to 270 thousand tonnes in 2011. Paper and paper products registered a 10% growth. However production of exercise books, paper bags and corrugated paper rose to 19.2%

11.3.3 Chemicals, Rubber, Plastics and Glass Printing and publishing production dropped by 11.8% due to constraints in production of newsprint. Production of newspapers went up by 7.1 % in 2011. Basic industrial chemicals production grew by 8.8%. Production of oxygen and hydrogen grew by 6.8. Pyrethrum extracts increased from 6-8 tonnes in 2011. Petroleum and other related chemicals registered a 14.6% increase in various products parts, distemper, veneer, and lacquers. Rubber products dropped by 12.2%, due to competition with imported vehicle tyres and tubes. Production of rubber soles and shoes grew by 40.1% and 14.7% respectively. Plastic products production declined by 1.5% in 2011 and that include low production of plastic shoes and PVC pipes. Production of glass bottles registered a marginal growth.

11.3.4 Metal, Electrical / Non-Electrical and Transport Equipment The metal products production rose by 10.1% due increased production of galvanized iron sheets and production of nails. Non-electrical and electrical production dropped due to competition from imported electrical items. Production of motor vehicles went up by 25.1%. In transport equipment there was an increase in the number of assembled vehicles, Lorries, trailers, coach and bus bodies.

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11.3.5 Impact of Industry on Environment Most manufacturing firms pump untreated effluent into the countries rivers, lakes, and other water sources becoming the major sources of high pollution levels These toxic and heavy metal laden effluent alter the chemical composition of the rivers, lakes and other water sources giving pungent smells leading to loss of fresh water biodiversity and adverse effect on flora and fauna.

The manufacturing sector has been associated with the increase use of plastic bags as often used to package manufactured goods and also used to pack purchased groceries. Plastics are non-biodegradable and are the sources of aesthetic pollution that is evident from its presence all over trees, packs and road sides that negatively affect tourism. Plastics are therefore a threat to biodiversity. For instance livestock and wildlife get entangled or mistakenly ingest plastic bags harming their health. While plastic bags filled with water are breeding grounds for malaria carrying mosquitoes. The Kenya National cleaner production center (KNCPC), a semi-autonomous government organization has been created by the ministry of industrialization to introduce the concept of cleaner production in manufacturing to protect environment, save energy, reduce cost of production through efficient processing. The organization will achieve this through Cleaner production, Pollution prevention, Waste minimization, Environmental and social improvement, Environmental protection, Minimize emissions and Maximize product output.

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CHAPTER 12: URBANIZATION, HEALTH, SANITATION AND WASTE 12.1 INTRODUCTION The pattern of human settlements in the country is influenced by natural resource endowments, which include availability, accessibility and control. Kenya is still largely a rural society with a high population growth rate that constrains the country’s resource base. Rural settlements have environmental problems which are influenced by many factors including population growth, socio-economic status, and topography and climate variability. The huge numbers of refugees has major impacts on the environment and natural resources.

12.1.1 Urbanization Urbanization is a process of socio-economic development where people migrate from rural to urban centres in search of improved livelihood opportunities. Urbanization creates enormous social, economic and environmental changes which provide an opportunity for sustainability with the potential to use resources more efficiently.

Sustainable human settlement involves creating the conditions under which people in both rural and urban settings can enjoy healthy, productive and well integrated lifestyles. This should ensure that people live in safe, healthy and dignified conditions with relatively easy access to amenities. However, rapid urbanisation caused by population growth and rural-urban migration have hindered the capacity of urban centres to provide housing, infrastructure, services and job opportunities.

Kenya’s population is estimated to grow from 41.4 million in 2012 to 46.7 million by 2017. On the other hand, it is experiencing one of the highest urbanization population growth rates of 3.9% per annum. Urbanization levels was projected to have reached 32 percent of the total population by the year 2012 compared to 8% at independence in 1963 (KNBS, 2013). This is largely due to mass rural urban migration fuelled by increasing rural poverty dwindling land sizes, and the search for new opportunities including employment. This indicates increased demands by the population, which will impact on the environment. The accelerated urban growth has overwhelmed the abilities of national and county governments to plan and provide services, such as sanitation, health, social infrastructure, housing and public transportation. This has accelerated environmental degradation, delinquency, poverty and crime. The inability to regulate rapid urban sprawl and rapid spread of informal settlements, have been exacerbated by inadequate enforcement and lack of adherence to land and natural resource management guidelines.

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12.1.2 Proportion of Urban Population Given the demographic trends illustrated in the Table 74, Kenya will be a predominantly urban by 2030 and therefore the need to plan for high quality urban livelihoods.

The future of urbanization in this country is pegged on the development of six metropolitan regions, of which the Nairobi Metropolitan region is the first. These regions will require to be planned in an inclusive and integrated manner that recognizes the impacts of the rapid sprawl on biodiversity. However, Worldwide, the spatial trend indicates that cities are growing beyond their established boundaries, merging with adjoining urban localities, towns, and other cities posing serious threat to human and wildlife species, thus increasing the challenges of mitigation of environmental degradation as manifested in the physical global trends in human population growth and cropland scarcity, rising energy consumption, global warming, ozone depletion, freshwater depletion, decline of fish stocks, and biodiversity loss.

Table 74: Total population projections by age, 2013- 2017 Age Group 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 0-4 6,547,719 6,739,755 6,946,690 7,053,246 7,159,803 5-9 5,746,520 5,842,961 5,924,556 6,107,747 6,290,937 10-14 5,128,233 5,248,304 5,365,714 5,465,589 5,565,464 15-19 4,513,590 4,618,997 4,728,580 4,844,923 4,961,266 20-24 4,037,199 4,109,175 4,187,603 4,284,837 4,382,072 25-29 3,570,044 3,668,881 3,759,730 3,833,820 3,907,911 30-34 2,920,781 3,051,156 3,175,347 3,278,485 3,381,623 35-39 2,280,623 2,378,371 2,485,531 2,608,475 2,731,419 40-44 1,786,006 1,871,645 1,957,504 2,048,714 2,139,924 45-49 1,362,340 1,425,254 1,492,719 1,571,606 1,650,493 50-54 1,059,767 1,101,693 1,147,031 1,203,242 1,259,452 55-59 826,771 860,917 895,558 933,601 971,645 60-64 629,051 652,824 678,610 709,168 739,725 65-69 469,378 486,113 503,686 524,160 544,634 70-74 338,388 345,646 354,701 368,066 381,430 75+ 571,325 559,495 553,017 553,433 553,849 Total 41,787,735 42,961,187 44,156,577 45,389,112 46,621,647 Source: Kenya National Bureau of Statistics 2013

12.1.3 Area Covered by Informal Settlements Kenya is facing an increasing growth of informal settlements in her urban centers. As rapid urbanization takes its toll, so has the development and growth of slums. More than 34% of Kenya’s total population lives in urban areas and of this, more than 71% is confined in informal settlements. This number will continue to increase unless a serious and concerted action by all relevant stakeholders is undertaken.

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Kenya’s annual informal settlements growth rate of 5%, is one of the highest in the world and it is likely to double in the next 30 years if positive intervention measures are not put in place. The experience in these slums shows a strong link that people living in poverty are trapped in their present situation because they are excluded from the rest of the society. Unfortunately, they are not empowered to allow them to make any significant contribution to community building pushing Nairobi city to the verge of sinking into abyss as the weight of mushrooming slums takes its toll.

12.1.4 Developmental Control

Urban land use Sustainable development of land in urban and peri-urban areas has been inhibited by poor planning, rapid growth of human settlements and activities, unmitigated urban sprawl and inadequate provision of infrastructure. Therefore preparation and implementation of land use plans at national, regional and local levels is critical to sustainable urban development. Proper land use planning requires enforcement and total compliance with existing land use planning laws and policies as a basis for land use development.

An efficient delivery of land for urban development, agriculture and industrial development requires adequate capacity for preparation and maintenance of cadastre indicating not only ownership data but other details such as land use suitability, size, distribution and topographical characteristics. To this end, the government has developed land Information Management System infrastructure, national spatial plan and national spatial data infrastructure as policy measure to ensure proper coordination of land use both at the national and county level, thus ensuring there is controlled interaction between land use and bio-diversity.

Challenges to sustainable urban land use: • Population pressure on land and other resources has resulted to continued subdivision of land in smaller uneconomic units • Rapid urban sprawl and non-enforcement and non-compliance urban planning laws and policies • Strategic development projects e.g. Oil exploration in Turkana, Coal mining in Kitui and Titanium exploitation in Kwale among others. • Rapid spread of Informal settlement in urban centers • Deletion of forest land and water catchments towers to provide space for human settlement and agriculture e.g. the Karura forest. • Change in land use patterns e.g. Clearing of Coffee and tea plantation to give room for shopping malls and residential estates. • Underutilization and abandonment of agricultural land • Gross disparities in land ownership • Unproductive and speculative land hoarding

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• Poor waste management and poor control

Urbanization Challenges • Conflicting mandates between different levels of authority in regard to waste management, and urban planning • Policies on waste management, rural and urban planning not being adhered to. • Lack of spatial development plans in leading to urban sprawl and encroachment of fragile ecosystems. • Failure to meet the water and sanitation needs in informal settlements that hosts of our urban population • Weak health care delivery infrastructure in terms of facilities, supplies, and personnel. • Lack of legal frame work on implementation of e-waste disposal

12.2 HEALTH AND SANITATION Access to sanitation in Kenya continues to be a major challenge. The 2009 census puts the overall access levels at 65% with rural coverage at 56% and Urban at 79%. The WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (JMP) for water supply and sanitation, which considers those using shared facilities as lacking access, puts the overall coverage at 31% with rural coverage at 32% and urban at 27%. These figures indicate that over 8 million Kenyans still defecate in the open which result in prevalence of diseases. In economic terms, Kenya loses KES 27 billion annually due to poor sanitation, faecal contamination of the environment is the root cause of an annual average of 3500 cases of cholera affecting Kenyans, especially the young children

Poor Sanitation is a major cause of ill health and disease in Kenya. Poor health can majorly be attributed to, contaminated environments that habour disease causing organisms. Good environmental health can therefore play a critical role in reducing incidences of disease, ill health and the burden of disease in the population.

Water supply and sanitation in Kenya is characterized by low levels of access, particularly in urban informal settlements and in rural areas, as well as poor service quality in form of intermittent water supply. According to the 2009 Kenya Population census, 27.9% of the population obtained piped water from water service providers while 37.2% obtained their water from either improved or un- improved springs, wells or boreholes. Over 29% received their water supply from other unsafe sources like streams, lakes, ponds and 5.9% received water from water vendors. This combined with Wastewater and lacks of basic sanitation facilities continue to undermine efforts to reduce extreme poverty and disease in the country. Seasonal and regional water scarcity exacerbates the difficulty to improve water supply. The development of water supplies and water distribution

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networks has also not been matched by a corresponding increase in facilities for sanitary disposal of wastewater. These challenges persist despite the water sector undergoing considerable reforms over the years.

12.2.1 Environmental Related Diseases Environmental diseases can be divided into three kinds namely: Vector-borne diseases usually transmitted through insects and include malaria, human trypanosomiasis and schistosomiasis (bilharzia); Vessel-borne diseases transmitted through some kind of vessel, e.g. a cup, water, food, milk and blood. Examples are diarrhoea, dysentery and cholera; Airborne diseases transmitted through the air and include flu, Tuberculosis (TB) and Measles. Providing public health services to deal with environmental hazards require a broad and fully integrated approach using tools ranging from regulation to health promotion, including strong public awareness and educational activities

12.2.2 Strategies for Addressing Sanitation Challenges

Kenya’s development blueprint, vision 2030 has identified Rehabilitation and expansion of urban water supply in key satellite towns as one of the strategies in addressing sanitation challenges.

12.2.3 Community Led Total Sanitation (CLTS)

The Government through the Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation has adopted CLTS as the main approach in eradicating open defecation in Kenya through a campaign, dubbed “Open Defaecation Free (ODF) Rural Kenya 2013”. This has seen over 1000 villages (over 500,000 people) adopt safe sanitation and hygiene practices and end open defecation (Figure 76). The Community-Led Total Sanitation approach encourages people to invest in their own solutions to sanitation problems.

FIGURE 76: PERCENTAGE HOUSEHOLDS BY MAIN MODE OF HUMAN WASTE DISPOSAL, 2009

12.2.4 Policy Statement Centralized waterborne sewerage is economically and environmentally untenable for the vast majority of people especially those living in rural areas and urban

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slums. Our National Sanitation policy therefore acknowledges on-site sanitation as most viable for rural areas and even for low-density urban populations.

12.2.5 Under five mortality rate

Figure 77 shows the trends of mortality rates for various categories of infants from 1989 to 2014. The trend indicates declining trend from 1998 to 2014 and the reason can be attributed to improved health care. Devolution of health services to the county government has also played an important role in improving health care in the country.

FIGURE 77: UNDER FIVE MORTALITY RATE

Source: Kenya Demographic and Health Survey 2014

12.2.6 General population mortality Malaria remains a health and socio-economic burden and accounts for 30 % of outpatient consultations, 19% of hospital admissions and 3–5 % of inpatient deaths. In order to reduce the upsurge of malaria, the government has been issuing Insecticides Treated Nets (ITNs) to children and pregnant women and undertaking indoor residual spraying. This led to a significant reduction in infant mortality from 73.7 % in 2000 to 52 % in 2011, and under five mortality rate from 111.5 % to 74 % within the same period (MTP II)

12.2.7 Access to primary health care About 52 % of Kenya’s population have access to basic health services within 5 km. Access to basic Primary Health Care (PHC) and referral services however, still remains a significant challenge. Significant disparities in service availability exist between rural and urban areas and in hard to reach areas.

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12.3 WASTE MANAGEMENT Inefficient production processes, low durability of goods and unsustainable consumption and production patterns lead to excessive waste generation. Despite efforts to encourage reuse, recycling and recovery, the amount of solid waste generated remains high and appears to be on the increase. In addition to solid wastes, waste water effluents represent one of the largest threats to the quality of Kenya’s water resources. Wastewater often results in increased nutrient levels leading to algal blooms and depleted dissolved oxygen resulting in destruction of aquatic habitats. Other categories of wastes that require special consideration is electronic waste, military wastes and clinical wastes. Spills from oil tankers can devastate coastal and marine ecosystems.

12.3.1 Municipal Waste Management Municipal waste consists of solid waste including durable and non-durable goods, containers, food scraps, yard waste and inorganic waste from homes, institutions and businesses, wastes generated by manufacturing, agriculture, mining and construction and demolition debris, as well as sludge and liquid waste from water and wastewater treatment facilities, septic tanks, sewerage systems, slaughter houses. In order of preference, municipal waste can be managed by reduction of its production at source; reuse and/or recycling; treatment to destroy or reprocess waste to recover energy or other beneficial resources if the treatment does not threaten public health, safety, or the environment; or dumping and disposal.

Most of the municipal waste in Kenya as at 2014 is disposed in poorly managed dump sites. In Nairobi waste is disposed at Dandora dumpsite, located 8 km from Nairobi’s Central Business. The waste-to energy technologies offers opportunity for conversion of municipal wastes into energy thereby helping to clean the environment.

The licensing under Waste Management Regulations falls under the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA). Table 75 shows licenses processed by NEMA between years 2011-2013. After the Gazettment of the Waste Management Regulations in 2006, NEMA embarked on targeted awareness creation campaign to the general public. Despite the campaign, the Authority was not able to process all the applications received fully as some of the applicants had not met the licensing conditions. The fees charged for licensing was also thought to be high by the public necessitating a review. Overall, the licensing for landfills and dumpsites was low because of the stringent conditions attached to the process.

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Table 75: Number and type of license applications processed Type of % % % 2011 2012 2013 License Processed Processed Processed Appl Licenses Appl Licenses Appl Licenses

Landfills 0 0 0 4 0 0 2 1 50.0 Transporters 587 507 86.37 869 411 47.29 490 280 57.14 Dumpsites 12 2 16.66 12 2 16.66 1 1 100 Incinerators 24 19 79.16 30 21 70.0 17 14 82.35 Composters 22 14 63.63 18 11 61.11 14 12 85.71 Recyclers 26 31 119.23* 44 44 100 33 37 112.12* Export 0 150.0* 100 1 0 2 3 4 4 permits Transfer 90.90 57.57 75 11 10 33 19 20 15 stations 85.35 50.49 62.65 TOTAL 683 583 1012 511 581 364

Source: NEMA 2013 *Percentage includes applications that had not met conditions of previous years 12.3.2 Challenges The challenges are as follows: • Inadequate legal, regulatory and institutional framework for exploitation. • Inadequate data and information on municipal waste. • Inadequate investment incentives on municipal waste In addition, sewerage systems and wastewater treatment plants experience inadequate operation and maintenance and low connection rate to sewers. Mixing industrial effluent and domestic sewage in mixed sewer system often causes poor performance in pond treatment systems. Cases of pollution by wastewater emptying into storm sewers, soak-ways and cesspits designed for kitchen waste are common. Access to clean drinking water and basic sanitation facilities could transform the lives of millions of citizens, prevent thousands of deaths and free up hours each day for women and children to go to work or school.

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CHAPTER 13: ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION, INFORMATION, COMMUNICATION AND AWARENESS

13.1 INTRODUCTION Environmental Education is multidisciplinary approach that encompasses effort to understand and appreciate the environment while teaching how natural environment function in relation to human behavior towards ecosystems for sustainable livelihoods.

Environmental Information is a written, visual, oral, electronic or any other material form on any component of the environment to disseminate for effective environmental action. Environmental Information Education and Communication (IEC) plays a major role in combining strategies, approaches and methods that enable individuals, families, groups, organizations and communities to play active roles in protecting and conserving the environment

Environmental Communication is the practice of how individuals, institutions, societies and cultures craft, distribute, understand and use messages about environment, and human interaction with the environment to ensure environmental sustainability.

13.1.1 Education, Communication and Awareness

Education, both formal and informal, is important towards changing people’s attitude to appreciate environmental concerns such as the need to address climate change, sustainable management of ecosystems and natural resources.

13.1.2 Formal Education Formal education is acquired through a structured hierarchical system where skills, competencies and knowledge are imparted. In Kenya formal education is through 8-4-4 system that covers primary, secondary and university at tertiary level as it is indicated in Table 76. However there are other formal systems that are recognized in Kenya’s education system. Within the hierarchies there have been efforts over time to develop curricula for courses on environmental protection, conservation and management. Formal education therefore is important in increasing awareness, improving extension services, and building institutional capacities. Table 76: Number of education institutions in the country Category (Public and Private ) 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Pre-primary 38,523 39,500 39,758 40,145 40,219 Primary 24,114 25,382 26,549 28,026 29,460 Secondary 6,201 6,257 7,174 7,834 8,747 *Colleges 981 988 1,071 1,140 1,162 Universities 32 34 35 52 53

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*Category Includes Teacher's Training Colleges for Pre-Primary, Primary, Secondary and Public TVET Institutions. Source: Economic Survey, 2015

13.2 UNIVERSITIES OFFERING ENVIRONMENTAL RELATED COURSES Environmental Education at primary and Secondary Schools is part of other subjects. However at the University level it is one of the major courses offered. Many of Kenyan universities are offering different environmental courses as shown in Table 77. Data on courses enrolment can be accessed from the individual Universities to inform on the trends of enrolment over the years.

Table 77: Environmental courses offered in Kenyan universities No. University Course 1. African Nazarene Bsc dry land natural resource management 2. Chuka University Bsc environmental science, Bsc natural resources, Bsc wildlife enterprise management 3. Daystar University Bsc environmental health 4. University of Eldoret Bachelor of environmental studies, Bsc in soil science and land use management, Bsc in sustainable energy and climate change, Bsc in water resource management, Bsc wild life management, Bsc tourism management; Bsc in forestry; Bsc in resource management, Bsc in fisheries and aquatic science. Bsc entomology and parasitology, Bsc agro-forestry and rural development 5. Kenyatta University Bachelor environmental science general, Bachelor environmental planning and management, Bachelor environmental science (resource conservation), Bachelor environmental studies (community development); Bachelor of science coastal and marine resource management, Bachelor of science (conservation biology), Bachelor of science environmental education, Bachelor of science in environmental health 6. Egerton University Bsc environmental science, Bsc dry land resource management, Bsc integrated forest resource management, Bsc soil environment and land use management, Bsc wildlife enterprise and management, Bsc natural resource management, Bsc water and environmental engineering. 7. Jaramogi Oginga Bsc renewable energy technology and management, Bsc soil University Odinga science, Bsc water resources & environmental management. University of Science and Technology 8. JKUAT Bsc. Environmental horticulture and landscaping technology, Bsc land resources planning and management, Bsc marine engineering, Bsc plant ecology and environmental science, Bsc in soil water and environmental engineering 9. Kabaraka University Bsc in Environmental Science, 10. Karatina University Bsc environmental studies 11. Maseno University Bsc aquatic resources conservation and development, Bsc climate change and development, Bsc earth sciences, Bsc

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No. University Course environmental sciences, Bsc geography and natural resource management; Bsc soil science and plant nutrition, 12. Kibabii University Bsc renewable energy and bio fuel technology, 13. Kisii University Bsc environmental studies; Bsc natural resource management 14. Laikipia University Bsc environmental sciences, Bsc utilization in sustainability of arid land management. 15. Maasai Mara University Bsc forestry, Bsc environmental studies, Bsc wildlife management 16. Masinde Muliro Bsc bio resource management and conservation; Bsc disaster University of Science and preparedness and environmental technology, Bsc Technology. environmental management and conservation, Bsc renewable energy and biofuel technology, bsc 17. Moi University Bsc environmental health, 18. Mount Kenya University Bsc energy and environmental technology, Bsc environmental health, Bsc environmental sciences 19. Pwani University Bsc environmental planning and management, Bachelor environmental science, Bachelor environmental studies(community development), Bsc in marine biology and fisheries, Bsc environmental health 20. South Eastern Kenya Bachelor of land resource management, Bsc (forestry) University (geology), Bsc environmental conservation and natural resources , Bsc hydrology, Bsc (land resources management), Bsc (meteorology; Bsc (range management), Bsc environmental management, Bsc in management of agri-ecosystems 21. Technical University of Bachelor of built environment(urban and regional planning); Kenya Bachelor of technology environmental and resource management, 22. Technical University of Bachelor tourism management, Bsc marine resource Mombasa management, Bachelor of technology in renewable energy and environmental physics 23. USIU Bsc tourism management 24. University of Kabianga Bachelor environmental studies (arts), Bsc environmental health, Bachelor of tourism management. 25. University of Nairobi B. A geography and environmental studies, Bsc (meteorology) Bsc atmospheric science Bsc in environment and Bio-system engineering, Bsc in environment conservation and natural resource management, Bsc in environmental geo science, Bsc in management of Agro-systems and environment, Bsc in wildlife management and conservation. 26. Embu University College Bsc environmental conservation and natural resources ,Bsc(management of Agro-ecosystem and environment), Bsc (water resource management) 27. Machakos University Bachelor of environmental studies, Bsc community natural College resource management 28. Rongo University College Bsc in agricultural economics and natural resource management 29. Taita Taveta University Bsc (mining and mineral processing engineering) College 30 Cooperative University Bsc disaster risk management and sustainable development College

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13.3 STATUS OF NON-FORMAL EDUCATION PROGRAMMES Non-formal education is any organized system of learning outside the formal education system. It addresses the learning needs of groups in the population who may be children or adults and therefore contributes to capacity building. Indigenous knowledge (IK) is one form of non-formal education.

The basic Non-Formal Education (NFE) curriculum is broad in nature and provides the learners with the opportunity to acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary for their individual and national development it is flexible and has linkages and equivalences with the formal education. The flexibility allows entry, dropping out and re-entry at any level. The target group is out-of-school children and youth aged between 6-17 years (NEMA 2012).

Kenya Institute of Education (KIE) developed the Non-Formal Education curriculum in 2005 and structured it in 3 levels each with 2 years to complete. It is an accelerated education programme enabling learners to cover the curriculum in 6 years. The government has mapped 355 NFE institutions in the country (NEMA 2012). Subjects offered are both academic and technical. The former include English, First Language (Mother Tongue), Kiswahili, Arabic, Science, Mathematics, Social Studies, Christian Religious Education, Islamic Religious Education. The technical subjects include Agriculture, Art and Craft, Garment Making, Wood Work, Masonry, Welding and Fabrication, Motor Vehicle Mechanics and Home Science

13.3.1 Public Awareness and Participation

Broad public participation in decision making processes is one of the fundamental Pre-conditions for sustainable development. This pre-supposes access to timely and accurate information on the environment. Sound environmental management has to be based on openness and participation at all levels. Therefore, it is imperative that environmental education and public awareness is promoted at all levels.

13.3.2 Current Status of Public Awareness and Participation in Environment

The Authority prepared several awareness materials. The materials develop included messages on waste management to be hoisted on Billboards in major towns. This exercise was intended to build capacity of stakeholders to enable them implement their roles and responsibilities. The following materials were developed, edited and printed: • NEMA at a glance • One booklet and 4 categories of brochures on E-Waste • A booklet on Green economy • A booklet on CDM • One poster on CDM • A booklet on Climate Change

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• A poster on Climate change

Environmental Monitoring, Research and Dissemination The Authority also undertakes environmental research in line with the national and the Authority’s Research Agenda, aimed at informing environmental management in the country.

Data types and sources of Environmental Information in the Country Inadequate and disaggregated data is a challenge for integrated planning and management of the environment and undertaking total economic valuation.

13.3.3 Messages During World Environment Days

Kenya is signatory to a number of conventions as noted in other parts of this SOE. It is therefore obligatory to create awareness on the objectives and goals of the conventions as these affect the citizens. This is done through implementation of the strategies aligned along the objectives of the conventions. Each of the convention has a commemoration day marked every year with accompanying theme as outlined in the Table 78. The public awareness during these days is carried out in the country using various methods which include media outreach, public baraza, exhibitions, agriculture shows among others. This is geared towards reaching a critical mass of citizens.

Table 78: Commemoration of environment days in 2014 Date Event Theme Venue/ County Approximate No. of population Reached 17th June 2014 World Day To Drought and Cheptebo AIC 5.0 Million Combat water scarcity: Development Centre in Desertification Freshwater is Elgeyo Marakwet valuable 5th June 2014 World Think. Eat. Save. Siriba Graduation Grounds 6.0 Million Environment Reduce your food Day print Maseno University Kisumu County 2nd February World Wetland Take Care Of Chepkoilel Campus, 4.0 Million 2014 Day Water Eldoret Uasin Gishu County 5th June 2014 World Raise Your Voice Ngomeni Primary School, 7.0 Million Environment not the Sea Level Magarini Constituency, Day Kilifi County 2nd February World Wetland Wetlands and Sio Siteko in Busia County 4.5 Million 2014 Day Agriculture: Partners for Growth

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World Environment Day 2014 The WED ceremony was held in Kilifi County, Magarini Constituency at Ngomeni Primary School on 5th June 2014 with the theme “Raise Your Voice, Not the Sea Level”. The government of Kenya through the Ministry of Environment, Water and Natural Resources and NEMA, organized and mobilized government agencies, key institutions, private sector, CSOs and individuals to undertake a series of activities to raise awareness over the environment using a selected theme which reflected on a specific environmental issue this year. The event brought together several participants from all over the country and mostly from the coastal region to exchange and share experiences in environment matters and document this experience in implementing projects. What was common among all the presentations shared is that they addressed climate change at the grassroots level but at the same time they dealt with environmental conservation, directly or indirectly.

The Cabinet Secretary the Ministry of Environment, Water and Natural Resources Cabinet Secretary Prof. Judy Wakhungu noted the challenges experienced in the coastal region include coastal erosion, loss of land for human settlements and agriculture; intrusion of saline water into the aquifers causing scarcity of fresh drinking water; increased wind and rainfall intensity especially related to the tourism industry. She concluded by calling for sustained partnership and integrated efforts of all the stakeholders in a bid to curb climate change in the country and the areas affected by climate change among other challenges.

World Wetlands Day 2014 The World Wetlands Day (WWD) event marked on 2nd February took a regional approach in Kenya that year 2014 with focus on the transboundary Sio- Siteko wetlands in Busia County. In Sio-Siteko, the agricultural activities and initiatives are geared towards ensuring wise use of wetlands and their resources. This gave a realistic picture of the WWD theme; “Wetlands and Agriculture: partners for growth”. This theme emphasized on the need for water, agriculture and wetland sectors to work together so as to achieve the best results in the management of wetlands.

The event was graced by the Deputy Governor- Kizito Wangalwa of Busia County who explained that it was a challenge to use wetlands resources to benefit the residents of his County due to poverty levels which are rated at 70%. He added that there is need to transform the mind set of his people more so when it comes to meeting their basic needs versus using their resources wisely so as to enable them meet these needs.

It is important to note that a management plan for the Sio Siteko transboundary wetlands has been prepared in partnership with Ugandans and Kenyans who have diverse expertise in the wetlands sector not leaving the communities behind. 217

However, the implementation of the plan has not yet been realized. Implementation of this plan will go a long way in the conservation of the wetlands and ensure sustainable use of its resources within the region.

The Sio Siteko wetland system spans the Kenya- Uganda border and it traverses Busia County and Samia Sub County in both Kenya and Uganda. The wetlands are part of the wider Sio-Malaba-Malakisi catchment which consists of a number of interconnected secondary and tertiary wetland subsystems that drain into the Lake Victoria (Figure 78). The Sio River originates from the foothills of the Kenyan segment of Mount Elgon with a total length of 85km and catchment area of about 1,338 sq. km.

FIGURE 78: WETLANDS DAY CELEBRATIONS AT SIO SITEKO WETLAND IN BUSIA COUNTY 2014 World Day to Combat Desertification (WDCD) The message from the Cabinet Secretary pointed out that population increase coupled with high poverty level has contributed to desertification through encroachment of marginalized lands. Therefore to combat desertification and climate change, programs such as afforestation geared to increase the forest cover need to be initiated in order to reduce the effects associated with both desertification and climate change. She reiterated the fact that the government is very committed to creating environmental awareness through partnerships with the private sector, CBOs, NGOs to combat desertification. The UNDP reiterated 218

UNDP’s commitment to addressing climate change and desertification in arid and semi arid areas of the country by supporting the government and civil society in their conservation efforts in the dry lands.

The Chief Guest later awarded both primary and secondary schools in attendance with eco friendly pencils made from recycled waste paper. She also awarded them with books that contained environmental information geared towards increasing the adaptive capacity to climate change and desertification.

13.4 CAPACITY OF ENVIRONMENTAL EXPERTISE The Environmental Institute of Kenya (EIK) registers Environmental Impact Assessment and Environmental Audit experts in Kenya. The number of the said experts is more concentrated in the counties hosting the major urban centers especially Nairobi, Nakuru, Uasin Gishu, Mombasa, Kiambu and Kisumu. Some of the vast counties are served by few Experts as shown in the Table 79.

Table 79: Distribution of licensed experts in counties by 2014 County No. of licensed experts Percentage 1 Nairobi 1125 73.33 2 Mombasa 41 2.61 3 Kisumu 30 1.96 4 Kiambu 38 2.50 5 Kisii 29 1.89 6 Kakamega 12 0.78 7 Uasin Gishu 41 2.61 8 Embu 15 0.97 9 Nandi 8 0.52 10 Meru 20 1.30 11 Nakuru 43 2.80 12 Migori 5 0.33 13 Trans Nzoia 8 0.52 14 Kajiado 12 0.78 15 Nyeri 16 1.04 16 Kericho 11 0.71 17 Homabay 8 0.52 18 Kitui 6 0.39 19 Laikipia 5 0.33 20 Baringo 5 0.33 21 Narok 8 0.52 22 Bungoma 7 0.46 23 Vihiga 7 0.46 24 Machakos 15 0.97 25 others 20 1.30 TOTAL 1534 100

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CHAPTER 14: ENVIRONMENTAL GOVERNANCE

14.1 INTRODUCTION

Environmental governance is critical in finding lasting solutions to environmental challenges facing the society at global, regional and national levels. Governance therefore, comprises of policies, legislations and institutions that shape how man interact with the environment (Nagi, 2009). This incorporates the processes of decision-making involved in controlling and managing the environment and natural resources.

Good environmental governance takes into account the role of all actors that impact on the environment. Effective environmental management is key in ensuring formulation and implementation of national environmental policies and legislation as well as domestication of Multilateral Environmental Agreements at all levels.

Many sectoral policies and laws still remain un-harmonized with the Constitution. These include policies and laws concerning agriculture, land, water, forests, trade and industry, which have significant implications on the environment. The sectoral rather than integrated and ecosystem approach to management of natural resources has proved inadequate in addressing environmental challenges. In addition, weak enforcement of laws and weak implementation of policies remain a major issue of concern in Kenya’s environment sector.

14.1.1 INTERNATIONAL FRAMEWORKS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL GOVERNANCE Kenya is a member of the United Nations that plays a significant role in global environmental governance. The United Nations has established institutions that address environmental issues. Countries are brought together to address issues through ratification and domestication of Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs) and Protocols. For instance, the program of action for achieving sustainable development, adopted at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio (Agenda 21, 1992) remains the most comprehensive international policy document on environmental issues. The policy gives rise to three environmental conventions namely; United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (UNCBD).

The main objective of the UNCCD is “to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought in countries experiencing serious drought and /or desertification particularly in Africa’’. To achieve this objective countries develop the National Action Plans (NAPs). Kenya like other countries that are party to the UNCCD has

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continued to prepare and implement National Action Programmes (NAPs). A NAP is an action plan supported by international co-operation arrangements and is aimed at reclaiming degraded areas, reducing further degradation, and conserving areas that are not degraded.

United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) came into force during the Earth Summit in 1992 and followed by the Kyoto Protocol in 1997. Kenya is a signatory to the UNFCCC and has ratified the convention among many others, including the Kyoto protocol and many other subsequent protocols. Since the signing of the convention, Kenya has achieved considerable miles towards meeting the objectives of the protocol including the development of the National Climate Change Response Strategy (NCCRS), National Action Plan on Climate Change and the National Climate Change Adaptation Plan.

The Objective of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is to enhance conservation, sustainable use and provide for fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from utilization of biological diversity. The convention provides for recognition of those with the indigenous knowledge providing them with access to resources and technologies to enable developing countries benefit from their genetic resources. In order to domestic this convention, Kenya has developed a biodiversity strategy and has been accounting for its biodiversity to the CBD on a regular basis.

14.2 OTHER MEAS Other MEAs that enhance environmental protection and conservation in Kenya include the following: The Ramsar Convention The Ramsar Convention otherwise known as the Convention on Conservation of waterfowl and waterfowl habitats was signed in the city of Ramsar in Iran in the year 1971. Kenya is contracting party to the Ramsar having ratified the treaty in 1974. The convention requires that contracting parties undertake to prepare Wetland management plans and declare wetland areas as Ramsar conservation areas. The coordinating institution for this convention in Kenya is Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS)

Kenya has many such wetlands both fresh water and Marine wetlands with potential for declaration as Ramsar sites. Recent inclusion in the list of Ramsar in Kenya includes Tana River, Lake Jipe and Lake Kanyaboli.

The Convention of migratory Species Kenya is a signatory to the convention, which requires that contracting parties respect and conserve the migratory route and resting areas of migrant species. There are several species of Birds and fish and Sea mammals which only visit Kenya at certain times of the year or appear in the coastal areas for nesting. Some

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of such species are the Sea turtles, dugongs, whales and sharks and the migratory birds. Such species require that their habitat of temporary aboard while on transit or breeding are protected. Kenya has declared some habitats as internationally important bird areas (IBAs), Tana Delta, Yala Swamp, Saiwa swamps are such IBAs in Kenya. The coordinating institution for this convention in Kenya is Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) and National Museums of Kenya (NMK).

The Convention on International trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) Convention on International trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and flora also known as CITES which Kenya is a signatory prohibits any trade or traffic of species of flora and fauna which has been listed in what the convention describes as the appendices (I, II, and III). Appendix I list the species of organism threatened with extinction and whose trade is completely banned except in exceptional circumstances of the convention Appendix II lists species not threatened with extinction but whose state may be threatened if their trade is not strictly controlled at international levels. Appendix III list species that a contracting party feels its state is threatened within its own jurisdiction and requires the cooperation of the members to manage trade as international level. Kenya has approximately 159 species of plant considered threatened (38%) and 71 species of birds threatened (27%).

14.3 HIGHLIGHTS OF THE KENYA CONSTITUTION 2010

Constitution of Kenya 2010 elevated Environment and integrity of Natural Resources into a constitutional matter in the preamble. Other provisions of the Constitution include Article 35 on access to information by public, Article 42 on right to a clean and healthy environment, Article 69 on the government obligations in respect of the environment and Article 72 on legislations related to environment. The constitution also provides for the establishment of a lean government for effective governance and also creates provision for national and county governments. Further the Constitution has given a strong legal importance to the Multilateral Environmental Agreements.

The obligations of the government in delivering a clean and health environment include: • Ensuring sustainable exploitation, utilization, management and conservation of the environment and natural resources, and equitable sharing of benefits that arise thereof. • Protecting genetic resources and biological diversity. • Promoting the achievement and maintenance of a green cover of at least 10% of Kenya’s land area • Utilizing the environment and natural for the benefit of the people of Kenya • Establishing systems of environment impact assessment, audit and monitoring of the environment.

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• Protecting and enhancing intellectual property and indigenous knowledge of biodiversity and the genetic resources of communities • Eliminate processes and activities that endanger the environment. The constitution has changed the manner in which the environment is managed by delegating responsibility at individual, collectively, national and county governments. For effective governance the constitutions has provided for public participation in the development planning process and enhance accountability and transparency.

14.4 INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS The multi-faceted nature of the environment and the need to integrate environmental considerations in all development planning and activities calls for cooperation and consultation among responsible government agencies and stakeholders at all levels. It is particularly important to recognize the existing institutional mechanisms and consider ways and means by which coordination and cooperation can be enhanced between the many institutions whose mandates relate to the environment.

Management of shared environmental resources requires regional and international cooperation. Enormous benefits can be realized through effective regional and international cooperation. Kenya is a party of multilateral and regional environmental agreements. These agreements which provides framework for conservation shared among countries.

14.5 ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATIONS

A number of legislations were formulated during 2014. Some of these are outlined below: • Water Bill 2014 • The Environmental Management and Coordination (Amendment) Bill 2014 • Climate Change Bill of 2014 • The Forest Conservation and Management Bill 2014 • Sessional Paper No10 of 2014 on National Environment Policy • Sessional Paper No 11 of 2014 on Education for Sustainable Development Policy • Sessional Paper No 12 of 2014 on Wetlands Conservation and Management Policy • Sessional Paper No 13 of 2014 on Integrated Coastal Zone Management Policy • Draft Air Quality Regulations 2014 • Sand Harvesting Guidelines of 2014 • Natural Resources (Benefit Sharing) Bill 2014

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• National Fisheries and Management Development Bill 2014 • Ware Housing Receipt System Bill 2014 (storage of grains to use as collateral)

14.6 ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES The following policy frameworks were finalized in the year of reporting and are at various stages of implementation: • The National Water Policy • Draft National Climate Change Framework Policy 2014 • Policy on Groundwater resources development and management • The National Trans-boundary Water • The National Land Reclamation policy • Sessional paper on Multi-purpose Dams • The National Forest Policy 2014 • Climate Change Policy of 2014 • Wildlife Policy of 2014 • Draft Wetlands Policy • Education for Sustainable Development Policy • Draft National Energy Policy of 2014 • Kenya Health 2014-2030 Policy

14.7 DEVOLUTION AND ENVIRONMENT

14.7.1 Introduction Kenya’s constitution 2010 devolves powers to the country’s 47 counties. As part of the devolution process, each county government is responsible for providing and delivering services. In order to help fund the provision of these services, each county receives funds from Kenya’s central government and the allocated amount is based on specific weighted criteria. The goal for this new devolved system of government is to improve service delivery and equity in public resource allocation. The objectives of devolution are elucidated in Article 174 of the Constitution as follows: • To promote democratic and accountable exercise of power; • To foster national unity by recognizing diversity; • To give powers of self-governance to the people and enhance the participation of the people in the exercise of the powers of the State and in making decisions affecting them; • To recognize the right of communities to manage their own affairs and to further their development; • To protect and promote the interests and rights of minorities and marginalized communities;

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• To promote social and economic development and the provision of proximate, easily accessible services throughout Kenya; • To ensure equitable sharing of national and local resources throughout Kenya; • To facilitate the decentralization of State organs, their functions and services, from the capital of Kenya; and • To enhance checks and balances and the separation of powers.

14.7.2 Public Participation in Environmental Management Article 10 of the constitution identifies public participation as a National Value and principle of governance. Article 174 articulates the objects of devolution and provides for the participation of the public in the exercise of the powers of the state and in the making of decisions affecting them. Article 232(d) guarantees the involvement of the people in the process of policy making in the public service. Article 196(1) (b) requires county assemblies to facilitate public participation and involvement in the legislative and other business of the assembly and its committees.

The Fourth Schedule to the Constitution allocates county governments the role of ensuring and coordinating the participation of communities in governance at the local level. Section 3(f) of the County Governments Act, 2012 provides for public participation while section 87 of the same Act requires county governments to facilitate public participation in conducting its affairs. Even though the law guarantees public participation, majority of citizens are dissatisfied with the level of involvement and facilitation by both levels of government. The courts have in the recent past struck down various national and county government laws for lack of public participation. Research indicates that the majority of Kenyans are willing to participate in governance and decision-making processes with respect to matters that affect them

14.8 ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE MINISTRY UNDER CLIMATE CHANGE

The following forms the achievement by the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources during the year of reporting under the Climate Change sector:

Climate Change: • Participated in more than 20 National, Regional and International Climate Change fora including: COP 19, AMCEN, UNFCCC Subsidiary bodies activities as well as membership to various committees of the convention and participation in the just ended UNFCCC Climate Change Summit 2014. • Initiated the development of the National Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Inventory Institutional and operational mechanism for Kenya • Established a Bilateral Joint Credit Mechanism (JCM) on greenhouse gas emission reduction between Japan and Kenya. (Also strengthened other bilateral and multilateral links). 225

• Finalized packaging of a Geothermal Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Action concept under the Mitigation Momentum project in February 2014 and validated in June 2014; focused on supporting Kenya’s 5000+MW in 40 months initiative and Vision 2030. • Finalized the National Climate Change Action Plan 2013-17; and sensitized stakeholders and development partners on the same. • Kenya signed MINAMATA Convention on Mercury. • Ratified the Nagoya Protocol • Ratified the Beijing Amendment On Ozone depleting substances • Achieved Methyl Bromide phase-out in maize silos • Completed National Inventory on Mercury emissions Guidelines Institutional frameworks (e.g. Environment and land Court)

14.9 MAINSTREAMING ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS INTO SECTORAL POLICIES In order to achieve sustainable development, it is imperative to incorporate sustainability in all sectors of the economy beyond the usual environment and natural resource sectors. Therefore, a framework of public policies with coordinated aims, strategies and instruments should be put in place.

Taking cross-sectoral impacts into account and approaching problems in a more integrated manner is key to improving the effectiveness and efficiency of public policies, legislation and administrative decisions and activities.

Of critical importance is the inclusion of environmental considerations in sectoral policy making and the strengthening of relevant linkages among various agencies at all levels. Such sectors include: forestry, agriculture, wildlife and water. Further, it is necessary that the costs associated with the degradation and depletion of the environmental resources be incorporated into the decisions of economic and social actors at various levels, to reverse the tendency to treat these resources as “free goods”.

14.10 ENVIRONMENTAL COMPLIANCE AND ENFORCEMENT

Compliance and enforcement are common terms in environmental management approaches driven by statutory provisions implemented by government agencies. Compliance occurs when the stated requirements are met and the desired behavior is achieved. Therefore, for compliance to occur there must be enforceable requirements. Where voluntary approaches to solve environmental problems are adopted, compliance is not a concern. Achievement of the desired goals depends on how the requirements are designed. If the requirements are poorly designed enforcement will be difficult.

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On the other hand, enforcement is a set of actions that the government or others take to compel or encourage compliance. Enforcement generally includes inspection to find information needed to determine compliance status and to identify violations and legal actions to impose some consequences for violating the law. In addition to enforcement as a tool for compliance, other tools include promotion assistance, subsidies and deterrence.

Deterrence is the creation of an atmosphere in which many people chooses to comply. Four most important elements for deterrence are: • Credible likelihood that violation will be detected • Swift and response by the government • A consequence, that appropriate sanction or penalty • The perception that the first three conditions exist. 14.10.1 Environmental Compliance and Enforcement regimes Approximately 23 institutions with compliance and enforcement mandates are operating in Kenya. These institutions have the legislation, compliance tools, tools for enforcement, the capacity of the institutions to enforce, and the power of available institutions for enforcement, including authority as well as compliance promotion opportunities.

Enforcement tools provided within the Environmental law include: issuance of orders, notices, seizures, sanctions, easements, prosecutions, conditional approvals, cessation orders, and improvement orders. These authorities are vested in the Department of Compliance and Enforcement and the Environmental Inspectors and Prosecutors Office of the National Environment Management Authority, and are now gazetted within the laws of Kenya.

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CHAPTER 15: EMERGING ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

15.1 INTRODUCTION

UNEP defines emerging environmental issue as those that “must be recognized as very important by specific scientific community, but has not yet received adequate attention from the policy community”. Hence it is considered an “emerging issue” from the perspective of the policy community. These issues are taken as critical to the community and can be positive or negative and with a large spatial scale. Such issues require to be given priority in the planning process for environmental management. The issues may include cross-cutting issues which affect communities like;

15.1.1 Climate Change and Effects on Food Security, Nutrition and Incomes

Shift to irrigated agriculture, change to crops that adopted to increased temperatures, loss of soil fertility due to land degradation and continual certain cropping systems that mine the nutrients.

15.2 EMERGING LIVESTOCK DISEASES

Livestock diseases that emerged internationally and were a threat to the country included the following: • Avian Influenza (Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza- HPAI) - affected poultry and wild birds. Several outbreaks occurred around the world including China/Hong kong and West Africa • Middle Eastern Respiratory Syndrome- Corona Virus (MERS-COV) - affected camels. The disease persisted in the Middle East and early 2015 it broke out in South Korea causing a number of deaths in human beings. • They are zoonotic, not identified locally.

15.3 EMERGING CHANGE OF LAND USE Quantified change of land use was not documented, it occurred in the following context: • Clearing forests and converting grazing land for irrigation of using for e.g. Galana ADC Ranch and Kulalu ADC Ranch as model farm. • Human settlements near watering points in the ASALs and subsequent human activities. • Urbanization in ASALs e.g. Kajiado County (Kitengela urban expansions) in the Southern rangelands and main urban centers of the Northern rangelands.

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• Mining and quarry activities sand, gravel, gold, precious stonnes, marble), in Turkana, Taita Taveta, Isiolo. • Sub - division of group ranches in the Southern rangelands - Narok, Kajiado, Transmara, and Coast.

15.4 MIGRATION TO THE ASALS In Kenya, there has been increasing movement of people into the ASALs due to the discovery of minerals, oil and gas in the dry lands. This has resulted into unplanned shifts in human settlements in the ASALs, near water points sprouting of urban areas. The settlements induced increased human activities. The activities resulted into undocumented destruction of woodlands, reduced grazing land, vegetation cover, soil erosion: all attributed to the consequences of cultivation, grazing, fishing, food, fuel wood, honey, herbal medicine harvesting, water utilization and other uses. Lack of alternative livelihoods especially in the arid and semi-arid lands has driven communities into accelerated mining of land and forestry resources

15.5 INVASIVE PLANT SPECIES Woody encroachment by Prosopis juliflora, Tarchonanthus camphoratus, croton dichogamus, Acacia reficiens and Acacia Mellifera invaded vast areas of the Northern range lands. Invaded areas had reduced density of preferred forage plants and reduced grazing capacity. Shrubs that increased included; Senseveria fruticosa, opuntia spp, dodonae viscose, etc attributed to degradation of the Asals grazing lands. .

15.6 HABITANT DEGRADATION/POLLUTION.

The uncoordinated artisanal gold mining in various parts of the country using dangerous chemicals like mercury poses a great danger to both the artisanal miners and the ecosystem. The discovery of sufficient quantities of coal in Mui Basin in Kitui poses great environmental challenges in its exploitation with the same strength natural gas discovery along the Kenyan Coast and petroleum oil in Ngamia I in Turkana will pose serious environmental challenges in their exploitation.

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APPENDICES Appendix 1: List of contributors and institutions No. NAME ORGANISATION 1. Prof. G. Wahungu National Environment Management Authority 2. Dr Kennedy Ondimu National Environment Management Authority 3. Dr Charles Lange National Environment Management Authority 4. Isaiah Okuthe Ministry of Devolution and Planning 5. Inganga Francis National Environment Management Authority 6. Prof. Elias Ayiemba University of Nairobi 7. Jane Kibwage Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries 8. Wallace Ngolo National Environment Management Authority 9. Mwai Mwaitungu National Environment Management Authority 10. Cecilia Githaiga National Environment Management Authority 11. Dickson Njora National Environment Management Authority 12. Hudson Mukanga National Environment Management Authority 13. Ng’ang’a Naftaly Ministry of Devolution and Planning 14. Dr Stephen Kimani Kenya Agriculture and Livestock Research Organisation 15. Francis Masai Department of Resource Survey and Remote Sensing 16. Samson Moseiri National Disaster Committee 17. Benson Wanga Water Resource Management Authority 18. Hezekiel Okeyo Min of Industrialization 19. Mutune Masai Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute 20. Wilton Mwema Ministry of Industrialization 21. Dr Collins Handa National Museums of Kenya 22. Andrew Mocha Ministry of Environment, Water and Natural Resources 23. Fred Barasa Nature Kenya 24. Kelvin Malowa Ministry of Lands, Settlement and Urban Development 25. Abel Nyangweso Ministry of East African Affairs, Commerce and Tourism 26. Catherine Abuto Kenya Forest Services 27. Nzungi Peter Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries 28. Robin M. Mbae Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries 29. Paul Nguru National Environment Management Authority 30. Joseph W. Kiema National Environment Management Authority 31. Gideon K. Melli Ministry of Mining 32. Doyle B. Leonard Ministry of Health 33. Teresa Muthui Kenya Wildlife Services 34. Peter Omeny Kenya Meteorological Services MS 35. Mary Mwanzau Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries 36. Dr Benson Mburu K. National Commission for Science, Technology and Innovation 37. William Ndegwa Kenya Meteorology Department 38. Margaret Gichuhi Jomo Kenya University of Agriculture and Technology

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