The Water Landscape of Murtuq an Analysis and Interpretation Through Landscape Studies

Photo credit: Jean Bourgeois The Water Landscape of Murtuq An Analysis and Interpretation through Landscape Studies

Sophie Barbaix

Prof. Dr. Jean Bourgeois

Prof. Dr. Philippe De Maeyer

Master Archaeology 2017-2018 Academic year 2017–2018

The Water Landscape of Murtuq An Analysis and Interpretation through Landscape Studies

Word count: 29,041

Sophie Barbaix Student number: 01402409

Supervisor(s): Prof. Dr. Jean Bourgeois, Prof. Dr. Philippe De Maeyer

A dissertation submitted to Ghent University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Archaeology

Academic year: 2017 – 2018

The author and the supervisor(s) give the permission to make this study accessible for consultation for personal use. All other uses fall under the limitations of the copyright, especially with regard to the obligation to explicitly mention the source when citing data from this study.

The copyright with regard to the data mentioned in this study rests with the supervisor(s). The copyright is limited to the manner in which the author handled and described the problem. The author thereby respects the original copyright of each individually cited study and any potential accompanying documentation, such as tables and figures.

Acknowledgments I have to thank many people who helped in the making of this paper. Prof. Jean Bourgeois (Ghent University) has given invaluable support both on the field as well as a supervisor. Prof. Philippe De Maeyer and the China Platform from Ghent University should also be thanked. Birger Stichelbaut’s help with the satellite imagery was very welcome (Ghent University). Alishir Kurban (Xinjiang Institute for Ecology and Geography) his efforts during the stay in China and his support afterwards were also much appreciated. Osmanjan Imindaz and Iminjan Sirajidin from Turpan Heritage should also be mentioned. Ailijiang Aisha (Archaeology Institute of Chinese Academy of Social Science) was kind enough to be the guide in the Xinjiang Regional Museum in Urumqi. Haiwan Lee and Muhammed Yakup’s help during the fieldwork should not be forgotten as well as Kasim Abdul’s willingness to give an interview. Edward Weech (RAS), Dai Matsui (Osaka University) and Oogi Akira (Ryukoku University) are very appreciated for their mail communication. Lastly, my family, friends, fellow students and everyone who has backed and helped me throughout four years education should be thanked. I hope this paper does justice to all the given support.

Content The Water Landscape of Murtuq ...... 1

An Analysis and Interpretation through Landscape Studies ...... 1

An Analysis and Interpretation through Landscape Studies ...... 3

Acknowledgments ...... 5

Terminology ...... 10

List of Figures ...... 12

Abstracts ...... 19

English ...... 19

Nederlands ...... 19

Introduction The Old Man and the Landscape ...... 20

The Landscape and Archaeology ...... 20

A Communication barrier: The Translation Problem of Landscapes ...... 20

The Several Landscapes of Murtuq ...... 21

Goals of this Research ...... 22

Chapter 1 A Concise History of the Region ...... 23

Chapter 2 The Curious Case of the Karez ...... 28

Chapter 3 Methodology, Description and Interpretation ...... 34

Pre-Field Analysis: Satellite Reconnaissance ...... 34

Field Methodology ...... 34

Field Walking and Ground Truthing ...... 34

Excel-inventory ...... 36

Mapping ...... 37

Post-Field Analysis ...... 37

Georectifying ...... 37

Literary study ...... 38

Other sources ...... 38

Artefacts and mobile sources ...... 38

Oral sources ...... 39

Photographic Sources ...... 40

Cartography ...... 42

Landscape Studies in Murtuq ...... 47

Description and First Analysis of the Site ...... 47

Valley 1 of Murtuq ...... 52

Valley 2 of Murtuq ...... 57

Valley 4 of Murtuq ...... 63

Chapter 4 The Many Landscapes of Murtuq ...... 76

The Natural Landscape ...... 76

A Dynamic Valley Landscape ...... 78

To Fill in the Blanks ...... 81

The Economic Landscape ...... 82

Agriculture in Murtuq ...... 83

Twentieth Century: the Rise of the Grapes ...... 84

The Religious Landscape ...... 86

Buddhism ...... 86

Islam ...... 97

Shamanism and Animism ...... 101

Chapter 5 The Greater Perspective ...... 103

The Mental Landscape ...... 103

The Karez in the Minds of the People ...... 103

Traditions correlated with Karez ...... 103

Who was first: the Great Origin Debate ...... 106

The Function of Representation and Museums ...... 109

Chapter 6 A Multi-Temporal Analysis ...... 116

Time-depth of Landscapes ...... 116

The Times They Are a-Changin' ...... 116

Murtuq and its Surroundings ...... 117

Valley 1 ...... 119

Satellite Imagery ...... 119

The Call of the Void ...... 121

Numismatics ...... 123

The Landscape Exploitation Stadia ...... 124

Valley 2 ...... 125

Satellite Imagery ...... 125

About the Water and the Trees, the Karez and the Valleys ...... 127

The Landscape Exploitation Stadia ...... 128

Valley 4 ...... 130

Satellite imagery ...... 130

The Second Coming of People to Valley 4 ...... 132

The Landscape Exploitation Stadia ...... 134

Conclusion of the Multi-Temporal Analysis of Murtuq ...... 134

Chapter 7 Conclusion ...... 136

The Research ...... 136

A Reflective stance ...... 137

Bibliography ...... 138

Internet Sources ...... 145

Attachments ...... 149

Attachment 1: Interview ...... 150

Attachment 2: Field Observations ...... 153

Attachment 3: Photo Lists of Artefacts and Landscapes ...... 217

Attachment 4: Artefact List of Aurel Stein’s Excavation ...... 242

Terminology N° Word Explanation 1 Animism The belief in spirits capable of influencing the human world (Britannica, 2018, animism). 2 Bhikhu A Buddhist monk; a beggar (Dictionary.com, 2018, Bhikhu). 3 Bodhisattva A selfless person who has achieved Enlightenment but postpones Nirvana in favour of helping others (Dictionary.com, 2018, Bodhisattva; Baptiste et al., 2012, 140). 4 Buddha A person who has achieved Enlightenment and reached Nirvana; the last historical Buddhist teacher Siddharta Gautama (Dictionary.com, 2018, Buddha; Baptiste et al., 2012, 140). 5 Devata A deity or divine creature (Encyclo.nl, 2018, Devata). 6 Hinayana A Buddhist school of thought focusing on Enlightenment through individual effort; lit. the lesser/smaller vehicle. These days it is represented through the Theravada school (Dictionary.com, 2018, Hinayana; Baptiste et al., 2012, 141). 7 Irrigation line The maximal edge of irrigation (of e.g. a karez system), comparable to a tree line or snow line. 8 Karez line A series of shafts belonging to one karez system. 9 Karez shaft The well-like vertical structure used to dig and maintain karez. 10 Mahayana A Buddhist school of thought focusing on Enlightenment through collective effort; lit. the greater vehicle (Dictionary.com, 2018, Mahayana; Baptiste et al., 2012, 142). 11 Manicheism A syncretic religion incorporating Christian, Buddhist and Iranian beliefs and based on a dualistic cosmology of the entities light versus dark (Encyclo.nl, 2018, Manicheïsme). 12 Mazar/Mazhar A holy shrine, tomb or place for veneration, often correlated to a saint or pious person in the Islam in Central Asia (Poliakov and Olcott, 2016, 99) 13 Nestorianism A Christian school of thought believing in the duality of Jesus existing

as a man and as the Holy Son (Logos) (Encyclo.nl, 2018, Nestorianisme; Baptiste et al., 2012, 143). 14 Qari/kari A qari (pl: Qurra) is someone who can correctly recite the Quran (Britannica, 2018, Qurra). 15 Sälis Sälis designates people who worked and depended on a Buddhist monastery but they were locals and no monks (Zieme, 1981, 251) 16 Shamanism The belief in shamans and their ability to tap into and communicate with the transcendent (Britannica, 2018, Shamanism). 17 Stupa A tower-like monument in memory of the Buddha or a religious person, in honour of an event, a sacred place or a deceased. It can contain relics (Dictionary.com, 2018, Stupa). 18 Vihara A type of Buddhist monastery with an open court and cells, originally intended to provide shelter to wandering monks during the monsoon (Brittanica, 2018, Vihara). 19 Ziarat An Islamic pilgrimage site (Iranziarat.com, 2018, Welcome). 20 Zoroastrianism A religion originating in Persia venerating the prophet Zarathustra. They belief in a supreme deity called Aura Mazda and have a dualistic cosmology consisting of the spirit of good (Spenta Mainyu) and the spirit of evil (Angra Mainyu)(Dictionary.com, 2018, Zoroastrianism).

List of Figures Figure 1: View over Jiaohe from the East Gate (own photo). Figure 2: The preaching hall in the southwest Buddhist vihara or grand temple in Gaochang (own photo). Figure 3: A Syriac Christian grave stone date to the Yuan dynasty now in the Xinjiang Regional Museum in Urumqi (own photo). Figure 4: The Suleiman mosque with the Emin minaret in Turpan with a statue of Emin Khoja standing left (own photo). Figure 5: The schematic composition of a karez (Abudu et al., 2011, 214). Figure 6: A schematic profile of the Turpan basin with some karez (Luo et al., 2014, 11960). Figure 7: Discolouration and a saline layer in a tunnel in valley 1 (own photo). Figure 8: Oil lamp used by karez diggers (own photo). Figure 9: Copper direction light to help orientating the karez tunnel (own photo). Figure 10: orientation using horizontal sticks (own photos). Figure 11: The amount of karez compared to the amount of wells in Turpan (Cui et al., 2012, 221, fig.2). Figure 12: The tunnel wall is supported by sand and cotton bags in valley 2 (own photo). Figure 13: Describing features in the field (own photo). Figure 14: Measuring general features in the field (own photo). Figure 15: Measuring the depth of a karez shaft (own photo). Figure 16: Example of an entry in the Excel-inventory (own work). Figure 17: The inscription in the back of wall painting C412 in the Penn museum showing the labeling during the third German expedition. M.O. stands for Ming-Öi or cave temples, M means Murtuq, höhle 1 shows the number of the cave were the mural was found in the rubble. Due to the style of the painting, this fragment is attributed to Bezeklik cave 9 and not the caves in Murtuq (Morita, 2016, North American Silk Road Collections). Figure 18: Example of an artefact described by Aurel Stein and the picture of the British Museum (Stein, 1928, 638; The British Museum Collection, 2018, museum number 1928,1022.90) . Figure 19: Interpretation of the second Renat map by John Baddeley in 1911 (Bäärnhielm, 2017, Renat).

Figure 20; Part of a map of ‘Chinese Turkestan and Kansu’ by Aurel Stein from 1919 (Pahar, s.d., Mountains of Central Asia Digital Dataset). Figure 21: Map of Buddhist ruins in Turpan by Albert Herrmann(von Le Coq, 1923, 22, Karte 1). Figure 22: Site plan of ruins near Murtuq between 1913-1916 (Stein, 1928b, 29). Figure 23: The old town of Murtuq, supposedly dated to the 7th to the 10th century AD (see religious landscape). This means that the Buddhist Murtuq monastery would be at least partially contemporaneous to this village which is now part of an Islamic graveyard (Nishimura, 2004, dsr Photography). Figure 24: Map showing the five valleys in Murtuq (own map based on Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus). Figure 25: MC I, in valley 3 (Stein, 1928a, 591, fig 303). Figure 26: the hill top with 'Anlage III' (Grünwedel, 1912, 308, fig.624). Figure 27: Interpreted satellite imagery with potential karez shafts in valley 5 (Google Earth 2018, CNES Airbus). Figure 28: Detail of the Stein site map showing valley 5 (Stein, 1928b, 29). Figure 29: Map of valley 1 in Murtuq (own map based on Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus). Figure 30: Several attempts at preventing erosion damaging can be observed close to fields nr.73 (own map). Figure 31: The potential karez lines and irrigation lines in valley 1 (own map based on Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus). Figure 32: Analysis of the depth of the karez shafts in valley 1 (own graph). Figure 33: Profile of valley 1 made via Hillmap.com. Figure 34: orientation of the karez shafts in valley 1 (own map based on Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus). Figure 35: Traces of a camp fire (own photo). Figure 36: Deposition with glass and bone (own photo). Figure 37: The red-coloured substance wrapped in paper (own photo). Figure 38: Inscriptions in cave nr.48 (own photo). Figure 39: Map of valley 2 in Murtuq (own map based on Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus). Figure 40: Cave nr.23 in valley 2 (own photo). Figure 41: Cave nr.24 in valley 2 (own photo).

Figure 42: Example of a rectangular pit in valley 2 (own photo). Figure 43: The karez line in valley 2 (own map based on Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus). Figure 44: Satellite imagery showing the dam nr.50 (black), the gorge (blue) and a possible original valley floor (red)(own map based on Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus). Figure 45: Depth trend of the shafts in valley 2 in Murtuq (own graph). Figure 46: Profile of valley 2 in Hillmap.com. Figure 47: Left: change of soil structure (own photo) Right: writings on the surface of the gorge (own photo). Figure 48: Cave complex nr.13. For scale, see site map of valley 4 (own plan). Figure 49: Map of valley 4 in Murtuq (own map based on Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus). Figure 50: Mudbrick wall with white pigment and plaster remains (own photo). Figure 51: Traces of white and red paint in the cave complex (own photo). Figure 52: Decorated ceramic fragment (own photo). Figure 53: Thousand Buddha motive on the cave ceiling (own photo). Figure 54: Damaged murals (own photo). Figure 55: Ceiling painting of cave 13.2. (Grünwedel, 1912, 302, fig. 615). Figure 56: Drawings collection of paintings in cave 13.3. From left to right: side mural above the entrance, the left central painting above the entrance, the right central painting above the entrance and another side mural (Grünwedel, 1912, 304). Figure 57: drawings of murals above the hallways in cave 13.3 (Grünwedel, 1912, 305-306). Figure 58: Photostitch of the sixth cave entrance (space ii)(own photos). Figure 59: Interpretation of the main pigmentation of the walls in the arched room (space ii) in valley 4 without the flood damage (own photographs). Figure 60: Room v of cave complex 13. Notice the double wall on the right (own photo). Figure 61: Red streaks on the walls (own photo). Figure 62: The possible tandoor in space vi and some of the charcoal (own photos). Figure 63: The interior of hole nr.6 (own photo). Figure 65: Plan of temple nr.11. The numbers correlates to Stein's excavation. For scale, see site map of valley 4 (own map). Figure 64: The Buddhist temple/monastery nr.11 in valley 4 (own photo). Figure 66: Plate VI showing the beater and the tuning-fork shaped artefact (Stein, 1928b, VI).

Figure 67: Man churning butter. Note the beater standing in the pot and the stabilizing tool used to balance the beater (village food secret, 2017, Churning). Figure 68: Photo collection of the stupa. From left to right: the base, the construction method showing through the wall and the top of the stupa (own photos). Figure 69: Terraced fields nr.15 (own photo). Figure 70: Profile of valley 4 made with Hillmap.com. Figure 71: Photo collection of tree nr.5 (left), well nr.4 (up) and the streambed (nr.16) (own photos). Figure 72: Map showing the endorheic basins and lakes in Central Asia (Yapiyev et al., 2017, 5, fig. 2). Figure 73: Satellite map from the western Flaming mountains. Water flows from the north to the south of the map. Depicted are the main streams, the drainage zones, the Total Dissolved Solids isolines and the valleys spoken of in this thesis (own map based on Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus). Figure 74: Scheme about the hydrology of the northern slope of the Flaming Mountains and the situation of the researched karez (own scheme). Figure 75: Table with the description and a probable interpretation of a profile in valley 1 (with input from Amaury Frankl, pers. comm., 29-3-2018). Figure 76: Satellite map of three adjadecent alluvial fans. The alluvial fan of valley 1 is shown in red (own map based on Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus). Figure 77: Satellite map and profile of the western north slope showing the five valleys in Murtuq. The measurement corresponds to the location of valley 1; valleys 2-5 are situated at their arrows (own map based on Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus). Figure 78: A graph based on the numerical data from the China State Statistical Bureau provincial series published by SEDAC. The graph shows the rising importance of irrigation in the whole of Xinjiang since 1985 (NASA Socioeconomic Data and Applications Center (sedac), 1996, Agricultural Statistics of the People's Republic of China, v1 (1949 – 1990)). Figure 79: Graph showing the dates of manuscripts related to or found in Murtuq, the styles of the cave paintings and a shoe excavated by Aurel Stein now held by the British Museum. All authors and these sources are mentioned in the paper.

Figure 80: Quilted shoe 1928,1022.89 (MB I 018) found in the upper part of the temple in valley 4 of Murtuq (British Museum, 2018, Online Collection 1928,1022.89). Figure 81: Stein painting 76 which could be dated by the drafted letter written in the middle. (British Museum, 2018, Stein painting 76). Figure 82: U 5319 or manuscript T III M 205c (BBAW, 2018, Digitales Turfan-Archiv). Figure 83: Textile fragment originating from the area around Murtuq (Kagawa, 1915, 171). Figure 84: Roots on the west slope of valley 4 (own photo). Figure 85: Terraced fields nr.18 on the east flank of the gorge near the grottoes in valley 4 (own photo). Figure 86: Terraced fields nr.18 on the east flank of the gorge near the grottoes in valley 4 as seen from above (own photo). Figure 87: Image of Yahoo.InC Japan maps (Digital Globe) with the relief differences drawn in red (Yahoo Maps, Aero, 2018). Figure 88: (B0902) Probable picture of the Murtuq Ghojam and the mosque taken during the third German Turpan expedition (B0902, SMB, 2018, Online-Datenbank Sammlungen). Figure 89: The entrance to the qari cave (nr.13) in mudbrick and with textile remains (own photo). .(own photo) (علي ِئر َاق?)Figure 90: the inscription referring to a qari probably named Ali Figure 91: Textile ribbons strapped around a pulley above a karez (own photo). Figure 92: The entrance to cave nr.48 (own photo). Figure 93: The interior of cave nr.48 (own photo). Figure 94: Some examples of the narratives used in the Urumqi museum (own photos). Figure 95: A drawing of the Toksun petroglyphs of which both museums claims that the karez are present even though this is disputed (Bourgeois, 2015). Figure 96: Uyghur relief showing the wealth brought by the karez which calls for celebration in a standard local village scenery (own photo). Figure 97: Wall painting in the Chinese museum depicting the joy of the karez in a simplified decor of the Turpan area. This part shows left the Uyghur village and mazar of Tuyoq and its mosque on the right. Further along the wall painting the Flaming Mountains and Emin Khoja minaret (Sugong Ta) are drawn (own photo). Figure 98: Uyghur relief depicting local man working on a karez (Bourgeois, 2017).

Figure 99: Chinese wallpainting with mostly Chinese and/or Manchu officials carrying construction tools (own photo). Figure 100: (Left) Murtuk Yar and mountain range in the North from near the Murtuq Ghojam. The Tien Shan is visible in the background. This picture was taken around 1914 (Aurel Stein, British Library 392/29 (192)). (Right) The same view in 2017 (own photo). Figure 101: (Left: B0898; Right: B1804) Pictures from von Le Coq and Grünwedel showing the top of the Murtuq plateau (SMB, 2018, Online-Datenbank Sammlungen). Figure 102: Satellite imagery of the Murtuq Yar gorge with the five valleys on the north slope of the Flaming Mountains. The not researched valleys 3 and 5 are coloured in transparent red (own map based on Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus). Figure 103: (B0903) The type of agriculture during the German expeditions (SMB, 2018, Online- Datenbank Sammlungen). Figure 104: Georectified satellite image from valley 1 from 2005 (Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus). Figure 105: Georectified satellite image from valley 1 from 2013 (Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus). Figure 106: Georectified satellite image from valley 1 from 2015 (Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus). Figure 107: Grapevines in fields nr.86 (own photo). Figure 108: Stumps from cut grapevines (own photo). Figure 109: (B1692) Picture showing both hilltops in valley 1 during the German expeditions. Note the ruins on the right (SMB, 2018, Online-Datenbank Sammlungen). Figure 110: The western hilltop in valley 1 with house nr.1. Note the lack of ruins on the right (own photo). Figure 111: (B1703) Picture showing the ruins on the western hilltop and an arched building during the German expeditions (SMB, 2018, Online-Datenbank Sammlungen). Figure 112: Modern grey coloured picture of the same hilltop (own photo). Figure 113: The coin found atop of karez shaft nr.29 in valley 1 (own photos). Figure 114: Georectified satellite imagery from valley 2 from 2005. The red circle shows feature nr.21. The green circle points to the remnants of an orchard. The orange trapezium shows the

fields from valley 3 fanning out to valley 2. The blue arrows point to the most relevant directions of water diversion (Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus). Figure 115: Georectified satellite imagery from valley 2 from 2013 (Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus). Figure 116: Georectified satellite imagery from valley 2 from 2015 (Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus). Figure 117: Remnants of an orchard in valley 2 in field nr.45 (own photo). Figure 118: (392-28 (703)) MC I.I. and ruin at head of gorge seen from MC I Murtuk (SE) (description by Stein) (British Library). Figure 119: Georectified satellite imagery from valley 4 from 2005 (Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus). Figure 120: Georectified satellite imagery from valley 4 from 2013 (Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus). Figure 121: Georectified satellite imagery from valley 4 from 2015 (Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus). Figure 122: part of the base terrace made of mudbrick under the temple (own photo). Figure 123: The same view to valley 4. Left: (B1702) picture taken during the German expeditions of von Le coq and Grünwedel (SMB, 2018, Online-Datenbank Sammlungen). Right: picture from 2004 (Nishimura, 2004, dsr Photography). Figure 124: The beginning and ending of streambed nr.16. Note the mudbricks in the background on the right picture (own photos). Figure 125: (B1710) Streambed next to the temple in valley 4 (SMB, 2018, Online-Datenbank Sammlungen).

Abstracts English Keywords : landscape, Murtuq, water, karez, Turpan

The oasis city of Turpan, located on the northern Silk Road, owes its existence to the efficient exploitation of water resources throughout history. This has left its mark on the landscape of which the karez, an underground tunnel system transporting water to the low-lying fields, is the most striking. Murtuq, located north of the Flaming Mountains, possesses several water systems and some karez, making it an interesting case study. A few valleys were selected and viewed per landscape type (natural, economic, religious and mental). The data was incorporated in a multi- temporal analysis of the water landscape that reflects the dynamic nature of the subject. The water landscape, including the karez, appears to influence the different landscape types. However, it is also influenced by these landscape types and can therefore evolve rapidly.

Nederlands Trefwoorden: landschap, Murtuq, water, karez, Turpan

De oasestad Turpan, gelegen aan de noordelijke zijderoute, dankt zijn bestaan aan het efficiënt exploiteren van de watervoorraad doorheen de geschiedenis. Dit heeft zijn stempel gedrukt op het landschap waarvan de karez, een ondergronds tunnelsystem dat water naar de laaggelegen velden voert, het meest opvallend is. Als een casus kan worden gekeken naar Murtuq, gelegen ten noorden van de Flaming Mountains waar watersystemen en enkele karez aanwezig zijn. Enkele valleien werden uitgekozen en per landschapstype (natuurlijk, economisch, religieus en mentaal) bekeken. De data werden opgenomen in een multi-temporele analyse van het waterlandschap dat de dynamische aard van het onderwerp weergeeft.. Het waterlandschap, inclusief de karez, blijkt invloed uit te oefen op de verschillende landschapstypes. Het wordt echter ook beïnvloed door deze landschapstypes en kan daardoor snel evolueren.

Introduction The Old Man and the Landscape

The Landscape and Archaeology A landscape possesses a duality, in that it is a physical as well as a conceptual construct. It can be both the environmental surroundings as a cultural canvas where humans express their existence (Layton and Ucko, 1999, 1). Ecological constraints or advantages and social organisation can influence this cultural expression. These two factors often leave imprints on the landscape but perhaps the clearest indications are the constructions of monuments and other features that embodies the communities interpretation of a space (Layton and Ucko, 1999, 8-9). Landscapes can be understood on many levels. Research can focus on the physical alteration of the landscape by man or on the evolution of space throughout time (Darvill, 1999, 107).

A Communication barrier: The Translation Problem of Landscapes A common critique to archaeological interpretations of landscapes is that the gathered knowledge is transparent and unambiguous and that it can be gathered in clear-cut temporal stages of a linear time frame (Layton and Ucko, 1999, 5). When employing such techniques, one should remember that the landscape is no passive decor for chronologically shifting phases. The recent rise of environmental research has shifted the focus from solely top-down human interventions to the decisive factors delivered by ones surroundings. However, while it seems easily acceptable that a certain activity or construction was dictated by the absence or presence of resources, it is less so when trying to accept a religious, social or mental cause (Layton and Ucko, 1999, 8). Humans adapt to their surroundings, regardless of their culture, but how they adapt depends on the specific culture they identify themselves with. This leads to the problem of experiencing and deciphering the meaning of a landscape of a different, faded culture. The lack of contact with the creators or dwellers in the past ensures that every reading of landscape is without the correction of a historic cognition (Layton and Ucko, 1999, 11-12).

The Several Landscapes of Murtuq The areas of study for this paper are three valleys in Murtuq (Murtuk, 42°59'09.1"N 89°31'24.3"E). Murtuq is a landscape but it is also much more than that. As mentioned above, landscapes are complex, multi-faceted research subjects. Murtuq is situated at the northern slope of the Flaming Mountains, north of Turpan in Xinjiang province in the People’s Republic of China. It has a long history which has left many marks on the landscape. Obviously this pertains concrete tangible remains like buildings and artefacts but it also implies more abstract marks.

The main focus of this paper will be on the water landscape. In the XVII UISPP World Congress in 2014, water was discussed as a morphogen in landscapes (Robert and Sittler, 2014, v). The word morphogen comes from developmental biology and means substances which are spread unevenly and by this difference in concentration; they influence the tissue patterning in (in)vertebrate organisms (Nature, 2018, Morphogen Signaling; Turing, 1952, 5). Robert and Sittler (2014) applied the working principle of morphogens to water and the consequences due to its uneven distribution. The congress mainly focused on the generation of networks and they tried to find any patterns. However, the irregular presence of water can influence much more of the landscape than just exchange networks. This will be the starting point of this thesis. If the water and its unequal spread influenced the landscape as a whole, why did it happen and how did it work? How was the water landscape affected? How did it evolve?

What makes this site particularly interesting is its connection to agriculture and irrigation, especially the karez (see chapter 2). While there are many possibilities to exploit water, the karez are an interesting feature widely spread in Turpan. In order to correctly understand the site, as many angles as possible should be covered. To ensure this, the several landscapes present in Murtuq are touched upon before making a multi-temporal analysis. This includes the natural landscape, the economic landscape, and the religious landscape and of course the observations made during the fieldwork. The historical landscape is touched upon through the multi-temporal analysis and the aspect of time is of great importance throughout the assessment of the different landscapes. Also, the mental landscape is part of a far greater structure which cannot be fully covered on its own. In an attempt to explain the importance of the water and karez landscape in Murtuq in the mind of the people, the mental landscape concerning karez is discussed separately and into a greater perspective.

One should never forget that any separation between the different elements of a landscape is artificial. Everything is somehow connected to each other. The economic landscape is linked to the religious aspect and of course religion is influenced by history, politics, etc. While writing this paper choices had to be made and because of this certain topics will seem dual. This is unavoidable when deconstructing a landscape but should be kept in mind nonetheless.

Goals of this Research Mapping and understanding the water landscape of Murtuq

Due to the unique position and hydrological situation in Murtuq it is useful to map the landscape. Fragmentary traces of many periods are still visible in the field. The first step at attempting to comprehend the landscape, and thus the water landscape, is mapping it. The resulting imagery is both a tool and a goal for this research.

Creating a multi-temporal understanding of the landscape of the chosen valleys

By reconstructing different events in the making of the current landscape, the changes in the meaning of a place can be understood. A multi-temporal analysis depicts the evolution of interplay between humans and a landscape.

Analyzing the karez as a part of the landscape

Karez are part of the water landscape which is in turn part of the general landscape. As such, the relation to other features can prove to be informative. In an attempt to wholly understand the existence of karez on the site, one can try to analyze its surrounding. A lot of karez research focusses on the characteristics of the karez. Less has been written about the context of karez.

Chapter 1 A Concise History of the Region

The people who are usually cited to be the first inhabitants of the region are the Jushi (Chü-shih), the Tocharians and the Subeixi. During the second half of the first millennium BC the Western Han dynasty and the Xiong Nu (Hsiung-nu) rivaled each other during five military campaigns to take control over the Jushi-area (Zhang and Rong, 1998, 14-15; Millward, 2007, 10-15). Around 60 BC took the Han-dynasty charge over the western region and divided it in several controllable states. Yarkhoto (Jiaohe) became the capital of the kingdom of Former Jushi located in the Turpan depression (fig.1). This feat did not secure the ownership of the Turpan depression since many contesters would arise in the following years. The Xiong Nu claimed control sporadically, illustrating what would become a repeating cycle of power shifting in a strategically import region (Zhang and Rong, 1998, 15). The Han dynasty implemented military agricultural colonies in Turpan, Hami, Karashar, Bugur and Miran. At the same time, Turpan remained under threat of the Xiong Nu (Millward, 1998, 26).

Figure 1: View over Jiaohe from the East Gate (own photo).

The silk route would flourish with the appearance of Sogdian traders which used feudal, agrarian communities like in Turpan to travel long stretches of land. A dryer climate and river course changes at the end of the third century AD caused the abandonment of settlements like Niya which made oases like Turpan all the more vital. Goods, languages and religions would all come together in trade hubs like the Turpan-oasis (Millward, 2007, 25-26). The power would shift from Jiaohe to Gaochang (Kao-ch'ang, Qocho, Karakhoja) during the fourth century AD when new ruling fractions like the Northern Liang

established a commandery in Gaochang and invested in the irrigation of the city (Zhang and Rong, 1998, 15; Millward, 2007, 46).

Buddhism would rise to importance after the defeat of the Northern Liang in 439 AD. The vast amount of fugitives fleeing to the west brought with them their enthusiasm for Buddhism which would prosper, especially in the Turpan area (Zhang and Rong, 1998, 16). With the complete demise of the Jushi rule in Jiaohe in 450 AD, Gaochang became the capital of the succeeding dynasties (Great Liang 442-460 AD, Ch'ü 500-640 AD, Tang 640-793 AD, Uyghur khanate 803- 866 AD, Uyghur kingdom 866-1283 AD). Since 550 AD the rulers of Gaochang could no longer deny the role of the Turkic khanate and they pled their alliance to the Turkic khan. When the khanate split in 581-583 AD the Chinese managed to extent their influence to Turpan (Zhang and Rong, 1998, 17-18). The Chinese administration was implemented. Tenancy was widely practiced and either the equalized land-allocation system (chün-t'ien) or the quota land-holding system (ch'an- t'ien) was put in place. They levied taxes on land, wine, fuel, firewood and silk. A diverse religious life pertaining Buddhism, Taoism, Mazdeism, Nestorianism and others, flourished in the Turpan depression (fig.2). Manichaeism would become the state religion in 762 AD (Zhang and Rong, 1998, 18).

In 640 AD the Tang established the Anxi protectorate in the western regions (Zhang and Rong, 1998, 19). The Tibetans and Karluks used the disturbance of the An Lu-shan rebellion in the eight century AD to contest the Chinese grip in the region. This led to the Uyghur rule in 803 AD. Gaochang became the summer capital while Besh-Baliq held that

position during the winter. The Figure 2: The preaching hall in the southwest Buddhist vihara or grand temple in Gaochang (own photo). Uyghur khanate ruled over much

of the Taklamakan area until 1130 AD when the Kara-Kitai subdued Gaochang (Zhang and Rong, 1998, 20; Millward, 2007, 46).

The next power shift would come with the arrival of Dzenghis Khan and the Mongols. The Uyghur kingdom pled alliance to the ensuing Yuan dynasty (Zhang and Rong, 1998, 20-21). This intense period of power struggle left a religious stamp. Many Buddhist shrines were converted but some returned to being a Buddhist place during the eleventh century AD. Mazdeism was declining but Taoism and Nestorianism remained together with a small notion of Islam (fig.3)(Zhang and Rong, 1998, 21). The Yuan dynasty vanished in 1368 AD and Chagatai descendants owned the new rulership. Turpan, now part of Moghulistan, was largely converted to Islam from 1389 AD onwards (Zhang and Rong, 1998, 21; Huyghe and Huyghe, 2006, 402).

Gaochang would lose its importance in the late fourteenth century AD when the local sultan moved the center to Turpan, the city that remains until this day (Zhang and Rong, 1998, 22). Islam would become even more important with the arrival of the Timurids in the second half of the fifteenth century AD. Sufi’s became for many people a source of authority and the Naqshabandiyya orders wiggled their way into the power play. Slowly, the oases in the region were divided and ruled by local rulers of Muslim decent (Millward, 2007,74-81, 83-85). In the sixteenth century, the power struggles divided the Turpan area

Figure 3: A Syriac Christian grave stone into smaller regions, paving the way for the Dzunghars (a part date to the Yuan dynasty now in the Xinjiang Regional Museum in Urumqi of the Oirat) to overthrow the Chagatai rule in 1679 AD (Zhang (own photo). and Rong, 1998, 22; Perdue, 2005, 101).

As an oasis town, Turpan played an important role in exerting powers and connecting farmer and nomadic societies. It was a fragile but wealthy agricultural resource for the region. Turpan was also a well-known trade hub. Sure enough, many great players on the international game board tried to extent their influence to the city. Many alliances were made and consecutively broken (Perdue, 2005, 24). During the seventeenth and eighteenth century, Central Asia (including Xinjiang), became the subject of a power struggle. A very successful contestant was the Muscovite-Russian

Empire (1613-1917 AD) that enlisted huge parts of Central Asia. Nonetheless, The Mongolian Dzhungar dynasty would have more influence on Turpan until they were defeated by the Qing and eventually lost by history (Perdue, 2005, 24). The Dzunghar were forced into an isolated position by the Qing and the Russians (Perdue, 2005, 236-237).

The region between Urumqi and Jiayu Guan was known as The Eastern March (Tianshan Donglu) or Uyghuristan before the Qing conquest. It contains Turpan and it was well known for its raisins, melons and fruit jams. These crops were used as tribute goods for the Qing court. Turpan also produced lucrative amounts of cotton (Millward, 1998, 24, 191). During the first half of the eighteenth century, the grain production for the region was located in Turpan. The contest for Turpan was more of a strategic than a logistic move in which all parties tried to appeal to the Muslim population of the town (Perdue, 2005, 241).The Qing obtained Turpan first around 1715 AD after an attempt to invade Hami. They did not hold that position very long (Perdue, 2005,222). Around 1717 AD another attack was fought off by the Dzunghars near Turpan (Perdue, 2005, 231- 232). Using the slumbering discontentment and the forces rallied by Emin Khoja, they enlisted Turpan to Qing rule in 1756 AD (fig.4)(Zhang and Rong, 1998, 22).

Figure 4: The Suleiman mosque with the Emin minaret in Turpan with a statue of Emin Khoja standing left (own photo).

Military settlements (tuntian) became necessary to enable armies to remain there for an extensive period of time. Turpan itself could not supply the troops (Perdue, 2005, 238-239, 241). The first attempt at a tuntian in Turpan happened in 1716 AD. However, the colony was discontinued in 1725 AD. The grounds were reoccupied during a truce between the Qing and Dzhungars in 1729 AD but

were abandoned once again in 1735 (Millward, 1998, 50). Beginning in 1760, Han Chinese settled more frequently in the region (Perdue, 2005, 339).

During Emin Khoja's rule as beg of Turpan, the Dzunghars got involved in semi-official trade in the border regions. They exported products like dried grapes and medicinal goods (Perdue, 2005, 263). Turpan and Hami remained under the Jasak-system (Millward, 1998, 33).

The second half of the nineteenth century was characterized by social upheaval which led to Ya’qub Beg ruling Turpan from 1871 to 1878 (Millward, 2007, 124). The Qing were losing support and in 1912, after the abdication of the last emperor Pu’ji, the Chinese republic was born. The change that some governors in Xinjiang implemented aggravated the relation between the Chinese and Turkic communities. Several revolts were initiated and in 1933 the First East Turkestan Republic came to be. The Islam, Sharia and the ideal of the Jadid-movement were the main inspiration sources (De Cordier, 2012, 188-191). General Ma ended the independence attempt in 1934-1937. The Second East Turkestan Republic survived from 1944 to 1949. In 1949 the communists obtained Nanjing. Xinjiang became an autonomous province of the People’s Republic of China. In 1952 a railway to Urumqi was established which stimulated to migration of Han Chinese to the entire province (De Cordier, 2012, 196-198).

Chapter 2 The Curious Case of the Karez

Karez transport groundwater from the high part of slope towards the lower lying fields (Mostafaeipour, 2010, 61). The Uyghur word is karez or kariz while its Chinese name is kan’erjing (Trombert, 2008, 139-143). A karez consists of a catchment area (where the water is stored underground) and aconveyance section meant to transport the water (Mingjiang, 2015, 197; (Jing ai et al., 2013, 365-366). The vertical shafts connect a horizontal tunnel leading downwards on a slope (fig.5). The most important shaft is the head well or mother well which is grounded into the aquifer. The water flows through the horizontal tunnel towards canals, channels and reservoirs (Hu, Zhang and Liu, 2012, 216; Lombard, 1991, 73). The vertical shafts are useful for construction, maintenance and ventilation (Mostafaeipour, 2010, 63).

Figure 5: The schematic composition of a karez (Abudu et al., 2011, 214).

There are three types of water sources known for karez. The first uses mainly meltwater from the mountain areas while the second type is recharged by percolation of rivers and streams. These are the main varieties used in Turpan (fig.6). Another possibility is to tap into enclosed fossil groundwater (Hu, Zhang and Liu, 2012, 215).

Figure 6: A schematic profile of the Turpan basin with some karez (Luo et al., 2014, 11960). Karez possess certain advantages. Its main energy source is gravity (Mostafaeipour, 2010, 63). The karez diggers do not need to import exotic goods or tools to construct a karez and the water usually has an outstanding quality (Abudu et al., 2011, 215). There is also no water loss due to evapotranspiration (Jinhuan, 2015, 346). Lastly, the fields and reservoirs receive the water rather directly without the intervention of pulleys or other contraptions to raise the water (Kobori, 1973, 51).

On the other hand there are also downsides to the karez. They are very intensive to construct and require a minimal collective effort and they also require regular maintenance to prolong the efficiency of the karez (Abudu et al., 2011, 223). Unfortunately, karez are not very adaptable to changes in the groundwater table. This inflexibility leads to competitive draining: longer/deeper karez influence shorter/shallower karez (Mingjiang, 2015, 198).

The construction and maintenance of karez is a specialism and is usually taught from father to son. This has led to the formation of karez Jamat or so called karez families which are the authority for digging karez (Cressey, 1958, 29; Apaer, 2015, 367-368). It can only happen in the summer when the temperature is the highest. During the spring there is too much meltwater coming down, raising the groundwater abnormally high so it cannot be used to determine the necessary depth of the mother well. During the winter the water flow is very unstable and the ground is frozen. However, in summer when it is very hot, the strong evapotranspiration will bring the groundwater level to its lowest point, marking a depth that can be used to assure a water flow all year round (Apaer, 2015, 367). However, in recent times karez maintenance often happens during winter since temporal workers from elsewhere are hired. These are usually farmers who have to return home in summer and spring for the harvest (Lein and Yuling, 2006, 5).

One of the things they have to understand is the hydrology of a place. Kasim mentions the use of plant types and vegetation to determine the location of a planned karez (pers. comm. Kasim Abdul, 9-7-2017). Another clue can be found in the colouration of the soil. This is still present in valley 1 where the outlet of a tunnel into a canal shows a darker, more humid soil separated from the drier earth by a saline crystallization layer (fig.7)(pers. comm. Amaury Frankl, 29-3-2018).

Figure 7: Discolouration and a saline layer in a tunnel in valley 1 (own photo). Besides hydrology, the karez diggers (called muqani or karizi) also need to have a profound understanding of correctly measuring the earth (geodesy) and about engineering underground (geotechnics) (Stiros, 2006, 1059). To construct a tunnel in the right direction, they use oil lamps and two sticks. By aligning the sticks, it is possible to determine whether or not they are digging straight (fig.8-10) (Stiros, 2006, 1059-1060; Chinese Karez museum).

The Karez diggers from Turpan were well known for their craft. Albert von Le Coq mentions in his book ‘Auf Hellas Spuren in Ost-Turkestan’ (von Le Coq, 1926, 38, 60) that the leader or Wang from Komul (Hami) hired karez diggers from Turpan to build a karez there. This took place during the second German expedition between1904-1905. Talip (Talip, 2015, 269) mentions the move of several Turpan families who came to Komul to dig karez and even notes the story of the Komul leader who hired Turpan karizi to dig karez for his palace. In modern times, work on the karez is usually done by seasonal laborers originating from Ganzou, Sichuan and Henan. They live and work in Turpan during the winter (Lein and Yuling, 2006, 4-5).

Figure 8: Oil lamp used by karez diggers (own photo).

Figure 9: Copper direction light to help orientating the karez tunnel (own photo).

Figure 10: orientation using horizontal sticks (own photos). Once build, the karez needed to be managed, controlled and maintained. The water managers in Turpan (häjjät or sulaχc̆ i) and darughas were highly revered as part of a community (Yakup, 2005, 301). To become a darugha, one had to pay money (mentioned as silver and gold) to the local authorities. At one point, more than thirty-eight darughas were active in Turpan, Toksun and Pichan. Testimonies collected by Yakup (2005) talk about quarrels during the darungha appointments when people would complain and lobby to choose a new water manager depending on his local reputation (Yakup, 2005, 301). It is often cited that the people preferred a ‘sympathetic’ and ‘righteous’ man to be the darugha. There seems to have been some form of gathering of water managers to ease disputes (Yakup, 2005, 303). Also the reputation of being a Hadji, one who has completed the pilgrimage to Mekka, seemed to have played a role in the selection process (Yakup, 2005, 305).

According to a story originating from Tuyoq, county magistrates were often benefactors of karez construction. For example, Ma Shouyi, county magistrate of Pichan ordered two karez at Chuwangqir. Some of the water he reserved for his own fields, the rest was led towards the river and diverted to Lukchun. What makes this action so important in the local memory is that Ma Shouyi and his ill-reputed Darungha Äsmitul Mirap abused their power and had the whole community pay for the water works while only benefiting themselves. Despite the bad reputation of the darungha, his social position was apparently still high enough to receive special seating at a wedding (Yakup, 2005, 293).

There is very little specific knowledge on the karez of Murtuq. The only clear mention is the existence of two rich inhabitants, Mäligaji (also Qurban Haǰi) and Qonaji, during the nationalist Guomindang era (Kuomintang, 1927-1949). These two owned some of the few vineyards and four to five karez each (Yakup, 2005, 371). Murtuq is also featured in a poem from Yanghe about two star-crossed lovers, Miyimkhan and disabled Kängsikhan, who could not marry because of the hatred between the two families. Eventually they run away together, get caught and are executed. This poem is supposedly based on a conflict at the beginning of the nineteenth century AD (Yakup, 2005, 330). In this poem the following verse is present:

“All karez of Singgim and Murtuq, are deposited at Ju Daren.

Who will buy a place like Bäshtam?

Its four sides are abysses.”

(cited from Yakup, 2005, 335)

The name Ju Daren cannot be identified as a person but as a high placed family. The ‘Ju’ part is a family name, while the ‘Da-ren’ part is a honorific title meaning ‘your excellency’ (Yakup, 2005, 335). This verse implies that some karez in Murtuq and Sangnim could have been owned by a renowned family at the beginning of the nineteenth century AD and that this elevated the worth of the land, as opposed by the plot named Bäshtam which is not connected to these karez and is not owned by the Ju family.

Figure 11: The amount of karez compared to the amount of wells in Turpan (Cui et al., 2012, 221, fig.2). It is very clear that the karez were a big part of daily life in Turpan but have been in decline since 1960. Due to expanding agricultural lands and the population growth the demand for water rises. This leads to uncontrolled well digging activities and the widespread use of pumps, directly depleting the groundwater reserve (fig.11)(Hu, Zhang and Liu, 2012, 217; Bertrand, 2010, 37-38). For instance, north of the village of Azat several motor-pumped wells were installed during July 2014 on less than seventy-five meters from the three main karez. The recommended distance between a motor-pumped well and a karez is a minimum of 700 meters. Three days later one of the main karez had completely dried up (Apaer, 2015, 364). Changes in the groundwater levels have led to the creation of new, deeper karez and the upwards extension of old karez lines (Lein and Yuling, 2006, 4). Because of the fall of the ground water level, many karez have also run dry. This evolution caused changes in the general soil capillarity which leads to collapsing karez tunnels (Fu, Shadeer and Tiyipujiang, 2014, 1791). Besides, Turpan also has an arid continental climate which means that in winter the temperature varies greatly, leading to some very damaging soil freezing and defrosting processes (Aihua, 2015, 309). The shaft walls can be reinforced by concrete oval-shaped pipes or by sand and cotton bags, as is present in valley 2 of Murtuq (fig.12)(Aihua, 2015, 310- 311). So not only has the amount of functioning karez dropped, they have also become more unstable. According to several predictions, all the karez might

Figure 12: The tunnel wall is supported by have dried up by 2030 (Hu, Zhang and Liu, 2012, 218). sand and cotton bags in valley 2 (own photo).

Chapter 3 Methodology, Description and Interpretation

The general methodology can be split up in pre-field analysis, field methodology and post-field analysis. The pre-field analysis was a rather short stage and most information was eventually gathered during the field visit and the post-field analysis. Based on these data a general description of the site can be made.

Pre-Field Analysis: Satellite Reconnaissance Before entering the field, the valleys were checked on the satellite imagery on Google Earth. Potential karez shafts and the main structural monuments were located this way. This method is not infallible. One should always compare the results to reality by ground truthing.

Field Methodology Field Walking and Ground Truthing The site of Murtuq was surveyed by field walking which provided the opportunity for ground truthing. The general direction was downstream, following the general course of the karez. At the beginning of each valley survey, a general sketch on graph paper was made where each feature was given a number. An IPad with VPN connection was used to consult Google Earth on the field. Every anthropogenic structure was described and natural interacting elements, e.g. gypsum formation, were documented (fig.13). For most of the features an individual simple sketch was possible. Photographs were taken and when these focused on a singular feature, the one-meter or fifteen-centimeter ruler was used as a scale bar. The Beijing time is depicted on each photograph. GPS measurements were made with a GARMIN GPSMAP 62s by Haiwan Lee. Its horizontal accuracy measures two to three meters. The vertical accuracy was nine meters. The average amount of satellites which were connected to the hand GPS was ten (Garmin, 2018, specs). The general measurements were taken with a tape measure, a folding ruler or a laser measure (fig.14). The depth of the karez shafts was determined using a textile tape measure with a wrapped weight at the end (fig.15). If the weight returned humid, the karez shaft was still active.

Figure 13: Describing features in the field (own photo).

Figure 14: Measuring general features in the field (own photo).

Figure 15: Measuring the depth of a karez shaft (own photo).

Excel-inventory

alley ate lement

ime Description Coordinates

hotosB

ID IC V D T P E (m) Depth NS Shaft (cm) EW shaft (cm) (cm) Dump Located on terrace, N42°59'01,1" covered with criss- E089°30'46,2'' cross sticks, textile and elev. 244 m plastic, cardboard, stones. Rectangular shaft. Dump with lots of gravel, traces of

pulley installation;

irregular, dead sticks,

1495 erosion and fill, next to

2017

channel, dry karez 6

30 v1.30 1 14 10:16 1494 karez 8, 109, 78, 455x543 Figure 16: Example of an entry in the Excel-inventory (own work).

The descriptions of the valleys were entered into a Microsoft Excel file (fig.16)(see attachment 2). Each valley has its own tab. The identification number (ID), the valley and the date and time of the observation are registered. This last one can be used for browsing the original photographs. Pictures taken by Professor Jean Bourgeois are entered into the ‘Photos B’ column. Each feature has an element title and description and the measurements are given lastly. The GPS coordinates and the unique code (IC, identification code) prevent confusion.

Some of the chosen element names need some clarification:

 Field(s): terraces, agricultural lands or pastoral lands. Features in the landscape, altered by humans, to accommodate at least their subsistence economy.  Channel: ditch-like structures used to divert water over the land.  Canal: a deep, straight structure which is larger than a channel, often connected to the outlet of a karez.

 Karez: a karez designates one karez-shaft and its surrounding dump.  Hole: an excavated/hollow feature, too small to accommodate an average sized adult, limiting the anthropogenic possibilities for this space.  Cave: natural or man-made excavated/hollow feature, large enough to accommodate an average sized adult.

Mapping Based on the plans, sketches, measurements and descriptions, a map of each valley was made (see the description of each valley for their respective maps). The base layer was a satellite image of ArcGIS 10 (valley 2, 4) or Google Earth (valley 1) depending on the image quality. On top of this map the elements were drawn. The scale was based on the scale of the satellite picture and measurements made on the field. A scale bar was preferred instead of a numerical scale, to avoid confusion when displaying the map on a different sized medium.

Only the observations made during the fieldwork are depicted. Theorized or disappeared traces are not on the map. The numbers on the map correspond to the inventory numbers (ID) of each valley. Each map is oriented in such a manner that the water flows from the top to the bottom of the map. An effort was made to create the legend of each map in a similar manner. Because of this anthropogenic features are in brown and when they have collapsed, they are not filled in. Structures which were dug inside surfaces, like caves and holes, are drawn with a dashed line. Plant growth, dead or alive, is depicted in partially filled green. Karez are red and uncertain features are gray. Small slopes are represented by black ridges while bigger height differences are drawn with brown ridges. Naturally, water-related features, are blue.

Post-Field Analysis Georectifying The remote sensing data acquired from Google Earth were georectified by applying a second order polynomial transformation. At least 30 ground control points (GCPs) were chosen for each. Such an unusual high number was necessary because of the lack of many clear architectural structures. Most GCPs were karez and corners of buildings when visible despite the shadows and crossings of streets and gullies (Stichelbaut, 2011, 59). The images are saved as importable tif.-filetypes. The georectified imagery dates from the following years:

 Valley 1: 2005, 2013, 2015  Valley 2: 2005, 2013, 2015  Valley 4: 2005, 2013, 2005

Literary study Both ancient written sources as modern publications were consulted. Most academic papers were written in English, French or German and a few Chinese and Japanese publications have been consulted. The literary sources were mainly deployed to provide a context for the research as well as more in-depth study purposes.

Other sources Artefacts and mobile sources While looking at a landscape, it is easy to forget about the other aspects of human culture, such as artefacts. In many cases in Murtuq, the mobile artefacts and even the rather immobile wall paintings are no longer present. Some of these artefacts can be traced back to current museums like the British Museum, but some are only documented in the expedition reports of the nineteenth and twentieth century. A list of sources like photographs and artefacts and publications of artefacts was assembled and can be consulted (see attachment 3). Assigning a source to the Murtuq valleys is not without problems and should always be treated with caution. Many of the artefacts have spread across the world since their removal of the site. They disappeared into collections with variable transparency and it is unclear how much information was lost during wars and the tumults of the twentieth century.

Another problem is the labelling of artefacts. For example, the German Expeditions led by Albert von Le Coq and Albert Grünwedel used the letter ‘M’ to designate artefacts coming from Murtuq. However, they viewed the famous site of Bezeklik also as a part of Murtuq and used the same label. Sometimes the style and quality of the work offers some indications to its provenance but it still bears no prove. Lastly, the documentation on the original position of the finds is of variable quality. Sometimes there are only vague mentions of find categories and sometimes an artefact can be assigned to a specific place. This problem shows the varying interest of the past explorers of the region (fig.17)(Morita, 2016, North American Silk Road Collections; Whitfield, 2004, 102).

Figure 17: The inscription in the back of wall painting C412 in the Penn museum showing the labeling during the third German expedition. M.O. stands for Ming-Öi or cave temples, M means Murtuq, höhle 1 shows the number of the cave were the mural was found in the rubble. Due to the style of the painting, this fragment is attributed to Bezeklik cave 9 and not the caves in Murtuq (Morita, 2016, North American Silk Road Collections). Despite all this, artefacts, manuscripts and photographs can be considered a valid source of information for this thesis. While the thorough examination of artefacts forms no part of this research, the mere presence (or at least supposed historical presence) gives some clues about the usage and meaning of a landscape.

Oral sources Keeping in mind the theoretical hurdles with reading landscapes tackled in the introduction, it seems informative but problematic to rely on modern interviews of locals. Ucko and Layton (1999, 14) note that locating past monuments or activities can be passed down fairly well but that the meaning of a space is always constructed by modern readings of one’s past (Layton and Ucko, 1999, 14). Therefore the interviews are useful but the interpretation should always be checked when possible.

For this research the pointers of the local imam of Murtuq proved interesting and especially the interview with Kasim Abdul was enlightening. Mr. Abdul was born in 1954 in the village of Murtuq. He was a secondary school teacher with an interest in the local history of the area. He kindly shared his knowledge on the local lore concerning the older periods and recalled his memories to explain the recent happenings in the second part of the twentieth century (for the full interview, see attachment 1).

Another oral source are the texts gathered by Abdurashid Yakup during his fieldwork in Turpan on the local Uyghur dialects. He interviewed Ämät Akhun, a local teacher born in Murtuq in 1935. These texts consist of fairy tales and songs but also of local legends and family histories. These possess clues concerning Murtuq and the karez in the area (Yakup, 2005, 7).

Photographic Sources Glass negatives are another source of information. During the nineteenth and early twentieth century, photography was a relatively new tool in archaeology and anthropology. Several explorers dragged photo material along more out of curiosity than as registration tool (Falconer, 2004, 113). Unfortunately not one collection was fully published by the researchers afterwards and several photographs got lost throughout the years. The photographic collections have been scattered around the world and only the collection of the Berlin Museum is fully accessible online. During the search a major problem was the unclear or even wrong labelling of pictures and one should not trust on the search functions that some sites provide. Sometimes the explorers made a numbering mistake which was copied by the archivist. In other cases, the explorers used several names for the same place (Besh bukha, Besh Khan, Anlage II or Murtuq MB in the case of valley 4). Also, as aforementioned, the German expeditions used a letter code which also applied to their photographic collection so the same problem is present here.

The photographs can be split in two categories: pictures of findings (both old pictures of long lost artefacts as more recent archival pictures) and landscape pictures (see attachment 3).

 Russian photographs

Oldenburg took more than 3000 photographs during his expedition. His material was deposited in the Institute for Oriental Manuscripts (IOM) and the Academy of Science but aside from some occasional pictures in a publication, none are accessible (Tunkina, 2013, 259). The only relevant photographs that are included are those of the preliminary report of 1909-1910 expedition published by Oldenburg in 1914. The final report was never finished due to the First World War and internal struggles in Russia (Tunkina, 2013, 268).

 British Photographs

The explorer Aurel Stein also took many pictures but unfortunately he donated his material to several institutes in India (New Dheli), Great Brittain (the Royal Asiatic Society, the British Museum and the British Library) and Hungary (Library of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences) (IDP, 2010, British collections). While the RAS had no pictures from Murtuq, the British Museum has at least four artefacts from valley 4 that were published in Innermost Asia. Luckily, Aurel Stein kept a detailed list of every find and it is possible to trace back the original context (fig.18). The British Library scanned several glass negatives on demand which are attached to this thesis (see attachment 3)(British Library, 2018, Archives and Manuscripts). See attachment 4 for the full digitalized list of Murtuq artefacts by Aurel Stein.

Fragment of wooden comb with two rows of teeth as temple MB I MB I i Murtuq MB I iii 01. Fine teeth broken off at length if 1/4", room i lower v4.11i 018 valley 4 sand-clogged; one end gone. Length I 13/16", depth level rooms I3/4", depth of coarse teeth 7/8".

Figure 18: Example of an artefact described by Aurel Stein and the picture of the British Museum (Stein, 1928, 638; The British Museum Collection, 2018, museum number 1928,1022.90) .

 German photographs

The inscriptions recovered during Grünwedel's expedition were photographed separately by doctor Huth. Unfortunately those photographs were lost after doctor Huth's death (Tunkina, 2013, 267). The photographs taken by Le Coq and Grünwedel themselves were brought back to Germany and those that survived are included in the online collection. (SMB, 2018, Online-Datenbank Sammlungen).

 Japanese photographs

The Japanese expeditions sent by Count Kozui Otani also took several photographs which were discovered in a coffin after his death (IDP, 2010, Japanese collections). These were sent to the Ryukoku University Library but they were never digitized or catalogued and are therefore not consultable. The responsible researchers for the collection claim that there is material present of Murtuq in the collection but it could not be included in this research (pers. comm. Oogi Akira, 31- 12-2017). The only photographs from the Japanese explorations that are present are those published by Kagawa. Unfortunately these were only labeled as originating from Murtuq but no more details were written in the captions (Kagawa, 1915). Because of this the context of the depicted finds is questionable at the least.

Cartography Other valuable sources of information for the post-field analysis are old maps. A distinction can be made between the expedition maps of archaeological or geographical expeditions and general maps of the area. The last category usually has no attention for heritage and a very low resolution. The others are often more detailed and have a larger scale. Of course, these maps are very subjective and they were designed as a means to an end, usually to illustrate the publication of one’s explorations.

The general maps can be local or were made by visiting Europeans, often Jesuits (Yee, 1994, 184) (for more in depth analysis of Chinese cartography and western influences see: Harley, J.B., Woodward, D., 1994. Cartography in the traditional east and southeast asian societies. The History of Cartography: volume 2, book 2 part one, chapter 3-9). Most of these maps only mention the toponyms and sometimes the status of a place. Also, waterbodies, mountain ranges, routes and relay stations are often mentioned. The Renat maps are an example of such a type of map (fig.19).

The Renat maps or Kalmuk maps were the first maps made in Central Asia by locals, which were brought to Europe by Johan Gustav Renat. This Swedish officer was captured by the Dzunghar khanate in 1716 and managed to make himself useful to the Khan by helping in the war against the Chinese empire. As a parting gift, he received two maps of Khan Galdan Tseren which he took with him to Sweden in 1733. He would also publish his own version of these maps. These maps are very valuable for their local origin. Uniquely, Murtuq (written as Mutuluk) is also mentioned

on the second Renat map as interpreted by John Baddeley in 1911 (Bäärnhielm, 2017, Renat; Poppe, 1955, 157; Juntunen and Schluyter, 2013, 4). In 1759 the Jesuit Qianlong map was published. On this map Murtuq is named Mutulak and also Turfan and Khara Khojo (Gaochang) are mentioned (Bäärnhielm, 2017, Renat). However, neither map explains much about the situation and heritage of the place.

Figure 19: Interpretation of the second Renat map by John Baddeley in 1911 (Bäärnhielm, 2017, Renat).

The expedition maps have a higher archaeological value due to their specific function. They have a higher resolution, an extended legend and often mention historically significant places. Many maps were digitized and even georeferenced by the Toyo Bunko Archive. These can be downloaded as a Google.Earth kml on http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/geography/index.html.en.

Figure 20; Part of a map of ‘Chinese Turkestan and Kansu’ by Aurel Stein from 1919 (Pahar, s.d., Mountains of Central Asia Digital Dataset). Fig.20 is a detail of a map made by Aurel Stein in 1919 showing the Turpan area. The map shows relief, soil types, agriculture, the main routes, place names, historical remains, waterways, sources and individual karez. Murtuq, written as Murtuk, is shown to possess several water sources and a group of ruins. Many karez have been named individually but unfortunately the only named karez close to Murtuq is the Subashi karez in the northwest, located outside of the researched valleys.

Figure 21: Map of Buddhist ruins in Turpan by Albert Herrmann(von Le Coq, 1923, 22, Karte 1).

The German map made by Herrmann and published in 1923 is used to represent Buddhist remains near Turpan (fig.21). Murtuq is shown as a village with two sites of Buddhist grottoes. There are no individual karez represented but the label ‘Kariz des Khoja Abdullah’ is located west of Gaochang (Idiqut-šähri). Turfan kariz, Oimang kariz and Tura kariz are also written on the map. Note that Turpan is drawn as two cities: ‘Turkenstad’ and ‘Chinesenstadt’ (Turkish and Chinese city) which was very common for Central-Asian oasis cities at the time (De Cordier, 2012, 143- 144).

Lastly, the site plan of Murtuq made by Aurel Stein (Stein, 1928b, 29) is an important source of information (fig.22). The different valleys are drawn, several gullies or gorges and even one karez, still present on modern satellite imagery, is visible. The valleys are named M.A-D. Valley 1 is M.D., valley 3 is M.C., valley 4 is M.B and valley 5 is M.A. Valley 2 has not been labeled because the valley had no ruins at the time and was still in use. This distinction between ruined structures and those in use is interesting for the multi-temporal analysis. The notation of agricultural grounds, past and present, is also useful.

Figure 22: Site plan of ruins near Murtuq between 1913-1916 (Stein, 1928b, 29).

Landscape Studies in Murtuq Description and First Analysis of the Site The observations and maps of past explorers possess information about the site as they experienced them. It is only right to first give an account of the field observations in the summer of 2017, before taking a look at the different landscape types. Some important features in the landscape are the Flaming Mountains, Qïzïl Tay or Huoyan Shan. They divide Turpan in the Upper Mountains (tay üstün) and Lower Mountain (tay astïn). The latter includes Lukchun, Tuyoq and Yanghe, the first includes Sangim, Khandu and of course Murtuq (Yakup, 2005, 272).

Murtuq (42°59'09.1"N, 89°31'24.3"E) comes from Murutluq which evolved to Murtluq and eventually became Murtuq. Kasim claims that the name Murtluq means ‘many students’ (pers. comm. Abdul Kasim, 9-7-2017; Zieme, 1974, 297). However, another hypothesis sees –luq as a denominal suffix to Murut which indicates a certain type of olibanum-tree (frankincense) (Zieme, 1981, 241-242) The modern toponym Murtuq or Murtuk refers to the most western habitation just north of the Flaming Mountains. A river coming from the Tien Shan runs into a gorge (yar) through the Flaming Mountains, passing Bezeklik and is diverted around Astana and Gaochang. Usually the gorge entering the Flaming Mountains is called Sangim Ayiz (Sängim Aghyz, Singim Ayiz) and it is well known for mud slides (von Le Coq, 1926, 69). Murtuq is also the location of town ruins, presumably dated from the seventh until the tenth century AD (fig.23)(Nishimura, 2004, dsr Photography). No finds of the period predating this era are known. Trying to date the water landscape, and even more interesting: the karez landscape, is hardly a feasible deed. When exactly the first karez was built in Murtuq is hard to determine. Stein and von Le Coq already mention karez during their explorations but they are sparsely documented.

Figure 23: The old town of Murtuq, supposedly dated to the 7th to the 10th century AD (see religious landscape). This means that the Buddhist Murtuq monastery would be at least partially contemporaneous to this village which is now part of an Islamic graveyard (Nishimura, 2004, dsr Photography).

Yakup (2005, 7) interviewed Ämät Akhun, a 65 year old teacher in Murtuq, during his visits in 2000 and 2009. He explained that Murtuq is a collection of five villages and it is part of the Sangim commune. Apparently, in the past, many families only returned to Murtuq in the winter while looking for work elsewhere during the rest of the year (Yakup, 2005, 363). A part of Murtuq was named Qishlaq which means ‘place to spend the winter’ and it refers to the people returning around February and March to plant seeds near the wells and tend to their fields. All five villages frequented the same mosque. The grandfather of Akhun moved from Lukchun to Murtuq around two hundred years ago because stories were told about a spring at the foot of the Flaming Mounting that attracted game for hunting, mainly rabbits. Many people left Lukchun and settled in Murtuq to grow wheat and herd sheep (Yakup, 2005, 363-365). They arranged themselves over the five villages. One of those villages was supposedly called Gumbaz which means ‘cupola’ because of a watery dome shaped lake that deposits clay. Floods are also frequently mentioned in Murtuq and Akhun father’s especially choose flooded grounds to start a vineyard and attributes the existence of valleys to the floods that were especially heavy according to him. Supposedly Murtuq converted to Islam around 1650 AD which is fifty years later than the conversion of main Turpan (Yakup, 2005, 363-365).

Figure 24: Map showing the five valleys in Murtuq (own map based on Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus).

There are five valleys on the north slope of the Flaming Mountains that possess an interesting water landscape (fig.24). The valleys are the result of rain and floodwater that has incised the landscape to reach the yar (Stein, 1928a, 636). Three of these valleys (valleys 1, 2 and 4) were visited and documented. Valley 3 is, however, also a very rich valley in terms of heritage. Many medieval ruins are still visible and the valley was briefly described by explorer Aurel Stein. He already noted the presence of a karez connected to the valley and several dying trees (Stein, 1928a), 636). Valley 3 was split up in ruins MC I-IVd (fig.25). MC I is a partly collapsed tower and MC IV, east of MC I, was considered a small shrine complex with several wall paintings (Stein, 1928a, 636-637). MC III and MC II suffered heavily from burrowing and the layout of the buildings was no longer visible as opposed to the observations by Grünwedel who found many manuscripts, block-prints and Buddhist paintings in MC II (Grünwedel, 1912, 310). He was able to draw a precise plan of the hill top stating that despite the wall Figure 25: MC I, in valley 3 (Stein, 1928a, paintings, the construction was surprisingly non-Buddhist 591, fig 303). (fig.26)(Stein, 1928a, 637; Grünwedel, 1912, 310-313).

Figure 26: the hill top with 'Anlage III' (Grünwedel, 1912, 308, fig.624).

Valley 5 has also not been visited (fig.27). In contrast to valley 3, it has not been extensively explored. The site plan of Stein (Stein, 1928b, 29) depicts some ruined structures, a spring, a patch of cultivation and the name Tonguluk-bulak (fig.28). Bulak or bulaq means spring, well or fountain and Tonguluk might come from Tongluk, meaning sky-window (pers. comm. Alishir Kurban, 2-3-2018). The German map from Herrmann shows two cave sites, one in valley 4 and one supposedly in valley 5 (von Le Coq, 1923, 22, Karte 1). This corresponds to the short description of Stein mentioning a spring close to some small monastic buildings (MA on the Stein map) and two to three little caves. These are located on the right side of the valley, opposite of some cleared ruined structures on an elevation on the left (Stein, 1928a, 636). The satellite imagery shows some potential karez shafts higher up the valley and small part of still green vegetation.

Figure 27: Interpreted satellite imagery with potential karez shafts in valley 5 (Google Earth 2018, CNES Airbus).

Figure 28: Detail of the Stein site map showing valley 5 (Stein, 1928b, 29).

Figure 29: Map of valley 1 in Murtuq (own map based on Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus).

Valley 1 of Murtuq On the north side of the western part of the Flaming Mountains, five valleys show clear traces of human activity. The most northern of these valleys, named valley 1, is flanked by two hills (fig.29). A narrow gorge is carved trough the valley and is split by a third lower hill located deeper in the Flaming Mountains. Twenty-two karez shafts, a disrupted karez tunnel, a well-like structure and what appears to be an abandoned attempt at digging another shaft are present. The water is led in channels, bigger canals and pools to irrigate the fields which are often constructed in a terraced manner. The water flow runs from the southwest to the east towards the river Murtuq. In the present, seven buildings remain and a lone wall is still visible (nr.1, 24, 25, 26, 27, 37, 43 and 46). Nr.24 is situated on the southern hilltop and might be a small Buddha temple according to the local tales and the stupa-like structure located near it. Supposedly a Buddha statue was here uncovered but no records of this find could confirm this (pers. comm. Kasim Abdul, 9-7-2017). Nr.27, 37 and 43 are all in different stages of decay but show clear traces of at least temporary use as houses which is attested by the presence of a toilet and a fire place. The eastern building, nr.46, is clearly a so called grape drying building with drying racks still hanging in place. Nr.1 was located on a steep slope and was inaccessible to investigate. Kasim (pers. comm. 9/7/2017) claims that it was used during the 1940-‘50 to stay at the valley for a short amount of time. The remaining building, nr.26, is very peculiar since it is partially dug in the ground at the end of a hill slope. The entrance is visible and part of the structure shows niches where goods could be stored. One part of the structure is still covered. The setting of the mudbricks indicates that the wall was built onto the topographical situation of the hill slope and that the wall might not continue deeper underground. No clear access point was distinguished and it is unclear whether it was a hollow space that caved in or a filled base to make a flat surface. Kasim calls this a haman structure but explains that it was used as a dorsing floor (pers. comm.Kasim Abdul, 9/7/2017). This kind of structure is not very typical and cannot be clearly interpreted. It could be an attempt to use the insulating properties of the sand to store products underground. It is possible that there was a communication problem and that the term is not ‘hamam’ but ‘gäräm (geräm, käräm). A noteworthy observation by Yakup (2005, 177) is the remains of Old Uyghur words in local dialects like Murtuq. These words are described in the so called ‘Erntesegen texts’ (literally ‘harvest blessing texts’ published by Zieme, 1975) and one of them is gäräm or geräm which indicates a storehouse, built underground and used to evade the high summer temperatures (Yakup, 2005, 190). If this is the case for building

nr.26, it means that the site was at least occupied during the summer which could correlate to the temporary use of building nr.1.

Valley 1 contains different types of fields. The part between the two hilltops consists of terraced field with an irregular spacing. Many of these fields were partially destroyed by the karez shafts which were dug later. It is interesting to note that this part of the valley also seems to contain a potential channel that could have been connected to the shafts of nr.6 and 8. The channel leads to a pool or small basin (nr.12) which is now cut off by a karez dump. A sub-recent camp-fire was present in the intact part of the channel. Fields nr.38 to 42 are also very irregular but still show a complex water channeling system. The fields, especially nr.40, seem to have been isolated from the water supply by obstructions like a small dam. Instead, the water flows to a long row of terraced fields which are located slightly higher. The irrigation network is quite visible which indicates that it dates from a sub-recent date. This can be attested by the karez line which was built later and destroyed the water supply channels. According to Kasim these shafts were dug during the sixties which corresponds with more organized and systematic appearance of this karez line and the greater depth of the wells (pers.comm. Kasim Abdul, 9-7-2017). This means the fields could have been operational in the first half of the twentieth century or at the end of the nineteenth century. Another argument for this proposed date is the fact that the water network is linked to the raised beds in front of house nr.27. These beds still contain dead roots and traces of trees planted evenly in the channels are preserved. House nr.27 is shown as still occupied between 1913-1916 on Stein’s expedition map (Stein, 1928b, 29). These fields seem to have suffered from erosion coming from the slopes and several attempts to block the erosion flow seemed to have failed (fig.30).

Figure 30: Several attempts at preventing erosion damaging can be observed close to fields nr.73 (own map).

On the other side of the valley there is a group of fields labeled nr.74. The gorge next to it has been blocked which causes the fields to erode. Their structure however is still partly visible on Google Earth Imagery. The fields in the east, downstream the water flow, can be split in two groups. The first type is less systematic and is no longer connected to the main pool (nr.75). These are features nr.76 until 85, with the exception of nr.79. The second type corresponds with nr.86 and 79. These fields are very systematic and have deep channels and high beds. At the end of each field there are heaps of dirt. All this makes it likely that these fields, used to cultivate grapes, where constructed using some form of mechanical force. They are more recent than the first type of fields since field nr.78 is cut off by field nr.79. Also, all diverting outlets of pool nr.75 are blocked so the water is concentrated towards the eastern most vineyards at nr.86.

The water landscape of valley 1 in Murtuq

25 Depth karez valley 1 (m)

5 20 9 15 11 13 15 16 10 48 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 5 6 10 14 49 Depthof karez (m) 8 22 0 4 48 5 6 8 9 10111314151622293031323334353649 Downstream course of the karez Figure 32: Analysis of the depth of the karez shafts in valley 1 (own graph).

There are clearly several karez lines present in valley 1 (fig.31). When looking at the depth of the individual shafts it is obvious that at least two different phases can be distinguished (fig.32). The green karez line is the longest and considering its relation to the other features in valley 1, such as the disruption of several fields, also the most recent karez line. Its outlet channel is still visible and it can be determined that only the most eastern fields were irrigated by this karez line. It is important to note that a tube runs through this karez line until pool nr.75. The same type of tube was found in the grape drying building (nr.46) which makes the two features most likely contemporaneous. The red karez line is less deep, shorter and less systematic. The connection between the different shafts is less clear since many have caved in which

Figure 31: The potential karez lines and makes this karez line less certain than the green one which could irrigation lines in valley 1 (own map based on Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus). be checked until karez shaft nr.32. Its outlet seems to be located at point nr.28 which corresponds with Kasim’s ‘source’. The flow pattern which is embedded in the soil of the tunnel from channel 56 through well 14 proves that this line must have been active once but deteriorated over time. Considering its depth it is very likely that the gorge which measures a minimum of three meters in depth has contributed to this decay. Comparing the depth of the younger, green karez line and the older, red karez line,

while taking into account the effort of installing a tube which undoubtedly reduced the water loss, raises the question if this was a struggling adaption to a receding groundwater level. Of interest are also the wells which do not seem connected, such as nr.22. Considering that the orientation of the shafts apparently loosely follows the watercourse, they seem to have the potential to have contributed to the drainage and irrigation of the fields (fig.33). Other anomalies, like the drop in depth of well nr.8 can be explained by cave-ins and filling of the shaft after it was abandoned or because of negligence. Considering the rather regular slope of valley 1 (fig.34) the general depth trend of a karez line should be evolving from deep to shallow at a steady rate. Since the topography does not really influence any depth anomalies, singular depth differences are most likely caused by collapse or fill in, while the overall difference between depth trends could be due to groundwater changes.

Figure 33: Profile of valley 1 made via Hillmap.com.

Figure 34: orientation of the karez shafts in valley 1 (own map based on Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus).

Valley 2 of Murtuq East of valley 1 there is a valley with a functioning karez with six shafts (fig.39). Unfortunately a lot of the site was demolished when it was visited but an attempt was made to map what was left. Deep into the valley there were several old stream beds where people had compiled pebble heaps (nr.49). Sometimes textile is tied to a rock and there were also traces of a fairly recent open air camp fire (fig.35). All the stone heaps were next to a gorge which leads to valleys 2 and 3. There was also a deposition of a broken glass jar and bone, which had cutting traces on it (fig.36). Another deposition consisted of a paper wrapped red-coloured burnt substance which had hardened (fig.37). The bubbles in the substance could be the result of degassing which can also be observed in magmatic rocks (pers. comm. Amaury Frankl, 29-3-2018).

Figure 35: Traces of a camp fire (own photo). Figure 36: Deposition with glass and bone (own photo). Figure 37: The red-coloured substance wrapped in paper (own photo). There are also five caves present in valley 2. The most interesting one is situated next to a pebble heap slope (nr. 48). Outside of the cave there were some kind of staffs placed together with a broom and some rocks. The cave was mostly man-made and dug out by a pick axe as observed by the traces on the wall. There were several carpets and prayer rugs (sadjada) present and ceramics and bottles filled with oil as some kind of makeshift oil lamps. Bags filled with cotton were used to make a wick which is then doused into the oil. Remains of torches are stuck onto the wall. A thick layer of soot has formed onto the cave walls and it is apparently used to make new inscriptions (fig.38). There are several inscriptions on the wall and most seem to be dates. As observed, people carve the year when they visit the cave into the surface. The oldest date that was readable was 1980. This cave has been functioning for at least 30 years. Some inscriptions are texts in Arabic scripts or Figure 38: Inscriptions in cave nr.48 (own photo). names.There might be a link with the pebble heaps nearby.

Figure 39: Map of valley 2 in Murtuq (own map based on Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus).

Two other caves (nr. 23-24) are located on a small gorge that is connected to the main part of valley 2 (fig.40-41). It runs past karez shaft nr.1. The caves look out to the streambed and they were dug in the gravely soil which is probably both colluvium from the slope and alluvium from the gorge. The left cave (nr.23) has a mudbrick wall partially protecting the entrance. The inside was coated with mud and remains of a woven rug made of leaves lay inside. The right cave (nr.24) was less stable and less complex.

Figure 40: Cave nr.23 in valley 2 (own photo).

Figure 41: Cave nr.24 in valley 2 (own photo). Another cave (nr.13) is looking out towards the village of Murtuq, the mosque and the cemetery. The cave is halfway up a slope next to a path. The entrance was built with mudbricks and covered with textiles. The inside was more complex and there was one wall inscription present. For more on the interpretation of this cave see chapter 4: the religious landscape.

The last hole (nr.54) is very small and currently in use as a garbage hole. It has a very low ceiling which prevents a normal sized adult from fitting through. It is probably mostly a natural occurrence which was used by humans when they settled there.

There are six buildings in the valley and only one is not demolished. The two buildings belonging to an Islamic school (nr.10-25) were completely destroyed. Ruin nr.53 was collapsed due to a tree branch falling through the roof. Nr.52 was partially damaged and half of building nr.46 was smashed by chopped trees. Considering the architectural characteristics of ruins nr.46, 52 and 52, these were most likely toilet buildings as these are still used in Murtuq today. The floors were built on an elevation and holes were made in the middle. There were barely windows and no real doors. Beneath the floors there was an opening facing towards the fields and channels. The

remaining building (nr.9) is a one room house with a patio. There was an attached part on the other side of the patio but besides its foundations it is completely gone. The house has a locked blue door with a number four painted on it (and some graffiti). It is a one-room-house with a cemented elevated part which is a variant of the Uyghur beds. These multifunctional spaces are used for sitting, sleeping and eating.

Other features in valley 2 are seven deep rectangular pits with a short dromos-like entrance slope (nr.14- 20). Most of these have a layer of calcretes in their profile. This hardpan is most likely due to a distinct soil layer that is present there (pers. comm. Amaury Frankl, 29-3-2018). The most northern one (nr.20) has a small rectangular structure situated at the top Figure 42: Example of a rectangular pit in valley 2 (own photo). of the entrance slope. The local imam claims that these pits were used for Quran reading sessions but this does not explain the existence of the rectangular structure preventing entrance in nr.20.

Nr.7 is a tree located in a streambed which most likely belongs to the original course of the gorge. This tree is apparently an important spot for veneration since many ribbons and textile strips were tied to it. This practice is also attested at the pulley above shaft nr.2, the trees around nr.27, the ceremonial staffs near cave nr.48 and the one found in structure nr.26 (which is probably a grill) and the textile deposited in some pebble heaps.

The field system in valley 2 is completely different from valley 1. The fields are smaller and much more varied. The layout is less systematic and seems more fitting for some kind of small scale horticulture. There seems to be two different parts: one is centered around the school buildings (nr.25 and 10) and the others are closer towards valley 3 along a channel running north-east. Along this channel there are remnants of small terraced field which were placed diagonally on the channel. The trees that could have been recognized were poplars and tamarisks.

The water landscape of valley 2 in Murtuq What is remarkable is that the karez are placed in the outlet of a gorge. The gorge would be very destructive for the karez if it was not for the man-made dam (nr.50) blocking the way, diverting the water towards valley 3. The origin of the gorge is interesting. When looking at the satellite picture it is clear that once there was less deeply incised water stream which flowed towards valley 3 (fig.44). The gorge leading to valley 2 seems to have been cut by humans since no incision erosion is visible and the top is unusually straight. The fact that the bottom of the gorge shows a meandering streambed while the top is clean cut shows that water has been running through for a very long time eroding only the lowest parts (pers. comm. Amaury Frankl, 29-3-2018). Due to the washed down clay covering the gorge walls there are no traces of human manipulation (like pick axe traces) visible. Into the valley itself

Figure 43: The karez line in and covered by many karez dumps there is however an old streambed valley 2 (own map based on Google Earth 2018, present. Most likely, the first was a slow wide stream flowing to valley CNES/Airbus). 3 which was intercepted by the gorge. Once the karez were constructed the gorge had to be closed to protect them.

The karez line (green) shows a distinct bend which can be explained (fig.43) by looking at the depth of the karez. Shaft nr.3 (red) is distinctively shallower than the others and this is due to the collapse of the shaft (fig.45). A new shaft had to be dug next to it. This is attested by the superposition of the dump of shaft nr.2 which was built on top of shaft nr.3. The tunnel of the karez has an extra small channel so that people can walk in the first part of the karez without stepping into the water. The tunnel was also reinforced with bags filled with cotton and sand. Kasim (pers. comm. Kasim Abdul, 9-7-2017) claims that the karez were dug in the 1980’s. Prior to the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) there was supposedly another source providing the valley with water. With the ban on worship the valley, and its water system, was abandoned. When this ban was lifted people returned and might have dug the karez. In any case, the distinct height difference of the shafts was very apparent in the field. The resolution of the Hillmap profile is not

high enough to illustrate this but a difference of at least 20 meters was measured in the field between karez nr.1 and the outlet nr.26 (fig.46).

Figure 44: Satellite imagery showing the dam nr.50 (black), the gorge (blue) and a possible original valley floor (red)(own map based on Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus).

Figure 45: Depth trend of the shafts in valley 2 in Murtuq (own graph).

Figure 46: Profile of valley 2 in Hillmap.com.

Valley 4 of Murtuq Valley 4 is split by a gorge which is streaming towards the northeast. The gorge is coming from the west. It makes a sharp turn and it ends into a valley made of lose yellow coloured sand (fig.47). Just before this change in soil structure there are modern inscriptions in the gorge wall.

Figure 47: Left: change of soil structure (own photo) Right: writings on the surface of the gorge (own photo). The gorge runs towards the northeast passing valley 4 and has gradually incised itself deeper into the surface. The parts of the gorge streaming through temple nr.11 and cave complex nr.13 and along fields nr.18 are more standardized and regular than the other stream bed components.

There are several caves present in valley 4. Five of them were excavated and published by Grünwedel in Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan (Grünwedel, 1912) (fig.48). He calls this valley Anlage 2 (second site) because Bezeklik is the first site of Murtuq in his publication (Grünwedel, 1912, 301). These grottoes drew a lot of attention because of their Buddhist paintings and manuscripts. Many of the wall paintings have been removed and were most likely lost during the world wars (Hopkirk, 1980, 3-6). At the time of the visit, only one cave was accessible and was measured and photographed (cave 13.1 viii). For information on the other caves (13.2- Figure 48: Cave complex nr.13. For scale, see 13.5) the publication by Grünwedel has to be consulted. site map of valley 4 (own plan).

Figure 49: Map of valley 4 in Murtuq (own map based on Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus).

Some explanation by the numeration of the plan: The cave complex is structure 13 in the entire valley while i to viii designate the visited and documented spaces. The numeration of 13.1 until 13.5 follows the labelling of Grünwedel. These last five caves look out to a room with several floor levels and a possible seating area or podium. In modern Chinese temples these are sometimes used to place votive figures of deities or offerings. On the lowest levels there seem to be various structures, usually rectangular that appear but their correlation to the Buddhist caves is unclear. Room vii was built with mudbricks which were covered with a mixture of clay and plant material. There are traces of painting on the walls and white plaster was found in the rubble. This probably belongs to the base layer which is sometimes preserved in situ (fig.50). While the white paint can be found almost everywhere, traces of more superficial painting are rare. There is one red geometric figure on the wall between cave 13.3 and 13.4 (fig.51). Space vii had two entrances. The grand entrance was opposite of cave 13.3. It ran towards a terrace which has a slope; most likely remnants of stairs leading up towards the cave complex. According to Grünwedel’s observation there even used to be walls embracing the stairs (Grünwedel 1912, 301). There were some ceramics. All of them were made on a turning pottery wheel. They were baked on high temperatures. The shards had quartz mixed within the clay. Some of the fragments had some concretion sticking on the inside. Most ceramics were plain except for one. It concerns an edge of a bowl with black horizontal stripes which was baked in a reduced firing environment (fig.52). It measures 0,6 centimeters thick and was also made on a turning wheel. Its edge is rounded and slightly leaning inwards.

Figure 50: Mudbrick wall with white pigment and plaster remains (own photo).

Figure 51: Traces of white and red paint in the cave complex (own photo).

Figure 52: Decorated ceramic fragment (own photo). Cave 13.1 viii was documented and some of its wall paintings were still intact. The white base layer seemed to have continued into the grotto and the surface was flattened using clay and straw. There were figurative paintings present in the entrance since traces of a probable aureole were

decipherable. The cave ceiling was adorned with a so-called ‘thousand Buddha motive’ consisting of several small seated Buddha figures (fig.53). This motive was quite popular and was used in other cave complexes such as Bezeklik (Grünwedel, 1912, 261, 301). All of their faces were destroyed. Unfortunately, modern graffiti and inscription are covering all of the cave paintings (fig.54). Grünwedel describes that flanking the door, seated bodhisattvas were present. At the left side of the cave there used to be a statue of admirers of the preaching Buddha (Grünwedel, 1912, 301).

Figure 53: Thousand Buddha motive on the cave ceiling (own photo).

Figure 54: Damaged murals (own photo).

Cave 13.2 had paintings and sculptures of monks and admirers. Its domed ceiling was adorned with a lotus flower containing a bodhisattva on a horse measuring 72 centimeters diameter (fig.55). Cave 13.3 was the most prominent and most complex cave of them all. It had a central pillar with four niches. The painting left to the door depicted a so-called ‘lamp tree’ with a girl in Turkish clothing placing the lamps into the structure while an older women places the wicks into the lamps before passing them to the girl. A three legged bowl possibly contains the oil or fat for the lamps. On the right side two men, releasing birds under an animal headed banner staff, were painted (fig.56)(Grünwedel, 1912, 303). Figure 55: Ceiling painting of cave 13.2. (Grünwedel, 1912, 302, fig. 615).

Figure 56: Drawings collection of paintings in cave 13.3. From left to right: side mural above the entrance, the left central painting above the entrance, the right central painting above the entrance and another side mural (Grünwedel, 1912, 304). These scenes were flanked by bhikhus, devatas, bodhisattvas, deities in harness and three praying deities on each side. The other published wall paintings were those situated above the hallways passing the pillar in cave 13.3. These were painted just below the vaulted ceiling (Grünwedel, 1912, 305). Both sides feature a sitting Buddha with flaming shoulders. On the left, the Buddha is preaching to two bodhisattva’s, one of which is holding a child, and a kneeling deity. The right side depicts the Buddha washing the head of a poor man in loincloth while being served by two bodhissatva’s (Grünwedel, 1912, 305). Other paintings include Avalokiteshvara, kuberas, nagas, bodhisattva’s, preaching Buddha’s and some admirers.

Figure 57: drawings of murals above the hallways in cave 13.3 (Grünwedel, 1912, 305-306). Cave 13.4 also contained preaching Buddha’s and several statues. All but one were in ruins. The statue of an Uyghur admirer wearing a hat was mostly intact. It is noteworthy that this cave had an Uyghur inscription. The fifth cave 13.5 was filled with a lot of ruined sculpture just like 13.4 but the cave was in a worse condition than the previous one. The preaching Buddha was again portrayed (Grünwedel, 1912, 307). Grünwedel describes that there is already a sixth cave visible but he showed no interest in exploring further since this cave did not possess decorative paintings (Grünwedel, 1912, 301).

Figure 58: Photostitch of the sixth cave entrance (space ii)(own photos).

Figure 59: Interpretation of the main pigmentation of the walls in the arched room (space ii) in valley 4 without the flood damage (own photographs). The sixth cave is space i on the map. This grotto has a floorplan shaped like a rhomboid and is filled with dirt by one or more floods. It was dug by a pick axe and the walls were flattened using clay. No extensive wall painting could indeed been observed. The cave i is preceded by an arched space labeled ii (fig.58) which was built with mudbrick. Here there was basic painting preserved. While some flood damage to the walls was already visible in space vii, this was more prominent in room ii. Despite the damage the basic red and white colouring was still visible (fig.59). The entrance to the cave sported an extra white mounting which indicates that, just like the previous caves, this one could be closed off.

Other parts of the cave complex in Murtuq are a basin at the outer wall of vii and a bank like structure (iv). Feature iii is a platform with fire traces and a raised block in the corner. The

function of this corner is unclear. The walls were plastered with mud and the burn traces are present on both the plastered layer and the bare wall surface. Rooms v and vi are adjacent to each other but they do not share a wall. Room v has a thick wall with traces of mud plaster on both the inside and the outside (fig.60). Plant material is mixed within the mud. There are no figurative wall paintings but there are some red streaks and white paint present (fig.61). There is some bone material visible but this could also be intrusive.

Figure 60: Room v of cave complex 13. Notice the double wall on the right (own photo).

Figure 61: Red streaks on the walls (own photo). The last part is room vi which was also built with mudbrick. The floor is lower and the room is slightly dug in the soil. The floorplan is almost a rectangle except for the small wall outcrop near the slope. At the end of the room is a platform with a pot placed in the center (fig.62). This could be a tandoor-like oven which has partially collapsed. The filling is mixed with small charcoal particles. To be sure of its function it would need excavation to discover burning marks and/or charcoal at the bottom of the pot but it is very likely some type of structure used to heat considering the way the pot was insulated in the platform. On the northwestern wall there are two small discoloured niches, possible due to contact with fire. The walls were covered with white plaster. Space vi held a huge amount of charcoal fragments. Charcoal is present in the whole area of iii, iv, v and vi but mostly in vi.

Figure 62: The possible tandoor in space vi and some of the charcoal (own photos). Beside cave complex nr.13 there are other features built into the slope on the other side gorge. Caves nr.8, 9 and 10 appear to be dug by a modern pick axe evidenced by the systematic traces and cave shapes. The entrances show the intention of installing some kind of doors. The ceiling of cave nr.8 has collapsed and there are writings on the wall of cave nr.9. Cave nr.10 was the only one in use during the visit.

Lastly there is the low cave or rather hole (nr.6)(fig.63) which has a height of 0,773 meters. The discolouration of the cave ceiling is noteworthy. There seems to be a darkened surface layer that only reaches a certain height. The lower part of the cave is not affected. This could be due to human interference, a bacterial

Figure 63: The interior of hole nr.6 film or oxide accumulation layer due to the percolation through (own photo). superior layers (pers. comm. Marc Philippe, 31-12-2017; Amaury Frankl, 29-3-2018). The exact nature and subsequently origin of the layer could not be established. The entrance to hole nr.6 is very robust and there seem to be five perforations just above the entrance. The current floor of the cave was formed due to the inflow and mud cracks have formed.

Another important structure in valley 4 is the Buddhist temple on the other side of the gorge (fig.64). Grünwedel did not find this building promising due to Figure 65: The Buddhist its ruined state. Stein however, temple/monastery nr.11 in valley 4 (own photo). visited the site afterwards around 1915 and excavated the building (fig.65). He published his work in Innermost Asia (1928) and compiled a list of the artefacts he found in the temple (see attachment 4). The lower part (rooms i-vii) of the temple held artefacts such as combs, a razor blade, textile, fruit, parts of a loom, metal tools (iron and bronze), stucco and several ceramics, some of them with a glaze. These rooms were also the ones where manuscripts (often Figure 64: Plan of temple nr.11. The numbers correlates to Stein's fragments) in mostly Uyghur and Chinese were found. The excavation. For scale, see site map of valley 4 (own map). upper part (rooms viii-x) of the temple contained a silk bag, stucco, half-balusters, a wooden peg and a small brush, a quilted shoe, a wooden beater, jars in ceramics and wood, an awl, a knife and several wooden tools. Stein claims that the stucco decorations found in the lower part originated from the upper part. The hypothesis is that the lower part of the temple was used for everyday activities while the upper part might have fulfilled less mundane functions. This theory is strengthened by the finds of Buddhist wall paintings found in the upper part but these were sadly lost (Stein, 1928a, 636). Anyway, the finds point to several artisanal activities that might have been going on in valley 4. The loom with remains of wool shows the processing of textile. Several unfinished textile remains such as wool and processed goat’s and horse hair were present. Possibly the combs could have been used for this type of activity. On the other hand there was also a wooden beater which is used for churning to create butter (fig.66 MB I 026) (Stein, 1928a, 638). In his list there is also the description of a “fragment of iron implement, shaped like large tuning-fork” (fig.66 MB Ii 020) (Stein, 1928a, 638). This description seems to fit the tool used to keep the beater steady when turning it into the jar (fig.67).

Figure 66: Plate VI showing the beater and the tuning-fork shaped artefact (Stein, 1928b, VI).

Figure 67: Man churning butter. Note the beater standing in the pot and the stabilizing tool used to balance the beater (village food secret, 2017, Churning). The temple was built on a terrace of large mud blocks and the main tower had three levels. Unfortunately, a lot was destroyed by burrowing and several holes, trying to reach the lowest, inner part of the ruined tower which has mostly collapsed. The temple was constructed with mudbricks and remains of textile are found in between the bricks. The main corridor in the lower part seems to have been deliberately blocked showing traces of a burrowing attempt. The surface of the wall sometimes has pottery fragments mixed in the coating. There were several ceramics scattered in and around the temple but most came from the debris of the upper part. All the fragments were undecorated and had quartz temper. They were produced on a turning wheel. The colours range mostly from brown to orange with only one gray fragment. All the shards had a broad profile section; there was no fine ware present.

Figure 68: Photo collection of the stupa. From left to right: the base, the construction method showing through the wall and the top of the stupa (own photos). Close to the temple there is the base of stupa nr.12 looking north (fig.68). It has a square floor plan and had stairs leading up to the platform made of rammed earth. The fundaments of the mudbrick

walls are still visible on the platform. The walls were covered with mud mixed with straw and in the center there is an eroded mudbrick heap, most likely the location of the shrine. The base was built on a contraption of bundles of plant material as evidenced by the bundles sticking out at the corner in a systematic way. There were fragments of white plaster in the rubble indicating that the stupa was at least painted in white. The pottery belonged to a straight thick-rimmed pot with a rough finishing. It had quartz temper and was made on a turning wheel.

The water landscape of valley 4 in Murtuq While surveying valley 4 there were two features that were potentially related to the water system, mainly nr.3 and 4. The last one is a filled in shaft with a slightly hardened dump, close to tree nr.5. The erosion was strong around the dump which made it possible to determine the original floor level and where the dump started. The dump appeared to be slightly raised, as to enclose the shaft. No outlet was found from shaft nr.4. Shaft 3 was filled with shrubs and roots. The side of the pit was irregular and there was no clear dump around it. There was only a slight elevation east of the pit. The side was penetrated by small irregular tunnels, possibly due to percolation or bioturbation by roots or animals. The location and form of pit nr.3 corresponds to the phenomenon of soil piping (pers. comm. Amaury Frankl, 29-3-2018). This occurs when the water infiltrates on a certain point and then drains into a lower lying feature (in this case, the gorge). The structural integrity of the soil changes because of the drainage, strengthened by the hill erosion, causing a slight cave in of the surface. It is not improbable that this occurs close to well nr.4 since soil piping proves the presence of accessible water sources.

Another rather enigmatic feature is gap nr.7 located on the hill. It is a narrow, straight, deep, systematic incision in the slope. Considering its regular appearance it was most likely made by humans. The top of the incision is penetrated by long dead roots reaching down. Part of the ceiling has collapsed forming a sand heap at the bottom. The bottom of the gap is sloping inwards

There are some agricultural terraces next to the gorge. Stein already noted a terrace right below a dried up well (nr.4) during his visit (nr.18)(Stein, 1928a, 636). It consists of several small terraces reaching down right next to the gorge. However, these are not the only agricultural fields in valley 4. Further down the gorge also on the east bank of the gorge

Figure 69: Terraced fields nr.15 (own photo). there is a large patch of terraces (nr.15) (fig.69). These are more heavily eroded and less clearly visible. There are many gullies and big stones. These terraces are wider, around ten meters, while terraces nr.18 measure around three to four meters wide. None of the fields have clear remains of their channels. In total thirteen terraces are clearly preserved in valley 4. Considering the location it is possible that there also used to be cultivation on the west bank of the gorge but there are no indications for

agriculture since this part has suffered badly from erosion coming from the elevation of temple nr.11. While no direct link with the Buddhist remains can be proven, the deteriorated state of the fields and the placement of the fields in accordance to the well and the cave complex, make it plausible that there is a temporal overlap between the fields and the Buddhist occupation. The valley has a generally gentle slope (fig.70). The knack in the topographic profile corresponds with the bend of the gorge. All the features except nr.1 are located on the sloping part past 0,11 km. Shaft nr.4 is situated around 0,17 km of the profile.

Figure 70: Profile of valley 4 made with Hillmap.com. A very prominent feature is the tree located near a bend of the gorge (nr.5)(fig.71). It is not surprising that it grows close to well nr.4, indicating that the soil is at least humid enough for it to grow. A part of the gorge seemed to have a more regular streambed (nr.16). It was also filled with loose sediments after the gorge had incised itself into the landscape.

Figure 71: Photo collection of tree nr.5 (left), well nr.4 (up) and the streambed (nr.16) (own photos).

Chapter 4 The Many Landscapes of Murtuq The Natural Landscape Murtuq is part of the endhoreic Turpan basin and is located near one of the piedmont rivers that flow from the high mountain area to the center of the basin(fig.71) (Xiwan et al., 2015, 258-259). An endorheic basin is a landlocked water system which does not drain into a sea or an ocean. The basin loses water through evapotranspiration and percolation. Usually the water assembles in the lowest point, an endorheic lake, which has often a saline constitution (Yapiyev et al., 2017, 2). The Turpan basin is adjacent to the Tarim River basin. It only rains 7-25 mm/year while it has a high evapotranspiration rate of 3800 mm. It is the lowest depression of whole China (Yapiyev et al., 2017, 6). Many karez of Xinjiang are situated in the Turpan-Hami basin and most of them are located in the northern mountain front belt of Turpan (Mingjiang, 2015, 195). The western part, the Turpan basin, consists of four geomorphological areas. The Tien Shan and Quelotag Mountains are the high mountain area, the piedmont zone between 1000-1500 meters is the hilly area, the graveled slopes are the Gobi belt and lastly there is the alluvial plain, the main agricultural space (Xiwan et al., 2015, 258-259).

Figure 72: Map showing the endorheic basins and lakes in Central Asia (Yapiyev et al., 2017, 5, fig. 2).

Figure 73: Satellite map from the western Flaming mountains. Water flows from the north to the south of the map. Depicted are the main streams, the drainage zones, the Total Dissolved Solids isolines and the valleys spoken of in this thesis (own map based on Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus). Underground water storage can appear in many forms: an artificially recharged reservoir where the storage of shallow groundwater is regulated, a karst reservoir, an underground river-valley reservoir and a topographic depression cone fed by an underground reservoir (Mingjiang 2015, 194). To determine which one is relevant in the case of Murtuq, one should know the geology of the region. Three major tectonic movements created the three dividing mountain ranges in Turpan: the Variscan/Hercynian orogeny, the Yanshan movement and the Himalayan movement. There are the Tian Shan Mountains in the north, the Quelotag Mountains in the south and the Flaming Mountains which divide the basin in a northern and southern belt (Xiwan et al., 2015, 260). The uplift of the Tian Shan Mountains created a fault which was filled in with Quaternary deposits as gravel cobble, sand gravel and sand. These sediments are ideal for the infiltration and storage of river water, storm floods, bedrock fissure water and seasonal meltwater. This results in the underground reservoir in the north of the Turpan basin in the form of a phreatic, confined aquifer with even some artesian water sources (fig.73)(Mingjiang, 2015, 196; Xiwan et al., 2015, 260- 261). The recharged groundwater gets blocked by the impermeable layers of the Flaming Mountains (and its western counterpart, the Salt Mountains) and the pressure makes the water

“spill over” which makes it accessible for humans (fig.74). Some of the water runs between the mountain water gaps and flows into the Aydingkol Lake in the centre of the basin (Xiwan et al., 2015, 261).

Fifteen rivers are located in the Turpan basin, which recharge the groundwater supply by seepage (Minjiang, 2015, 195). The three most relevant river valleys in Turpan are the Shengjinkouvalley which leads the Murtuq river through Sangnim-Agiz, Bezeklik and Gaochang, the Tuyok valley, the Turpan/Davandir valley (Bertrand, 2010, 31). The groundwater can also recharge by the runoff from precipitation and meltwater of the Tian Shan Mountains (Menjiang, 2015, 196). The main water source is the glacial meltwater which is high in August and very low in April (Xiwan et al., 2015, 259).

Figure 74: Scheme about the hydrology of the northern slope of the Flaming Mountains and the situation of the researched karez (own scheme). A Dynamic Valley Landscape A clear profile was visible in the outlet tunnel of karez shaft 49 in valley 1 (fig.75). This profile, starting at a depth of 3,5 meters, carries information concerning the evolution of the valley. The stratigraphy is characteristic for fluctuating, dynamic landscapes where water-rich episodes are alternated with dry periods. These wet times correspond to heavy rainfalls causing floods. These rare occurrences strongly affect the landscape (pers. comm. Amaury Frankl, 29-3-2018).

N° Depth Description Interpretation 8 70 cm Unsorted gravel and silt Strong fluvial transport; mixed colluvium

7 19 cm Pure silt Weaker stream

6 23 cm Silt with sorted gravel Fluvial; upstream; alluvial fan

5 20 cm Silt layers with faunal Weaker stream perturbation

4 16 cm Fine silt with gravel Weaker stream

3 17 cm Small pebbles mixed with Weak fluvial big rocks transport

2 14 cm Big rocks and rounded Fluvial transport gravel; imbrication over a short distance

1 20 cm Stream erosion Erosion because of karez

Figure 75: Table with the description and a probable interpretation of a profile in valley 1 (with input from Amaury Frankl, pers. comm., 29-3-2018).

Figure 76: Satellite map of three adjadecent alluvial fans. The alluvial fan of valley 1 is shown in red (own map based on Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus). Despite the lower erosion of the profile, the other layers were very clear. The fluvial transport is because of a temporary stream with a varying strength (hence the silt layers as opposed to the rocks). The profile is no rendering of the precipitation. It most likely responds to the movement of the drainage water. After all, the stratigraphy is located in an alluvial fan (fig.76). When a small stream suddenly enters a broad, flat plain it loses its kinetic energy rapidly and has to deposit its sediment like gravel. This sudden sedimentation forms an obstruction for the water. It has to redirect itself next to the deposit, skimming the surface, forming a fan shaped sediment layer (Wageningen University, 2016, sedimenttransport; pers. comm. Amaury Frankl, 29-3-2018). The alluvial fan in valley 1 is disturbed by human activities. On satellite imagery however, these gravel rich sediments can be traced. On the above satellite map the alluvial fan of valley 1 is depicted next to two mostly undisturbed deposits. Note that on the undisturbed alluvial fans active and inactive gullies are still visible.

To Fill in the Blanks It is clear that the geology and drainage of the land makes it indeed possible to construct karez facing towards the Tien Shan, instead of the lowest point. While the question on how this rather unique situation came to be is answered, one should also demand an explanation for the other Murtuq valleys. Why were none of the other north slope valleys exploited in the same way? There are only five valleys present were water exploitation was attempted in the past. All the sites are very unstable alluvial fans; thus dynamic environments which are usually not very suitable for cultivation.

3 2 1 5 4 2

Figure 77: Satellite map and profile of the western north slope showing the five valleys in Murtuq. The measurement corresponds to the location of valley 1; valleys 2-5 are situated at their arrows (own map based on Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus). While looking at the north slope profile of Murtuq it is interesting to note that all five valleys are in the lowest part, none exceed the 267 meters (fig.77). It is possible that this means that the groundwater level is more easily accessible here than on the higher valleys. The profile is also more capricious on the higher parts. This corresponds to steep, short valleys which accumulate a lot of flood water resulting in destructive alluvial sedimentation. This makes the valleys less interesting to cultivate since the fields would be damaged severely every time it rains (pers. comm. Amaury Frankl, 29-3-2018). So in this case it is probably the topography, physical geography and hydrology which made these valleys the most suitable for water exploitation.

The Economic Landscape The economic landscape is hard to be split apart because politics and religion arranged the economic activities and economic values also influenced political actions. The main economic sector of Murtuq is the primary industry, and more specifically its agriculture.

There were several manuscripts found in and around Murtuq. These manuscripts can provide limited information about economic transactions and the water landscape of Murtuq in the past. An example is manuscript U 3908 (T III M 205) found in Murtuq which might describe a local sales contract. Based on the seal, the script and the dating mentioned in the text U3908, the contract was made during the Yuan dynasty in the year 1271, 1238, 1295, 1307, 1319, 1331, 1343, 1355 or 1367 AD (Zieme, 1974, 300).

U 3908 (T III M 205) (translated from Zieme, 1974, 298-299) 1 In the year of the sheep, in the second month, on the twenty third (day) are we both, Yarp 2 Yanga and Adgü, officially in need of consumption goods. 3 The irrigated land at our upper canal measuring seven Šïq yimigiči -land 4 was sold correctly and at a correct price according to Qutadmïš. We have negotiated about the sales price as followed: 5 3250 pieces of quanpo (official cloth) was protected at both ends with silk bands 6 and was sealed in the middle. 7 These pieces were given to Qutadmïš on the day of closing the deal. 8 I, Yap Yanga, and Adgü, we have received it completely. 9 From this day on the lands belong to Qutadmïš for thousand years, ten thousand days. 10 If it pleases him he can keep the land; if not 11 he can resell it. Mine, Yarp Yanga, and Adgü's 12 older and younger brothers, family and relatives, sons and daughters may not make a claim. 13 If they make a claim, may their words 14 be dysfunctional! If they should abide by the power of a mighty lord or lady, 15 and they say that they want to take it and sell it, then on the same canal they should give and take two lots of the land 16 of this land. This land is limited in the east

17 by the land belonging to the treasury, in the south also by land 18 belonging to the treasury, in the west by land belonging to the treasury and in the north 19 it borders to the land of Kiciky-ä. At the (...) 20 Taybugu-Canal-boundary, in Yazï Kicîg, there is a big field 21 with a qansan. The witness is Qulunčung Tutung, the witness is Taz, the witness is 22 Qanturmïš, the witness is Abïčuq. I, Sutayï Bizi, was asked to write this down. 23 The seal is mine and Yarp Yanga's and Adgü's. 24-25 Whoever deviates from this agreement will be fined 325 quanpo (fine money).

The word ‘suvaq-lïy’ is used to signify ‘irrigated, irrigable’. Since water is a valuable good in Turpan the means of irrigation are usually mentioned in the sale contracts of parcels (e.g. this land near this canal, this land near this lake) (Zieme, 1974, 300-301). This is also the case in this manuscript where canals are apparently used to bring water to the fields. Yimigiči is the term used to measure the land according to the amount of seeds used to cultivate it (Zieme, 1974, 301). The meaning of ‘qansan’ is unclear; It could either mean a storehouse, a twig fence, a courtyard or a barn (Zieme, 1974, 303). Either way, the importance of water and fertile land becomes clear in this sales contract. Another potential indication about the past landscape around the town of Murtuq is the fact that many fields are apparently owned by the ruler or the state since three of the adjoined fields are “lands belonging to the treasury” (Zieme, 1974, 303). In the southern Shanshan kingdom, for example, the role of the state is also very apparent since the ruler choses who gets land and/or seeds and the government supervised the water supply and granted the right to irrigate (Atwood, 1991, 189).

Agriculture in Murtuq Other manuscripts mention the cultivation of grapes and cotton in the area (for the cultivation of the Murtuq monastery, see the religious landscape). Also, sorghum, wheat and watermelon could grow there (Yakup, 2005, 369-371). Grünwedel mentions cotton cultivation around valleys 2 and 3 (Grünwedel, 1906,161).

A clear indication of targeted agricultural exploitation can be found in the Tuntian system. Tuntian are agricultural colonies erected by the government. Tuntian were first introduced during the Western Han dynasty. The system was reused by the Qing during their wars against the Dzunghar

(Liu and Fan, 2011, 99-101). There are several types of Tuntian. A Bingtun is an agricultural colony tilled by soldiers, a Qitun is a colony tilled by soldiers of the Banners and a Qiantun is land used by exiled criminals. A Mingtun is a colony used by civilians and a Huitun is land worked by Uyghur people (Liu and Fan, 2011, 101). Bingtun were first made in 1720 in Turpan under orders of the Qing administration and Emin Khoja (Liu and Fan, 2011,112). The Bingtun system disappeared shortly during 1725 in Turpan. After the conviction of Suleiman in 1779, his lands were turned in Bingtun including a Bingtun in Sangnim (Shengjin) and Astana (Asitana) (Liu and Fan, 2011, 113). The closest agricultural colonies to Murtuq were a Bingtun and a Huitun near Sangnim.

Twentieth Century: the Rise of the Grapes In 1981 the government made land available for individuals. Every family cultivated around one mu of land (666,7 m²). In 1982 the household responsibility systems was introduced which led to exploiting new lands and developing grape cultivation (Lein and Yuling, 2006,10) Apparently this was also the start of the grape cultivation as Murtuq’s staple crop. The local population has no knowledge of grape growing prior to this point, even though this was supposedly done during the West Uyghur period and the Yuan dynasty according to the ancient texts (see religious landscape temple economy). Grapes were in the first half of the twentieth century mainly available in Bulyuq in the Valley of the Grapes. Only the rich and venerable persons owned a vineyard in Murtuq and they built a wall around them to prevent children from stealing grapes. After 1981, people tried to enhance their production by planting grapevines. When this proved to be successful, the government stimulated the grape cultivation making it the main economic product of Murtuq over time. One mu of land can raise up to four to five thousand yuan (Yakup, 2005, 369). The popularity of the grape could be due to the introduction of electricity in Murtuq around the same time. In order to pay for this new commodity, the farmers shifted from the high cost crop of wheat to the low cost cultivation of grapes. This enlarged the profit of their land. Since this change in agriculture was encouraged by the government, grain and flour are now taken care of via official ways. These products are regularly imported from northern Xinjiang (Yakup, 2005, 371).

This evolution corresponds to the general dynamics in Xinjiang where starting in the 1980’s a renewed interest in agricultural stimulation had formed. The potential of Xinjiang was soon

realized and resulted in a high investment into the exploitation of the province (fig.78) (NASA Socioeconomic Data and Applications Center (sedac), 1996, Agricultural Statistics of the People's Republic of China, v1 (1949 – 1990)). This exploitation most likely resulted in Murtuq in the introduction and expansion of grape cultivation.

Figure 78: A graph based on the numerical data from the China State Statistical Bureau provincial series published by SEDAC. The graph shows the rising importance of irrigation in the whole of Xinjiang since 1985 (NASA Socioeconomic Data and Applications Center (sedac), 1996, Agricultural Statistics of the People's Republic of China, v1 (1949 – 1990)). As mentioned before, the fields in Murtuq did not require a year-round presence of the owner. People cultivated their land in spring and would cover their fields and vines before leaving. Sometimes, the women and children were left behind and the men went to work in the cities or in the mines. Usually one-two persons stayed in Murtuq to watch over the fields and to irrigate the plants (Yakup, 2005, 369).This illustrates how the economic landscape is interwoven with other types of landscape, in this case also the social landscape.

The Religious Landscape As previously mentioned, is no landscape type completely distinguishable from the other landscapes. This is very much true for the religious aspect where politics, arts, economics and the social-cultural facets come together. The main religions represented in the valleys of Murtuq are the remnants of Buddhism, Islam and some Shamanistic and/or Animistic features. While the correlation to the water landscape may seem obscure, it is very likely that the presence of water might have influenced the religious activities and vice versa (Gentelle, 1992, 553).

Buddhism Dating of Buddhist Occupation Comparison of datings for Murtuq 1500 1400

1300 1200 1100 1000

years AD years 900 800 700 600

Figure 79: Graph showing the dates of manuscripts related to or found in Murtuq, the styles of the cave paintings and a shoe excavated by Aurel Stein now held by the British Museum. All authors and these sources are mentioned in the paper. There is no absolute dating for the Buddhist occupation of Murtuq. According to some authors the monastery might have been active until the fourteenth century AD (Mapping Buddhist Monasteries, 2010, Murtuq Monastery). The main sources of information are manuscripts, the murals in the grottoes in valley 4 and one quilted shoe. Only those artefacts with a certain origin can be used to assess the medieval human activity. There are more artefacts with a proposed date but many of these cannot be surely assigned to the site of Murtuq. The manuscripts are either found in Murtuq (T III M253, U3908) and/or mention a Murtuq Buddhist monastery (U 5317, U5319). As seen in the above graph (fig.79), there is some discussion about the dating of U5317 which will be touched upon further in the text. Cave paintings in valley 4 can also provide a clue

about the use or at least foundation of the monk grottoes. Lastly, a shoe published by Aurel Stein is accessible in the online database of the British Museum (fig.80)(Stein, 1928a, 638). It is the only artefact of Murtuq for which a date is given. No context or source for this dating is given. This dating is the only one differentiating completely from the others and without further information on this claim, the dating of the shoe remains equivocal.

Most dating’s place the occupation during the Uyghur Kingdom period (856-1210 AD) and the Mongol rule (Chagatai khanate 1225-1304 AD; the khanate acknowledges the Yuan dynasty (1270-1368 AD) in 1304 AD). In manuscript U5317 the ruler of Turpan region

Figure 80: Quilted shoe 1928,1022.89 (MB I 018) found in again capacitates the monastery in Murtuq, the upper part of the temple in valley 4 of Murtuq (British Museum, 2018, Online Collection 1928,1022.89). implying that it had already lost a certain status before regaining it (Moriyasu, 2004, 159).

The Temple and monastery A very important Buddhist school is the Hinayana school and its belief in pratyekabuddha’s, lone Buddha’s seeking enlightenment in isolation such as caves (Atwood, 1991, 173). There most likely also was a small notion of Mahayana present (Atwood, 1991, 174; Britannica, 2018, Buddhism). It is important to note that the monks did not live in the monasteries but they mingled into the community, and sometimes even married, had (adopted) children and owned slaves (Atwood, 1991,174). The monasteries, shrines and temples were places of reverence, education and they served the Buddhist community. Many temples possess consecutively a communal space or shared ground where pelgrims and visitors could interact, rest and replenish (Britannica, 2014, Vihara Buddhist Monastery; Liu and McKnight, 2018, Foreign Affairs under Yandgi). It is noteworthy that the Murtuq monastery does not clearly exhibits such an open space. This is of importance because landscapes also tell us about the relationships of the people to each other and to the land (Darvill, 1999, 34). It is unclear whether this means that the Murtuq monastery had a different function or that it was of a different importance.

Monks Caves The most researched caves in valley 4 are the five monk grottoes on the east side of the valley. They are looking towards the temple on the other side. There is an adjacent part south of them that is located close to some terraced fields. The link between the caves, the fields and the water exploitation is unclear. However, stylistic characteristics are important to provide context to the site in both a spatial as a temporal sense.

Cave 3 in Murtuq shows the Vimalakīrtinirdeśa Sūtra in a late Tang dynasty style (Russell-Smith, 2005, 91-92). A sketch from Dunhyuang (Stein painting 76)(fig.81) with a similar composition to the Murtuq scene is dated to 914 or 974 AD (Russell-Smith 2005, 98; British Museum, 2017, painting 76). The depiction of the Abhirati Universe in this cave corresponds to silk painting 57 found by Stein in Dunhuang which was dated to the Tibetan occupation period. However, the presence of the Chinese emperor on the murals shows that the Murtuq caves have copied the style after the mid-ninth century AD. The presence of Uyghur inscriptions corresponds to this conclusion (Russell-Smith, 2005, 93-94). Considering this evidence, the Murtuq caves most likely date from the tenth century AD. Jorinde Erbert makes an unsupported claim that the murals date to the late Song dynasty but other sources find it more plausible that they were painted during the period of interaction between Xizhou, Dunhuang and Ganzhou (Russell-Smith, 2005, 95-96). However, one cannot deny the possibilities that old tenth century styles might have been copied in Murtuq during the eleventh century AD (Russell-Smith, 2005, 99). Anyway, the artwork shows close relations between Murtuq, Bezeklik (part of Xizhou, nowadays Turpan) and Dunhuang.

Figure 81: Stein painting 76 which could be dated by the drafted letter written in the middle. (British Museum, 2018, Stein painting 76).

Stupas Even though von Le Coq’s main focus was on Bezeklik, he surveyed several other constructions in the area and found stupas harboring ashes, grave goods and manuscripts in Turkic or Tocharian and many religious texts (von Le Coq, 1926, 69-70). In total, three stupas are known to have been erected in valleys 1 and 4. One stupa base is still present west of the temple-monastery nr.11 in valley 4. One stupa is still intact in valley 1 while the other stupa is only preserved in a photograph.

The Temple Economy The living quarters, buildings and fields belonging to a monastery were donated to the monks by the people and they were stimulated to keep doing so. Property given to a monastery was hard to regain. Buildings, produce, goods, cattle and slaves were usually donated ‘forever’. Only slaves who received a release letter or who had to manage the irrigation, the lands and the oil presses could retain a certain degree of freedom (Moriyasu, 2004, 157; Wancai, 2012, 140). The greatest benefactor, which is also the best documented, was the elite. By giving generous donations they hoped to ensure a good destination for their soul (Zieme, 1991, 60). This is indicated by the concept of punya, in which people try to achieve good karma through practice, morals or donations (Britannica, 2018, Punya). There was a complex monk hierarchy and the head of a monastery was responsible for managing the temple and securing property such as fields and animals. The monasteries got tax privileges and a certain degree of autonomy. The fact that monasteries were exempted from most land taxes prompted farmers to donate part of their land to the monasteries to lower their own taxes. They could still work on the lands since the monks were prohibited to do so (Matsui, 2005, 73). The access to water was one of the few aspects which was regulated not only internally but also outside of the monastery (Wancai, 2012, 140).

The Murtuq monastery (Murutluq aryadan) was first recognized in manuscript USp 88 (U 5317)(Zieme, 1974, 297). There are two known manuscripts which mention a monastery in 'Murtuluq' which is now Murtuq (sometimes already transliterated as Murtluq, see Moriyasu, 2004). Another text (USp 84) mentions the Murut-vihara which could be the same place (a vihara is a type of monastery) (Zieme, 1981, 241). These were translated and openly published and do give some insight into the monastery and its functioning. These texts exempt the monastery of

certain taxes (Matsui, 2005), 70). They were most likely issued by the government (Moriyasu, 2004, 158-159).

One of these texts is U5317 (T III M205a; USp 88, 44,5 x 28,5 centimeters) which was dated to 1259 AD by Peter Zieme. Titso is mentioned in many manuscripts which enables to reconstruct a potential life story which shows that a certain Titso Tutung was probably born in 1220 AD, used as pawn by his father and ended up becoming a venerated monk in 1249. U 5317 was issued later since Titso became Abbot and considering the animal calendar, this would indicate that the text was written around 1259-1260 AD (Zieme, 1981, 239). However, Matsui (2005, 70) claims the manuscript to be a copy from ninth to twelfth century AD during the West Uyghur period.

U 5317 (Usp Nr. 88) (translated from Moriyasu, 2004, 159 and Zieme, 1981). Exemption from taxation orders 1 During the twenty-eighth day of the twelfth month of the Year of the Sheep 2 Qadir Bilga Tangri, His Majesty, 3 Let the Murutluq-monastery and its community 4 reopen/ buy again (?)(...) 5 Temple production (...) 6 He also issued an everlasting order, 7 for Abbot Titso, who lives in the temple 8 and the monks headed by Vaptso Šilavanti 9 can profit from their field and vineyards 10 and are exempted of all taxes and labor (alban). 11 As long as this order is not revoked, 12 and we understand that the work of the monks is focused on the mind (senses?) 13 Our Majesty has rested the Murutluq monastery with the vineyards and land belonging to the monastic community. 14 The extent (we) allow the congregation to be free of labour tax, duty tax, (…)-free and exempt from land taxation vineyards and land 15 this first has to merit (punya) His Majesty and then the kingdom and country. 16 We now hand over (the monastery)

17 to Vaptso Šilavanti, Toyïn Šilavanti, 18 Qutadmïš Apa Šilavanti, Nomdaš Shilawanti; 19 (and) Buyančoƴ Šilavanti who are on the top. 20 We have rested to induce the Famuli and Sälis1 of the monks, who live in the Murutluq monastery 21 which was received with its vineyards and fields as a donation 22 to not be used for labour taxation for the congregation and the community. 23 From now on does His Majesty resigns the Murutluq monastery to 24 the monks headed by Vaptso Šilavanti 25 including the produce of the related vineyards and fields and the Sälis 26 with the discussed interests 27 to equip/repair and furnish the monastery, 28 consult and arrange its enlargements together! 29 Elders living in the Vihara in the city 30 and the Sälis are not allowed to eat the food (enjoy the monastery’s produce). 31 As long as these monks live, they shall rule and be powerful! 32 After they die, the in the monastery living without change 33 monks and Sälis shall rule! 34 The monks living in the city and in the country must not interfere. 35 Even when these monks and Sälis go to live in the city or country later 36 They still rule the 37 Murutluq Temple; the ones with unchanging minds cannot exert labour. 38 Officials are not allowed to tax 39 the vineyards and cotton-land of Murutluq Temple 40 (and cannot collect) quanpo (official cloth) field tax, 41 It is also forbidden to collect sesame, cotton, 42 wine (and) worn clothes must not be allowed to be collected and the monks may not drudge (or: labor).

1 Sälis designates people who worked and depended on a monastery but they were locals and no monks (Zieme, 1981, 251).

(42-45) people (Sälis) living in the Murutluq monastery should not be taxed by those living in the vicinity of the city, by the order and the monastery community, starting with basïƴ, täšig,sheep (and) cattle. 46 The water managers and canal cleaners must not enter the vineyard. 47 It is also forbidden to take (the) ropes and pillars for hanging grapes. 48 We have deigned to order the grant of this written edict which you may keep in your possession. The privileges are repeated in manuscript U5319 (T III M205c)(fig.82) where the monks are exempted from painful labour services. This is also proven by the mention of this labour service in U5318 (T III M205b) (Matsui, 2005, 71). U5319 (35x26 centimeters) is now part of the Berlin collection. It is a manuscript which is nearly complete and its back is blank. The edge of the manuscript shows traces of attachment and it was probably a part of a bundle. There is also a red square stamp visible (9,6 centimeter on 9,8 centimeter). This stamp together with the type of writing (semi-block writing) makes it very probable that this document was made by the government of the West Uyghur kingdom (Moriyasu, 2004, 158). There is another tax exemption (T III M253) which was found at Murtuq and this one is dated to 1290/1302 AD but no clear relation to the site is present (Matsui, 2005, 72).

Figure 82: U 5319 or manuscript T III M 205c (BBAW, 2018, Digitales Turfan-Archiv).

U 5319 (T III M 205c; translated from Moriyasu 2004, 158-159) 1-3 (…) for you(…)we, the people, handed over the monastery to the half-brothers, the venerable Pintso Tutung and Ligui Tutung; 3-5 We have said that the Murutluq monastery is the property of the three, the venerable Ligui Tutung, Guitso Šilavanti and Pintso Tutung. 5-9 According to this word (script) shall after the veneration those three headed by Ligui Tutung, be the owners of the Murutluq monastery without change, during winter and summer shall the Bhaktachinnaka ceremony be fulfilled, meditation and benefactions will be set. We will accept that. 9-11 The lands and vineyards are nobody’s business, especially not Šazïn Ayučï nor the feudal lords! 11-12 These three monastery congregations (parishes?) own the Murutluq monastery 12-14 The venerable cells shall belong to Pintso Tutung, anyone else, whoever they may be, should not meddle (intrude)! 14-16 Without Ligui Tutung of the congregation or the layman to impose taxes on, one should take care of him! 16 That is why we have had this letter strictly enforced. The Relevance of the Texts and Temple Economy What is of course very important for this study is that the monastery has been stated to own vineyards and to have produced wine. There is evidence of the introduction of Vitis vinifera in Xinjiang since the fourth century BC. The idea of wine making started during the Han dynasty but it was more widely produced and consumed during the Tang dynasty (and even more so during the Yuan dynasty) when wine stopped to be an elitarian beverage. This is evidenced by the many poems written during this period and observations by Marco Polo (Li, 2013, The history of Chinese winegrowing and winemaking). One of the poems by Liu Yü-His (772-842 AD) even describes how the grapes were grown on wooden support and trellis, forming a terrace screen-like construction (Huang, 2000, 242). Documents found at the southern silk route describe the grape cultivation. While the tilling of vineyards was usually done in the Pig month (beginning of winter, seventh of November to sixth of December) other fields were mainly tended to during spring. Vineyards were described as being treelike. The vines were often cut to start a new grapevine. There was a penalty if one stole or damaged a grape vine (Atwood, 1991, 168). Text U 5317 also

emphasizes that it is forbidden to steal the pillars and ropes used to hold the vines. The abovementioned manuscript U 5319 specifically describes the vineyards as property of the monastery. Noteworthy is that the personnel responsible for the irrigation was not allowed to enter the vineyard (U 5317).

The potential importance of grapes in Murtuq might also be attested by a finding of the Japanese Otani expeditions between 1902 and 1915. It concerns a textile fragment which depicts the upperpart of a grapevine with three bunches of grapes, coloured red, Figure 83: Textile fragment originating from the area around Murtuq (Kagawa, 1915, 171). blue and greenish yellow, possibly symbolizing different types of grapes or the different stages of ripening (fig.83)(Kagawa, 1915, 171). The upper bunch of grapes is hanging down while the others are orientated differently. Probably, the seeds are also shown. Considering that it was found in Murtuq and its elongated form and colour variation and taking into account that it dates from around the Tang dynasty, this most likely depicts a grape variety known as mare teat which was typical and abundant in the Gaochang area during the Tang. It is well known for growing into elongated purple grapes (Huang, 2000, 241-242). However, textiles could be used as a currency together with coins and grains during the Tang dynasty’s equal field system (640-755 AD) and this practice remained also afterwards (Hansen and Rong, 2013, 283, 292). The first were mostly reserved for big expenses such as animals and slave trades. The Tang dynasty had a continuous shortage of coins in Turpan which is why they accepted other goods as payments (Hansen and Rong, 2013, 283). This means that the presence of textile cannot be directly linked to the landscape. It is most likely a stylistic figurative depiction on cloth that could have ended up in Murtuq in several ways.

Grapes are not the only agricultural products mentioned. Interestingly Raschman (Raschmann, 1995,124) translates one of the lines of manuscript U 5317 (T III M 205) as followed:

(line 38-40) “Von den Weingarten dieses Murutluq-Klosters sollen die Steuereinnehmer (Hend.) keine Schlauchsteuer und von den Baumwolläckern keine Bodensteuer nehmen.”

This interpretation opens the possibility of the Murtuq monastery owning some cotton fields. Unfortunately there is no archaeological proof to strengthen this hypothesis. The only indications for any agricultural activities in the surveyed valley 4 are the existence of a well and several fields (fig.85-86). The valley receives enough sunlight but it needs irrigation, even if they cultivated long-rooted grapes or cotton. A sure way to find out would be by dating and identifying the dead roots present in the valley (fig.84). While the Murtuq monastery complex is undoubtedly much larger than the valleys on the north slope of the Flaming Mountains, the manuscripts show that they were aware of, and invested in farming and irrigation. The findings of Aurel Stein also illustrate some domestic activities such as churning (Stein, 1928a, 636). Figure 84: Roots on the west slope of valley 4 (own photo).

Figure 85: Terraced fields nr.18 on the east flank of the gorge near the grottoes in valley 4 (own photo).

Figure 86: Terraced fields nr.18 on the east flank of the gorge near the grottoes in valley 4 as seen from above (own photo).

The fields are semi-regular terraces. The most southern patch (nr.18) has at least eight terraces. The northern set (nr.15) had five clearly visible terraces in the field but on the Yahoo.Inc Japan Aero images nine ridges of probable fields are visible (fig.87)(Yahoo Maps, Aero, 2018). Based on observations alone, it is difficult to determine the crop type that was cultivated.

Figure 87: Image of Yahoo.InC Japan maps (Digital Globe) with the relief differences drawn in red (Yahoo Maps, Aero, 2018).

Islam There are of course also Islamic elements present in Murtuq. Valley 2 was recognized in Murtuq as the valley with an Islamic school. It was known for the many students coming there to study for several months (Yakup, 2005, 367; pers. comm. Kasim Abdul, 9-7-2017). This tradition could be related to the shrine or Murtuq Ghojam situated close to the valley (fig.88). This shrine is an important pilgrimage site for the people of the region (Stein, 1928a, 637). It is the tomb of an Islamic missionary. Kasim (pers. comm. Kasim Abdul, 9-7-2018) places this person around the sixteenth-seventeenth century AD when the region was being converted to Islam. However, there is no certainty. There used to be records and logs on Ghojams and Mazhars who could have solved this issue but these were al burned during the Cultural Revolution.

Figure 88: (B0902) Probable picture of the Murtuq Ghojam and the mosque taken during the third German Turpan expedition (B0902, SMB, 2018, Online-Datenbank Sammlungen). The Story of Mavlana According to the legend, fifty years after the exploitation of a spring named Yaqqa Bulaq (literally yaqqa=way, bulaq= well, spring, fountain; way-spring or spring of the way) a men named Abdulhamid Mavlana came to Murtuq to spread the religion. Mostly it is assumed Mavlana was an Islamic scholar coming from Kashgar but some claim that he originated from Turkey or Saudi- Arabia (Yakup, 2005, 367). He most likely studied in Mumbai or Delhi (pers. comm. Kasim

Abdul, 9-7-2017). He was not only a missionary but he also had a broad knowledge of medicine which earned him a great reputation with the local people. Mavlana eventually wrote his name on a white cloth and lay down next to the stream from the Yaqqa Bulaq to die. The valley is described as having a well less than ten meters deep flowing into a canal down a slope for more than 50 meters, turning the valley into a green oasis. The body was found by shepherds and they thought that he must have been an important and wise man since the cloth was written in Arabic and in the ‘qari’s way’. Qari refers to a person who can recite the Quran by heart. The villagers concluded that he must be a Saint and they built a tomb around his body of mudbrick and called it the Murtuq Ghojam (Ghujam; the Saint of Murtuq). He was buried with the cloth and people strung up textile to show their admiration for Mavlana. Mavlana is considered a saint who grants knowledge if one desire knowledge which correlates to the nearby school built in valley 2.

Figure 89: The entrance to the qari cave (nr.13) in mudbrick and with textile remains (own photo).

.(own photo) (علي ِئر َاق?)Figure 90: the inscription referring to a qari probably named Ali This story of Abdulhamid Mavlana correspond surprisingly well with what is still present in valley 2. The caption from a picture from a wall painting in valley 3 describes the region around valley 2- 3 with the label Khodzam-bulak: source shrine (Oldenburg, 1914, 283, XLVI). Aurel Stein also mentions a ‘Ziarat of Maulana Hamid Khojam’ on his site plan of Murtuq between the group MC and MD (Stein, 1928b, 29). This is undoubtedly the same shrine since there are many transcriptions present for the Saint’s name: Maulana Hamid, Avlimit Mavlana, Ablimit Mavlana (Yakup, 2005, 366). In a small man-made cave (nr.13) in the valley near the now demolished school there was also an inscription that points to a qari (fig.89-90). A mudbrick entrance with the remnants of a cloth shielding the qari-cave gave way to a space with several niches and one flat surface containing the inscription which is only partially legible. The canal running downslope is

partially preserved and is slightly orientated towards the tomb. The canal is labeled as a gully by Aurel Stein and he interprets the valley as a pilgrimage site, where trees next to the gully are fully adorned by strips of textile (Stein, 1928a, 637). There are no ruins present around 1927-1928 and the valley is apparently still very functional around that time. On the previously mentioned site plan a ziarat, a spring and a dwelling place within agricultural fields are noted. If the story is correct, there was at least a well or maybe a karez when Mavlana died. However, Stein does not mention a karez while he is very aware of their existence in Murtuq. Either the legend is wrong and the canal was fed by a spring and not a well, or Stein did not check the type of water source thoroughly during his explorations. The same occurs in valley five or Tonguluk Bulaq where he notes recent dwelling places and agriculture, three abandoned monastic caves and a spring close to the road. However, the spring seems to have been located on the current outlet of a possible karez system higher up in the valley. Whether or not there was a karez at the time, there certainly was water and agriculture present in valley 2 and it is indeed very likely that this valley corresponds to the place name of Yaqqa Bulaq. The name Yaqqa bulaq evolved into Yaqqiliq overtime (Yakup, 2005, 367).

The School in Valley 2 The interviewee of Yakup remembers how people came to the valley to study which shows that the school must have been at least active until the first half of the twentieth century (Yakup, 2005, 367). Even though the school was no longer standing, the rubble was still present, including a wall fragment with an inscription in Chagataï script. This is a very interesting fact since Chagataï Turkic was the language used by the Jadids (De Cordier, 2012, 147).

The Jadid school of thought started as an education movement of Islamic reformists in the nineteenth century led by Ismail Gaspirali. The name Jadid means ‘renewing’ and the idea was that the oppression of the Muslims was due to archaic ideas, corrupt leaders and a technological backlog. Through education they believed they could put the Central Asian Muslims back on the nineteenth century game board. The focus was on comprehending the Quran rather than reciting it and there was also room for sciences and languages as Russian, German and French. To unite the communities and facilitate the standardization of the education they developed the Chagataï script which uses the Arabic alphabet and was the language of instruction in Jadid schools (De Cordier, 2012, 147). Russian Tatars, such as Gaspirali, played an important role in the expansion of the

Jadid movement to Xinjiang. Existing schools in Xinjiang quickly adopted the Jadid principles and new schools and teacher training centers were established (Klimeš, 2015, 80). The Tatar Heyder Sayrani and the Turpan businessman Mekhsut Muhiti met each other in 1909 and they opened a teacher training center and language school in 1913 in Astana (Turpan). People who studied here spread out to become teachers or to publish newspaper (Starr, 2015, 72-73; Klimeš 2015, 81). Considering the presence of the script, the location near Astana and the time period it is possible that the school in valley 2 was not a traditional school or madrasa but a Jadid school at a certain point in time.

The shrine near valley 2, the specific mention of water in the legend and the existence of the Islamic school and qari-cave show a connection between the water and the Islam. Unfortunately it is unclear how exactly the karez correlate to the religion. There is one direct relation present in the form of textile ribbons, as mentioned in the Mavlana-story and by Stein, which were strung around the pulley installed above a karez shaft (fig.91). Textile is also placed in trees and bushes located near or in (ancient) gullies. However, it is very probable that this custom is a remnant of an older non-Islamic tradition in the region which was later incorporated into the new religion.

Figure 91: Textile ribbons strapped around a pulley above a karez (own photo).

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Shamanism and Animism While it is known that Shaman and Animistic practices have long been introduced in the Turpan area, some of these still remain until today. The earliest evidence for Shamanism nearby can be found in the Yanghai tombs where the person interred in Room 90 of tomb. N.1 is considered to be a Shaman and medicine man. The cannabis found in his grave was dated to 2500 years BP (Jiang et al., 2006, 414, 420; Gaochang Museum, 2017). Local beliefs, probably stemming from Shaman and Animistic traditions, have survived in Murtuq as is attested in valley 2. The belief in the transcendent and the possibility to interact with it and the notion that all the elements in the world (wind, rocks, water, etc.) have a spirit which you can reach, may have something to do with the practices present in Murtuq.

Valley 2 does not have only clear Islamic religious traces but also less well-known and described practices. This mainly involves the stone heaps and the cave located upstream. Cave nr.48 in valley 2 is a rectangular cave which was at least partially man-made (fig.92-93). Several Shaman staffs are present near the cave entrance together with a broom and a collection of rocks. Their function is less clear than the oil lamps inside the cave. Because of the inscriptions it is clear that people have been performing rituals there since 1980. While the prayer rugs provide an Islamic element to the site, the other aspects do not correspond to an Islamic ritual. During the fieldwork both Uyghur and non-Uyghur people came to visit the cave, both times accompanied by some sorts of guide. One of the visitors consisted of a young couple which had their hands bound around both ends of a stick until they entered the cave. The origin of this custom is unclear. However, considering the proximity of the pebble heaps, these two phenomena are most likely correlated. While inside the cave mainly fire and soot are used, the pebbles heaps are mostly about the systematical placement of rocks near a natural waterway. There is a certain degree of variation involving textile, fire or offerings but no clear meaning behind these differences can be deduced.

There are also two other caves (nr.23-34) in a side gorge leading towards the mother well of the karez. These caves are located away from the valley and they are only visible when standing on a specific hill top. This implies that the structures were specifically made in an isolated spot. However, since no other clues to their function was present, it is impossible to know the role they might have played in the religious landscape and the site in general.

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Figure 92: The entrance to cave nr.48 (own photo).

Figure 93: The interior of cave nr.48 (own photo). The most consistent custom in valley 2 is the tying of textile. This ritual is present in many religions around the world and it is hard to determine the source of this practice. It could be related to the Buddhist believe that textile can hold one’s ‘intent’. This is evidenced in the use of prayer flags, for example, where the printed prayers on the textile are blown across the globe by the wind, spreading good intentions (Prayerflags, 2014, Tibetan Prayer Flags). A special role for textile is also reserved in animistic worldviews as evidenced by the ritual staffs. However, in the mystic Sufi tradition textiles are also often used to honour shrines, tombs and pilgrimage sites even though this is rejected by the orthodox Islam (Tuqay, 2013, At the Tomb of Imam Asim). It is very well possible that these elements in valley 2 are a unique, locally grown amalgam of traditions related to the Murtuq Ghojam and pilgrimage. However, one cannot exclude that these customs might be unrelated (in origin) or depending on the perception of the believers.

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Chapter 5 The Greater Perspective The Mental Landscape The Karez in the Minds of the People The perception of a landscape depends on the person experiencing it (Layton and Ucko, 1999, 1). This experience goes beyond the visual senses and includes sounds, textures and overall atmosphere (Darvill, 1999, 109). The meaning can differ between different groups and is even depended on the individual. In this case, the focus will go the collective experience; the mental landscape of a group rather than every single person. Karez are a communal effort and it seems important to treat its influence as a communal experience.

Murtuq and its karez appear in a local legend from Tuyoq about a man named Qara Nämät who bluffed his way to richness. Murtuq fulfills its role as the living place of the wife of the Jasak prince Sultan Mamut, Gowu Pujung. She offered the protagonist wheat, corn and grapes among other goods Unfortunately for Qara Nämät his ruse was discovered in the end (Yakup, 2005, 277- 285). Murtuq also features in the abovementioned Uyghur poem from Yanghe (chapter 2) (Yakup, 2005, 330). As such, the notion of Murtuq, extends beyond its geographic boundaries.

A relevant landscape has much broader boundaries when the focus shifts to the abstract planes of meaning. The social and mental landscapes that are related to the community of a certain place should be measured on a bigger scale (Darvill, 1999, 108). Indeed, the mental landscape of karez stretches further than Murtuq. The way of thinking about and acting with karez is influenced by factors beyond the local state of mind. For this reason, the mental landscape will be discussed in a bigger perspective, namely Turpan and the view on Turpan karez in general.

Traditions correlated with Karez 1) Naming

Karez usually bear a name. If it has a remarkable water yield it can be labelled something like ‘Qog Karez’ which means ‘Big karez’ (Xiande, 2015, 352). Another possibility is that the karez is named after its investor or owner, even if the person responsible is long deceased. An example is Saptagur karez in Lamjin (Shanshan, Pichan) which is named after the two mosque helpers

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(saptagur) who bought the karez in the nineteenth century (Xiande, 2015, 353). Related to this naming tradition is the labeling of a karez by a ruler’s name, title or rank such as the Abdul Reyim karez in Koxdong or the Khan karez near Sagnim which is portrayed on the map of Aurel Stein (Xiande, 2015, 354; Pahar, s.d., Mountains of Central Asia Digital Dataset). It is also possible that some geological characteristic stood out during the construction of the karez and sometime names like ‘sand karez’ or ‘kurutka karez’ (ginger-shaped stone karez) (Xiande, 2015, 355). Sometimes the name giving is determined by the relative location or something people associated the karez with, such as the East-inn karez that runs east of the inn of the karez owner. There are also the karez which were built and consecutively named more recently and they usually bear names like Unity karez or No. 1 Dihar karez (Xiande ,2015, 335-356). Lastly, the label of a karez can refer to a joke. An example of this is the Kazak karez in Tuyok or the Kara karez in Dighar (Shanshan). Both names refer to the digger of the karez. The first karizi apparently resembled often the kazak people and the villagers called him ‘the Kazak’. Also kara or ‘black man’ was chosen because the digger had a slightly darker skin (Xiande, 2015, 353-354). Sometimes karez are even assigned a gender based on their stream: calm flows were labeled female while rougher streams were male (Abudu et al., 2011, 217).

2) Rituals a. Blood donation

Blood donation involves the sacrifice of sheep, cows or camels by the inauguration of a karez project. The offering of animals is possibly a remnant of shamanism or Zoroastrianism in the region. When the area was converted to Islam, it found a new religious footing in the Islamic tradition of sheep sacrifice. The offering and consumption of the animal is meant to honour the karez diggers and to bless the karez (Habibul, 2015, 410). Usually the karez family who will lead the planned project will have dinner with the client. Then they perform a Quran chanting ceremony. Lastly, they sacrifice the animal (often they choose a sheep) on the place where the mother well will be dug. This ritual can be repeated when the karez flow diminishes to stimulate the water yield (Apaer, 2015, 368).

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b. Praying

Before digging and entering a karez people pray to Saint Illas, the Saint who can save someone who gets ‘swallowed by the earth’ which is a plausible risk when constructing a karez (Habibul, 2015, 413). They also spill the name of the Sufi Saint Emam Riban who lived from 1564 to 1624 AD. Often historical-religious figures are considered to have special powers and the believers try to appeal to the Saints to use their powers for the safety of the karez diggers (Habibul, 2015, 414).

3) View on karez and water. The importance of water and karez is heavily intertwined with Islamic beliefs. Karez provide water which is a gift of God and because of this karez water cannot be priced. Also, the construction of a karez is considered a partly religious deed and the karez digger is honoured for his role in the act. If a karizi should die during construction, he is considered a martyr and he receives a special funeral service (Habibul, 2015, 411). Another Islamic influence can be found in the throwing away of naan. Water and bread are important in the religious scriptures and the people believe that naan should be thrown into river or karez water so it becomes nutrition for the fauna and flora depending on the water. Lastly, the karez water is viewed as pure and should not be defiled by humans (Habibul, 2015, 412). 4) Taboos The above mentioned pureness of the water is reflected in several rules concerning the karez. To avoid pollution of any kind karez diggers have to bathe and wear clean clothes before entering the karez. It is also forbidden to let blood mix with the water. People are also not allowed to dispute near or in karez since these can be dangerous constructions. There is always a risk of accidents (Habibul, 2015, 412). 5) Origin stories

There are several legends in Turpan about the origin of the karez. In most of them, it is about local people trying to solve a (often partially supernatural) problem by digging a karez. Apaer (2015, 361-362) wrote down the following famous story:

Once upon a time there lived a giant dragon were now the Flaming Mountains are located. The dragon drank the meltwater coming from the Tien Shan, preventing any water from reaching Turpan. The people prayed to the gods to save them from the beast and finally a god answered and

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he created a giant sandstorm burying the dragon. Then he solidified the sand heap, creating the Flaming Mountains, scorching hot and completely barren. The people prayed for water and the god gave them the Aidingkol Lake and the agriculture thrived. But one day the dragon woke and as revenge he had dug all the water underground. Since the people could not defeat the dragon, they choose to stealthily dig a tunnel connected with shafts to divert the water to their fields.

This story focusses on the geology (Tien Shan, Flaming Mountains), climate and meltwater. Natural phenomena are explained by supernatural entities. However, in this legend it is nonetheless the Turpan population who invented the karez. Whether or not this was indeed the case, is still disputed.

Who was first: the Great Origin Debate There are three main hypotheses for the origin of the karez in Xinjiang, and especially, Turpan.

The Chinese origin One school of thought claims that the karez were first introduced by the Chinese, probably during the Han dynasty (Jiapaer et al., 2015, 286). They would have been based on waterworks near Xi’an (the so called well canals) or the Long-shouqu canal (Dragon head channel) (Sun et al., 2008, 59; Trombert, 2008, 121; Hu et al., 2012, 213, Jiapaer et al., 2015, 286). Some researchers are convinced that the main technology travelled from the Central Plains (Zhongyuan) and was developed further in Xinjiang with the help of the local people (Jiapaer et al., 2015, 288). Written sources prove indeed that the Han conducted hydraulic works in annexed territory as attested in Gansu (55 BC) or Bailundui (53 BC) (Trombert, 2008, 122-129). However, none of these examples qualify as real karez for they do not exploit the groundwater reserve (Trombert, 2008, 129). The construction techniques of karez and well canals however are very similar and some ‘karez’ in Turpan who divert river water instead of ground water (Jiapaer et al., 2015, 287). Others claim that it was not the Han but Tang (618-907 AD) or maybe even the Yuan dynasty (1271-1368 AD) that introduced the technique. Unfortunately none of the known texts about wells, tunnels and canals concern Turpan (Hu, Zhang and Liu, 2012, 213).

The written sources undeniably mention karez during the nineteenth century. There were karez present according to a text of 1807 AD and it is well known that General Lin Zexu stimulated the construction of karez since 1845 AD. General Zuo ZongTang ordered 185 karez since 1877 AD.

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These account do indeed prove the existence of karez during the Qing dynasty but none mention its introduction to the region (Hu, Zhang and Liu, 2012, 213).

The local origin Also, some believe that the karez were a local invention (Jiapaer et al., 2015, 286). The population of Turpan had extensive knowledge of digging and the concept of underground water, as attested for example by the wells of Jiaohe. Certain petroglyphs are interpreted to be 2600 years old representations of karez systems (Hu, Zhang and Liu, 2012, 214; Jiapaer et al., 2015, 291). The specific conditions in the area would have led the local people to invent a system to exploit the water as economically as possible (Jiapaer et al., 2015, 293).

The Persian origin Another possibility is that they originated from Persia, modern Iran where they are attested since 800 BC (Jiapaer et al., 2015, 286). The modern name ‘kariz’ could be derived from the Persian ‘kārēz’. Indeed the word is not listed in the eleventh century AD ‘Dictionary of Turkic Languages’. Some believe that the karez were introduced from the west during the Tang dynasty. They claim that documents from Xinjiang talk about waterworks that can be interpreted as karez and mention tools that are used to dig karez specifically. The Tang dynasty could have known of the karez since Afghanistan, which had karez since the fifth century BC, aligned itself with the Tang for political reasons for a while (Jiapaer et al., 2015, 290-291). Other supporters of this theory claim that the karez were introduced during the seventeenth or eighteenth century. The area became under a lot of stress because of the drying climate and the isolation of the Dzunghars by the Qing (Lary, 2005,535; Bertrand, 2010, 36-37). The Qing tried to block all resources from going to Dzunghars which became overly dependent on the oases they had to conquer. They heavily invested in agriculture to try to achieve a degree of economic independence.

The seventeenth-eighteenth century AD This dating in the seventeenth or eighteenth century corresponds with several other sources. Tolmbok (2017, 404) dated several sluice gates of some karez. The oldest AMS 14C-dating was 1637AD (standard deviation of 60 years) while another ended up as 1847AD with a margin of 30 years. A dendrochronological analysis showed that the wood of one of the sluices was cut in 1702 AD (Tolmbok, 2017, 404). Of course the possibility that there is some influence of the so-called ‘old wood effect’ cannot be ruled out. As mentioned above, several historical records prove

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already the existence of several karez at the beginning of the nineteenth century. There are even records of a karez dug in 1776 AD in Bostan (Toksun) by a person named Haifeng, a convicted soldier who was exiled to Xinjiang (Xiande, 2015, 353). Also, on the map of Albert Herrmann, published in 1923 (von Le Coq, 1923, 22, K arte 1) the karez are not drawn but they are labeled. One of these names is “Karez des Khoja Abdullah”. This most likely corresponds with Khoja Abd Alla, who entered China in 1674 AD (Atabaki and Mehendale, 2004, 197). Apaer (2015, 360) states that the Toyukmazar karez was built in 1570 AD without further details. Kobori (2010, 142) claims to have found traces of old karez near the Suleiman Mosque (Sugong Tower, contains the famous Emin minaret), used for its gardens. The mosque was built by Suleiman Khoja (Khwaja, Hoja) between 1770 and 1777 AD in honour of his father, Emin Khoja (Kobori, 2010, 142). Huntington published in A Beg and a Mullah of Lukchun (1903) also the interview with Arupu, a karez digger who claims his family has been in the business since 1800 AD. Arupu recalls the lore that karez were first built together with the Suleiman mosque around 1780 AD and Aurel Stein accepts this hypothesis in his publications (Kobori, 2010, 142). Considering this testimony, it is useful to note that Suleiman was convicted in 1779 AD and 980 hectares (14 700 Mou/Mu) of his private land were claimed and exploited by the Chinese government (Liu and Fan, 2011, 113). A year later Suleiman died. So even if the karez were first built around the seventeenth or eighteenth century, this is still no guarantee for appointing the ones responsible for their introduction.

It should also be noted that a pure fixation on the first, oldest karez in Turpan will not provide all answers. More often than not the dating of the first example of a relic is appreciated over the peak of meaning of such relics (Barrett, 1999, 22). However, the observed high interest in karez in the eighteenth century AD tells us a lot about the role and history of karez (Jiapaer et al., 2015, 294). The existence and rising curiosity to karez in seventeenth and eighteenth century AD is touched upon in the previous paragraph. This period corresponds to the cold wet period (fifteenth to eighteenth century AD) caused by the Little Ice Age, with the coldest temperatures and highest precipitation estimated between 1600-1660 AD (Yang et al., 2009). Hori Sunao, a Japanese researcher, claims that the rise in construction, especially in the eighteenth and nineteenth century can be explained by the social circumstance that prevailed in Turpan at the time. Karez are a big, collective project that demands a huge investment by the owner. The karez need maintenance once completed and the society would claim responsibility while also respecting the owner or the one in

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charge (Jiapaer et al., 2015, 294). There are also several Islamic laws which could be applied to the organisation of karez management. The existence of such a social framework of investors, managers and a community could have caused the augmented karez digging that can be observed since the end of the eighteenth century (Jiapaer et al., 2015, 294).

Karez are a communal activity which implies that many people understand the importance of the project. However, it is unclear if this also means that a leader needs to be present to instigate the project. If so, from which authority levels does this leadership have to originate (Barrett, 1999, 27)? The above mentioned framework and the fact that it is a collective effort, shows the value of the karez for a community and henceforth, one’s identity. This value of the karez for the construction of identity is clear in its representation to the general public.

The Function of Representation and Museums Ucko and Layton (1999, 16) summarize the importance of representation of landscapes:

“Landscape is also at the very forefront of policy debates concerning the relationship between the diachronic and the synchronic, between process and change and the freezing of what is to be displayed and explained to the tourist or public into a static moment. Fascinating examples are coming to light of the varying cultural interpretations of the same landscape being presented as equal but alternative, and of the public being led to understand the character of landscape change.”

The karez in Turpan are very much a fascinating example of such varying cultural interpretations. Various groups have a similar interpretation of the karez landscape. This can be explained certain powers influencing the public and a given narrative that entails a community (Barrett, 1999, 29).

The current Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region Museum in Urumqi was built in 1962 and was renovated in 2005 (Rippa, 2014, 44). The introduction text in 2011 explains how Xinjiang or the western regions have always belonged to China. It claimed to have made an accurate selection of archaeological finds to illustrate the contributions of different nationalities to the heritage of the motherland. In short, the museum wanted to teach patriotism (Rippa, 2014, 45). A museum always chooses to show a certain representation of its subject.

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The general consensus of western scholars is that the Chinese influence throughout the history of Xinjinag is sporadic. Different regions had more influence during different times, as attested by the debate surround the Indo-European Tarim mummies. Some researchers believe that it were these Iranian migrants who were responsible for introducing the karez system into Xinjiang (Rippa, 2014, 46). However, in the Urumqi museum in 2011, Central Asian influences were not addressed (Rippa, 2014, 47).

The history in Xinjiang used to start with the Han dynasty in the Urumqi exhibition (Rippa, 2014, 47). This altered since the redecoration, helped by several archaeologists. (pers.comm Ailijiang Aisha, 28-7-2017). The prehistoric times are present and the artefacts have been contextualized. However, a new trend has appeared in the museum. When Xinjiang was put under considerable Chinese control, it was a period of unification, innovation, harmony and peace. Other periods are characterized by dispute and chaos. Also, the explanations often focus on the prolonged contacts with the Central Plains region (fig.94).

Figure 94: Some examples of the narratives used in the Urumqi museum (own photos).

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This way of rewriting history can also be seen in the karez museums in Turpan. There are two museums. One was built by the Uyghur community, one by the Chinese. Both museums handle the same subject and try to convene an ethnographic-like message. Nonetheless they approach the presentation differently. The Uyghur museum wants to immerse the visitor in a local, oasis-like atmosphere with a vineyard and several fountains and statues. The Chinese museum has a more official appearance. The differences between the museums also become clear when reading the texts. The Chinese introduction mentions:

“(…) Turpan Karez, the Great Wall and the Grand Canal were 3 great works of ancient China. Spreading all over the Turpan Basin, the criss-crossing Karez like an underground Great Wall, transport Tian Shan snow water into the Turpan oasis, nourishing orchards and farms, as well as the hard-working and kind-hearted people of all ethnic groups in Turpan.”-Chinese Karez Museum, 2017

Twice a reference is made to the Great Wall of China and the karez are stated to be works of “ancient China”. While the Uyghur museum also mentions the three great works of China in the beginning, it underlines how “the working people ingeniously created the karez” and how the karez are “the crystallization of wisdom and hardworking of the Turpan people” (Uyghur Karez Museum, 2017). Unlike the Chinese introduction, it also emphasizes the deterioration of the systems and the attempts of scholars to save the karez as heritage of the region.

This difference in focus on the ones responsible for the karez is visible throughout both exhibitions. They both agree that the karez system is “ancient” and the Toksun petroglyphs are mentioned in both museums as so-called proof for this claim.

The Chinese museum mentions these petroglyphs together with an interpretation of 'waterways', written during the Eastern Han dynasty. The Figure 95: A drawing of the Toksun petroglyphs of explanations also recall the pottery found in tombs which both museums claims that the karez are present even though this is disputed (Bourgeois, 2015). from the Wei and Jin dynasty which are located close to a karez. The three views on the origin of the

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Turpan karez are mentioned underlining that the Persia-hypothesis was launched by western scholars, the local hypothesis by local institutes and the Han-dynasty-hypothesis by Chinese scholars. Eventhough the discussion is mentioned, the stand of the museum shines through in other explanations. An example is the text about stick orientation starting with: “ Karez began to appear in the Western Han Dynasty while the compass was introduced from the Central Plains to Western Regions in the Ming Dynasty. (…)” (Chinese Karez Museum, 2017). In the Uyghur Karez museum, however, these Toksun petroglyphs were used as proof of the ancient, local origins of the karez system (Uyghur Karez Museum, 2017).

The Chinese museum briefly mentions the Aisicarl Aji karez, made by an Uyghur in the Qing dynasty. They also mention the Chinese official Lin Zexu (1785-1850 AD) who was banished to Xinjiang after the Opium Wars and invested in the karez system. Another figure is Zuo Zongtang (1812-1885 AD) who was the military supervisor of Xinjiang during the Qing dynasty and believed to have been responsible for expanding the karez system. Lin Zexu and Zuo Zongtang are depicted as the founders of the developed karez-oasis culture in Turpan (Chinese Karez Museum, 2017). The Uyghur Museum uses the same tactic in reverse by not mentioning the Chinese officials but several Uyghur investors who built some karez (Uyghur Karez Museum, 2017).

There are even more subtle differences. Both museums use graphic art to tell the story of the Turpan karez. The museums agree on the happy and wealthy consequence of the karez, illustrated by dancing and feasting (fig.96-97). However, the scenes of constructing the karez are very different. The relief in the Uyghur Museum shows local men with a typical Uyghur hat digging away (Uyghur Karez Museum, 2017). However, the Chinese museum mostly depicts Chinese people in Han and Manchu clothing carrying the main construction tools for karez.

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Figure 96: Uyghur relief showing the wealth brought by the karez which calls for celebration in a standard local village scenery (own photo).

Figure 97: Wall painting in the Chinese museum depicting the joy of the karez in a simplified decor of the Turpan area. This part shows left the Uyghur village and mazar of Tuyoq and its mosque on the right. Further along the wall painting the Flaming Mountains and Emin Khoja minaret (Sugong Ta) are drawn (own photo).

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Figure 98: Uyghur relief depicting local man working on a karez (Bourgeois, 2017).

Figure 99: Chinese wallpainting with mostly Chinese and/or Manchu officials carrying construction tools (own photo).

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The use of narrative to focus on history and heritage in a certain way is not new. These cases illustrate the attempts to shape the mental landscape of their target audience. The provided examples fit in the larger narration, especially practiced since 1959. This practice claims that "Xinjiang has been an inalienable part of China since ancient times” (Bovingdon and Tursun as quoted by Rippa, 2014, 62). Several aforementioned museums declare their purpose upon entering the exhibition: to educate, to popularize or to help understand the karez system (Rippa, 2014, 45; Uyghur Karez Museum, 2017). Rippa (2014, 63-64) notes that the Chinese narratives about Xinjiang mostly unite the Han population rather than convincing the other ethnicities in Xinjiang of their shared Chinese history. The existence of two karez museums seems to be the culmination of this process.

This influences the way people view and think about the karez, and Xinjiang history in general, as heritage. The Uyghur museum stated that it was needed to preserve the karez or to even modernize it so it can continue to contribute to daily life. The mental landscape is much larger than the few karez in Murtuq. They are a small part in this diverse karez narrative. Their future will be determined based on the results cultivated by the creation of this mental landscape.

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Chapter 6 A Multi-Temporal Analysis Time-depth of Landscapes The aspect of time is of primordial importance when researching the history of a place. Landscapes are ever-changing. Often, the origin date of a building or artefact is used as the sole dating label (Barrett, 1999, 21; Darvill, 1999, 109). However, the relics still hold significance after their coming-to-be and even after their decay and abandonment. Old meanings can linger in myths, place names and past monuments. There are many blanks in the history of Murtuq and even those are very informative. While research usually focusses on the moment of change (construction, abandonment, destruction, rebuilding, reuse, etc.) the historical population might have emphasized the quiet and historically nearly invisible periods (Barrett, 1999, 22). It should also be considered that ‘invisible’ spaces without remains can be constructed. A landscape can deliberately be left or made empty (Darvill, 1999, 108-109).

To attempt an accurate analysis of the water-landscape and its meaning, a multi-temporal evaluation can show the many interpretation and uses of said landscape. In the previous parts, the different landscapes where explained. These will now be put together to create a multi-temporal reconstruction.

The Times They Are a-Changin' A multi-temporal analysis can be made of the valleys using the different data sources. The main focus is on the beginning of the twentieth century to the beginning of the twenty-first century. These periods were chosen because of the abundance of sources. While there are also many medieval remains in the valleys of Murtuq, it is impossible to make a high resolution analysis with the current knowledge of the site. However, these features were touched upon in other parts of this paper.

The main sources for the twentieth century are the photographs and old maps left by the explorers who passed through Murtuq. The interpretation is enhanced by other sources such as lore and oral narratives, artefacts and many others. The twenty-first century is documented through recent field surveys and photographs and satellite imagery, complimented by oral sources and publications.

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The importance of this comparison lies in the chance to understand the dynamic of the landscapes. After a short overview, each section will focus on a valley and try to determine the changes in the valley overtime. Both what has disappeared and what remains in the valleys is of importance. For each valley a series of landscape exploitation stadia will be suggested. This extends further than the purely economic exploitation and shall incorporate aspects from the other landscape types. It is worthy to remember that these proposed hypotheses for landscape evolutions are no certain reconstructions, as is often the case when one partially depends on indirect and/or objective data.

Murtuq and its Surroundings

Figure 100: (Left) Murtuk Yar and mountain range in the North from near the Murtuq Ghojam. The Tien Shan is visible in the background. This picture was taken around 1914 (Aurel Stein, British Library 392/29 (192)). (Right) The same view in 2017 (own photo).

Figure 101: (Left: B0898; Right: B1804) Pictures from von Le Coq and Grünwedel showing the top of the Murtuq plateau (SMB, 2018, Online-Datenbank Sammlungen).

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Figure 102: Satellite imagery of the Murtuq Yar gorge with the five valleys on the north slope of the Flaming Mountains. The not researched valleys 3 and 5 are coloured in transparent red (own map based on Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus). In the above image (fig.102) the extensive cultivation on top of the plateaus is visible. The elongated fields are all vineyard, mainly irrigated by pumped wells. This is a stark contrast to the four pictures from the German and British expeditions looking towards these grounds, showing barely any agriculture between 1902 and 1916 (fig.100-101).

Not only has the amount of agriculture clearly changed, but also the type of agriculture has evolved. While the low lying grounds in the gorge were exploited with terraced fields (fig.103) these are almost all gone. Most of the fields in the gorge are now overgrown with trees or have changed into vineyards.

Figure 103: (B0903) The type of agriculture during the German expeditions (SMB, 2018, Online- Datenbank Sammlungen).

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Valley 1 Satellite Imagery

Figure 104: Georectified satellite image from valley 1 from 2005 (Google Earth 2018, CNES/ Airbus).

Figure 105: Georectified satellite image from valley 1 from 2013 (Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus).

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Figure 106: Georectified satellite image from valley 1 from 2015 (Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus). The clearest difference portrayed by the satellite imagery, is the progressive dehydration of valley 1 (fig.104-106). The satellite picture taken in 2005 proofs that pool nr.75 still held water. The vegetation shows that it irrigated the most eastern grape fields of nr.86. These were also the only fields that still held poles and ropes and even dead vines during the fieldwork. These are the closest fields, corresponding to grape cultivation, located near house nr.43 which is still mostly intact. When people left the house, they deliberately locked the door and clumsily blocked the window openings with packed earth.

Figure 107: Grapevines in fields nr.86 (own photo).

Figure 108: Stumps from cut grapevines (own photo). This selective use of the space could have many explanations such as downsizing one’s production. However, there are some clues that point to water difficulties. First, as previously mentioned in the description, all the outlets from pool nr.75 to fields nr.76-78 and nr.80-84 are

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blocked. This was probably done to divert the water to the grapevines in field nr.79 and nr.86 to focus on producing grapes (fig.107). However, in the next stadium, fields nr.79 were also abandoned and only those closest to house nr.43 were maintained. The other grape vines were deliberately cut (fig.108). That this reduction in growing capacity could be due to water shortage might be correlated to the use of a tube which runs from the karez tunnel in karez shaft nr.49 and the deep canal nr.47. Tubes prevent water loss by evapotranspiration, seepage or unintentional diverting of the water. The tube runs all the way to pool nr.75. Since parts of the same tube were found in the grape drying building nr.46 it is very possible that this building was still in use during the cultivation of the fields nr.79 and nr.86. The proposed hypothesis is that the diminishing water flow urges the farmers to apply tubes to lead as much water as possible to the vines. Considering the location of the last vines, they may have used house nr.43 and grape drying building nr.46 at the same time. Considering the expansion of grape cultivation in Murtuq starting around 1981, as mentioned in the discussion about the economic landscape, it is possible that the start of fields nr.79 and 86 could have been around the eighties. There are no other clear differences besides the advancing erosion of the valley. This is very prominent in fields nr.74.

The Call of the Void There are several empty spaces in valley 1 in Murtuq. The materials originating from this valley show that the lack of remains does not signify the lack of activity. An example is the western hilltop. The photographs of the German expedition clearly show a ruin erected on the flattened surface (1906-1907). Stein notes this structure on his map (Stein, 1928b, 29) and he mentions it in his report (Stein, 1928a, 637). He describes it as a ruined temple cella. He also talks about a ‘spring’ feeding the modern cultivation below it. According to his map, this spring would be located somewhere around karez nr.14. Kasim claims that the western hilltop and the slope building (nr.1) were used in the 1940-‘50’s and that grapes were dried on the flat surface (pers.comm. Kasim Abdul, 9-7-2017). On the picture of the German expedition there are clearly two mirroring nearly identical walls visible with a vaulted roof profile (fig.109). Next to it there is a small circular stepped construction, most likely a stupa, comparable to the one on the eastern hill top (nr.24) which is still preserved. This makes it indeed probable that this was also a Buddhist ruin. There are no visible fundaments on the flattened surface. Only strewn mudbricks are present on the edge of the hill top (fig.110). The comparison also shows the advancement of hill erosion on the slopes.

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Figure 109: (B1692) Picture showing both hilltops in valley 1 during the German expeditions. Note the ruins on the right (SMB, 2018, Online-Datenbank Sammlungen).

Figure 110: The western hilltop in valley 1 with house nr.1. Note the lack of ruins on the right (own photo). An even more enigmatic lost structure was supposedly located somewhere between fields 21 and 42. The photograph (B1703, fig.111) of the German expedition shows a ruined building with two arched rooms near a channel. This structure can no longer be placed into valley 1 (fig.112). When comparing the erosion gullies on the slope and the perception of the hill form and horizon an estimation of the location could be made. It was apparently already in ruin when the expedition passed through.

Figure 111: (B1703) Picture showing the ruins on the western hilltop and an arched building during the German expeditions (SMB, 2018, Online-Datenbank Sammlungen).

Figure 112: Modern grey coloured picture of the same hilltop (own photo). The opposite case can be made for house nr.43 which is not present on the Stein map (Stein, 1928b, 29). While house nr.27 is depicted as inhabited together with the abovementioned cultivation, house nr.43 is not even drawn. It is possible to conclude that house nr.43, was not inhabited and most likely not even build at the time. What can be proven however, is the drastic alteration of the landscape in valley 1. By comparing photo B1703 with modern photographs one can see how the arrangement of fields and channels has changed since around 1904-1907.

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Numismatics While no absolute dating could be obtained, the find of a coin on the dump of karez nr.29 in valley 1 in Murtuq makes it possible to define a terminus post quem for at least the non-Buddhist occupation of the site (fig.113).

The coin is a Xinjiang little red coin ( 新疆小红钱 / Xinjiang xiao hong qian). This type of coin dates from the Qing dynasty during Emperor De Zong (1875-1908 AD). These coins were minted between 1890 and 1900 AD considering its writings (pers. comm. Alishir Kurban, 29-7-2018; The Coin Project, 2018, 22-1505-3-9).This places the earliest possibly attested human presence during the late Qing dynasty in 1890 or later. The coin was found lying on top of the dump. It was probably washed away from somewhere higher in the valley. Considering that it was not preserved in situ, no conclusion can be drawn about the nature of the anthropogenic presence leading to the loss of the coin.

Front: Back:

Top and bottom is 新十/ xin shi. From top to bottom, from right to left it reads Right and left are written in Manshu. It is 宝光绪通宝 / guang xu tong bao. 新/baoxin in Chinese.

Figure 113: The coin found atop of karez shaft nr.29 in valley 1 (own photos).

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The Landscape Exploitation Stadia Note that these stadia are theories about different moments in the life of the landscape. These are not certain and it very likely that there are many more phases of abandonment, reuse and landscape changes. These landscape exploitation stadia are solely a summary for the information that could be gathered

 Stadium 1: Construction of Buddhist monuments. Most likely there are no other remains of this stadium left because of the quality of preservation of the rest of the site compared to the Buddhist remains.  Stadium 2: Possible time of construction of an upstream karez (red line fig.31) and the exploitation of the upper fields.  Stadium 3: Certain use of an upstream karez and the exploitation of the middle fields. This stadium might be temporally close to stadium 2)(1913-1916 see Stein, 1928b, 29). The western hilltop still has a Buddhist ruin at this point  Stadium 4: Construction and use of the downstream karez (green line fig.31) and the lowest fields in the east of valley 1. According to Kasim, this happened during the 1960’s (pers. comm. Kasim Abdul, 9-7-2017).  Stadium 5: Only the vineyards are exploited. All the other eastern fields are blocked from pool nr.75. This could correspond to the possibly earliest applications of the tube in the karez. This might have happened during the 1980’s.  Stadium 6: Solely the fields of nr.86 close to house nr.43 are kept intact. The other fields and channels are left to deteriorate.  Stadium 7: Abandonment of the landscape.

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Valley 2 Satellite Imagery

Figure 114: Georectified satellite imagery from valley 2 from 2005. The red circle shows feature nr.21. The green circle points to the remnants of an orchard. The orange trapezium shows the fields from valley 3 fanning out to valley 2. The blue arrows point to the most relevant directions of water diversion (Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus).

Figure 115: Georectified satellite imagery from valley 2 from 2013 (Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus).

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Figure 116: Georectified satellite imagery from valley 2 from 2015 (Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus). Also in valley 2, the progressive erosion is visible on the satellite imagery (fig.114-116). The dehydration is less prominent since the karez in valley 2 continued functioning. The water from valley 2 is split up in two channels, one leading to valley 3 and one leading towards the northeast. While there were some small terraces connected to the latter, most were destroyed by the fields fanning out from valley 3 (orange trapezium). Many of these were destroyed or unrecognizable during the field visit. A small part was preserved (nr.47). These are located higher than the northeast channel and oriented on a slight angle. This makes it very unlikely that these fields were fed by this channel which explains the diverting channel towards valley 3, aiding the gorge of valley 3 in irrigating the semi-regular fields. These two channels are visible as traces of vegetation.

Feature nr.21 (red circle) has no clear explanation and it was deemed possible that it was a remnant of the recent demolition of the site. However, it is already present of the image of 2005 and has seemingly not changed. Its use remains unclear. Between 2005 and 2013 many trees north of buildings nr.25 and 10 have disappeared. However, the trees around the outlet of karez nr.8 have barely diminished, which might indicate a change in watercourse and a lack of maintenance, rather than a water shortage.

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About the Water and the Trees, the Karez and the Valleys The field survey has shown some smaller plant beds in valley 2 which are not suited for trees or such a large scale orchard such as the systems around field nr.35. Pools, narrow channels and many barely raised beds are more useful for horticulture. Remnants of a small orchard are however preserved in fields nr.43 to 45 (green circle)(fig.117). Their original outlay is partially preserved in the satellite picture from 2005. This orchard could be similar to the one in valley 3 which was photographed and described by Aurel Stein (fig.118)(Stein, 1928a, 636). Apparently the orchard in valley 3 was already dead when he visited the site.

Figure 117: Remnants of an orchard in valley 2 in field nr.45 (own photo).

Figure 118: (392-28 (703)) MC I.I. and ruin at head of gorge seen from MC I Murtuk (SE) (description by Stein) (British Library).

Grünwedel describes cotton cultivation around valley 2 (Grünwedel, 1906, 161). Stein notes that valley 2 is used during 1913-1916 and that there is spring enabling agriculture (see the religious landscapeIslam)(Stein, 1928b, 29). The ziarat mentioned by Stein, most likely identifiable as the shaman cave nr.48, was visited during his time. The dwelling place is drawn on the approximate location of the school ruins. This strengthens the statement made in Yakup (2005,

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367) that the school would have been active in the first half of the twentieth century. It is possible that the gorge, leading from the dam nr.50 towards the karez, was partially man-made (see description water landscape of valley 2). It is unclear if this would have provided enough water for agriculture. It is remarkable that all buildings in the valley, apart from the isolated structure nr.46, are located just outside of the streambed that was created when the gorge was still active. This is especially true for buildings nr.10 and 25. The earliest certainty of agriculture is mentioned by Stein. His so-called spring was apparently located close to cave nr.48, which would point to the gorge not yet being blocked by dam nr.50. This corresponds to the stilted trees he described in valley 3 (Stein, 1928a, 636). The hypothesis also corresponds to the testimony of Kasim who claims that the valley was abandoned during the Cultural Revolution because of its religious meaning. It was later resettled in the 1980’s and people then dug the karez (pers. comm. Kasim Abdul, 9-7-2017).

However, Stein’s observations and distinctions between wells, sources, springs and karez are questionable (see the religious landscapeIslam). While the hypothesis that the karez and dam nr.50 were constructed after 1916 is plausible, there is no enough information to either confirm or debunk this theory. The building of the dam nr.50, diverting water towards valley 3 and away from the karez, the specific mentioned lack of wells, sources, springs or karez in valley 3 by Stein (1928, 636), the similarities of the fields in valley 3 to the grape cultivation fields in valley 1 and the location of these fields above older fields in valley 2 all seem to point to a re-exploitation downstream of valley 3 after 1916 and after blocking the gorge to enable karez. However, to accurately assess this problem, at least a field survey in valley 3 would be recommended. To fully understand the relative chronology of water exploitation in valley 2, a thorough examination of valley 3 is necessary.

The Landscape Exploitation Stadia Keep in mind that this is a hypothetical proposal for the evolution of valley 2. Further research and a survey in valley 3 could influence these proposed landscape exploitation stadia.

 Stadium 1: Construction of the gorge?

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 Stadium 2: Agriculture (horticulture and orchard?) was practiced. Possibly the school was already in use. People might have practiced veneration. This stadium most likely includes the period between 1913-1916.  Stadium 3: Abandonment of the site during the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976).  Stadium 4: Re-occupation during the 1980’s. This might correspond to the blocking of the gorge the protect the karez. If so, then this is also the stadium in which the overlap with the fields in valley 3 happen while the water is redirected towards valley 3 by dam nr.50. This was prior to 2005.  Stadium 5: Adding a new karez shaft due to collapse prior to 2005.  Stadium 6: Dehydration of the northern fields between 2005-2015.  Stadium 7: Destruction of the site in 2016.

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Valley 4 Satellite imagery

Figure 119: Georectified satellite imagery from valley 4 from 2005 (Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus).

Figure 120: Georectified satellite imagery from valley 4 from 2013 (Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus).

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Figure 121: Georectified satellite imagery from valley 4 from 2015 (Google Earth 2018, CNES/Airbus). On the first satellite image (fig.119), the terrace of the temple is still visible. This slowly fades in the pictures taken in 2013 and 2015 (fig.120-121) but a small part of this flattened elevation is still visible in the field (fig. 122). The greatest change is the arrival of the buildings of the Turpan heritage and the road leading towards it (nr.17).

Figure 122: part of the base terrace made of mudbrick under the temple (own photo). There is darker linear trace, with a variable visibility, present on each satellite image. It starts from the court of the temple and runs north towards the ancient village of Murtuq (fig.119). It was not visible during field walking. While the quality of the 2005 image is not high enough to clearly see the stupa, it is visible on the more recent pictures and it shows the linear anomaly running just in front of it. On the satellite image of 2013 there also seems to be a second feature just north of the

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stupa but it has already faded by 2015 and was not decipherable in the field. No mention of it was made in the reports of the twentieth century expedition.

Another interesting phenomenon is the rapidly eroding gorge. In 2005 it was less clear and wide and its gullies on the side were barely developed. However, the situation has aggravated severely in 2013 and 2015. In 2005, also less of the cave complex seems to be uncovered. Interesting is the growth of the tree. It has already a remarkable size in 2005. It appears to be present on a picture taken by the German expedition but it is unfortunately unclear due to the shadow (fig.123).

The Second Coming of People to Valley 4 While there was undoubtedly human activity during the Buddhist occupations, there are also clear traces of more recent anthropogenic presence. As previously mentioned, the excavation of the cave complex, as seen on the satellite imagery, has advanced but the difference is even visible on old photographs of valley 4. Pictures of the temple taken before its excavation by Aurel Stein show how much earth has been removed. A part of the dump next to the tower is still present today and contains several undecorated pottery fragments that were not deemed interesting enough to be collected. The photographs also illustrate the erosion that the site has endured. Many of the outer walls of the temple courtyard have eroded since they were photographed in 1913-1916. The most drastic change since the arrival of the explorers is the creation of the three caves on the north bank of the gorge, close to the tree and the temple. These were not there during the investigations of Grünwedel and von Le Coq but they are now (fig.123). Surprisingly, two of the caves have already (partially) collapsed in contrast to the Buddhist cave complex on the southern edge. The last cave contains tools used for mudbrick construction.

Figure 123: The same view to valley 4. Left: (B1702) picture taken during the German expeditions of von Le coq and Grünwedel (SMB, 2018, Online-Datenbank Sammlungen). Right: picture from 2004 (Nishimura, 2004, dsr Photography).

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The influence of these more recent, temporary activities is quiet large and should not be overlooked. There is even a dump of a recent excavation of the caves present before the cave terrace. A part of the streambed of the gorge (nr.16) just east of the tree was remarkably regular and wide instead of narrow and undulating (fig.124). It was partially filled in with loose, homogeneous earth. The gorge measured only 1,43 meters deep at this point instead of 1,7 to 3,7 meters deep prior and after the fill in. Considering its depth, location and loose constitution, this presents a human fairly recent fill in. It might be related to any of the excavations or explorations in the valley or the construction of the three caves. At least the German photographs show that this part was not filled in yet in 1906-1907 (fig.125).

Figure 124: The beginning and ending of streambed nr.16. Note the mudbricks in the background on the right picture (own photos).

Figure 125: (B1710) Streambed next to the temple in valley 4 (SMB, 2018, Online-Datenbank Sammlungen).

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The Landscape Exploitation Stadia In valley 4 the changes in meaning and the influence of several different landscape types becomes clear. It also proves how the meaning of a landscape can remain important even after the destruction of said landscape.

 Stadium 1a: Possible first Buddhist occupation (see religious landscapeBuddhism).  Stadium 1b: Buddhist occupation that lasted probably until the fourteenth century AD. Agriculture was practiced and it is very likely a well was in use.  Stadium 2: Abandonment/ destruction of the Buddhist landscape. There was possibly intentional blocking of some parts of the temple. The landscape lost its religious meaning. There is a chance there was intentional damage to the site.  Stadium 3: The European, Russian and Japanese expeditions pass through in the beginning of the twentieth century. This corresponds to the removal of murals and artefacts. There was probably also iconoclasm: Buddhist figures were defaced because of Muslim and/or communist ideologies (Russell-Smith, 2005, 95; Hopkirk, 1980, 3).  Stadium 4: Construction of the three additional caves nr.8-10. Possibly there was also mudbrick production.  Stadium 5: The Turpan heritage house is constructed and the site becomes acknowledged (3th May 2013). Valley 4 becomes an important part of the mental landscape. Heavy erosion ensues between 2013-2015. Conclusion of the Multi-Temporal Analysis of Murtuq

A Tragedy of the Water Landscape Since the use of karez has been diminishing since 1960 but especially since the 1990’s, the water level in all of Turpan has dropped (Abudu et al., 2011, 221;Lein and Yuling, 2006, 9-10). This might also be the case here in Murtuq. As shown by satellite and expedition pictures, the amount of cultivation on top of the Murtuq plateau, sustained by wells and pumps, has increased significantly, intercepting the water flowing to the north slopes of the Flaming Mountains. It is possible that the karez in the valleys 1 and 2 (and possibly 3) are some of the most recent and short-lived karez in Turpan. It is what one could call a tragedy from the landscape perspective. While the valleys are witnesses to an attempt to enlarge the agriculture and water usage of the

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people, they were most likely also abandoned because of overexploitation. Valley 1 and 2 illustrate how heavily a site can alter in just about a century. Valley 4 is an example of changes in meaning and how it remains there, long after the landscape has lost that particular focus. The expeditions and iconoclasm are symptoms of a mental landscape. Unfortunately, the importance of the water landscape in valley 4 is unclear. This is not the case in valleys 1 and 2. Valley 1 tells the story of an existing, advancing, increasing and then decreasing water system which slowly disappeared. Valley 2 shows the interaction of different landscapes in one single situation and how these influence each other, and ultimately the water landscape.

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Chapter 7 Conclusion Turpan has a long history as an oasis town, providing relief to weary travelers and enabling agriculture for the locals. The importance of water is not unsurprising in such an arid environment and consequently the karez are a big part of the Turpan landscape and identity. They improve(d) the water exploitation, were the source of several social and mental constructs and they are rapidly fading remnants of technical ingenuity. Unfortunately, the karez landscape is decaying, which will leave a mark on the general water landscape in Turpan. Researching such a water landscape is no easy deed and as such, a case study about three valleys in Murtuq is a feasible starting point.

The Research To analyze the water system in Murtuq the landscape as whole was mapped and interpreted. While some conclusions could be made based on these maps and the accompanying observations, no full understanding could be achieved. It turned out to be important to observe the context while interpreting a certain part of the landscape. This is definitely the case when researching karez. Instead of focusing purely on the karez themselves, the surrounding landscapes possessed valuable information to try to understand the karez themselves. Water in Murtuq seemed to have functioned indeed partially as a morphogen by attracting humans and dictating landscape shaping. However, the water landscape is also influenced by external factors. By gathering information on several types of landscapes such as the natural one, the religious and the economic landscapes, these aspects can be incorporated into the interpretation of the water landscape. Even the mental landscape has proven to take part in the perception and exploitation of the sites. This two- way interaction between the karez and the water in general and the many landscapes is clearly illustrated when constructing a multi-temporal analysis of each site, where facets of each research area have contributed. The analysis showed how on a relatively short period of more than a hundred years, the landscape evolved. Not only physically there were many changes, such as constructing new water systems, also on an abstract level the perception and use of the landscapes has evolved, such as the abandonment and re-use of valley 2 in Murtuq. So the water landscape has changed because of both the uneven presence of water as the external influencers such as economic situation, anthropogenic exploitation, the political regulation or the view on karez.

In short, the water landscape both affects and is affected by its context. The interaction happens in both ways and it cannot solely be understood by focusing on the physical properties. The water landscape is a selective amalgam of different aspects which have formed its current state and perception. An

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interdisciplinary approach and the consultation of many different sources, heightens the chances of incorporating all aspects of the subject. Unfortunately the quality of the constructed hypotheses following this approach is dependent on the certainty and objectivity of the sources.

A Reflective stance A researcher should never forget that no matter the amount of data, one is always a distant observer and this also true for the water landscape. As mentioned in the introduction, every reading of a landscape influenced by previous cultures is inherently in need of a historical correction which is difficult to achieve. There is also the critique of the artificial cut in different temporal stadia. The use of time slices makes it easier to understand how a current landscape came to be but it does indeed carry the risk of ignoring the influence of past stadia. The Buddhist influence did not vanish when the local population was fully converted to Islam. It remained in the landscape as ruins, as collective memories and perceptions and as construction elements of the local identity. This is also the case for the water landscape. The landscape exploitation stadia of Murtuq should be viewed as a summary of the multi-temporal analysis. It is no conclusion of a landscape nor a full understanding. The one thing that can be taken from this research is that every landscape in general is dynamic, fluid and possibly a rapidly changing continuous phenomenon. This process of evolving is influencing and is influenced by the anthropogenic interaction. Hopefully the case of Murtuq and its changing water landscape can serve as an inspiration source for both researchers as well as the local people when dealing with the subject of landscapes.

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148

Attachments

149

Interview Kasim

Attachment 1: Interview Murtuq Kasim Abdul interview ( translated by Alishir)

9/7/2017 11:00 a.m.

Teacher secondary school, born in Murtuq village, 63 years old

15 minute introduction and watermelon eating.

Originally Murtluq= “many many students” because many students came here to the mazhar- school to learn Islam.

V4: Karez not at the same time as the temple, temple also had a tower function. In the building are paintings with a specific technique.

Cheick/sjeik introduces Islam and is a more worldly person, a mullah is a religious leader and the Imam leads in prayer.

V2: missionary story, well in the mazhar (burial shrine, like tombs of Hoja’s who introduced Islam), not home of cheick.

V2: the dating is supposed not correct because there used to be logs about mazhars but they were burned during the Cultural Revolution.

Islam came during the Chagatai-period. Turpan was 200 years later than Kashgar. So the remains cannot be older than 15century CE.

V2: He ( the Hoja) Abdu Hemid (born in Kashgar, studied in Mumbai & Delhi) was educated in India and came to Murtuq as an Islam missionary. He had a wide knowledge of medicine which earned him great respect by ordinary people during transition Buddhism-Islam  did he need water?

Karez in V2 probably in 1980’s because before it wasn’t needed because there was a spring abandoned during Cultural Revolution. Afterwards the karez were dug by local people because they could worship again.

V4: before V1 but not as old as temple.

Fruit gardens were maintained by cheick. People went to sit there and drink the water to become ‘smarter’. Walls near mazhar: houses with their own water containers of mud to fill with river water.

Visit with Kasim to the valleys.

Valley 1

Springirrigated the terracesnow dried up.

1980: first no water or wet soil in tunnel. They tried lower but there was still no water. After more pay and a suicide talk (“if you dig there and there is no water, I will jump in this karez and die”) they dug more up the hill, based on a significant plant and found water. The karez were ordered by someone who inherited (?) the land.

1960 is supposedly the best period: lots of trees and canals to irrigate the fields with the spring water.

Beginning of the seventies the fields were abandoned because of the Cultural Revolution because the land had also religious connotation.

1980: the people came back First they tried to reuse the old channel with a tunnel (after mill, south of mill) but they didn’t have water. So they tried further, second terraces were created.

There was a small basin for the animals to drink water. Dam from south to north at west side of valley to protect karez from water.

The west house was during the 1940-50’s to stay at the valley for a short amount of time. West top was used during the same period for drying grapes. The east top contains a Buddha temple that is older than the rest. They are sure it is a Buddha temple because of the small rooms. It may also have served a tower function. The story goes that a Buddha statue was found here but its current location is unknown.

The round part at the end of the east hill was used as a dorsing floor. Water is not needed for this but it is their “ hamam”

151

Valley 2

Karez built in 1983, around 50 m. people came to rest at a karez. In 1981, just after the Cultural Revolution, religious people and Hoja came back to pray and they cleaned the natural spring. In 1983 they started the karez to get more water which they needed to create mud to build the mazhar. At that moment they started planting crops and praying more. It was abandoned in1995. The house in the north was destroyed but had writings dating from 1984 in Chagatai script which can be read by Turkic people.

Valley 3

With paintings (now mostly gone), they clearly used two thin layers with cotton and weeds. On the hill another Buddha temple with stupas near 2 others. The watchtower was used for signaling. There are karez but the traject is unclear, located near rill.

152

Attachment 2: Field Observations

153

Inventory of elements in valley 1 based on field observations

Elemen Description Coordinates Measu

t rement

ID IC Date Time

Valley s Photos Photos Depth Shaft Shaft Dump Others (m) (m) NS EW (cm)

(cm) (cm)

buildin House on west side;

g difficult to access, for

1 1 n.a.

v1.1 temporary stay?

pit Pit in west side of N42°59'00,0'' 225 244 middle spur, on soft hill E089°30'40,5'' side, a lot of gravel elev 264 m

slide off, no dump

visible in vicinity. Old

2017

1 -

2 roots growing in upper

v1.2 - 11:14 layer, now dead. Signs 11 of erosion on pit sides and accumulation in the middle. Situated near

west gorge.

false False, no karez

3 1

v1.3

2017

karez Rectangular karez shaft. N42°59'00,1'' 106 69 790

Shaft has rill erosion at E089°30'41,3''

2017 mouth, tunnel slightly elev 262 m

4 1

7 v1.4

- visible. Discontinuous 11:

11 dump around it

contains more gravel

154

Inventory of elements in valley 1 based on field observations

than surroundings, situated at the tip of the spur before the unison of 2 gorges. Degradation of dump possibly because of hill erosion. karez Rectangular karez shaft. N42°58'59,5'' 20 133 84 EW 598 Shrubs west of shaft. E089°30'41,6'' NS 646 Covered with wood and elev 260m ox/cow hide blanket.

Wood seems to be

2017 specifically

5 1

7 v1.5

- manufactured. Dump 11:40

11 shows small signs of rill erosion. Situated east of eastern gorge, close to gully from east

hill.

karez Square shaft close to N42°59'00,0'' 3 58 57 east gorge; large, non- E089°30'41,6'' circular dump with elev 256m

weeds growing in upper

layer, all dead now.

2017

1 -

6 Dump experiences

v1.6 - 12:14 erosion from 5 and the 11 hill and gorge. Big stone tumble east-> from 5? Near dead

bushes.

155

Inventory of elements in valley 1 based on field observations

tunnel Collapsed tunnel, N42°59'00,0'' 2.2 191 111 linked to 6 in south E089°30'41,7'' side, goes to 8 in NW, elev 252m earth heap visible in

turn, clearly decreasing

2017 slope of tunnel, dead

7 1

7 v1.7

- shrubs in tunnel, signs 12:26

11 of erosion, outward part of tunnel may be eroded by streaming water, also photos 19/7

13:03.

karez Rectangular shaft, filled N42°59'00,1'' 1.4 122 66

in. Erosion visible, E089°30'41,7''

Dump in NW, contains elev 252m

2017

1 -

8 gravel and big stones,

v1.8 - 12:38 possible canal like 11 structure connected to

6-7-8.

karez Rectangular shaft, N42°58'59,9'' 17 114 89 630 protected by wood and E089°30'42,0'' dead tree; previous elev 256m wooden protection

made with sticks and

weeds still visible but

2017

1 -

9 destroyed. Next to shaft

v1.9 - 13:32 there are shrubs. 11 Situated east of group 6-7-8. Dump only partially conserved, south part gravely

eroded. Sandy dump

156

Inventory of elements in valley 1 based on field observations

material but with much gravel. Small remains of rope.

karez Rectangular shaft with N42°59'00,3'' 2.7 126 89 242x390

heavy rill erosion, filled E089°30'42,0''

in. Shrubs on bottom. elev 254m

2017

1 -

10 Dump with gravel on

- v1.10 13:40 top, east of 11, lots of 11 flood from east hill,

next to channel?

karez Rectangular shaft, N42°59'00,4'' 12.7 138 71 695x735 covered with wood and E089°30'42,7'' sticks, ox/cow hide, elev 253m bags with cotton-> for weight. Some bags

have been washed

away. Erosion circle

2017

1 -

11 (184 cm). Shrubs near

- v1.11 14:06 shaft, erosion of shaft 11 mouth, dump partially overlapped by 10, dead shrubs on overlap, living shrubs on dump. Outcome of channel

situated near pool.

pool Round pool with outlet N42°59'00,6'' 12.3 0,544

(55 cm) next to karez E089°30'42,8'' diameter

2017

1 -

12 11, slope from terrace elev 251m

9:00 -

v1.12 17, shrubs growing, lots 11 14:09/17:3 of gravel in dump.

157

Inventory of elements in valley 1 based on field observations

karez Rectangular shaft, N42°59'00,6'' 12.3 137 104 710x679 remains of coverage E089°30'43,6''

with sticks, ox/cow elev 255m

2017 hide and textile. On top

13 7

- of terrace 18, dump

v1.13 18:16

12 contains much gravel, close to erosion of east

hill, steps visible.

karez Shaft filled in, top of N42°59'00,6'' 2.3 140 48 475x512 tunnel visible, shaft E089°30'43,9'' erosion southwest, elev 250m

uneven dump, more on

2017 east side. Situated on

14 7

- terrace 19, erosion from

v1.14 18:27

12 terrace 18, cotton bag nearby, much gravel in dump, erosion 177x255

cm.

karez Rectangular shaft, N42°59'00,8'' 10.3 137 101 650x639 covered with wood and E089°30'44,3'' plants, turning wheel elev 246m present, rope on ground, remains of

plastic coverage. Plants

2017 west side of dump,

15 7

- dump contains much

v1.15 18:53

12 gravel, dead roots in dump, west of gorge (tunnel), rill erosion on dump, re-fixing of pulley visible, steps

visible in wall. Erosion

158

Inventory of elements in valley 1 based on field observations

from terrace 19 shrubs at dump, plastic tube, big chunks of earth and big stones at north side.

karez Rectangular shaft, N42°59'00,9'' 9.8 139.4 58.3 642x491 covered with planks, E089°30'44,8'' ox/cow hide and sticks, elev 246m

glove, steps, installation

traces, near gorge and

2017

1 -

16 wall, dump near

- v1.16 19:00 complete but destroyed 13 by dam, metal near cardboard and 1 metal piece around shaft, just

like textile.

field Rectangular terrace, 2,10X9,74x3,9

7 destroyed by pool 12, 3X7,40cm

1 17

2017 shrubs, erosion in east. H0,73m

v1.17

17:36

- field Terrace divided from 17 100 68 4,80x8,25x4,4

- 7

- by canal to dam, 5x10,00

destroyed by 13. Break H1,02m

and parallel to dam,

1 18

2017 contains rectangular pit,

v1.18

18:11

2017 & 12 & 2017

18:00 & 18:00 12/7 -

- probable start of failed 7

- karez shaft, east of karez 11 11/7 13.

field Channel at sides, 26,00x5,67x26

7 destroyed by karez 14 ,88x6,00

1 19

2017 & 13, small piece of H1,02m

v1.19 18:35

pottery (hard, reduced,

159

Inventory of elements in valley 1 based on field observations

quarts, smooth, dark red). Next to west channel, contains cotton bags. field East of gorge and dam, 5,83x14,63x6, contains 53 and 54. 25x13,98 Contains small darker H0,871m pits with stones,

sometimes roots on

2017 semi-regular distance.

20 7

- End of dam and near

v1.20

19:56 2

1 beginning gorge (once blocked-> erosion to 73), erosion to lower level and from terrace

21; dispersed gravel.

field East of dam, contains 4,99x9,19x4,3

karez 22, connected to 0x9,46

channel->old tree; H0,622m

2017

1 -

21 eroded by dam. Old

- v1.21 19:42 roots in dam side, 12 shrubs, top layer of

gravel.

karez Rectangular shaft, filled N42°59'12,0'' 1.4 113 59 210x218 in. Stratigraphy still E089°30'43,8''

visible, uneven dump, elev 246m

much gravel, erosion.

2017

1 -

22 Situated on t terrace 21,

- v1.22 19:06 next to dam 23, erosion 12 from higher terrace with gullies to lower

place.

160

Inventory of elements in valley 1 based on field observations

dam Near gorge, geological N-S: 16,

- stratigraphy still 06+20,85+30,9

2017

1 -

23 visible, several flood 3m

v1.23 20:21 20:13 moments visible, severe

12 erosion.

buddha mudbrick & mudplaster temple? with straw. Domed

roofs, small rooms,

situated on hill top, 3

2017

24 -

7 structures (one is

v1.24 -

9 probably a stupa). Photos taken 9/7, 14/7

and 18/7.

wall Wall connected to hill N42°59'00,7'' L3,46m W

7 east. E089°30'45,5'' 0,32-33m

25 1675

2017 elev 244m H1,39 m

v1.25 19:49

buildin Building A, photos N42°59'00,0" max g also14/7 13; 25 E089°30'47,7" depth2,155m excavated house, elev252m min depth mudbrick & mudstraw 1,475m main

plaster, located IN hill width

tongue, near erosion (3)4,701m min

gully (bad location). width

1663

2017

1 -

26 Sphere annex (other (1)1,749m

- v1.26

18:18 room, hollow (0,50m main length 18 1656 with laser)-> (2)2,349m max bioturbation? Dorsing length floor? (4)4,765m ANNEX measured from corner house

161

Inventory of elements in valley 1 based on field observations

11,84m & 14,92 & 9,41m

buildin Building B, mudbrick N42°59'00,4" L10,98m

g building mudstraw E089°30'48,4" W7,71m

plaster, destroyed, elev258m

1667

2017 small annex (possibly

27 7

- toilet), at end of hill

v1.27

17:59 18 1664 tongue (26), bioturbation holes, textile, rope, shrubs.

pool Kasim's source, N42°59'00,9'' triangle

pit/pool? Tree and plant E089°30'45,2'' 2,19x2,12x3,2

remains, clothing, elev 246m 9, midsection

1501

2017

1 -

28 erosion from terraces, 2,59

7 -

v1.28 dried mud, animal 13 1496 feces. Canal from 19:16/19:23:00 tunnel. karez Rectangular shaft, N42°59'01,0'' 8.7 120.9 63.5 517x549 covered with textile, E089°30'45,5'' cotton, cardboard, elev 244m

stones, erosion from

wall side and sticks;

2017

1 -

29 metal parts present;

- v1.29 19:40 irregular dump, lots of 13 rust colour on stone and gravel, dry shaft. Coin found on dump near

karez, from mountain?

162

Inventory of elements in valley 1 based on field observations

karez Located on terrace, N42°59'01,1" 8.6 109.1 78.3 455x543 covered with crisscross E089°30'46,2'' sticks, textile and elev 244m

plastic, cardboard,

stones; rectangular

1495

2017 shaft. Dump with lots

30 7

- of gravel, traces of

v1.30

10:16 14 1494 turning wheel installation; irregular, dead sticks, erosion and fill, next to channel, dry karez depth 8,60m. karez Rectangular shaft, N42°59'01,1" 8.3 59.5 76.9 551x499 covered with wood & E089°30'46,9'' textile, fill in, sticks, elev 249

feces, visibility too low (wrong)m

to see steps, "double"

2017

1 -

31 dump, 'channel' from

- v1.31 10:29 terrace 40?, irregular, 14 lots of gravel, unsorted, on terrace 45, possible earth from re-dig? Dry

karez depth 8,30m.

karez Rectangular shaft, N42°59'01,2" 8.2 151.7 68.7 529x634 covered with sticks and E089°30'47,3''

cardboard, feces and elev 243

old roots, rope in dump, (wrong)m

2017

1 -

32 steps visible, located on

- v1.32 10:39 terrace 47, metal rod. 14 Irregular dump with not so much gravel and big

chunks ->leverage?

163

Inventory of elements in valley 1 based on field observations

"double" dump?, lots of erosion and slib, dry karez depth 8,20m.

karez Rectangular shaft, N42°59'01,3" 7.6 136 58.3 518x586 covered with sticks, E089°30'47,8'' textile/clothes, reeds, elev 246

steps visible, feces, (wrong)m

2017 located on terrace

33 7

- 60/61, "double" dump,

v1.33 10:49

14 part gravel part loam, installation traces, erosion from channel,

dry karez depth7,60m.

karez Square shaft, covered N42°59'01,3" 6.1 63.5 114.6 601x578 with sticks, planks, E089°30'48,7''

clothes, cardboard, elev 245m

metal, stones? Steps

2017

1 -

34 visible, next to channel,

- v1.34 10:58 on terrace 62; "double" 14 dump, lots of gravel, irregular, reeds dry

karez depth 6,10m.

karez Square shaft located on N42°59'01,4" 5.8 63 110.3 548x477 terrace 63/64, next to E089°30'48,7''

channel, near shrubs, elev 240m

covered with earth

2017

1 -

35 chunks, cardboard,

- v1.35 11:34 sticks and stones, steps 14 visible; "double" dump irregular, 50/50

gravel/loam, old roots

164

Inventory of elements in valley 1 based on field observations

and dead reeds, metal binder, earth chunks on top of dump, erosion from channel dry karez depth 5,80m. karez Square shaft covered N42°59'01,5" 4.9 74.6 138.1 487x526 with sticks & cardboard E089°30'49,2'' & dirt (?); "double" elev 244m

dump, irregular, lots of

2017 gravel, chunks, erosion

36 7

- from higher terraces,

v1.36 11:43

14 shrubs in NW, next to big channel, shoe nearby, dry karez depth

4,90m.

buildin Building C, rammed N42°59'02,3" length

g earth and mudbrick, E089°30'49,8" 10,732m

dumped grape drying elev 242m W9,920m

1654

2017 racks, central stones

37 7

- with burned wood

v1.37

19:08 17 1648 (grape drying racks?), between original cut off gully and new gully. field Terrace with 5 fields, length 18,14m

irregular, wool hat, next height 0,694m

2017 to karez 31, shrub, width

38 7

- modern ceramics. connecting

v1.38 19:53

17 Connecting channel channel 8,87m

with 39 and 40.

165

Inventory of elements in valley 1 based on field observations

field 4 Fields; west and east length 19,19m

divided by connecting height 0,446m

2017 channel to 38 and 40, Width by

39 7

- modern ceramics, big connecting

v1.39 20:04

17 stones , next to karez channel 6,53m

30.

field Terrace + intersection , channel 5,59m

3 fields, cotton bag in height 0,437m

2017

1 -

40 channel, big stones, cut length 14,51m

- v1.40 20:11 off by dam of channel,

17 shrubs in slope.

field Shoe, cotton bag, length 20,70m

shrubs, roots, maybe height 0,875m

dump from karez, width 9,56m

2017

1 -

41 modern glass, possible

- v1.41 20:22 connection to 28, 17 contains possible one

small pool.

field Big gravel heap with length 11,56m

big stones, ox/cow hide height 1,205m

in channel, shrubs, width mid-

2017

1 -

42 stone circle, glove in channel 5,58m

- v1.42 20:34 channel, next to 17 connection to 28 from

41.

buildin Building D, recent N42°58'58,9" L5,80m W4m

g house, mudbrick and E089°30'52,7 H2,34m

2017 -

43 mudplaster, dry wood elev235m

- v1.43 10:37 storage, door blocked,

19 oven nearby.

166

Inventory of elements in valley 1 based on field observations

field Terrace with 3 fields, L17,46m

shallow depressions, W4,76m

2017

1 -

44 contains karez 31, roots H0,369m

- v1.44 13:11 in slope, burned stone,

18 modern ceramics.

field Terrace with 3 fields, L21,83m

contains karez 31, W4,20m

2017

1 -

45 roots, also roots in H0,408m

- v1.45 13:09 slope, rope in slope,

18 modern ceramics.

buildin Building E, grape N42°59'02,4" L9,323m g drying building, was E089°30'53,0" W3,582m locked, mudbrick, elev 238m H2,565m carpet and cushion, blanket, clothes, cigarettes, tubes as in

karez 49 and pool,

2017 bottles, baskets, grape

46 7

- hangers, plastic baskets,

v1.46 18:28

17 buckets, broom, tube connections, wood glass jar above door, roof of wood & sticks, hedge cutter, paper in wall posts 5 times, built

on mudbrick base.

deep Deep canal with same L76m W1,542

- - -

7 canal tube as in karez 49, Depth0,891m -

47 erosion, fill in, shrubs, max height of

2017 1638

v1.47

18:48 1604; 1637

1603 roots in wall. wall2,255m

167

Inventory of elements in valley 1 based on field observations

karez Rectangular shaft, close N42°58'59,1'' 136 79 radius 290 to rill from south east E089°30'40,7'' hill side, experiences elev 257m

erosion, steps visible in

2017 shaft wall east.

48 7

- Geological stratigraphy

v1.48 12:45

11 partially visible. Close to east gorge, very sandy dump, not much

gravel.

karez Square shaft covered N42°58'01,6' 2.3 91 63 diameter7 with sticks and weeds, E089°30'49,8'' 76 several levels, no steps, elev 242m grape stick with metal; dump with shrubs and erosion rills/ lots of gravel west, less gravel east; humid, no stream depth 2,3m to mouth,

3,50 m to surroundings.

2017 TUNNEL: 26,6m

49 7

- covered with woods,

v1.49 11:53

14 reeds and cardboard, stream erosion, salt accretion at sides of gully, two level roof, round to oval profile, stratigraphy visible: (down to up) (1) 20cm erosion and salt (2) 14 cm big pebbles (3) 17

cm small pebbles

168

Inventory of elements in valley 1 based on field observations

occasionally a big one (4)16 cm silt with gravel (5)20 cm silt layers, lots of bioturbation (6)23 cm silt with sorted gravel (7)19 cm silt(8)70 cm unsorted gravel (photos 12:04) breakdown tunnel starts at karez 32 where the walls are covered with mud, there is bone and fill in and the space becomes very tiny. At the height of karez 33 there are scratches and the tube disappears in the fill in dirt. At karez34 until 36 there are two tubes, with an especially carved gully for the tubes. fire pit Rectangular fire place N42°59'00,2'' 0,59x0,56 and with big natural stones, E089°30'42,1''

channel burned wood nearby, elev 254m

Y-stick put in ground

2017 -

50 next to fire pit. Rusty

- v1.50 17:31 metal under stones. 11 Slight discolouration on stones, no burn marks

nearby, no burned

169

Inventory of elements in valley 1 based on field observations

bones or seed, situated after stone tumble. Probable channel with shrubs at end, pack of unburned wood nearby, bright blue stone, same level channel as 7?

field Trapezoidal terrace, 1x4,86x2,57x4

7 shrubs, destroyed by ,90 H0,43m

- 51

2017 karez 10 and 11.

v1.51

17:46

channel Channel same height as

7 7?

2017

v1.52

17:21

well? Covered sides, depth 2, N42°59'01,7'' 121 77

7 Karez? 6 m, no tunnel visible. E089°30'44,4''

53 1677

2017 Dump is sandy with elev 248m

v1.53

20:11 1676

bits of gravel.

animal Hole from hare?

7 hole Leading to gorge.

2017

v1.54

20:12

dam Dump tunnel, gravel on length from

7 top; near tunnel. karez 7,80 m

- 55

2017 from k15,

v1.55

19:24

170

Inventory of elements in valley 1 based on field observations

gorge/ 6,16 m Covered tunnel, N42°59'00,6'' tunnel light visible from 14, E089°30'44,4'' filled in, erosion, roots elev 247m and living plants, fluctuating floor level. Animal holes and paw

prints in channel,

clothing (coverage?) and 1 shoe. 22,10m Open tunnel charcoal

and charred plants,

56 shovel in and at open

v1.56 channel-> ends in 28, connected to karez 14: filled in or never

18:55:0018:46:00 & finished? Clear fill of 13/07/201718/07/2017 & rain and stream. Hypothesis: filled because the recent stream marks are wiggly and uneven while the erosion is

wide and even.

field Terrace with 3 fields, L13,32m

blocked by dump karez W14,61m

29 or channel, modern H0,600m

1672

2017 ceramics, roots, shallow

57 7

- depressions, no burned

v1.57

13:00 18 1668 stone, roots in slope, shrubs, contains karez

30.

171

Inventory of elements in valley 1 based on field observations

field Terrace with 5 fields, L20,12m irregular, 2 channels W4,92m

east and 2 channels H0,420m

west, contains karez 32,

2017 -

58 shallow depressions,

- v1.58 13:06 modern ceramics, roots 18 in slope, metal in slope, small pool near

channel.

field Terrace with 3 fields L18,20m

contains karez 32, W4,99m (1

channel west from 58, field ca. 2m)

2017 -

59 textile, roots in slope, H0,325m

- v1.59 12:13 metal, shallow 18 depression, natural

bone

field 1 Field with karez 33, L18,37m

roots, shallow W5,02m

2017 depression, textile, H0,409m

7 1655

- roots in slope, cotton

v1.60 12:08

18 bag, natural bone,

burned stone.

field Terrace with 4 fields, L19,40m contains karez 33, W8,05m (1 shallow depressions, field 2,30m)

shrubs, not much H0,476m

2017 gravel, roots in slope,

61 7

- gravel between 2

v1.61 11:40

18 channels, field pattern destroyed by karez 33 and shallow

depressions, burned

172

Inventory of elements in valley 1 based on field observations

stones ->slide off? Natural bone, modern ceramics.

field Metal ( photos 11:25) L19,52m terrace with 4 fields, W7,57m ( 1 contains karez 34, field ca. 2m) H roots, glass bottle, 0,491m

connected to channel,

natural bone, modern

2017 -

62 ceramics, shrubs,

v1.62 11:25

8 shallow depression, 1 feces, conglomerate, channel from 61, possible burned stone but too fragmented to

say.

field Terrace with 4 fields, L18,12m contains karez 35, W7,71m

shrubs, roots in slope, H0,434m

shallow depression,

2017 -

63 modern ceramics ( seen

- v1.63 11:09 in Murtuq), connection 18 to channel, textile, bone natural, metal, roots in

beds.

field Terrace with 2 fields, L17,52m

partially destroyed by W6,14m (1

2017 karez 35, shrubs, field 3,16m)

64 7

- modern ceramics, not H0,339m

v1.64 10:57

18 much gravel, roots in

slope.

173

Inventory of elements in valley 1 based on field observations

field Terrace with 2 fields L16,66m

contains karez 36, side W5,99m (1

destroyed by karez, field 2,70m)

2017

5 -

6 connected to channel, H0,445m

- v1.65 10:50 not so much gravel, 18 was probably connected

to 64 under karez 36.

pool Double pool with dam N42°59'01,6" lenght 10,48

break, leads water to 67 E089°30'47,2" +7,32m width

and 60, modern elev 242m dam 2,29m

2017 -

66 ceramics, rope, shrubs, length dam

- v1.66 19:44 less big stones than 67, 2,90- 17 child shoes. dambreak-

5,96m

pool Pool with shrubs, depth 1,099m,

possibly 2 levels, next width 7,18m

7 to but lower than karez length 18,61m

201 35, 34, 33. Big stones at

67 7

- entrance slope, receives

v1.67 19:34

17 water from terrace 60, modern ceramics, rope,

shrubs.

pool Feces, gravel at side, N42°59'00,4" 278 186

stone row= stairs? E089°30'47,6''

2017 -

68 Channel? Comes from elev 248m

- v1.68 18:27 along hill (rain catch?

18 Channel? (1,24m).

dam Dam with gravel, next L7,18m

7 to karez 35, roots and W2,494m

- 69

2017 weeds, blocks pool, depth 1,101m

v1.69 19:26

feces, leads to channel.

174

Inventory of elements in valley 1 based on field observations

dam Man made dam with N42°59'01,2" Dam break 81

gravel & big stones, E089°30'49,6'' cm wide, dam

2017 -

70 leads to destroyed elev 246m 136 cm wide

- v1.70 10:42 fields, connected to

18 terrace 65, feces.

channel Canal and intersection ( length

field 57), textile, 45,58+23

2017 modern ceramics, iron m

71 7

- wire, shrubs in side,

v1.71 18:49

18 linkage to other

channels.

dam Natural gorge, blocked N42°59'01,9" small dams:

off from deep canal and E089°30'50,2" L4,517m

redirected by small elev 239m W1,930m big

2017 -

72 dams towards grape dam L3,351m

- v1.72 18:59 drying building, bucket W2,138m 17 near big dam, shrubs,

gravel, erosion.

fields Large high raised beds, Lbed30,05m & dam roots and big stones, Wbed7,61m only gravel on eastern Hbed 1,307m erosion side, natural Wchannel bone, channel for trees? 1,50m

(->dumps) or pools?,

2017 fed by upper channel in

73 7

- front of building B,

v1.73 17:37

18 slight slope. Receives water via channel from field (58,16m long, parallel to hill). System against erosion with

dams: 3 times a dam

175

Inventory of elements in valley 1 based on field observations

was built to counter erosion, 4th time a dam break was created to channel erosion water to vineyard. Closer to building B another dam was built against erosion. 73a Is a very eroded channel with 2 levels because of dam reconstruction on original raised bed, part of original fields 73, probably given up because of erosion. Lots of animal holes and bioturbation, erosion gully next to hill. fields Multiple terraces, length sometimes dam, dam (1)44,31m breaks and pools, (bed) weeds and roots at side (2)48,46m

of bed, clear on (bed)

17 satellite, now heavenly (3)34,22m (

20 -

74 eroded because gorge bed) ascending

- v1.74 19:20 was blocked. order to hill 17 width (1)8,76m (2)8,14m (3)7,65m nnel

0,471m

176

Inventory of elements in valley 1 based on field observations

pool Pool; entrance tube N42°59'01,6" L11,65m blocked with wood & E089°30'53,9" W7,13m Depth stones. Ceramics, elev238m 0,827m bucket, waste, weeds, 2

burned patches; trees &

reeds on dam tube

- 1640

2017 leading out (no

75 7

- beginning visible,

v1.75

19:28 18 1639 cotton bag, bones, textile, wooden post (?), a blocked channel to the west. 50% dam, 50% excavated

structure.

fields Partially altered by 77, L46,81m near pool 75 in south, W12,20m shrubs, glass, plastic, H0,699m

big stones, textile,

2017 connected to pool

76 7

- channel blocked by

v1.76 11:33

19 dam, shoe, connect to 85, most shrubs compared to 85,76 &

77.

heaps Heaps at channel

connection pool 75 and

1642

2017

- -

77 76, high heap same as

- v1.77

11:42 mechanical fields 79 19

1641 height->re-dug?

177

Inventory of elements in valley 1 based on field observations

fields Cut off fields, same L61,3m W

type of field as 76 & 85 probably

but main channel dug originally same

2017 -

78 out by mechanical as 85 & 76,

- v1.78 11:49 fields, big stones, H0,414m 19 shrubs, gravel, not

much garbage.

mechan Connected to main pool (1)Lbed93,62 ical channel, roots, big m Wbed6m fields stones, shrubs in Depth channel, splits in north channel0,458m and south ( with 86) Wchannel3,26 part, channels closed at m (2) end, rounded end. Lbed86,92m

Wbed7,20m

2017 Depth

79 7

- channel0,430m

v1.79 12:11

19 Wchannel2,84 m (3) Lbed86,10m Wbed6,23m Depth channel0,346m Wchannel2,67

fields Fields with 3 beds, L93m

same connecting W15,09m

channels and more than H0,495m

2017 -

80 82, modern ceramics,

- v1.80 11:02 many big stone, shrubs, 19 shoes, textile, natural

bone, burned wood,

178

Inventory of elements in valley 1 based on field observations

metal, roots, 3 beds become 2 and eventually 1 in the west. dam Loamy dam, L97m W3,86m

stone/brick heap, iron H0,546m

and plastic, natural

2017 -

81 bone, textile, irregular

- v1.81 10:55 form, gravel in west, 19 always descending

slope.

fields Regular fields, modern L97m W6m

7 ceramics, connected to

82 1636

2017 84 three times, plastics,

v1.82

19:12 1632

erosion, gravel.

pool Pool with weeds, trees N42°59'01,5" L11,95m

on dam, cut off blocked E089°30'53,1" W7,18m

1612

2017 dam, bricks and stones elev238m Depth1,217m

83 7

- in it, modern ceramics,

v1.83

19:01 18 1605 bone, east of deep

canal.

fields Tubes, shoe/sock with L68m W9,3m

paper, claw marks,

1631

2017

- -

84 textile, roots on dams,

- v1.84

19:16 10 fields (A-J), pool in 18

1613 1 and 2 with dam.

fields Big heaps with big L43,65m

stones, metal, ceramics W11,86m

1647

2017 and glass, roots, E-form H0,400m

85 7

- fields, northeast of

v1.85

11:22 19 1643 channel of probable

eroded fields, once

179

Inventory of elements in valley 1 based on field observations

connected to pool 75 later blocked.

gorge/t See 56.

7 unnel

2017

v1.87

18:56

vineyar Vineyard with brick (4)Lbed67,85 d towers, sticks or m Wbed6,64m concrete pillars, Depth channel sometimes small pool 0,776m connecting to pool Wchannel1,67 channel first (6) brick m (5)Lbed: (5) sticks (4) concrete 76,83m

pillars. Grape plants Wbed6,22

strung by metal cord; Depth

2017 -

86 textiles. channel0,574m

- v1.86 12:36 Wchannel2,82 19 m (6)Lbed: unmeasurable Wbed5,96m Depth channel0,652m Wchannel2,34 m extra on (3)

Lbed 54,63m

channel No clear indication,

7 near heavy erosion of hill.

- 88

2017 tree?

v1.88

18:47

180

Inventory of elements in valley 1 based on field observations

channel Same level as channel

7 from near karez 30,

- 89

2017 29-28 destroyed by karez 29.

v1.89

18:44

181

Inventory of elements in valley 2 based on field observations

Element Description Coordinates Measurements

ID IC

Date

Valle Time

Depth Shaf Shaf Dump (cm) Others (m) kare t NS t z (m) (cm) EW

(cm)

karez Round shaft N42°58'51,9" 16.8 121 91.7 428x476cm with steps, E089°30'56,7 covered with " elev 258m wood (and metal) & textile blanket; older covers visible, dead shrubs;

irregular

2017 dump, lots of

1 2

7 v2.1

- gravel, erosion 10:31

15 to eastern gorge, next to inland gorge, dead roots and shrubs, installation traces; humid karez no stream depth 16,80m.

182

Inventory of elements in valley 2 based on field observations

karez Rectangular N42°58'51,6" 12.5 143. 114. 478x414 (from shaft, covered E089°30'57,4 9 9 wall) with wood & " elev 255m blankets & stones; irregular

dump, shrubs,

half gravel half

2017

2 -

2 loam, turning

v2.2 - 10:45 wheel and 15 textile knots, next to steep side (shrubs) and gorge very wet streaming karez, depth 12,5m.

183

Inventory of elements in valley 2 based on field observations

karez Rectangular N42°58'51,6" 3.6 113. 61 324x446 (from shaft, no cover, E089°30'57,4 4 wall) steps visible, " elev 255m tunnel visible, fill in, trunks in shaft; metal

in dump,

unclear dump,

2017

2 -

3 not much

v2.3 - 10:54 gravel, erosion, 15 shrubs on steep side, cardboard in dump, share part of dump with 2 dry karez depth 3,60m.

184

Inventory of elements in valley 2 based on field observations

karez Rectangular N42°58'51,6" 10.7 101. 113. ca. 400 shaft, steps E089°30'57,4 8 4 visible, " elev 252m covered with blankets, reinforced with wood & stones & bricks, next to gorge; dump

heavenly

2017 eroded

4 2

7 v2.4

- especially on 11:06

15 steep side, installation traces, shoe, chunks of earth, gravel, stones, textile; very wet streaming karez depth 10,70m. dam?+ channel Dam? L 9,36m wW1,16m Destroyed by

karez 4? In

2017 between

5 2

7 v2.5

- erosion gully 12:05

15 and gorge, channel ends at tree.

185

Inventory of elements in valley 2 based on field observations

karez Rectangular N42°58'51,7" 8.18 109. 65 498x448 shaft covered E089°30'57,4 5 with planks & " elev 250m blankets & stones, reinforced with wood, next to "sacred tree" west of k6,

steps visible;

2017 loamy dump

6 2

7 v2.6

- with 11:40

15 installation traces, long dead shrubs, next to erosion channel because of walking? Streaming water depth 8,18m. tree & basin Collection of N42°58'52,3" length to stone terrace gorge, dam E089°30'57,8 43,26m channel 5 and " elev 248m

erosion gully,

2017 lots of wood,

7 2

7 v2.7

- big stones 12:19

15 (flood?), shrubs, tying textile, next to karez 6.

186

Inventory of elements in valley 2 based on field observations

karez Rectangular N42°58'52,3" 5.36 105. 60.2 485x414 shaft covered E089°30'58,6 8 with tapestry " elev 247m & trunks, enforced with trunks, weed, stones & bark,

steps visible,

2017 tunnel visible;

8 2

7 v2.8

- very loamy 11:56

15 dump, erosion to channel, tree roots, shrubs, stick with tied knot; wet streaming karez depth 5,36m.

187

Inventory of elements in valley 2 based on field observations

building Reed roof on Portico L10,139m portico, W4,246 H3,048m inscriptions on Terrace L13,363m wall, rammed W5,694m H1,406m earth remains, House 3,259x4,246m

door with nr.4, H2,439m

blue, closed

2017

2 -

9 with wire,

v2.9 - 13:22 burned remains 15 in house, textile, 2 lamp pots in portico, oven and chimney outside, bricks. building On terrace, L4,544m W3,437m mudbrick with H2,79m ( remains!) mudstraw plaster, windows

closed off,

2017 wooden roof

10 7

- with straw

v2.10 19:58

16 mats and mud, writing son wall, crevasse with burn marks, destroyed.

188

Inventory of elements in valley 2 based on field observations

pit Small break N42°58'52,6" L1,1m W0,674m

7 facing gorge, E089°30'56,6

2 11

2017 gravel & loam. " elev 267m

v2.11 17:51

pit loamy shallow N42°58'52,6" too shallow

7 hollow E089°30'56,4

2 12

2017 depression " elev 267m

v2.12 17:55 facing valley 2. man-made Uyghur on N42°58'53,0" L2,481m cave wall, reading E089°30'57,9 Depth1,610m Qu'ran? Man- " elev 250m H1,311m made cave (pick axe), fill in with dirt, entrance reinforced with

mudbricks and

stones, curtains

2017

2 -

13 above door,

- v2.13 19:20 tree trunk 15 before entrance + dump, wall niche east of entrance, gully along hill side, inscriptions on NE wall next to entrance in Uyghur.

189

Inventory of elements in valley 2 based on field observations

excavated East of N42°58'53,8" dromos2,488m room boundary E089°30'58,6 L2,838m W2,278m marker, recent " elev 240m H0,778m

ceramics, (boundary

white alcohol marker)

2017

2 -

14 bottles (2000-

- v2.14 19:38 00/09/04), 15 destroyed, erosion from hill, profile unclear. excavated Full of textile, dromos 2,252m room ceramic lamp, L5,315m W3,032m walls with minH0,820m maxH

mud, holes for 2,202m

roof?-

2017

2 -

15 >differences

- v2.15 19:44 on wall, 15 erosion from hill, 1988 written on wall.

190

Inventory of elements in valley 2 based on field observations

excavated Ceramic lamp, dromosL2,003m room pole with W0,904m L5,873m textile, roots in W2,868m wall, textile on minH1,959m

ground, dump maxH1,971m

on both side,

2017

2 -

16 parallel

- v2.16 19:50 orientation on 15 hill, channel leading to dromos (likely recent), slope dromos. excavated Slope dromos, dromos2,988m room dump on both L7,299m sides, channel minH1,422M leading to maxH1,481m

dromos (likely

recent), signs

2017

2 -

17 of collapse,

- v2.17 20:02 chunks, recent 15 ceramics ( white alcohol) roots in wall, tree trunk, shrubs.

191

Inventory of elements in valley 2 based on field observations

excavated Dromos slope, dromos2,562m room white W0,837m L6,098m

concretion on W3,652m

2017 wall, can, minH1,052m

18 7

- textile scarf, maxH1,346m

v2.18 20:07

15 dump on both sides, erosion, roots in walls. excavated Dromos slope, dromos2,863m room white L6,035m W2,788m concretion on minH1,251m

wall, wall maxH1,499m

differences,

2017

2 -

19 notch in wall,

- v2.19 20:15 collapsed, 15 roots in wall, erosion, no anthropogenic remains.

192

Inventory of elements in valley 2 based on field observations

excaveted With structure; dromos2,494m room building in L5,979m W3,144m mudbrick; minH1,297m white concrete, maxH1,426m collapsed,

shrubs, textile,

roots in wall.

2017

2 -

20 Structure: 1. 2

- v2.20 20:15 trunks,2. 15 sticks, 3.plastic and cardboard, hole in middle (collapse?) 4. walls in mudbrick.

earth beds Earth beds in L2x2,866m

7 mirrored E- W3,558m

2 21

2017 form.

v2.21 20:20

gravel circle Recent gravel N42°58'54,5" diameter 5,40m

7 circle. E089°30'00,0

2 22

2017 " elev 237m

v2.22 13:11

193

Inventory of elements in valley 2 based on field observations

man made Man made N42°58'51,3" L1,256m cave cave, plastered E089°30'54,2 Depth1,267m by hand with " elev 265m H1,013m mud, entrance with stones

and mud, reed

2017 covers on

23 7

- floor, sun

v2.23 17:49

15 flower seed, loamy place above entrance, burned battery nearby.

man made Man made N42°58'51,3" L0,996m

7 cave cave, no mud, E089°30'54,2 Depth0,648m

2 24

2017 no use wear. " elev 265m H0,704m

v2.24 18:02

building Destroyed width of complete school?, terrace17,718m terrace

remains, 4

2017 stairs, next to

25 7

- channel, script

v2.25 20:00

16 remains, wall remains of mudbrick and mud.

194

Inventory of elements in valley 2 based on field observations

outlet & tunnel Covered tunnel N42°58'52,5" covered tunnel: L7,5m with textile & E089°30'59,0 W0,751m H1,981m, axe hide " elev 237m water bed: W0,263m (18/7), small 0,13m deep uncovered stream bed, channel L17,853m to wood planks stone terrace crossing, tree roots trough wall, pick axe traces, lamps in jar, holes at entrance in walls (

covers?),

entrance

2017

2 -

26 reinforced with

- v2.26 12:58 cotton bags 15 and weeds; ends in uncovered channel to stone terrace, trees near water, walls of channel decrease and stop at entrance tunnel, tumble from channel walls.

195

Inventory of elements in valley 2 based on field observations

field Trapezoidal L12,440m(measured

terrace, driving at slope) W10,325m

2017

2 -

27 traces, tree H0,7m

- v2.27 20:25 remains, 16 broom. field Lower terrace, L8,533m W14,90m

ceramics, fully H0,45m

2017 surrounded by

28 7

- water, several

v2.28 20:33

16 levels around terrace. field Starts from L17,30m W1,87m

building 25 H0,21m

(school),

2017

2 -

29 destroyed,

- v2.29 11:47 channel 17 leading NS with trees. field Terrace L16,43m W1,12m

parallel to H0,14m

2017 building 25

30 7

- (school), 2

v2.30 11:52

17 channels NS at sides.

196

Inventory of elements in valley 2 based on field observations

pool Destroyed L17m pool, with W3,317mDepth1,009 ceramics, m

shrubs and

trees on side,

2017

2 -

31 burned tree

- v2.31 13:00 trunks, bricks 17 from demolition; parallel to 25 &30 &29. pool? Plausible pool L6,54m W5,561m next to 31, depth 0,737m destroyed by

felled trees,

2017 trees on mutual

32 7

- bed with 32,

v2.32 12:40

17 reeds on pool bed, connection to pool 31. pool Square pool, L:7,62m W6,66m

destroyed, lots H0,62m

2017 of grasses, 2

33 7

- water channels

v2.33 12:00

17 in opposite corners.

197

Inventory of elements in valley 2 based on field observations

pool? field? Rectangular L7,72m W6,36m platform, Depth0,86m partially

destroyed,

small raised

2017

2 -

34 lines (Natural?

- v2.34 12:08 Human?), 17 shrubs, possible connection to pool 32. fields Regular fields, L11,15m W8,11m possibly (per bed ca.1-1,25m) connected to channel near 25, limited by terrace 36 &

dam 37, 9

raised beds,

2017

2 -

35 burned wood,

- v2.35 12:54 loops of 17 channels to transport water between beds, very likely similar fields on other side of dam.

198

Inventory of elements in valley 2 based on field observations

field High L7,61m W7,80m terrace/platfor H0,86m m with semi-

regular holes,

animal feces,

2017

2 -

36 east of dam,

- v2.36 12:21 north of 35, 17 west of 34, shrubs on side, not so much gravel. dam Dam, separates L11,28m W1,05m 2 possible H0,25m

fields (one

2017 destroyed),

37 7

- connected to

v2.37 12:51

17 high terrace 36, shrubs on dam.

dam Dam L4,74m W1,33m

connected to H0,18m

2017

.38

2 -

38 36, separates

- v2 12:39 pool from 17 possible fields.

pool Rectangular L7,64m W3,87m

pool with dam Depth 0,86m

2017

2 -

39 break, east of

- v2.39 12:43 high terrace 17 36, one shrub.

199

Inventory of elements in valley 2 based on field observations

dam with Dam with dam L2,87m ( break at

break break, gravel 0,61m) W1,16m

and loam, H0,30m

2017

2 -

40 connects pool

v2.40 12:48

7 to swirly rill 1 going northeast. pool Pool lower N42°58'52,3" L3,10m W7,39m H1 than building E089°31'01,4 0,31m H2 0,29m 53, with " elev245m channel to

lower levels,

still humid,

2017

2 -

41 second channel

- v2.41 09:55 in direction of 17 Valley 3, three channels leading east, trees & shrubs, feces. dam? Terrace and L6,60m ( dambreak at dam connected 2,8m from West) to pool 41 with annex part dam 1,05m channel H0,45m

(L8,51m).

2017 Trees in

42 7

- channel to

v2.42 10:08

17 dam, loamy dam with break to lower terrace. Trees behind dam.

200

Inventory of elements in valley 2 based on field observations

field Lower terrace L8,31m W5,84m with 3 fields, dambreak at 4m from planting in West H0,25m lower

channels, trees

2017 & shrubs,

43 7

- ceramics, dam

v2.43 10:20

17 break to lower terrace 44, trees in pit, erosion from higher terrain. field Terrace with L6,38m W5,42m trees, no dam H0,48m break, channel leading down

and feeding

2017 fields, trees in

44 7

- pits, slightly

v2.44 10:35

17 turned orientation parallel to hill side V3, 3 fields.

201

Inventory of elements in valley 2 based on field observations

field Terrace with 2 L6,98m W4,29m fields, 3 trees H0,43m Wchannel remain, 2,72m irregular form, destroyed and eroded,

slightly more

turned than 44,

2017

2 -

45 parallel to

- v2.45 10:52 building 46. 17 Lots of mudbrick at side. Big channel leading NE to road at foot of terrace.

202

Inventory of elements in valley 2 based on field observations

building Destroyed, N42°58'52,8" Length destroyed mud brick, E089°31'02,7 W101m H2,35m H hollow base " elev 236m opening 0,64m under floor (facing channel), hole

in floor, no

burn marks or

2017

2 -

46 waterproofing,

- v2.46 10:59 no window 17 remains but brick pattern with openings, stairs? Possible toilet? Base was built on stones. fields Loamy terraces N42°58'53,0" H87 cm triangle 1) in turned E089°31'03,8 165-141-138cm position on " elev 235m 2)179-142-129cm 3) channel, only 180-148-126 cm one in good

condition,

2017 others

47 7

- measured by

v2.47 11:14

17 triangles with 90° corner (first measurement is hypotenuse ex.165cm).

203

Inventory of elements in valley 2 based on field observations

cave Contains N42°58'49,4" L 6,279m W 1,844m tapestry, soot E089°30'53,8 H2,094m traces, lamps " elev 269m with cotton wick in ceramics or metal pot, oil (nearby in bottle) and probably other stuff (spices?)- >ash remains. Empty bottles ( oil, water?) fresh cotton present, writings on

wall->date

2017 inscriptions,

48 7

- seems to start

v2.48 18:26

14 around 1980 ( most likely date of visit others: birthday?) dug traces with pick axe, remains of torches SW wall, big stones & bricks& shaman staffs outside. 204 Clothing and stone heaps nearby; looking NW. Inventory of elements in valley 2 based on field observations

stone heaps Man made length from gully till heaps near gorge: 10,25m gorge and cave ( several places but concentrated around cave), 1 fire place, 1 red burned red object wrapped

in paper, 1

glass & bone

2017

2 -

49 with dried

- v2.49 18:34 flesh and 14 possible knife marks, rill and gully erosion, stream and recent flood traces, bone spread: natural or human? Textile sometimes tied around stones.

dam Dam at gorge N42°58'50,0" L5,027m W1,538m

to close gorge E089°30'56,6 H0,938m

2017

2 -

50 and lead to V3, " elev 258m

- v2.50 18:07 loamy, only 16 gravel on top.

205

Inventory of elements in valley 2 based on field observations

stone terrace Terrace with Lstone 6,14m bricks ( and Wstone3,89m small parallel Learth7,593m earth terrace), Wearth1,06m surrounded by structureH 1,394m channels, trees W0,883m L1 1,162m

with writings, L2 0,974m

metal pipe-

2017

2 -

51 >for water?,

- v2.51 20:17 mud brick 16 structure NW with fire tracks and shaman staff, structure consisting of 2 parts next to outlet->oven? building Mud brick Lroom1 1,78m building, no Lroom2 1,53m width finishing, two 1,94m H0,94m

rooms in total

2017 against natural

52 7

- wall, one room

v2.52 20:48

16 with brick floor, now still toilet, holes at base.

206

Inventory of elements in valley 2 based on field observations

building Mudbrick L5,09m W2,65m 'house' with H2,32m annex, hole at basis, wood

door with

2017 cardboard, in

53 7

- the house hole

v2.53 20:40

16 in floor with sticks, roof destroyed by tree, possibly toilet. hole Hole with N42°58'52,6" L1,01m H0,40m metal bucket, E089°30'58,6 full with dirt, " elev 239m dust, textile,

plastics &

2017 some bricks,

54 7

- cardboard,

v2.54 12:22

15 next to collecting channel in the east, behind the old school.

207

Inventory of elements in valley 2 based on field observations

ID IC

Date Element Description Coordinates Measurements

Time Valley

Shaft Shaft Dump (cm) Others (m) NS EW

(cm) (cm)

4 1 writings Writings on loam N42°58'27,8''

v4.1 of wall, Uyghur E089°31'15,0''

2017

10:26 -

7 and Western elev 246m (6

- alphabet. satellites; 14 20 m resolution because in

gorge)

- 4

2 natural caves? Probable natural not available

7 -

v4.2 caves; 2017

19 inaccessible.

4 3 hole in ground Hole in ground, N42°58'27,0'' 149 131 W 269cm, depth 0,68 m

v4.3 eroded, roots in E089°31'20,0'' outer line

2017

10:42 -

7 wall, shrubs in elev 245m 210+134+200,

- hole, tunnels inner line 20 leading NW- 128cm >bioturbation? (40- 70 cm long- >roots?) dump has same mix as surroundings- >protected from previous erosion by plants?

208

Inventory of elements in valley 2 based on field observations

4 4 dump Karez? No visible N42°58'27,3'' 102.6 70 triangle:

v4.4 shaft-> filled in? E089°31'20,9'' bissectrice

2017

10:57 -

7 Shallow elev 244m 556cm, side

- depression; east 456 and 491m 20 side steep and eroded, dump same mix as surroundings, cut off shows burying of plants, shrubs; next to gorge; earth

chunks.

4 5 trees near gorge No outlet, 2 trees

v4.5 near gorge, no

2017

11:14 -

7 tunnel or outlet

- basin visible, 20 natural multilevel gorge, walls covered with mud drip, erosion from sides, filled with

dead leaves.

4 6 hole in rock Gray discoloration N42°58'28,1'' depth: 3,416

v4.6 on ceiling, low E089°31'21,6'' width:1,441

2017

11:20 -

7 cave, 5 holes elev 235m height:0,518

- above entrance- 20 >erosion? Now plants in floor cracks; height to hardened floor 0,773m.

209

Inventory of elements in valley 2 based on field observations

4 7 cave hole on top Mostly human N42°58'28,4'' heigth 1,510m

v4.7 probably, with E089°31'20,7'' width: 0,643m

2017

11:42 -

7 deeper hole elev 246m depth: 2,482m

- leading down. 20 Roots in upper part, bioturbation holes, fossilized roots? Erosion from top, looking

east, claw nearby.

4 8 cave room Man-made cave N42°58'28,0" height 1,524m entrance

v4.8 (pick axe), cave in E089°31'21,1" depth 7,811m, H

2017

12:37 -

7 from roof, elev 234 width: 3,087m 1,524m

- rectangular door width: 20 with top 1,196m inforcement with thick: mud plaster; now 1,369m used for dirt, roots

next to entrance.

4 9 cave room Man made cave height 1,703m entrance

v4.9 (pick axe), square depth 6,038m, H

2017

12:32 -

7 door with top width: 2,847m 1,494m

- reinforcement, width: 20 remains of lock 1,275m mechanism? Cave thick: in of roof; now 1,829m used for dirt, writings on wall.

210

Inventory of elements in valley 2 based on field observations

4 cave room Man made cave height 1,802m entrance

10 (pick axe), sphere depth 8,059m, H

2017

v4.10

12:00 -

7 entrance, now used width: 3,235m 1,530m

- as storage room width: 20 and resting place, 1,170m looking SE, thick: stratigraphy 1,226m visible, door with

top reinforcements.

4 buddha temple Mud brick temple N42°58'29,4" width of lower

11 and mud plaster E089°31'24,5" level

2017

v4.11

18:33 -

7 with straw, pottery elev 227m (complete

- in walls. Main wall) 14,24m 20 corridor seems deliberately blocked ( and one side forces open once). POTTERY: hard baking, undecorated, wheel made, mostly thick shards, quartz; 1 grey, 6 light brown, 2 brown- orange, 1 light orange; mostly shards, 2 edges, 1 ear, 1 foot; natural bone.

211

Inventory of elements in valley 2 based on field observations

4 stupa Rectangular base N42°58'29,9" BaseL9,82m

12 probable stupa. E089°31'22,7" BaseW6,92m

2017

v4.12

18:22 -

7 Base of rammed elev 234m ShrineL5,25m

- earth, shrine with ShrineW2,78m 20 mud brick and mud plaster with straw; white plaster remains, central heap, plant remains in base? Entrance slope; POTTERY: straight pot, edge, wheel, quartz, thick, harshly finished, hard baking. Cubic smooth stone.

212

Inventory of elements in valley 2 based on field observations

4 monk caves See map room 1: 1: depth cave

13 filled in cave- from entrance

2017

v4.13

19:50 -

7 >flood? Pick axe 4,442m H

- traces, pigment, 2,194m W 20 entrance seems 3,036mheigth made to be closed fill 0,938m 2: 2:mudbrick & mud L6,183m plaster, red and W3,214m white paint, entrance 3:platform, burn 318m, wall marks?, white south of plastic (modern), entrance ceramics: red, 2,472m 3: hard, wheel, edge, L2,844m quartz 4: seat? 5 : W2,334m, mud brick, mud distance to plaster, white and platform red paint 6: mud 1,814m brick, gypsum 4:W0,468m 5: crystal, pot as L7,490m oven, two burn W2,958m 6: marks on NW L6,712m Max wall, modern W3,410m, W bone?; partially cookingplace: dug in rock 7: low 1,077m walls, burnmarks Lcooking 8: square cave with place2,86m H mural paint, oven0,584m 8: writings on depth 2,715m entrance, thousand W 2,660m Buddhas ceiling; L2,372m POTTERY: 1 entrance thick decorated sherd 1,071m with black 213 H1,431m horizontal stripes, W1,047m hard, reduced baking, wheel, edge of bowl,

Inventory of elements in valley 2 based on field observations

4 erosion pit Irregular pit with N42°58'28,4" L NW-SE:

14 eroded side, roots E089°31'26,0" 0,98m W 0,79

2017

v4.14

13:06 -

7 in walls, erosion elev 221m cm depth 0,

- tunnel to gorge -> 811m 20 helped by bioturbation? Dead

shrubs, fill in.

4 fields Height differences, first T (south): 1)H0,87m

15 very eroded, N42°58'30,9" W9,24m

2017

v4.15

20:24 -

7 shrubs, big stones, E089°31'29,0" L6,14m

- not so much elev 213 last 2) H 0,416m 20 gravel, feces, T (north): W10,33m between gorge and N42°58'31,5" L6,19m 3)H slope, no channels E089°31'30,3" 0,401m visible, lots of elev 211 W11,47m gullies; 5 terraces. L9,54m 4)H 0,443m W8,58m L9,78m 5)H0,411m W8,56m L9,18m

214

Inventory of elements in valley 2 based on field observations

4 stream bed Filled in from NW A) A) depth

16 side, very regular N42°58'27,9" 1,713m width

2017

v4.16

12:51 -

7 and wide, no pick E089°31'22,2" 3,141m

- axe traces, fill in at elev236m B) B)depth 1,430 20 same point as N42°58'28,4" width 1,974m widening gorge. E089°31'23,5" C)depth 3,723 Very flat, regular elev224m C) width 3,191m and homogeneous N42°58'28,5 fill, Start A: rill E089°31'24,7" erosion and mud, elev 224m section B: height difference E side: rill erosion W side: fill in; section C: height difference, end, than starts normal natural deep and small

gorge.

4 modern house Modern house, N42°58'32,3" length: 10,88m

7 17

- used by Heritage, E089°31'27,5" width: 4,65m

2017

20 v4.17 17:50 mud plaster, elev 221m heigth: 2,18m partially dug in.

215

Inventory of elements in valley 2 based on field observations

4 fields 8 Terraces, low, N42°58'28,1" 1 (southwest)

18 eroded, no more E089°31'23,3" H0,262

2017

v4.18 -

7 channels visible, elev 230m W4,121m

- parallel, next to L9,839m 21 gorge. 2H0,212m W3,37m L8,446m 3H0,212m W3,37m L8,40m (pit) 4H0,244 W3,52 L8,225m 5H0,196m W3,41m L6,53m 6H0,180m W2,80m L5,13m 7H0,271m W3,54m L3,56m 8H0,277m W3,64m

L2,51m

216

Attachment 3: Photo Lists of Artefacts and Landscapes

217

Photo list of artefacts with plausible Murtuq origin. Note that the certainty of the site origin varies for each entry. N° Site Yea Dati Who Description Location Link r ng Murtuq 10th Grünwedel / 43927/Mandala of a thoussand Museum für Asiatische http://www.bpk-bildagentur.de/shop

- Le Coq armed and thoussand eyes Kunst, Kunstsammlung

11th bodhisattva, Avalokiteshvara, Süd-, Südost- und 6355 C 27,5x38,5cm. Zentralasien, SMB

III AD Murtuq 13th Grünwedel/ 48852/Fragment of a Sanskrit Museum für Asiatische http://www.bpk-bildagentur.de/shop

C Le Coq manuscript, inkt on paper. Kunst, Kunstsammlung 85

AD Süd-, Südost- und

III Zentralasien, SMB

Murtuq 13th Grünwedel/ 48853/M167/Fragment of a Museum für Asiatische http://www.bpk-bildagentur.de/shop C Le Coq Sanskrit manuscript, backside Kunst, Kunstsammlung

AD with Chinese blockprint, inkt on Süd-, Südost- und 85verso III paper. Zentralasien, SMB

Murtuq 5th Sogdian manuscript on paper Museum für Indische https://depts.washington.edu/silkroad 32

C 8,2x31 cm. Kunst /museums/mia/murtuk.html III

(https://depts.washingt on.edu/silkroad/museu

MIK ms/mia/miaintro.html)

218

Photo list of artefacts with plausible Murtuq origin. Note that the certainty of the site origin varies for each entry.

Murtuq 1928 7th- Aurel Stein Quilted cloth shoe with a string Innermost Asia volume http://www.britishmuseum.org/resear valley 4 8th sole. The uppers were cut in two II, 1928, 638/ British ch/collection_online/collection_obje temple C pieces, joining in a raised seam in museum field ct_details.aspx?objectId=228010&pa

11 AD the middle of heel and toe. The collection Sir Marc rtId=1&searchText=murtuk&page=1 fabric used is made of several Aurel Stein 19,281,022.89 layers of canvas-like material which were quilted together. The quilting itself was done in plain horizontal lines of stitching which creates a ribbed effect. At the back of the heel, a small canvas pocket has been sewn on. The sole of the shoe, which is worn through at the heel, was made of a woven string. The decoration on the front of the shoe consists of and embroidery depicting volutes, fleur-de-lis and palmettes. 27x10,7 cm.

Murtuq 9- Uyghur tax exemption issued by translation Matsui, http://turfan.bbaw.de/dta/u/images/u

)

12(1 the rulers of the West Uygur 2005 from pg.70 5317detail1.jpg 3)th kingdom concerning the Murtluq onwards; see also

(U5317 C (Murtuq) Buddhist monastery. Moriyasu, 2004

Chapter 4 pg.154-160

205a

III

219

Photo list of artefacts with plausible Murtuq origin. Note that the certainty of the site origin varies for each entry.

Murtuq end Grünwedel/ 77709/Cotton temple flag with Museum für Asiatische http://www.bpk-bildagentur.de/shop 10- Le Coq Avalokiteshvara 95x59cm. Kunst, Kunstsammlung begi Süd-, Südost- und nnin Zentralasien, SMB

11th 8559 C

III AD

Murtuq 1902 Tang Otani Kozui Fragments of dyed, woven and (Kagawa, 1915) http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/cgi-

- dyna embroidered textiles. bin/toyobunko/show_page.pl?lang=e

1914 sty n&book=I-1-E-18/V- 3/0175 1&page=0175&keyword=murtuq Murtuq 1902 Tang Otani Kozui Fragments of embroidered (Kagawa, 1915) http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/I-1-E- - dyna textiles. 18/V-1/page/0177.html.en

1915 sty 4/0177

Murtuq 1902 Tang Otani Kozui Fragments of dyed textiles. (Kagawa, 1915) http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/I-1-E- - dyna 18/V-1/page/0179.html.en

1916 sty 5/0179

Surroun 1902 Tang Otani Kozui Fragments of dyed textiles. (Kagawa, 1915) http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/I-1-E- dings - dyna 18/V-1/page/0181.html.en of 1917 sty

6.1/0181 Murtuq

Murtuq 1902 Tang Otani Kozui Fragments of dyed, woven and (Kagawa, 1915) http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/I-1-E-

- dyna embroidered textiles. 18/V-1/page/0183.html.en

1918 sty 7/0183

220

Photo list of artefacts with plausible Murtuq origin. Note that the certainty of the site origin varies for each entry.

Murtuq 1902 Tang Otani Kozui Fragments of textile. (Kagawa, 1915) http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/I-1-E- - dyna 18/V-1/page/0173.html.en

1919 sty 2/0173

Murtuq 1902 Tang Otani Kozui Fragments of textiles (with floral (Kagawa, 1915) http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/I-1-E-

- dyna and grape pattern). 18/V-1/page/0171.html.en

1920 sty 1/0171

Murtuq 1902 Tang Otani Kozui Stucco head. (Kagawa, 1915) http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/I-1-E- - dyna 18/V-1/page/0161.html.en

1921 sty 13.1/0161

Murtuq 1902 Tang Otani Kozui Stucco figure. (Kagawa, 1915) http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/I-1-E- - dyna 18/V-1/page/0159.html.en

1922 sty 12.1/0159

Murtuq 1902 Tang Otani Kozui Fragment of stucco figure, gilded. (Kagawa, 1915) http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/I-1-E- - dyna 18/V-1/page/0159.html.en

1923 sty 12.2/0159

Murtuq 1902 Tang Otani Kozui Fragment of stucco figure. (Kagawa, 1915) http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/I-1-E- - dyna 18/V-1/page/0159.html.en

1924 sty 12.3/0159

Murtuq 1902 Tang Otani Kozui Stucco figure (upper part of (Kagawa, 1915) http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/I-1-E- - dyna body). 18/V-1/page/0157.html.en

1925 sty 11/0157

221

Photo list of artefacts with plausible Murtuq origin. Note that the certainty of the site origin varies for each entry.

Murtuq 1902 Tang Otani Kozui Fragment of wall painting (Kagawa, 1915) http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/I-1-E-

- - inscriptions. 18/V-1/page/0065.html.en 1926 Song dyna

22/0065 sty Murtuq 1902 Tang Otani Kozui Fragment of wall painting (Kagawa, 1915) http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/I-1-E-

- - inscriptions. 18/V-1/page/0063.html.en 1927 Song dyna

21/0063 sty Murtuq 1902 Tang Otani Kozui Fragment of wall painting (Kagawa, 1915) http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/I-1-E-

- - inscriptions. 18/V-1/page/0061.html.en 1928 Song dyna

20/0061 sty Murtuq 1902 Tang Otani Kozui Fragment of wall painting. (Kagawa, 1915) http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/I-1-E-

- - 18/V-1/page/0059.html.en 1929 Song dyna

19/0059 sty Murtuq 1902 Tang Otani Kozui Fragment of wall painting. (Kagawa, 1915) http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/I-1-E-

- - 18/V-1/page/0057.html.en 1930 Song

dyna 18/0057 sty Murtuq 1902 Tang Otani Kozui Fragments of wall paintings. (Kagawa, 1915) http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/I-1-E-

- - 18/V-1/page/0055.html.en 1931 Song dyna

17/0055 sty

222

Photo list of artefacts with plausible Murtuq origin. Note that the certainty of the site origin varies for each entry.

Murtuq 1902 Tang Otani Kozui Fragments of wall paintings. (Kagawa, 1915) http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/I-1-E-

- - 18/V-1/page/0053.html.en 1932 Song dyna

16/0053 sty Murtuq 1902 Tang Otani Kozui Fragments of wall paintings. (Kagawa, 1915) http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/I-1-E-

- - 18/V-1/page/0051.html.en 1933 Song

dyna 15/0051 sty Murtuq 1902 Tang Otani Kozui Fragment of wall paintings. (Kagawa, 1915) http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/I-1-E-

- - 18/V-1/page/0049.html.en 1934 Song dyna

14/0049 sty Murtuq 1902 Tang Otani Kozui Fragment of wall painting. (Kagawa, 1915) http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/I-1-E-

- - 18/V-1/page/0047.html.en 1935 Song dyna

13/0047 sty Murtuq 1902 Tang Otani Kozui Fragment of wall painting. (Kagawa, 1915) http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/I-1-E-

- - 18/V-1/page/0045.html.en 1936 Song dyna

12/0045 sty Murtuq 1906 Grünwedel/ Wall paintings in temple on Museum für Asiatische http://www.smb- valley 3 - Le Coq hillside. Kunst: fotoarchiv digital.de/eMuseumPlus?service=Ext anlage 1907 ernalInterface&module=collection& 3 objectId=1856553&viewType=detail

B0900 View

223

Photo list of artefacts with plausible Murtuq origin. Note that the certainty of the site origin varies for each entry.

Murtuq 1906 Grünwedel/ Loamsculpture and wallpainting. Museum für Asiatische http://www.smb- (Ort) - Le Coq Kunst: fotoarchiv digital.de/eMuseumPlus?service=Ext GP, 1907 ernalInterface&module=collection& s/w, objectId=1856618&viewType=detail

B0951 Abzug View Murtuq 1906 Grünwedel/ Loam construction and wall Museum für Asiatische http://www.smb- - Le Coq sculpture. Kunst: fotoarchiv digital.de/eMuseumPlus?service=Ext 1907 ernalInterface&module=collection& objectId=1856618&viewType=detail

B0951 View Murtuq 1902 Grünwedel/ Manuscript. Museum für Asiatische http://www.smb- (Ort) - Le Coq Kunst: fotoarchiv digital.de/eMuseumPlus?service=Ext 1914 ernalInterface&module=collection& objectId=1857280&viewType=detail

B1682 View Murtuq 1906 Grünwedel/ Manuscript. Museum für Asiatische http://www.smb- (Ort) - Le Coq Kunst: fotoarchiv digital.de/eMuseumPlus?service=Ext 1907 ernalInterface&module=collection& objectId=1857283&viewType=detail

B1685 View Murtuq 1906 Grünwedel/ Building and loam sculpture and Museum für Asiatische http://www.smb- - Le Coq wall painting. Kunst: fotoarchiv digital.de/eMuseumPlus?service=Ext 1907 ernalInterface&module=collection& objectId=1857379&viewType=detail

B1823 View

224

Photo list of artefacts with plausible Murtuq origin. Note that the certainty of the site origin varies for each entry.

Bezekli Grünwedel/ 43939/Three great Buddhas, wall Museum für Asiatische http://www.bpk-bildagentur.de/shop k near Le Coq painting. Kunst, Kunstsammlung Murtuq Süd-, Südost- und Temple Zentralasien, SMB alpha

back

corridor 6885 backsid

III e Murtuq 1913 Aurel Stein MCIII018 clay figurine. (Stein, 1928b) http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/T-VIII-

CI valley 3 - 5-A-a-3/V-3/page/0223.html.en

1916

plate MCiii01 8

Lal- 1913 Aurel Stein Stucco reliefs from Lal-Tagh, (Stein, 1928b) http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/T-VIII- Tagh, - Murtuk and Khotan. 5-A-a-3/V-3/page/0023.html.en

Murtuq 1916 IV

(valley 4) and

plate Khotan Murtuq 1913 Aurel Stein MBIxi01 wooden top;MBIxi02 (Stein, 1928b) http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/T-VIII-

valley 4 - wooden pillar;MBIix01iron awl, 5-A-a-3/V-3/page/0151.html.en

1916 MBIxi03 horn knife handle?

plate LXVI

Mazar- 1913 Aurel Stein Miscellaneous objects, mainly in (Stein, 1928b) http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/T-VIII- Tagh - wood from Mazar-Tagh and 5-A-a-3/V-3/page/0027.html.en

and 1916 Murtuk. VI

Murtuq (valley

plate 4)

225

Photo list of artefacts with plausible Murtuq origin. Note that the certainty of the site origin varies for each entry.

Murtuq 1913 Aurel Stein MBI027 Small glazed potttery. (Stein, 1928b) http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/T-VIII-

, valley - 5-A-a-3/V-3/page/0067.html.en

4 1916

plate XXVI

Murtuq 1928 Aurel Stein Fragment of stucco ornament in (Stein, 1928a, 639)/ http://www.britishmuseum.org/resear valley 4 relief; anthemion similar to MB I British museum field ch/collection_online/collection_obje temple 015 but pattern flattened and collection Sir Marc ct_details.aspx?objectId=228007&pa 11 defaced. Painted red. Hard clay, Aurel Stein rtId=1&searchText=murtuk&page=1 backed with mud and straw. 3 1/2"x2 1/4". Fragment of a relief

with a scrollwork decoration. Made of dark clay which was mixed with a large amount of plant fibres before being moulded and then painted in a dark red.

1928,1022.92 9,2x6,9 cm. Murtuq 1928 Aurel Stein Small wooden fragment which (Stein, 1928a, 640)/ http://www.britishmuseum.org/resear

valley 4 was carved and then painted with British museum field ch/collection_online/collection_obje

temple black paint. Traces of gilding are collection Sir Marc ct_details.aspx?objectId=228008&pa 2.91 1928,102 11 also visible. 6x2 cm. Aurel Stein rtId=1&searchText=murtuk&page=1 Murtuq 1928 Aurel Stein Fragmentary wooden comb with (Stein, 1928a,, 638)/ http://www.britishmuseum.org/resear

valley 4 two sides, one of them fine- British museum field ch/collection_online/collection_obje

temple toothed. Most of the teeth have collection Sir Marc ct_details.aspx?objectId=228009&pa 2.90 1928,102 11 broken off. 4,7x4,5cm. Aurel Stein rtId=1&searchText=murtuk&page=1 Murtuq 1909 F. Ceiling design in grotto 2 on east (Oldenburg, 1914) http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/La- valley 4 - Oldenburg side. 56/V-1/page/0289.html.en

0289 (anlage 1910 2,

temple XLVII H2, Besh-

photo bukha)

226

Photo list of artefacts with plausible Murtuq origin. Note that the certainty of the site origin varies for each entry.

Murtuq 1909 F. Wall painting at entrance to (Oldenburg, 1914) http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/La- , valley - Oldenburg temple on left side of valley. 56/V-1/page/0285.html.en 3 1910

(anlage

3, 0285 temple

G, XLVI Khodza m-

photo bulak)

Murtuq Uyghur text mentioning 'ämgäk' see footnote in Matsui http://turfan.bbaw.de/dta/u/images/u M

(pain, laborious effort) as a labour Dai, Taxation systems 5317detail2.jpg

service. as seen in the uighur III

and mongol documents

205b (U5318) from Turfan: pg 71

Murtuq Uyghur tax exemption issued by translation in Matsui http://turfan.bbaw.de/dta/u/images/u

the rulers of the West Uyghur Dai, Taxation systems 5319.jpg kingdom concerning the Murtluq as seen in the uighur

(Murtuq) Buddhist monastery. and mongol documents

(U5319)

from Turfan: an

overview from pg 70

205c

M onwards; see also

III Moriyasu T., 2004,

T Chapter 4 pg 154-160

Murtuq Grünwedel/ Saddharmapuṇḍarīkasūtra, Berlin- http://idp.bl.uk/database/oo_scroll_h. M

Le Coq manuscript, ink on paper Brandenburgische a4d?uid=2441540899;recnum=1020

III 17,4x26,1. Akademie der 05;index=1

153 T Wissenschaften Murtuq Grünwedel/ Manuscript ink on paper 6,3x4,8 Berlin- http://idp.bl.uk/database/oo_scroll_h.

? Le Coq cm. Brandenburgische a4d?uid=24801339510;recnum=112

Akademie der 176;index=12 6923 SHT Wissenschaften

227

Photo list of artefacts with plausible Murtuq origin.

Note that the certainty of the site origin varies for each entry.

Murtuq Grünwedel/ Manuscript. Berlin- http://idp.bl.uk/database/oo_scroll_h.

Bl (sht

Le Coq Brandenburgische a4d?uid=24801339510;recnum=112

III Akademie der 186;index=13

146 6928 (4)2)

T Wissenschaften

Murtuq Grünwedel/ Manuscript 6,1x7,2cm. Berlin- http://idp.bl.uk/database/oo_scroll_h.

Le Coq Brandenburgische a4d?uid=24801339510;recnum=148

III Akademie der 309;index=7

Ch/U

110.500 ( 6068) T Wissenschaften

Murtuq Grünwedel/ Manuscript 7,7x5,3cm. Berlin- http://idp.bl.uk/database/oo_scroll_h.

Le Coq Brandenburgische a4d?uid=24801339510;recnum=152

III Akademie der 651;index=8

123 (Ch/U 6311) T Wissenschaften

Murtuq Grünwedel/ Manuscript 13,4x20,4cm. Berlin- http://idp.bl.uk/database/oo_scroll_h. M

Le Coq Brandenburgische a4d?uid=24801339510;recnum=145

(Ch/U

III Akademie der 876;index=9

T 507

6546) Wissenschaften

Murtuq Grünwedel/ Manuscript with word list Berlin- http://idp.bl.uk/database/oo_scroll_h.

Le Coq 18,8x11,7cm. Brandenburgische a4d?uid=24801339510;recnum=146

III Akademie der 244;index=10

173/122 (Ch/U 6811)

T Wissenschaften

Murtuq Grünwedel/ Manuscript with part of narration Berlin- http://idp.bl.uk/database/oo_scroll_h.

Le Coq 13x15,3cm. Brandenburgische a4d?uid=24801339510;recnum=146

III Akademie der 247;index=11

173.133 (Ch/U 6871) T Wissenschaften

Murtuq Grünwedel/ Manuscript 7,2x5,8cm. Berlin- http://idp.bl.uk/database/oo_scroll_h.

Le Coq Brandenburgische a4d?uid=24801339510;recnum=148

III Akademie der 300;index=5

246 (Ch/U 6062b) T Wissenschaften

228

Photo list of artefacts with plausible Murtuq origin. Note that the certainty of the site origin varies for each entry.

Murtuq Grünwedel/ Manuscript 7,1x2,2cm. Berlin- http://idp.bl.uk/database/oo_scroll_h.

Le Coq Brandenburgische a4d?uid=24801339510;recnum=148

III Akademie der 301;index=6

2 (Ch/U 6062c)

T Wissenschaften

Murtuq Grünwedel/ Manuscript 6,1x7,2cm. Berlin- http://idp.bl.uk/database/oo_scroll_h. III

Le Coq Brandenburgische a4d?uid=24801339510;recnum=148 Ch/U

Akademie der 309;index=7

M110.50 0 6068)

T Wissenschaften

Murtuq Grünwedel/ Manuscript 12,9x18,6cm. Berlin- http://idp.bl.uk/database/oo_scroll_h.

Le Coq Brandenburgische a4d?uid=24801339510;recnum=146

III Akademie der 972;index=4

174.100 (Ch/U 6002) T Wissenschaften

Murtuq Grünwedel/ Fragment (no picture). Berlin- http://idp.bl.uk/database/oo_scroll_h.

Le Coq Brandenburgische a4d?uid=24801339510;recnum=103 2004 Akademie der 305;index=3

Sht Wissenschaften

Murtuq Grünwedel/ Manuscript 10,4x14,5cm. Berlin- http://idp.bl.uk/database/oo_scroll_h.

Le Coq Brandenburgische a4d?uid=24801339510;recnum=102 1458 Akademie der 501;index=2

Sht Wissenschaften

Murtuq Manuscript; original was lost Raschmann, S.-C., 2009. Alttürkische

14x

during the war. A photo remains handschriften Teil 14 Dokumente Teil

in Istanbul. The photo was not 2, Verzeichnis der orientalischen

9008)

III published. handschriften in Deutschland XIII

T (22), 47.

Murtuq Manuscript; original was lost Raschmann, S.-C., 2009. Alttürkische

III

II) 253

during the war. A photo remains handschriften Teil 14 Dokumente Teil

in Istanbul. The photo was not 2, Verzeichnis der orientalischen 9168

published. handschriften in Deutschland XIII

Murtuq (U T (22), 20.

229

Photo list of artefacts with plausible Murtuq origin.

Note that the certainty of the site origin varies for each entry.

Murtuq Manuscript; original was lost Raschmann, S.-C., 2009. Alttürkische III

(U during the war. A photo remains handschriften Teil 14 Dokumente Teil

in Istanbul. The photo was not 2, Verzeichnis der orientalischen

published. handschriften in Deutschland XIII

Murtuq 253b 9168 T (22), 71.

Murtuq Manuscript; original was lost Raschmann, S.-C., 2009. Alttürkische

253

during the war. A photo remains handschriften Teil 14 Dokumente Teil

in Istanbul. The photo was not 2, Verzeichnis der orientalischen

9169)

III published. handschriften in Deutschland XIII

(U T (22), 72. Murtuq Manuscript with a letter on one Raschmann, S.-C., 2009. Alttürkische

219

side and a fragment of a Buddhist handschriften Teil 14 Dokumente Teil

scripture on the other. The photo 2, Verzeichnis der orientalischen

III was not published. handschriften in Deutschland XIII

(Ch/U 6169)

T (22), 95.

Murtuq A wood fragment with a short Raschmann, S.-C., 2009. Alttürkische III

253

anlage description found in Murtuq handschriften Teil 14 Dokumente Teil

3? under the floor of the left terrace 2, Verzeichnis der orientalischen

III in Anlage III. The photo was not handschriften in Deutschland XIII

(MIK 8351) T published. (22), 217.

230

Photos list of landscapes from Murtuq. The photos which are not freely accessible online are inserted after the list. N Site Year Who Description Location Link °

Murtuq 1914 Aurel Stein View up Murtuk Valley towards British Library http://searcharchives.bl.uk/prim snowy range. Photographer: Stein, Manuscript o_library/libweb/action/search.d Marc Aurel. Archive o?dscnt=1&scp.scps=scope%3 A%28BL%29&frbg=&tab=loca l&dstmp=1516702763488&srt= rank&ct=search&mode=Basic&

392/28(659) dum=true&indx=1&vl(freeText 0)=Murtuk&fn=search&vid=IA MS_VU2&fromLogin=true Murtuqvalley 1915 Aurel Stein Besh-kan ruin I, from east, double British Library http://searcharchives.bl.uk/prim 3/4? exposure. [Near Murtuk.] Manuscript o_library/libweb/action/search.d Photographer: Stein, Marc Aurel. Archive o?dscnt=1&scp.scps=scope%3 A%28BL%29&frbg=&tab=loca l&dstmp=1516702763488&srt= rank&ct=search&mode=Basic&

392/28(669) dum=true&indx=1&vl(freeText 0)=Murtuk&fn=search&vid=IA MS_VU2&fromLogin=true

231

Photos list of landscapes from Murtuq. The photos which are not freely accessible online are inserted after the list. Murtuq valley 4 1915 Aurel Stein Beshkan ruin from north-west. British Library http://searcharchives.bl.uk/prim Photographer: Stein, Marc Aurel. Manuscript o_library/libweb/action/display. Archive do?tabs=detailsTab&ct=display &fn=search&doc=IAMS041- 003073871&indx=1&recIds=IA MS041- 003073871&recIdxs=0&elemen tId=0&renderMode=poppedOut &displayMode=full&frbrVersio

392/28(695) n=&dscnt=0&frbg=&scp.scps= scope%3A%28BL%29&tab=lo cal&dstmp=1516703104936&sr t=rank&mode=Basic&&dum=tr ue&vl(freeText0)=Beshkan&vi d=IAMS_VU2 Murtuqvalley 3 1915 Aurel Stein Beshkan ruin M.C. I [M.B. I?], seen British Library http://searcharchives.bl.uk/prim from east. Photographer: Stein, Marc Manuscript o_library/libweb/action/search.d Aurel. Archive/publishe o?dscnt=1&scp.scps=scope%3 d in Innermost A%28BL%29&frbg=&tab=loca Asia l&dstmp=1516702763488&srt= rank&ct=search&mode=Basic&

392/28(696) dum=true&indx=1&vl(freeText 0)=Murtuk&fn=search&vid=IA MS_VU2&fromLogin=true

232

Photos list of landscapes from Murtuq. The photos which are not freely accessible online are inserted after the list. Murtuqvalley 3 1915 Aurel Stein View from south-east of tower and British Library http://searcharchives.bl.uk/prim ruins on hillside, M.C. (I). [Bezeklik, Manuscript o_library/libweb/action/search.d near Murtuk.] Photographer: Stein, Archive/ o?dscnt=1&scp.scps=scope%3 Marc Aurel. published in A%28BL%29&frbg=&tab=loca Innermost Asia l&dstmp=1516702763488&srt=

2/28(699) rank&ct=search&mode=Basic&

39 dum=true&indx=1&vl(freeText 0)=Murtuk&fn=search&vid=IA MS_VU2&fromLogin=true Murtuqvalley 3 1915 Aurel Stein M.C. II and ruin at head of gorge, British Library http://searcharchives.bl.uk/prim seen from M.C. I, Murtuk (south- Manuscript o_library/libweb/action/search.d east). Photographer: Stein, Marc Archive o?dscnt=1&scp.scps=scope%3 Aurel. A%28BL%29&frbg=&tab=loca l&dstmp=1516702763488&srt= rank&ct=search&mode=Basic&

392/28(703) dum=true&indx=1&vl(freeText 0)=Murtuk&fn=search&vid=IA MS_VU2&fromLogin=true Murtuq 1915 Aurel Stein Murtuk village seen from south (left British Library http://searcharchives.bl.uk/prim bank). Photographer: Stein, Marc Manuscript o_library/libweb/action/search.d Aurel. Archive o?dscnt=1&scp.scps=scope%3 A%28BL%29&frbg=&tab=loca l&dstmp=1516702763488&srt= rank&ct=search&mode=Basic&

392/28(705) dum=true&indx=1&vl(freeText 0)=Murtuk&fn=search&vid=IA MS_VU2&fromLogin=true

233

Photos list of landscapes from Murtuq. The photos which are not freely accessible online are inserted after the list. Murtuq 1914 Aurel Stein Murtuk yars and range north from British Library http://searcharchives.bl.uk/prim near Murtuk Khojam. Photographer: Manuscript o_library/libweb/action/search.d Stein, Marc Aurel. Archive o?dscnt=1&scp.scps=scope%3 A%28BL%29&frbg=&tab=loca l&dstmp=1516702763488&srt= rank&ct=search&mode=Basic&

392/29(192) dum=true&indx=1&vl(freeText 0)=Murtuk&fn=search&vid=IA MS_VU2&fromLogin=true Murtuq 1906-1907 Grünwedel/ Ruins. Museum für http://www.smb- Le Coq Asiatische Kunst: digital.de/eMuseumPlus?service fotoarchiv =ExternalInterface&module=co

B0801 llection&objectId=1856459&vi ewType=detailView Murtuq? 1906-1907 Grünwedel/ Ruins. Museum für http://www.smb- Le Coq Asiatische Kunst: digital.de/eMuseumPlus?service fotoarchiv =ExternalInterface&module=co

B0896 llection&objectId=1856549&vi ewType=detailView Murtuq, valley 3 1906-1907 Grünwedel/ Ruins in hillside and hilltop. Museum für http://www.smb- Le Coq Asiatische Kunst: digital.de/eMuseumPlus?service fotoarchiv =ExternalInterface&module=co

B0897 llection&objectId=1856550&vi ewType=detailView Murtuq 1906-1907 Grünwedel/ Ruins and panorama over gorge. Museum für http://www.smb- Le Coq Asiatische Kunst: digital.de/eMuseumPlus?service fotoarchiv =ExternalInterface&module=co

B0898 llection&objectId=1856551&vi ewType=detailView

234

Photos list of landscapes from Murtuq. The photos which are not freely accessible online are inserted after the list. Murtuq, GP, s/w, 1906-1907 Grünwedel/ Grottoes-panorama and buildings. Museum für http://www.smb- valley 3? Le Coq Asiatische Kunst: digital.de/eMuseumPlus?service fotoarchiv =ExternalInterface&module=co

B0899 llection&objectId=1856552&vi

ewType=detailView Murtuq? 1902-1914 Grünwedel/ Ruinfield, GP, s/w, abzug 13x18cm. Museum für http://www.smb- Le Coq Asiatische Kunst: digital.de/eMuseumPlus?service fotoarchiv =ExternalInterface&module=co

B0901 llection&objectId=1856554&vi ewType=detailView Murtuq? 1906-1907 Grünwedel/ Building. Museum für http://www.smb- Le Coq Asiatische Kunst: digital.de/eMuseumPlus?service fotoarchiv =ExternalInterface&module=co

B0902 llection&objectId=1856555&vi ewType=detailView Murtuq GP, s/w 1906-4907 Grünwedel/ Building. Museum für http://www.smb- Le Coq Asiatische Kunst: digital.de/eMuseumPlus?service fotoarchiv =ExternalInterface&module=co

B0902 llection&objectId=1856555&vi ewType=detailView Murtuq? 1906-1907 Grünwedel/ Ruins and fields. Museum für http://www.smb- Le Coq Asiatische Kunst: digital.de/eMuseumPlus?service fotoarchiv =ExternalInterface&module=co

B0903 llection&objectId=1856556&vi

ewType=detailView Murtuqvalley 1904-1907 Grünwedel/ Grottoes-panorama and plundered Museum für http://www.smb- 4/anlage II Le Coq ruins, 13x18cm. Asiatische Kunst: digital.de/eMuseumPlus?service (Stätte) fotoarchiv =ExternalInterface&module=co

B0904 llection&objectId=1856557&vi ewType=detailView

235

Photos list of landscapes from Murtuq. The photos which are not freely accessible online are inserted after the list. Murtuq valley 4, Grünwedel/ Grottoes-panorama and ruins, de- Museum für http://www.smb- anlage 2 Le Coq attached building. Asiatische Kunst: digital.de/eMuseumPlus?service fotoarchiv =ExternalInterface&module=co

B0912 llection&objectId=1856579&vi ewType=detailView Murtuq, GP, s/w 1906-1907 Grünwedel/ Panorama. Museum für http://www.smb- Le Coq Asiatische Kunst: digital.de/eMuseumPlus?service fotoarchiv =ExternalInterface&module=co

B1419 llection&objectId=1857000&vi ewType=detailView Murtuq (Ort) 1906-1907 Grünwedel/ Building. Museum für http://www.smb- Le Coq Asiatische Kunst: digital.de/eMuseumPlus?service fotoarchiv =ExternalInterface&module=co

B1522 llection&objectId=1857112&vi

ewType=detailView Murtuq? 1906-1907 Grünwedel/ Panorama and buildings. Museum für http://www.smb- Le Coq Asiatische Kunst: digital.de/eMuseumPlus?service fotoarchiv =ExternalInterface&module=co

B1692 llection&objectId=1857289&vi ewType=detailView Murtuq (Ort) 1906-1907 Grünwedel/ Grottoes-panorama. Museum für http://www.smb- valley 4/anlage II Le Coq Asiatische Kunst: digital.de/eMuseumPlus?service "freibau an der fotoarchiv =ExternalInterface&module=co

B1702 Berglehne" llection&objectId=1857299&vi ewType=detailView Murtuqvalley 1 1902-1914 Grünwedel/ Panorama and buildings. Museum für http://www.smb- Le Coq Asiatische Kunst: digital.de/eMuseumPlus?service fotoarchiv =ExternalInterface&module=co

B1703 llection&objectId=1857300&vi ewType=detailView

236

Photos list of landscapes from Murtuq. The photos which are not freely accessible online are inserted after the list. Murtuqvalley 1 1906-1907 Grünwedel/ Panorama of a plain with hills and Museum für http://www.smb- Le Coq buildings in the foreground. Asiatische Kunst: digital.de/eMuseumPlus?service fotoarchiv =ExternalInterface&module=co

B1704 llection&objectId=1857301&vi ewType=detailView Murtuq grottoes 1906-1907 Grünwedel/ Grottoes-panorama. Museum für http://www.smb- in hillside, anlage Le Coq Asiatische Kunst: digital.de/eMuseumPlus?service II (Stätte) fotoarchiv =ExternalInterface&module=co

B1705 llection&objectId=1857302&vi ewType=detailView Murtuqvalley 4, 1906-1907 Grünwedel/ Grottoes-panorama and buildings. Museum für http://www.smb- anlage 2 Le Coq Asiatische Kunst: digital.de/eMuseumPlus?service fotoarchiv =ExternalInterface&module=co

B1709 llection&objectId=1857306&vi ewType=detailView Murtuqvalley 4, 1906-1907 Grünwedel/ Panorama and building (Buddha Museum für http://www.smb- anlage 2 Le Coq temple). Asiatische Kunst: digital.de/eMuseumPlus?service fotoarchiv =ExternalInterface&module=co

B1710 llection&objectId=1857307&vi ewType=detailView Murtuqvalley 3, 1906-1907 Grünwedel/ Panorama and building (Buddha Museum für http://www.smb- anlage 3 Le Coq temple). Asiatische Kunst: digital.de/eMuseumPlus?service fotoarchiv =ExternalInterface&module=co

B1711 llection&objectId=1857308&vi

ewType=detailView Murtuq 1906-1907 Grünwedel/ Panorama and building (graveyard?). Museum für http://www.smb- Le Coq Asiatische Kunst: digital.de/eMuseumPlus?service fotoarchiv =ExternalInterface&module=co

B1802 llection&objectId=1857360&vi ewType=detailView

237

Photos list of landscapes from Murtuq. The photos which are not freely accessible online are inserted after the list. Murtuq, valley 3? 1906-1907 Grünwedel/ Grottoes-panorama and buildings. Museum für http://www.smb- Le Coq Asiatische Kunst: digital.de/eMuseumPlus?service fotoarchiv =ExternalInterface&module=co

B1803 llection&objectId=1857361&vi ewType=detailView Murtuqvalley 3, 1906-1907 Grünwedel/ Panorma and buildings. Museum für http://www.smb- anlage 3 Le Coq Asiatische Kunst: digital.de/eMuseumPlus?service fotoarchiv =ExternalInterface&module=co

B1804 llection&objectId=1857362&vi ewType=detailView Murtuqvalley 3, 1906-1907 Grünwedel/ Panorma and building ruins. Museum für http://www.smb- anlage 3 Le Coq Asiatische Kunst: digital.de/eMuseumPlus?service fotoarchiv =ExternalInterface&module=co

B1807 llection&objectId=1857364&vi ewType=detailView Ruinetreppe 1912 Grünwedel De-attached ruins of site 2 Murtuq as Altbuddhistische http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/VI "Berglehne 2" seen from the Northwest with Kultstätten in II-5-B4-a-7/V- grottoes in distance. Chinesisch- 1/page/0308.html.en

Turkistan (1912) Bericht über archäologische Arbeiten von

1906 bis 1907 bei not relevant not Kuca, Qarasahr und in der Oase Turfan, p.302 fig.614

238

Photos list of landscapes from Murtuq. The photos which are not freely accessible online are inserted after the list.

392/28 (659)

392/28 (669)

239

Photos list of landscapes from Murtuq. The photos which are not freely accessible online are inserted after the list.

392/28 (695)

392/28 (703)

240

Photos list of landscapes from Murtuq. The photos which are not freely accessible online are inserted after the list.

392/28 (705)

392/29 (192)

241

Attachment 4: Artefact List of Aurel Stein’s Excavation

242

Aurel Stein artefact list Murtuq 1928, Innermost Asia

Stein A., 1928a/b. Innermost Asia. Detailed report of explorations in central Asia, Kansu and eastern Iran vol. II text and vol. III plates and plans, Oxford: Claredon Press. Map Plate Stein map Pg. Number Site referenc Description of findings Vol.II reference Vol. II e I Seventeen fragments of pottery; body soft buff, temple MB with brilliant turquoise glaze both sides. Inner MB I i 01- Murtuk I room i side ribbed. 01, from thinner vessel than the v4.11i 638 PL VI 17 valley 4 lower level others, shows line of black crossing blue on inner rooms side. Gr.fr. (017) 3"x1", thickness 5/16" (01, 1/8"). temple MB Fragment of wooden comb with two rows of teeth Murtuk I room i as MB I iii 01. Fine teeth broken off at length if MB I i 018 v4.11i 638 valley 4 lower level 1/4", sand-clogged; one end gone. Length I rooms 13/16", depth I3/4", depth of coarse teeth 7/8". temple MB Fragment of bronze, more or less keel-shaped, Murtuk I room i and bent so as to form a ridge vertically. On MB I i 019 v4.11i 638 valley 4 lower level either side of ridge, hole for rivet. Cut off sq. At rooms upper end. Length I 1/16", width I 1/8". temple MB Fragment of iron implement, shaped like large Murtuk I room i tuning-fork. Head broken off; rusted. Length 2 MB I i 020 v4.11i 638 valley 4 lower level 3/8", width 1", thickness 1/2" to 3/8", length of rooms fork I 1/2". temple MB Murtuk I room i MB I i 021 v4.11i Shrivelled fruit, perhaps apricot. Length 1 1/8". 638 valley 4 lower level rooms temple MB Fragment of figured woolen fabric, finely woven. Murtuk I room i Twill weave. Warp, thin buff, weft somewhat MB I i 022 v4.11i 638 valley 4 lower level thicker, soft yellow wool. Inwoven with bands of rooms elliptical floral motifs or conventional rosettes,

Aurel Stein artefact list Murtuq 1928, Innermost Asia

the yarn which forms the pattern being carried loose across back of material and introduced into web only where required. For similar weaves in silk, see Serindia ii. p952, ch0065. Parts of two bands remain, at interval of 1"; one blue; the other pink, much faded, pattern indistinguishable. c.4"x2 1/4". temple MB Murtuk I room i Fragment of plain silk fabric; coarse, light green, MB I i 023 v4.11i 639 valley 4 lower level faded and discoloured. 7 1/2" x 5". rooms temple MB Fragment of black fibre network; horsehair (?); Murtuk I room i MB I i 024 v4.11i open mesh as for sieve, unfinished ends tied in 639 valley 4 lower level knot. Gr. M. 4". rooms temple MB Murtuk I room i Fragment of coarse woolen fabric; goat's hair, MB I i 025 v4.11i 639 valley 4 lower level dark brown, plain weave. C.6"x1 1/2". rooms temple MB Wooden comb with two rows of teeth, coarse and Murtuk I room iii fine, on opposite sides. Coarse teeth considerably MB I iii 01 v4.11iii 639 valley 4 lower level broken. Length 2 3/8", depth of whole 3 1/8", rooms depth of coarse teeth 1 1/4", of fine 1 1/16". Nine fragments of glazed stoneware bowl, with ring base (010), and plain rim (03, 05, 07, 08, 09). Body of fine grey stoneware; thick glaze, inside temple MB and out, of soft light blue (celadon), greenish on MB I iii Murtuk I room iii v4.11iii rim, stopping short of base-ring on outside. 639 02-10 valley 4 lower level Approximately of Sung-period. 02 and 04, 03 and rooms 05, 07 and 08 join. diameter of rim not less than 7" when complete, depth not less than 3", gr. fr. 2 7/16"x2 3/16".

244

Aurel Stein artefact list Murtuq 1928, Innermost Asia

Fragments of sticks (heddles?) from loom, with loops of buff woolen string attached. Five sticks temple MB (broken); string of varying thickness, twisted of MB I iii Murtuk I room iii five or six fine strands, and now tangled in mass. v4.11iii 639 011 valley 4 lower level Sticks are carefully and closely bound with cord, rooms from which original loops were formed. The later loops are merely threaded loosely on the sticks. gr. lengths of sticks 8 3/4". temple MB Wooden stick, bent in loop when pliable, and MB I iii Murtuk I room iii notched to catch on itself; ends projecting. Bark v4.11iii 639 012 valley 4 lower level left on in part. Diameter of loop 5", diameter of rooms stick 5/8". Fragment of iron implement or horn. Iron bar, averaging 3/16"x3/32" in section and 6 1/2" long, expanding at each end into small plate through which is hole. Plates slightly hollowed, spoon- temple MB fashion, at opposite sides from each other; both MB I iii Murtuk I room iii v4.11iii broken from hole, but one finished off sq., the 639 PL VI 013 valley 4 lower level other perhaps lozenge-shaped. At the former end, rooms immediately behind plate, three curving branches of increasing length, their ends curled in spirals away from bar, are welded on to it. Length of longest 2 1/2". Rusted. Fragment of flat curved band of felt; ten to twelve layers of paper-like fineness, adhering closely to temple MB each other and mixed with thin tough grass fibre. MB I iii Murtuk I room iii Remains of pale blue paint on face, with fine v4.11iii 639 014 valley 4 lower level open-work fabric on top; on back, traces of outer rooms layer painted red, lost except for minute fragments here and there. String sewing by edge. Width of band 3", gr. m. 8 1/2".

245

Aurel Stein artefact list Murtuq 1928, Innermost Asia

Iron folding razor with horn handle, complete. Handle originally round in section, now much eaten by insects, and worked into slight concave curve; deeply grooved up on one side to take blade-edge when shut. End of handle thinned down and bound with iron collar, through which is pin securing blade; collar of course terminating either side of groove, to give blade free play temple MB backwards and forwards in latter. Blade still has Murtuk I room v free action from right angles to shut, but will not MB I V 01 v4.11v 639 PL VI valley 4 lower level open out flat. Starts narrow, with notch in back at rooms length of 1/2", to flat against back of collar when opened wide; thereafter nearly straight for another 1/2" and then expanding suddenly towards back, to twice its original width. For shape, cf; razor in hand of monk in painting Serindia iv, pl LVIII, ch lviii 001; the. Buddhas, pl IX. Blade rusted, and horn of handle much perished. Blade 3"x 1/2"x5/16"; blade 2 1/2"x5/16" to 3/4". Fragment of stucco relief border, as MB I 02, &c. design: between pearl borders, a Chinese cloud temple MB scroll, in lines of approximately even thickness MB I vii Murtuk I room vii and in bold relief. Character of work suggests that v4.11vii 639 PL IV 01 valley 4 lower level the original mold was made by cutting the pattern rooms in intaglio direct. Painted red all over. Fine fibrous clay. Good condition. Length 4 3/8", width 3 1/4".

246

Aurel Stein artefact list Murtuq 1928, Innermost Asia

temple MB Fragment of stucco ornament in relief; anthemion MB I vii Murtuk I room vii similar to MB I 015 but pattern flattened and v4.11vii 639 02 valley 4 lower level defaced. Painted red. Hard clay, backed with mud rooms and straw. 3 1/2"x2 1/4".

temple MB MB I viii Murtuk I room viii Fragment of stucco border, similar to MB I vii v4.11viii 639 01 valley 4 lower level 01, PL IV 4 1/2"x 3 1/2". rooms Iron awl with wooden handle. Head, 7/8" long; 1/12" thick; 3/10" wide where it emerges from handle, and thence narrowed down to sharp point. Murtuk temple MB PL MB I ix 01 v4.11 Handle a cylindrical piece of wood, polished with 639 valley 4 I room ix LXVI use, and beveled off at free end. In good condition. Length of whole 3 5/16", diameter of handle 1/2". A silk bag; small, wide, shallow; made of thick crimson satin embroidered at intervals with pear- shaped spots worked in blue, light green, apricot, gamboge, or peach-colored silk laid 'floating' and Murtuk temple MB outlined with a couched thread which prob. orig. MB I ix 02 v4.11 639 valley 4 I room ix was covered with gold or silver leaf. Lining of pale blue silk; and ends of purple silk handle or tie (lost) sewn to edge. Much worn and frayed. Bag was made of several strips of satin and embroidery worked after joining. 3 3/4"x1 7/8". temple MB Wooden peg, smoothly turned to long tapering I room xi, shape, with six deeply incised rings round Murtuk PL MB I xi 01 rooms of v4.11xi middle. At thick end it is suddenly beveled down 639 valley 4 LXVI tower of to half its gr. Diam., but is here broken off. temple Length 4 3/4", gr. Diam. 1/2", least diam. 1/8".

247

Aurel Stein artefact list Murtuq 1928, Innermost Asia

Miniature wooden half-baluster (longitudinal temple MB half), turned and painted. Three ring moldings, I room xi, Murtuk then ball molding, then three ring moldings and PL MB I xi 02 rooms of v4.11xi 639 valley 4 ring base. Small rebate at each end. Paint, dark LXVI tower of green or black on rings, red on ball. Length 2 temple 3/8", width 3/4", gr. relief 3/8". temple MB Horn knife-handle (?). Straight, elliptical in I room xi, Murtuk section; much perished. Groove along middle on PL MB I xi 03 rooms of v4.11xi 639 valley 4 one side as for folding blad; cf. MB I v 01 PL VI. LXVI tower of Length 4 1/8", width 11/16". temple Fragment of stucco relief detail, painted red, temple MB having somewhat the appearance of a bird's claw, I room xii, MB I xii Murtuk closed. At back, impression of scroll ornament rooms of v4.11xii 639 01 valley 4 resembling MB I 02, to which it has been tower of attached. H. 2 3/4"xgr.width 2 3/4"xgr.projection temple 1 3/4".

temple MB I room xii, MB I xii Murtuk Small turned wooden half-baluster, similar to MB rooms of v4.11xii 640 02 valley 4 I xi 02 Length 2 3/8", width 3/4". tower of temple

Small turned wooden finial. Lowest molding is a temple MB cyma, above whith a bell shape encircled by a I room xii, channel. Top member a knob of kite shape in MB I xii Murtuk rooms of v4.11xii vertical section. Knob and bell painted green, 640 03 valley 4 tower of changing to red near cyma, which is also red. A temple hole drilled upwards on axis. H7/8"xgr.diameter 3/4".

248

Aurel Stein artefact list Murtuq 1928, Innermost Asia

temple MB I room xii, Grass distemper brush, bound with thick string MB I xii Murtuk rooms of v4.11xii near tip, and bark at other end. Length 7 1/2"x 640 PL VI 04 valley 4 tower of diam. 3/4". temple Upper part of pottery oinochoe, with lip and part temple MB of handle. Round slightly swelling shoulder, a Murtuk MB I 01 I upper v4.11 band of incised festoons between border lines. 638 PL VI valley 4 portion Remains of perished slip or paste on shoulder, mouth, and handle. H. 3 1/2"xdiam. 4". Twelve fragments of stucco relief border; made in straight band c2 3/4" wide, with pearl border above and below. 02 and 03 show, between the borders, design of wide repeating trefoil palmettes, attached alternately to upper border and to lower, with scroll-work within and between them. Good condition. Lengths 4 1/2" and 5 1/2". 04 shows similar pattern on larger scale, much defaced. Length 4 1/2". 05-9 show temple MB MB I 02- Murtuk fragments of Chinese cloud pattern as MB I vii I upper v4.11 638 PL IV 13 valley 4 01, q.v. for fuller description. Good condition. portion Gr. length 3 1/4". 010 is part of pearl border of 03; 011-13, fragments of pearl border of similar type, but larger scale than any of the rest. gr. length 2", width 1 1/8". All soft clay mixed with hair; 04 of coarse clay, very fibrous. All painted red, but paint almost gone from 02 and 03. Impression of canvas on the back. Mould probably incised direct without any preliminary pattern in relief. Stucco ornament in relief; fig. rising from open temple MB Murtuk lotus, both hands at breast holding two lotus MB I 014 I upper v4.11 638 PL IV valley 4 flowers which drop over either shoulder. Below portion lotus two half trefoil leaves turned respectively R.

249

Aurel Stein artefact list Murtuq 1928, Innermost Asia

and L. Probably enclosed in pear-shaped cartouche, good design and execution, painted red. Surface non-fibrous, backing finely fibrous over coarser mud and fibre. 4 1/2" x 3 3/4". Two stucco ornaments in relief, of anthemion temple MB shape of technique similar to MB I vii 02. MB I 015, Murtuk I upper v4.11 Pattern, a large lily with voluted side petals, from 638 PL IV 016 valley 4 portion which issue a pair of diverging volutes and in centre a pointed trefoil. Broken. 3 1/2" x 2 3/4". Stucco ornament in relief, of anthemion shape; temple MB Murtuk ornament of simple scroll design, roughly MB I 017 I upper v4.11 638 valley 4 executes and of same technique as preceding. 2 portion 1/2" x 1 3/4". Quilted cloth shoe with string sole. Upper are cut in two pieces joining in middle of heel and toe, and are made of several layers of natural-colored canvas-like material quilted together. Round the sides the quilting is done in plain horizontal lines of stitching, giving it a ribbed effect. Over the toe, on either side of the joining seam, it forms a pattern, an enclosed palmette surmounted by a fleur-de-lis, and throwing out volutes to fill the temple MB Murtuk space round (cf. MB I 04). The joining seam is MB I 018 I upper v4.11 638 valley 4 well marked and leads to slightly upturning tip. portion At its other end the uppers divide, forming a small graceful notch bound with finely twisted cord. roughly made canvas pocket sewn on at back of heel. Leather patch on one side. sole, narrow waisted, of woven string, studded with knots on underside as Serindia ii p784, T. XVIII. iii 002. Worn through under heel. for shoe of similar make generally, see Serindia iv PL L, M. I. ii 0025. Length 11', gr width 3 1/4".

250

Aurel Stein artefact list Murtuq 1928, Innermost Asia

Fragment of turned wooden jar of graceful shape; wide mouth with narrow upright rim, slightly swelling shoulders to 2" below mouth; body temple MB Murtuk falling inwards in straight line nearly to foot, MB I 019 I upper v4.11 638 PL VI valley 4 where it turns under in abrupt curve to ring foot. portion Pairs of incised lines round shoulder and lower part of body. H5 1/2", width of fr. 4", diameter of mouth probably c 6". Four-limbed wooden beater for churn (?). Limbs are of two upward curved pieces (to suit round temple MB Murtuk bottomed vessel), tapering at the ends, 'halved' to MB I 026 I upper v4.11 638 PL VI valley 4 each other at their centers where they cross, and portion pierced with cane spindle. Diameter 6 1/4", length of spindle 6". Small pottery bowl, glazed apple green inside and darker green shading to blue-green outside. Sides uncurved, sloping inwards to thick projecting temple MB base-ring (?) broken away all round. Bottom Murtuk PL MB I 027 I upper v4.11 within ring also glazed and painted with two 628 valley 4 XXVI portion crosses in dense black, one in thicker lines than the other, and placed in a wayFF that the eight arms radiating equally from the centre. H 1 5/16", diameter of mouth2 3/4", thickness 1/2" to 1/8".

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