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The Dissertation Committee for Crystal L THE CORE WAY: THE CONGRESS OF RACIAL EQUALITY AND THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT 1942-1968 BY 2011 CRYSTAL L. JOHNSON Submitted to the graduate degree program in History and the Graduate Faculty of the University of Kansas in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy _______________________________ Co-Chairperson Dr. William Tuttle _______________________________ Co-Chairperson Dr. Jeffrey Moran ______________________________ Dr. Elizabeth MacGonagle ______________________________ Dr. Theodore A. Wilson ______________________________ Dr. James Woelful Date Defended: 07-15-2011 The Dissertation Committee for Crystal L. Johnson certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: THE CORE WAY: THE CONGRESS OF RACIAL EQUALITY AND THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT 1942-1968 _________________________________ Co-Chairperson Dr. William Tuttle _________________________________ Co-Chairperson Dr. Jeffrey Moran Date approved: 07-15-2011 ii ABSTRACT The Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) pursued a vision to bring racial harmony to a nation divided. CORE—regionally known as the Chicago Committee of Racial Equality—began in the spring of 1942 in Chicago through the work of James Farmer, George Houser, Bernice Fisher, Homer Jack, James Robinson, and Joe Guinn. This group of young idealists directed its attention to social action and according to August Meier and Elliott Rudwick applied Gandhian techniques of nonviolent direct action to the resolution of racial conflict in the United States.1 THE CORE WAY: THE CONGRESS OF RACIAL EQUALITY AND THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT—1942-1968 reexamines CORE, its members, philosophies, and transitions. Chapter one, A New Reflection: Revisiting the Voices of CORE‟s Past—The Birth of CORE 1942, looks at the formation of the organization in 1942 and the development of its foundational principles and ideas. Chapter two, Reconciling the Journey of Reconciliation: The Revealing of the Congress of Racial Equality—1947, looks at the Journey of Reconciliation and how CORE put into practice nonviolent direct action—one of its main ideological principles. Chapter three, Until the Cup That We Drink from Is the Very Same: The 1961 CORE Freedom Ride, builds upon chapter two with a look at the Freedom Ride of 1961. It chronicles the overwhelming commitment of the organization to racial integration and harmony. Chapter four, We‟re Sick and Tired of Being Sick and Tired: The Transitional CORE Years—1960-1966, begins to highlight the fracturing of CORE and its transition away from some of its traditional initiative, campaigns, but more 1 August Meier and Elliot Rudwick, “How CORE Began,” Social Science Quarterly, (March 1969), 789-799. iii importantly foundational principles. Finally, chapter five, The Opening of Pandora‟s Box: CORE at a Crossroads, examines the shift away from the original goals of CORE and the creation of a new direction. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I don‟t feel no ways tired, I‟ve come too far from where I started from. Nobody told me that the road would be easy, I don‟t believe He brought me this far to leave me. Curtis Burrell The race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong. Ecclesiastes 9:11 But to he that shall endure unto the end. Mark 13:13 Many special people contributed to this personal journey and victory. I am forever indebted to their support and faith over these years. First to my mother, Barbara Ann Johnson, I cannot thank you enough for making the personal sacrifices over the years. I see you in me everyday that I grow a little older. You instilled in me an unwavering work ethic that I drew upon greatly during this past year. You are one of the strongest and most intelligent women I know on this earth and I love you dearly. To my grandmother, Birda Robinson, I thank you for your untiring endurance and for being the strong matriarch of the Johnson family. Without you, I would not have been possible. I love you and miss you every day. To my brother, Chris Lamont Johnson, you are a remarkable man and truly an inspiration to me. You have been a source of strength over these past twelve years. I could not have achieved this success without you. My love for you is unconditional and I am ready now to be your source of strength. Whatever you need, I am there with it. I would like to extend a special thank you to Cecil and Neatreal Alexander. I will not forget your generosity in my time of need. I love you both dearly for your help in the completion of this degree. To Dixie and Gina Haggard, thank you both for lighting a fire v underneath me and for not allowing me to walk away. I love you both dearly for that. To Dr. Ayanna Bridges and Dr. Melissa Renfrow, thank you for helping me compile these chapters into a decent looking dissertation. Both of you helped me maintain my sanity in the last days. To Pastor Marvin Joe Jackson and Pastoral Assistant Patricia A. Jackson, thank you for your spiritual guidance and prayers over the years. Both of you helped me remain steadfast in this arduous journey. To my committee members, Dr. Elizabeth MacGonagle, Dr. James Woelful, Dr. Ted Wilson, I know it took a little longer than anyone, including myself expected, but you all were kind and gracious enough to stick with me, and I will be forever grateful. A special thank you to Dr. Jeffrey Moran, you stepped in when I needed an additional advisor and I will not forget that act of kindness. You are truly a gem. To Dr. William Tuttle, I was truly blessed to have you as my main advisor at the University of Kansas. You have shaped and molded me into the instructor I am today and for that, I am grateful. I could not have reached this point without you. I have learned to appreciate your red pen and editing comments and I am a better student and person because of it. To my father, Charles William Johnson, I thank you for being a strong, driven, and determined father. You instilled in me these qualities at a very young age and these qualities have contributed to the completion of this dissertation and degree. The solace of your unconditional love over these years has calmed me when I was anxious and kept me focused when I wanted to veer off course. I cherish your intellectual prowess and look forward to many more father and daughter discussions. I am so proud to be your daughter. You are truly one of a kind, and I am the lucky one. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE - THE CORE OF IT: THE JOURNEY OF THE CONGRESS OF RACIAL EQUALITY. ..................................................................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER ONE - A NEW REFLECTION: REVISISTING THE VOICES OF CORE’S PAST—THE BIRTH OF CORE 1942. ............................................................................................ 4 CHAPTER TWO - RECONCILING THE JOURNEY OF RECONCILIATION: THE REVEALING OF THE CONGRESS OF RACIAL EQUALITY—1947 ......................................... 31 CHAPTER THREE - UNTIL THE CUP THAT WE DRINK FROM IS THE VERY SAME: THE 1961 CORE FREEDOM RIDE. ....................................................................................................................................................... 53 CHAPTER FOUR - WE’RE SICK AND TIRED OF BEING SICK AND TIRED: THE TRANSITIONAL CORE YEARS—1960-1966. ..................................................................................................................................................... 111 CHAPTER FIVE - THE OPENING OF PANDORA’S BOX: CORE AT A CROSSROADS. ..................................................................................................................................................... 142 BIBLIOGRAPHY......................................................................................................................... 180 vii THE CORE OF IT: THE JOURNEY OF THE CONGRESS OF RACIAL EQUALITY I must admit I have lived an extremely privileged life. The idea of struggling or going without has never crossed my mind and until this day, I can honestly say that type of mentality does not exist for me. My parents endowed me with luxuries and necessities and instilled the confidence in me to understand I can do anything I set my mind on. I went to the best of schools and was exposed to all types of cultures. I never truly understood the concept of limitations due to ethnicity until I began to study history— especially American history. Now, I may come across as somewhat spoiled, naïve, even arrogant, but it is because of this comfortable life, I believe I appreciate the never-ending efforts of CORE in their initial years. Understanding these men and women and their actions are a doorway for me to understand that my comfortable life came at a cost from this previous generation. I can still recall asking my parents about their childhood, teenage and young adulthood years, where segregation in schools and neighborhoods was the norm. My father being an open book expressed to me the deplorable reality of my great-grandfather being addressed as boy in Halls, Tennessee by white residents or my mother living on the all black Harriet street in Ypsilanti, Michigan. The idea of second- class citizenship was a reality for my parents and grandparent‟s generation, while for me it is an historical construct to explore and teach. These personal stories of struggle, discrimination and limitation intrigued me and left the budding historian in me wanting to know more. It is not enough to make brief mention of these individuals and their actions; but it is crucial that each new
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