English Department Introduction to Critical Theory

English Department

Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION TO CRITICAL THEORY

How Do We Read? ...... 2 Archetypal Criticism ...... 3 Russian Formalism ...... 3 New Historicism ...... 3 Marxism ...... 3 Feminist Criticism...... 3 Psychoanalytical Criticism ...... 3 The Three Little Pigs ...... 4 Reading The Three Little Pigs ...... 7 What should I be reading? ...... 9 Suggestions from your teachers ...... 10 Linking Ideas Together ...... 13 Adding more to a point already made ...... 13 Writing in lists ...... 13 Putting the same idea in a different way ...... 13 Introducing examples ...... 13 Introducing an alternative viewpoint ...... 13 Returning to emphasize your earlier viewpoint ...... 13 Showing the results of something ...... 13 Summing up or concluding ...... 14

How Do We Read?

Reading is something we get taught at primary school. Right?

Well, there is a difference between understanding the meanings (or some of the meanings) implied by the words on the page and reading.

Here’s an example: (I cannot confirm that it is true… but I love the story). The Greek tragedy, Antigone, was performed in occupied France. Both Nazi and French audience members gave it a standing ovation:

The Nazis saw the play as demonstrating the futility of resisting a ruler. French members of the audience saw the play as demonstrating the unbreakable human spirit – even when faced with dictatorial oppression.

See? Everyone in the audience heard the same words spoken, but two contradictory readings emerged.

Archetypal Criticism This focuses on mythical patterns within literature which, because they are based on experiences intrinsic to human existence, are both deeply rooted and enduring. Such themes which are rooted in myth include the death-rebirth cycle; the search or quest for healing or regeneration; the battle with, and defeat of, a monster; and the Frankenstein and Faust myths. Russian Formalism This way of reading originated in the 1920s. Formalists focused upon the ‘objective scrutiny of form, structure and language’ (King and King) in texts, directing attention away from the author to the literary text itself, which worked because it defamiliarised language and allowed readers to see objects or ideas with a new awareness. New Historicism Since the 1980s this has been influential. It reacts against Formalism as it is interested in the critical reception texts received and their contexts. It challenges comfortable traditional assumptions, tending to place texts in subversive contexts: homosexuality and criminality, for example. Marxism Marxist critics believe that historical and social developments have been influenced by class struggle. Since works of literature contain a view of society unique to their period in history, they should be studied within their contexts. Much Marxist criticism concentrates on a text’s level of realism. Feminist Criticism The central premise is that society is patriarchal (dominated by men) and that literature reflects this. Feminist critics are interested in the treatment of women writers and are doing much to redefine the canon (the notional list of ‘greats’ that show writing at its best). They are also interested in the portrayal of women in literature and in how language itself is biased towards male dominance. Psychoanalytical Criticism Especially influenced by the theories of Freud. Freud believed that repressed desires do not vanish and that they are instead expressed in another form. So, the unacceptable becomes acceptable as the author’s deep-rooted desires are disguised by symbolism.

The Three Little Pigs

 Try applying the various theories to ‘The Three Little Pigs’. Look for the author’s use of language for effect; whether it reminds you of ancient myths you know; property and social class, how the story could symbolize repressed desires or fears; gender roles.

Once upon a time there was a mother pig who had three little pigs.

The three little pigs grew so big that their mother said to them, "You are too big to live here any longer. You must go and build houses for yourselves. But take care that the wolf does not catch you.

The three little pigs set off. "We will take care that the wolf does not catch us," they said.

Soon they met a man who was carrying some straw. "Please will you give me some straw?" asked the first little pig. "I want to build a house for myself."

"Yes," said the man and he gave the first little pig some straw.

Then the first little pig built himself a house of straw. He was very pleased with his house. He said, "Now the wolf won't catch me and eat me."

"I shall build a stronger house than yours," said the second little pig. "I shall build a stronger house than yours, too," said the third little pig.

The second little pig and the third little pig went on along the road. Soon they met a man who was carrying some sticks.

"Please will you give me some sticks?" asked the second little pig. "I want to build a house for myself."

"Yes," said the man and he gave the second little pig some sticks.

Then the second little pig built himself a house of sticks. It was stronger than the house of straw.

The second little pig was very pleased with his house. He said, "Now the wolf won't catch me and eat me."

"I shall build a stronger house than yours," said the third little pig.

The third little pig walked on, along the road, by himself. Soon he met a man carrying some bricks.

"Please will you give me some bricks?" asked the third little pig. "I want to build a house for myself."

"Yes," said the man and he gave the third little pig some bricks.

Then the third little pig built himself a house of bricks. It took him a long time to build it, for it was a very strong house.

The third little pig was very pleased with his house.

He said, "Now the wolf won't catch me and eat me."

The next day the wolf came along the road. He came to the house of straw which the first little pig had built.

When the first little pig saw the wolf coming, he ran inside his house and shut the door.

The wolf knocked on the door and said, "Little pig, little pig, let me come in."

"No, no," said the little pig. "By the hair of my chinny chin chin, I will not let you come in."

"Then I'll huff and I'll puff and I'll blow your house in," said the wolf.

So he huffed and he puffed and he huffed and he puffed. The house of straw fell down and the wolf ate up the first little pig.

The next day the wolf walked further along the road. He came to the house of sticks which the second little pig had built.

When the second little pig saw the wolf coming, he ran inside his house and shut the door.

The wolf knocked on the door and said, "Little pig, little pig, let me come in."

"No, no," said the little pig. "By the hair of my chinny chin chin, I will not let you come in."

"Then I'll huff and I'll puff and I'll blow your house in," said the wolf.

So he huffed and he puffed and he huffed and he puffed. The house of sticks fell down and the wolf ate up the second little pig.

The next day the wolf walked further along the road. He came to the house of bricks which the third little pig had built.

When the third little pig saw the wolf coming, he ran inside his house and shut the door.

The wolf knocked on the door and said, "Little pig, little pig, let me come in."

"No, no," said the little pig. "By the hair of my chinny chin chin, I will not let you come in."

"Then I'll huff and I'll puff and I'll blow your house in," said the wolf.

So he huffed and he puffed and he huffed and he puffed. But the house of bricks did not fall down.

The wolf was very angry, but he pretended not to be. He thought, "This is a clever little pig. If I want to catch him I must pretend to be his friend."

So the wolf said, "Little pig, if you will be ready at six o'clock in the morning, I will take you to Farmer Smith's field. We shall find some nice turnips for dinner."

"Very well," said the little pig. But the third little pig was a clever little pig. He knew that the wolf just wanted to eat him.

So the next morning the third little pig set off for Farmer Smith's field at five o'clock. He filled his basket with turnips. Then he hurried home before it was six o'clock.

At six o'clock the wolf knocked on the little pig's door. "Are you ready, little pig ?" he said.

"Oh! I have been to Farmer Smith's field," said the little pig. "I filled my basket with turnips and they are now cooking for my dinner."

The wolf was very angry, but he pretended not to be.

Then the wolf said, "If you will be ready at five o'clock in the morning, I will take you to Farmer Brown's apple tree. We will pick some red apples."

"Very well," said the little pig.

Next morning, the little pig set off at four o'clock. He found the apple tree. He was up in the tree, picking apples, when the wolf came along.

The little pig was very frightened, but he pretended not to be. He said, "These are fine apples, Mr. Wolf. I'll throw you one."

He threw down an apple, but it rolled away down the road. The wolf ran after it.

Then the little pig jumped down from the tree. He ran all the way home and shut his door quickly.

When the wolf heard this he was very, very, very angry indeed.

He said, "Little pig, I am going to eat you up. I am going to climb down your chimney to get you."

The little pig was very frightened, but he said nothing. He put a big pot of water on the fire, to boil.

The wolf climbed on the roof. Then he began to come down the chimney.

The little pig took off the lid from the pot. Into the pot fell the wolf, with a big splash. And that was the end of the wolf.

The third little pig was too clever for him.

The end.

Reading The Three Little Pigs

1. Close textual analysis reveals the real value of this story. The formulaic start, ‘Once upon time’ offers a timeless dimension for the references which follow. Repetitive sequencing gives structural cohesion to the piece, both in dialogue “little pig, little pig, let me come in’ and in the narrative voice ‘and he blew the house down’. Phonological effects are used for characterization , ‘Not by the hair on my chinny chin chin’, and to create tension, ‘Then he huffed and he puffed…’ The memorable alliteration of Big Bad Wolf’ has guaranteed the fame of this antagonist. Defamiliarisation is evident in the anthropomorphisation of the principle characters.

2. Mythical and primordial images are inherent in every line: the beast at the door; the usurper; Grendel, and other monster myths. Links might also be traced to Goldilocks and the Three Bears (which also features an intruder into domestic bliss) and Grimm’s Little Red Riding Hood (which similarly introduced a Big Bad Wolf). Traces of the story might be found in later texts such as The Three Musketeers (again, featuring a trio fighting tyrannous forces).

3. The story is typical of the bourgeois mentality which glorifies property ownership – the bigger the better. The author is clearly influenced by capitalist ideology and portrays the pigs as heroes of materialism. The wolf symbolizes bourgeois fear of dispossession. On the other hand, perhaps the story is to be viewed as great literature: the pigs represent the proletarian underbelly of society. The Big Bad Wolf represents the ruling class, the greedy aristocrat who seeks to benefit from the labour of others. Their rebellion and refusal to relinquish power prefigures revolutionary movements of the modern period.

4. The author was clearly repressed. The chimney is a phallic symbol, with the fire roaring beneath as a symbol of passion. Or perhaps the fire could be seen as a cathartic experience, as the wolf achieves self-knowledge by recognizing and facing his burning desires. Alternatively, the brick house may represent the protection that individuals seek in order to secure privacy, security and stability. Taken a step further, the wolf’s journey through the chimney to the cosy interior of the brick house might symbolize a desire to return to the womb – an inversion of the birth process.

5. It is clear that the story was written in a way that reflects the patriarchal values of former times, for it depicts three male characters who establish themselves in domestic settings, thus displacing women as the traditional homemakers. To protect their territory, they turn the brick house into a fortress and subvert the female use of the cooking pot for violent ends. The struggles of the pigs elevates them to heroic status: in this story, patriarchal values reign supreme – it doesn’t even bother to feature women as victims in need of protection or as prizes to be fought for (a concept which is reflected in even the earliest literature).

 Select a new story to read using different critical theories. Try to pick something fairly short and simple (The Sleeping Beauty, Bluebeard or Snow White and the Seven Dwarves would all be suitable if you are struggling to think of an appropriate story). For more of a challenge, look at Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s disturbing short story ‘The Yellow Wallpaper’. Write a series of paragraphs offering different readings of your text. You do not have to use every critical theory explored in class but aim to use as many as you can.

What should I be reading?

Imagine a musician who has been playing ‘Three Blind Mice’ for pleasure all their life. Whilst there is nothing wrong with this, their technique, sight-reading and ability to offer variety in recital will be limited by their narrow repertoire. The same goes for literary study: perceptive reading of demanding texts comes with experience; the ability to read unseen materials improves and it becomes easier to make links between texts.

➢ Read your set text as quickly as you can. ➢ Consider reading some critical material of an appropriate level. This will give you alternative opinions to argue with in essays and will make your responses more individual. (Ask your teacher for advice. Do not rely on the internet for this as essays and books by respected critics are copyrighted. Use the school library, look in previous editions of The English Review. If a title is not stocked, ask us! We can order it for you). ➢ Consider reading literature as context. The Black Album and The Secret History, for example, The Black Album owes debts to Voltaire’s Candide and Mark Twain’s Tom Sawyer and The Secret History engages with Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby, Waugh’s Brideshead Revisited and Dostoevsky’s Crime and Punishment. ➢ Develop a literary personality by reading quality literature for pleasure. Don’t study it but think about what makes a novel, poem or play good or bad. Consider why you did (or did not) enjoy it and think about how it might relate to your course. This is vital for those considering English at university where your personal statement needs to demonstrate a love of reading that extends beyond your A level. (If you are struggling to find texts you enjoy then ask the librarian, your English teacher or anyone else who you think might have some fun suggestions.

Suggestions from your teachers

Pride and Prejudice; Emma; A mistress of wit and manners. Everyone should give her a try at some stage in life. Persuasion Austen, Jane A gentle, moving novel about the healing process and poetry. Based on the friendship struck up Regeneration Barker, Pat between Siegfried Sassoon and Wilfred Owen during their time in a WWI mental hospital. Brönte, An exciting tale of growing up, full of mystery, passion and indignation at the lot of women. Jane Eyre Charlotte Wuthering Heights Brönte, Emily Passionate, wild and as knotty as the heath. Surely one of the greatest novels in the language? Burgess, A colourful recreation of the life and times of Christopher Marlowe. It may be of especial interest to A Dead Man in Deptford Anthony those of you studying ELit6. Possession Byatt, A.S. A beautiful novel. Two academics learn to love through their joint research of two Victorian poets. Capote has received a lot of attention in two recent films. This ‘non-fiction novel’ (faction) recreates In Cold Blood Capote, Truman the brutal murder of a Kansas family and traces the lives of the murderers to their execution. A hilarious, furious and vicious attack on British society in the 1980s. Factory farming, art dealing What A Carve Up! Coe, Jonathan and politics all take a savaging. Taking Off Emily Dickinson's I don’t know how you would study this American poet but he warms the heart. You will feel like you Clothes Collins, Billy are sitting in his New England kitchen, drinking coffee and listening to old jazz divas together. The moonstone is an Indian diamond, given to Rachel Verrinder on her eighteenth birthday. It The Moonstone Collins, Wilkie disappears the same night. A detective story and adventure. Making Cocoa for Kingsley Amis Cope, Wendy Funny observations about men. This slim volume of poetry is a modern classic. Dickens novels are compulsive reads: deftly drawn characters, heart-rending plots and fury at the Great Expectations; Bleak House Dickens, Charles plight of the poor in the Victorian city. Everyone ought to try Dickens at least once. du Maurier, The narrator, a paid lady’s companion, can scarcely believe her luck when Max, a rich and handsome Rebecca Daphne widower falls for her. However, his first wife, Rebecca, casts a long shadow. Can she live up to her? Howards End Forster, E. M. A beautiful novel that raises questions about relationships and values. Lord of the Flies Golding, William A dark re-working of the Boys’ Own style adventure story. Golding explores our very nature. Travels With My Aunt Greene, Graham A comic novel in which a retired bank manager takes off with his aunt and discovers his true nature. Brilliant classicist and furious spokesman for working men and women, Harrison’s poem ‘v.’ made Selected Poems Harrison, Tony the front pages for its language. The Guardian have even commissioned Iraq war poetry from him.

A novel that mourns the loss of innocence – perhaps a metaphor for WWI. The pages are suffused The Go-Between Hartley, L. P. with Norfolk summer heat and unbridled passion. Heaney is a Nobel laureate. This, his first collection, explores growing up in the Northern Irish Death of a Naturalist Heaney, Seamus countryside, dealing with death and facing fears. Fantastic poems. A short novel, distilled even. A couple holidaying in Venice meet the magnetic Richard. But what The Comfort of Strangers Ian McEwan does he want with them? Not for the faint of heart. For my money, early McEwan is best. A Prayer for Owen Meany Irving, John Funny, moving, huge American novel about God, growing up and the Vietnam war. On the surface a beautiful reflection on life at boarding school and the loss of childhood innocence. Someone to Watch Over Me Ishiguro, Kazuo However, not everything is as it seems. The Turn of the Screw James, Henry This novella has to be the definitive ghost story. Or is it? A work of absolute creepy genius. A Portrait of the Artist as a The vivid opening chapters in Irish boarding schools are an eye-opener. This novel sets standards in Young Man Joyce, James style and is rightly considered to be one of the most important pieces of prose in the C20th. Tender, bitter, funny and terrified musings on life by a brilliant poet. Collected Poems Larkin, Philip McGrath, A dark reworking of Frankenstein. Vividly descriptive, an exciting page-turner. Martha Peake Patrick The only non-fiction title on this list. Nicholl explores the mysterious circumstances surrounding the The Reckoning Nicholl, Charles violent death of Christopher Marlowe, the Renaissance playwright and poet. Very useful for ELit6. The story of two ordinary citizens’ rebellion against a totalitarian regime. In a society debating CCTV, Nineteen Eighty-four Orwell, George identity cards and terror legislation this novel becomes ever more prophetic. Written by the teenage Shelley this ranks as one of the greatest novels in the language. An exploration Frankenstein Shelley, Mary of paternal responsibility and education with disturbing echoes of Shelley’s own troubled childhood. On Beauty Smith, Zadie A fun portrayal of American campus life and a clever reworking of E.M. Forster’s Howards End. An exciting piece of pulp fiction or an important expression of Victorian class tensions, misogyny, Dracula Stoker, Bram anti-Semitism? A brilliant, funny tale about how having your trousers stolen can lead to teaching, slave trading, Decline and Fall Waugh, Evelyn prison and Oxford University. A delicious satire of high society. The Picture of Dorian Gray Wilde, Oscar An exciting story: Dorian hides his portrait in the attic and never ages a day. Literally a day in the life of Clarissa Dalloway. A brilliant portrayal of human existence and the Mrs Dalloway Woolf, Virginia passage of time. Maybe also consider checking out Michael Cunningham’s The Hours.

Linking Ideas Together

The following words and phrases may help you to structure and write you essays.

Adding more to a point already made also; moreover; furthermore; again; further; what is more; then; in addition besides; above all; too; as well (as) either; neither… nor; not only… but also; similarly; correspondingly; in the same way; indeed in fact; really; in reality; it is found that… as for; as to; with respect to; regarding

Writing in lists first(ly); second(ly); third(ly) another; yet another; in addition; finally to begin with; in the second place moreover; additionally; also next; then; and to conclude; lastly; finally

Putting the same idea in a different way in other words; rather; or; better; in that case to put it (more) simply in view of this; with this in mind to look at this another way

Introducing examples that is to say; in other words for example; for instance; namely; an example of this is and; as follows; as in the following examples; such as; including especially; particularly; in particular; notably; chiefly; mainly; mostly

Introducing an alternative viewpoint by contrast, another way of viewing this is; alternatively; again; rather; one alternative is; another possibility is on the one hand… on the other hand conversely; in comparison; on the contrary; in fact; though; although

Returning to emphasize your earlier viewpoint however; nonetheless; in the final analysis; despite x; notwithstanding x; in spite of x while x may be true; nonetheless although; though; after all; at the same time; on the other hand; all the same; even if x is true; although x may have a good point

Showing the results of something therefore; accordingly; as a result so, (then,) it can be seen that the result is; the consequence is resulting from this; consequently; now we can see, then, that; it is evident that because of this; thus; hence; for this reason; owing to x; this suggests that; it follows that

in other words; otherwise; in that case; that implies

Summing up or concluding therefore; so my conclusion is in short; in conclusion; to conclude; in all; on the whole to summarize; to sum up briefly; in brief; altogether; overall; thus; thus we can see that