INFORMATION TO USERS
This was produced from a copy of a document sent to us for microfilming. While the most advanced technological means to photograph and reproduce this document have been used, the quality is heavily dependent upon the quality of the material subm itted.
The following explanation of techniques is provided to help you understand markings or notations which may appear on this reproduction.
1. The sign or “target” for pages apparently lacking from the document photographed is “Missing Page(s)”. If it was possible to obtain the missing page(s) or section, they are spliced into the film along with adjacent pages. This may have necessitated cutting through an image and duplicating adjacent pages to assure you of complete continuity.
2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a round black mark it is an indication that the film inspector noticed either blurred copy because of movement during exposure, or duplicate copy. Unless we meant to delete copyrighted materials that should not have been filmed, you will find a good image of the page in the adjacent frame.
3. When a map, drawing or chart, etc., is part of the material being photo graphed the photographer has followed a definite method in “sectioning” the material. It is customary to begin filming at the upper left hand corner of a large sheet and to continue from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. If necessary, sectioning is continued again—beginning below the first row and continuing on until complete.
4. For any illustrations that cannot be reproduced satisfactorily by xerography, photographic prints can be purchased at additional cost and tipped into your xerographic copy. Requests can be made to our Dissertations Customer Services Department.
5. Some pages in any document may have indistinct print. In all cases we have filmed the best available copy.
University Microfilms International
300 N. 3EEB HOAD, ANN ARBOR, Ml 48106 18 BEDFORD ROW, LONDON WC1 R 4EJ, ENGLAND 8022355
T e r z ie f f , Iv a n S .
THE EFFECTS OF A SEQUENTIAL LANGUAGE TRAINING PROGRAM ON INCREASING READING RATES WITH THE OPTACON
The Ohio Slate University Ph.D. 1980
University Microfilms International 300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48106 18 Bedford Row, London WC1R 4EJ, England PLEASE MOTE:
In all cases this material has been filmed in the best possible way from the available copy. Problems encountered with this document have been identified here with a check mark .
1. Glossy photographs ______
2. Colored illustrations ______
3. Photographs with dark background /
A. Illustrations are poor copy ______
5. Drin t shows through as there is text on both sides of page ______
6. Indistinct, broken or small print on several pages !/ throughout
7. Tightly bound copy with print lost in spine______
8. Computer printout pages with indistinct print ______
9. Page(s) lacking when material received, and not available from school or author ______
10. Page(s) ______seem to be missing in numbering only as text follows ______
11. Poor carbon copy ______
12. Not original copy, several pages with blurred type ______
13. Appendix pages are poor copy ______
14. Original copy with light type ______
15. Curling and wrinkled pages ______
16. Other
Jniversitv Microfilms nternarional
;cc \ I = = 5 =0. A \ ' \ M: JS’Q6 ‘312; 761-4700 THE EFFECTS OF A SEQUENTIAL LANGUAGE TRAINING PROGRAM ON
INCREASING READING PATES NITH THE OPTACON
DISSERTATION
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School
of The Ohio State University
By
Ivan S. Terzieff, B.A., M.Ed.
* # # # #
The Ohio State University
1980
Reading Committee: Approved By
John 0. Cooper, Ed.D.
Patricia A. Looney, Ph.D. Adviser Fred Staub, Ph.D. Faculty for Exceptional Children Thomas Stephens, Ed.D. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to express my gratitude to several individuals for their encouragement and cooperation during this project and graduate program. I am indebted to Dr. S. Ashcroft for his personal interest and strong support for this project. Special thanks are hereby expressed to Drs. T. Stephens, J. Cooper, P. Looney and F. Staub for their patience and assistance as members of the reading committee.
Special appreciation to Dr. M. Moore for the many suggestions offered during the instructional materials development.
To all visually impaired individuals who participated in the study and made the study possible, my special appreciation.
Finally, this is dedicated to my wife, Ellie, whose patience, understanding and love throughout these few years made the work seem easily attainable. VITA
October 20, 1937...... Born - Bulgaria
196^...... B.A., University of Massachusetts at Amherst
196^-1966...... Teacher, Greenfield Public Schools, Greenfield, Massachusetts
1966-1968...... Teacher, Roosevelt School, Stanford, Connecticut
1968-1971...... Teacher, Allegheny County Schools, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
1971-197 2 ...... M.Ed., University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania
1972-197 3...... Orientation and Mobility Specialist, Arkansas School for the Blind, Little Rock, Arkansas
1973-1976...... Orientation and Mobility Specialist, Ohio State School for the Blind, Columbus, Ohio
1976-1978...... Graduate Research Associate, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
1978-1980...... Assistant Professor, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona
FIELD OF STUDY
Major Field: Special Education TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS...... ii
VITA...... iii
LIST OF TABLES...... vi
LIST OF FIGURES...... vii
Chapter
I . INTRODUCTION...... 1
Background...... 1 Statement of the Problem .... 1+ Summary...... 9
II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE...... 10
Introduction...... 10 Reading Devices for the Blind .... 12 Braille Reading .... 25 Print Reading .... 33 Summary: Review of the Literature ..... 1+3
III. METHODS AND PROCEDURES...... 1+5
Purpose...... 1+5 Subjects .... 1+5 Setting...... 1+7 Equipment and Materials ...... 1+7 Data Recording Procedure...... 1+9 Design...... 52 Design Conditions ...... 53 Training Procedure ...... 55 Analysis of Data...... 62
IV. PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA ...... 61+
Interobserver Agreement ...... 75 Presentation of Data*«...... 77
iv Page V. DISCUSSION, LIMITATIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS...... 89
Discussion of Data...... 89 Limitations of Study...... 92 Implications of Study...... 9^ Summary...... 95 Recommendations for Further Study...... 96
APPENDIXES
A. Optacon...... 98
B. Sample of Baseline Materials...... 103
C. Sample of Instructional Materials...... 109
D. Sample of Reading Materials...... 119
E. Weekly Schedule...... 126
F . Data Recording Form ...... 128
BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 130
v LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Subject Characteristics...... 46
2. Running Log for Subject One...... 66
3. Running Log for Subject Two...... 67
4. Running Log for Subject Three ...... 68
5 . Running Log for Subject Four ...... 69
6. Running Log for Subject Five ...... 70
7. Running Log for Subject Six...... 71
8. Running Log for Subject Seven ..... 72
9. Running Log for Subject Eight ...... 73
10. Running Log for Subject Nine...... 74
11. Percentage of Interobserver and Error Rate by Condition ...... 76
12. Oral Reading and Error Rates During Baseline for Each Subject by Session ...... 83
13- Mean Oral Reading Rates and Mean Error Rates per Subject During Baseline Condition ..... 84
14. Mean Oral Reading Rates and Mean Error Rates per Subject for Baseline and Intervention Conditions ...... 86
15. Mean Oral Reading Rates per Subject for Baseline and Intervention Conditions...... 87
16. Mean Error Rate per Subject for Baseline and Intervention Conditions...... 88
vi LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1. Example of Daily Log Form.,...... 51
2. Multiple Baseline Design and Artifical Data...... 56
3* Oral Reading Rate and Error Rate for All Subjects...... 78
k. Oral Reading Rate and Error Rate for Group One...... 79
5. Oral Reading Rate and Error Rate for Group Two...... 80
6. Oral Reading Rate and Error Rate for Group Three...... 8l
vii CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background
The process of reading continues to be of primary concern for all educators regardless of the student population they serve. Anumber of investigations have focused on the sensory processing deficits as the main contributory variables or causative factors resulting in reading failure (Caxtfley, Goldstein & Burrow, 1968; Erickson, 19695 Guralnick,
1972; Samuels, 1971)" The specific channels most often studied are the visual, auditory and tactual (Barraga, 1973? Birch & Belmont, 196^;
Hammil, 1972; Hurley, 1968; Lowenfeld, 1973? Schevill, 1971)•
The tactile system of reading for the severely visually impaired that has been generally adopted is braille. Reading is one of the most important skills which a blind individual must acquire. Lowenfeld (19^5) suggested that reading may be even more important for the blind than it is for the sighted.
"Reading holds a central position in the education of blind children. This is not only because it is a tool they need in order to follow the course of study in practically all the other school subjects, but also because it opens to them the doors to a world from which they are more removed than other children..." (p. 1 3)
The tactual mode of reading has been explored in terms of cutaneous sensitivity; tactual threshold; and number, spacial configuration and height of braille dots (Ashcroft, I96I; Berla^, 1972; Bliss, 1962;
1 2
Farrell, 195^1 Foulke, 1971; Gill & Bliss, 1973? Nolan & Kederis, 19&9;
Zickel & Hopper, 1957)- Braille reading rates, a3 those involved with the education of the visually handicapped are well aware, are lower than those of the normally sighted. The typical braille reading adult achieves between 90-110 words per minute. This rate is approximately equivalent to a normally sighted third grader (Olson, et al., 1977)• A number of studies have dealt with increasing the reading rate. Consider able success has been reported through the use of mechanical devices
(such as tachistoscopes) indicating that perception of braille is possible at much faster speed (Grunwald, 195&; Heber, 1967). After training in rapid recognition of braille code, Umsted (1972), reported significant gains in silent reading rates; Wallace (1973)? reported similar gains in braille reading rates after rapid reading training based on McBride's approach to rapid reading.
Thus, the majority of studies exploring the tactual mode of reading have been primarily concerned with the braille symbol as the stimulus.
Recent technological development, however, have brought to the fore a> new medium— the printed character as the stimulus. In the early 1960's, the Stanford Research Institute and Stanford University began work on a device enabling the direct transmission of printed materials to the visually impaired (Bliss, 1962, 1969; Bliss, et al., 1970; Linville &
Bliss, 1966; Moore, 1976; Taenzer, 1970).
By 1971 such a device was made available, in limited quantity, to the visually impaired. That device is the Optacon (OPtical-to-TActile
CONverter). Beginning with 1971, production of the Optacon began in quantity by Telesensory Systems, Incorporated (established 1970) and a 3
large number of blind persons began to learn how to use it. Reading
rates with the Optacon are even lower than those with braille. Yet,
to date there have been no studies (reported) exploring the possibility
of increasing the reading rates. The majority of studies involving the
Optacon have dealt with technical evaluations (Linville & Bliss, 1973)?
identifying predictors for Optacon reading success (Weisgerber, 197*0,
developing instructional materials for beginning reading with the Optacon
(TSI, 1973? American Institute for Research, 197*+)5 evaluation of Optacon
reading system (Bliss & Moore, 197*0, and a number of survey studies to
determine the usability of the Optacon in various settings (Schoof, 1975?
Goldish & Taylor, 197*+? Qadbaw, 1977; AFB, 1975)-
Reading can be broadly defined as a process of obtaining meaning
from the printed page. If we are concerned with efficient reading, then
we must investigate the primary signals of meaning in the language and
develop skills which will enable us to anticipate and predict.
One of the primary signals of meaning in a language is the order in
which the words appear in a sentence (Goodman, 1969). The most basic form
of the sentence is a "noun phrase" plus "verb phrase" (NP+V) (Lefevre &
Lefevre, 1967). Knowledge of the sentence patterns (word order within a
sentence) will facilitate the development of strategies for word anticipa
tion thereby improving reading efficiency.
Although much work has been done on the cloze procedure of reading
since it was introduced by Taylor (1953), only a small portion of it
relates to instructional application for reading efficiency (Bortnick &
Lopardo, 1973; Jongsma, 1971; Schell, 1972). The cloze procedure, ac
cording to Bortnick and Lopardo (1973), lends itself to instruction in the use of cues as a reading strategy most often employed by effici ent readers.
Reading while listening is a strategy which has been employed for
several decades. It has been used, both, as a way to teaching beginning reading and increasing the reading efficiency (Neville & Pugh, 1975)•
Statement of the Problem
The inability of the visually impaired to use printed material is affecting all areas of education, vocation, and recreation. The inacces- sability of the printed material is further deterring their effective functioning in a sighted society.
One of the most important handicaps of the visually impaired person is his/her inability to use one of the most common methods of communication
— the printed word.
The sophisticated storage and retrieval systems of printed material, designed for the sighted, is unavailable to the blind without the inter mediate transcription in braille, audio recorded form, or direct reader service. Recent advancements in braille duplication techniques and computer braille production have to some extent facilitated access to these materi als. However, the most direct access to all printed material, thus far, is made possible only through the Optacon and the Kerzweil Reading Machine.
One of the most frequently asked questions about the Optacon is "How fast can a person read?" (Brugler, 1978, p. l). Indeed, it is an im portant question to which, unfortunately, the answer must be— very slow.
The average rates reported by a number of studies range from 7 to 42 words per minute (Brugler, 1978? Marinolin & Nilsson, 19731 Moore, 19751 Nelton,
1972| Tobin et al., 1973? Neisgerber et al., 197^? Zierer, 1972). In a recent study, Craig (1977) reported that two sighted "observers" were able 5
to attain over 100 words per minute after only several hours of training.
Craig attributes this success to "superior tactile ability" possessed by
his subjects (p. ^-51)"
In view of the reported reading rates, a more important question must be poseds What instructional strategies and materials should be
employed if one is to become a proficient reader with the Optacon?
As of 1976, the American Foundation for the Blind (AFB) estimated
that there are 10,000 blind individuals currently in the work force and
about 13,000 in school or college (AFB, 1976). Since the Optacon appears
to be an invaluable communication device for the visually impaired, it
seems mandatory that wider dissemination should be encouraged and addi
tional training strategies should be developed. The Optacon has already
enabled many individuals to either secure or maintain employment (AFB,
1975). Its use bythe visually impaired individual provides access to
the sophisticated storage and retrieval system designed for the sighted
population. Most importantly, it provides the visually impaired individu
al with independence and privacy in his daily activities.
Perhaps, one of the greatest limitations in reading with the Optacon
is the extremely low rate. The purpose of the present study was to in vestigate the possibilities of increasing the reading rate with the
Optacon through instruction in analysis of the linguistic structure of the
language, the use of the cloze procedure as an instructional strategy, and
auditory pacing through reading— while— listening.
The primary objectives of the study were:
1. To increase reading rates of visually impaired readers
using the Optacon. 2. To decrease the number of oral reading errors made by
visually impaired readers using the Optacon.
Questions of Study
In view of the above stated objectives of the study two important questions must be posed.
1. Will a sequential instruction for developing skills in
the utilization of language cues result in an increase
in Optacon reading rates for severely visually impaired
individuals?
2. Will a sequential instruction for developing skills in
the utilization of language cues result in reducing the
oral reading errors while reading with the Optacon for
severely visually impaired individuals?
Operational Definitions
The following definitions are set forth in order to clarify certain terms and establish some consistency in this study.
Optacon (OPtieal-to-TActile COWverter): a compact, portable, and
battery-powered reading aid for the blind. It weighs slightly less
than four pounds and is about the size of a small tape recorder
(2" x 6" x 8")= The Optacon consists of three parts:
1. A miniature optoelectronic camera containing a zoom lens
system adjustable for size of print and a silicon integrated
circuit. The circuit contains lMf light-sensitive photo
transitors corresponding to the vibrating rods on the
tactile array. It is mounted in a housing with rollers for
easy movement across the printed page. The camera is con
nected to the electronic unit by a small cable. 7
2. The electronics unit contains sophisticated solid state
circuitry which converts light energy into mechanical energy
activating the vibrating rods of the tactile array to
produce a tactual image.
3. The tactile array is located in the same housing as the
electronics unit. It consists of 144 tiny metal rods ar
ranged in a 6 rods by 2k rods matrix in an area about one
half by one inch. The tips of the rods protrude through
holes in a concave finger plate which allows one's finger
to touch the entire array. Each of the rods can vibrate
independently.
When all three components are in operation, they convert the image of the printed letter into a pattern of vibrating rods. The camera generates an electronic representation of an area about the size of a letter space. The electronics unit processes the representation and activates the vibration of the rods in an enlarged replica of the printed letter. (Telesensory Systems, Incorporated, Optacon Owner's
Manual).
Reading Rate; number of words read per minute.
Error Rate; number of errors made per minute.
Reading; an active "processing of written language symbols" enabling one "to arrive at a meaningful interpretation of an author's intentions, attitudes, beliefs, and/or feelings" (Hall & Ramig, 1978, p. *0.
Linguistics; the study of form, structure, and function of language.
Language; an arbitrary system of symbols or vocal utterances known by at least two persons. The symbols referred to are written or printed shapes (Bannatyne, 1971)* Language has also been defined as a "set 8
of rules and principles by which meanings and symbolic representa
tions are correlated" (Carrier, 1973? P° 2).
Mode; the means by which language is transmitted and received
(Clark and Woodcock, 1976)•
Interobserver agreement; the percentage of agreement on responses
between the investigator and independent observers.
Language cues; structural and contextual elements inherent in the
language which enable the reader to sample and predict meaning
(Goodman, 1969).
; an instructional strategy for reading which deletes
parts of words or whole words (usually every 9th or 5th word) within
a reading passage and which requires the reader to fill in the de
leted parts.
; reading while listening to pre-recorded material
on audio tape.
Subjects; nine totally blind individuals who have received the initial
training (minimum of ^0 hours) in reading with the Optacon (see
Table 1).
Instructional Strategy; a method of sequential presentation of ling uistic forms and concepts.
Baseline; a condition in which a subject's reading rate is accessed prior to the application of instructional strategies.
Treatment; a condition in which instructional strategies are applied resulting in increased reading rates.
Session; a continuous period of instruction, one hour in duration. Summary
Competence in reading printed material is an absolute necessity for success in most academic pursuits for the severely visually impaired individual. Society also attaches considerable importance to the ability to read print, e.g., meaningful perusal of contracts, leases, confidential memorandums, product warning labels, etc., to which the severely visually impaired individual has no direct access other than through the Optacon.
Therefore, learning to read efficiently with the Optacon is of vital im portance to the severely visually impaired individual.
The present study investigated the possibility of increasing Optacon reading rates and decreasing oral reading errors through sequential in struction in developing skills for.efficient and utilization of language structure and its inherent cues for meaning prediction. CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction
The lack of direct access of printed material to the severely visually impaired individual has been a primary problem in all areas of vocation, education and recreation. Communication between employer, employee and consumer is generally in print. The inability of the blind to read print presents an inherent difficulty in partaking in that communication, thus, limiting the possibilities of obtaining and/or maintaining equipment.
The introduction of the "discovery" methods of instruction and learning through the investigation of a variety of publications places the blind student at a great disadvantage. His inability to have direct access to the complex information storage and retrieval system, designed for the sighted, further restricts the educational process.
In common with the sighted, the severely visually impaired people have enjoyed a continuous increase in benefits from the rapid, and indeed bewildering, advances in scientific knowledge and technological advances.
The increasing volume and variety of braille literature, available through the development of automated methods of production, appears to be in sufficient in keeping pace with the production of print materials. It is obvious then, that the most efficient resolution will be technology de signed for the blind with can utilize the existing delivery system develop ed for the sighted reader. Numerous efforts have been made over the
10 11 years to develop reading aids for the blind based on conversion of visual information for detection by hearing or touch, Reading aids such as the
Optaphone, Vi so toner, andthe RCA--A2, have been largely abandoned, because of the difficulties in interpreting the tonal output. The Transicon, which utilizes a computer terminal, automatically scans the print and produces braille output, the Kurzueil Reading Machine and the Optacon
Speech Sythesizer (in developmental stages) which produce direct speech output certainly represent great advances in technological development which the blind person can utilize. The greatest disadvantage of these aids, however, is the cost of operation and/or purchase as well as not being easily portable.
The Optacon, which came into production in 1971 by Telesensory
Systems, Inc,, converts visual into tactile information. It is a small portable device, available at relatively low cost, and comparatively easy to use. Research and evaluation studies conducted around the world
(U,S,A., Sweden, Italy, England and Japan) have demonstrated the utility of the Optacon as a supplement to the other modes of reading for the blind.
Equipped with an Optacon and knowledge of its use and potential capabili ties, a blind person will have access to all printed matter regardless of type and style.
Perhaps one of the greatest limitations in reading with the Optacon is the low rate. Although a number of studies have been conducted in methods of teaching reading with the Optacon, to date no study has dealt with increasing the reading rate. The purpose of this study was to ex plore possible instructional strategies and materials to be utilized in increasing the reading rates with the Optacon. Since no literature direct ly applicable to this research exists, a review of the literature related 12 to the topic was done in an attempt to identify methods of teaching ef ficient reading* First, a review of the available literature on reading devices for the blind will be presented to establish a historical per spective for the development of personalized reading aids* Second, since reading print x-jith the Optacon is similar to reading braille in that the perceptxxal xmit is a single symbol, (Foulcle, 1971) the literature on in creasing braille reading rates will be examined. It has been suggested that processing of printed information by both blind and sighted are similar in character (Ashcroft, 196l) regardless of the mode. It is mandatory then to review the literature on teaching reading in general.
Since the literature in this areas is enormous only those materials that appear to be applicable to teaching reading x-iith the Optacon will be reviewed.
Backgromd;
Reading is one of the most important skills in everyday life and a basic educational tool. We are surrounded by a world of printed words.
Through reading we acquire new ideas, obtain needed information and broaden oxor interests. Unless one knows how to read print efficiently one will be serioxisly handicapped in his daily activities. A blind person then is at a serious disadvantage no matter how good the braille and recording ser vices provided to him might be. Any method or device that increases his access to printed information can have an important influence on his edu cational, vocational and recreational activities.
For a number of decades scientists and engineers have been searching for ways of improving the general lifestyle of visxially impaired individu als through application of technology. 13
The establishment of the Committee on Sensory Devices of the National
Research Council (19^0 represented a new trend in work for the blind, a trend leading to the development of sensory devices (aids) specifically designed for the visually impaired population. Based on the findings and the recommendations of the committee four lines of research were under taken.
1. Devices for reading print by the totally blind.
2. Guidance devices for obstacle detection,
3. Optical magnifier for persons with limited vision.
^t-. Improvement of the Visagraph. (Corner, 1950)
The results of those recommendations and research undertaken under the leadership of the Committee proved to be an essential step toward in tergrating the visually impaired population into the working force. A series of reading, mobility and magnifying devices are still being devel oped. Reading devices, present and past, which allow the totally blind person to read print are of two primary categories;
1.0 Sensory devices with auditory output fall into two groups;
1.1 Tonal devices such as the Optaphone, RCA A-2 and the
Visotoner.
1.2 Speech synthesizing devices such as the Lexiphone, the
Kurzweil Reading IVlachine and the Optacon speech syn
thesizer (in developmental stages).
2.0 Sensory devices with (virbo) tactile output;
2.1 Print output devices such as the Optacon, 14
2.2 Braille output devices such, as the Transicon, the
Portable Braile Recorder, the Versabraille and the
SAGEM Braille Terminal/Emboser (under development)„
Normal visual perception is a product of a long period of learning and the effective use of vision is possible only when the synthesis and interpretation of sensory cues have become automatic (Barraga, 1976). A parallel may be drawn in the use of sensory aids. So long as the cues given by the aid must be consciously analyzed and interpreted, its ef ficient use is greatly restricted. It must be recognized that the de velopment of any device requires not only an engineering achievement but also a fundamental re-education of the individual in the use of his per ceptual capacities.
The primary function of a reading machine is to perform adequately to meet needs not met by existing alternative methods, i.e., braille, talking book, tape recordings and/or direct reader service. The first three alternatives are of limited value since their availability in a sighted society is relatively restricted. Although a blind individual may rely upon a sighted reader who can read any and all printed material, the lack of self-reliance is objectionable. There was evident need for some device which will enable him to rely on himself to read a wide variety of materials available in print. It must also be recognized, however, that effective use of a device cannot be achieved without a period of training. Characteristics which permit rapid identification must be dis covered (learned). Effective methods of training must be devised and supervised practice must be set in order to prevent the user from acquiring habits which restrict effective use of the device. These issues were the main topic of discussion of a technical conference on reading machines held in August 19&5 (Murphy, 1972). d'Albe Optaphone:
The development of reading aids for the blind has been in progress for several decades prior to the above mentioned conference. In fact, the first reading aid was developed in 19-12 by Barr and Straud engineer ing company of England. That device was known as the British Fournier d'Albe Optaphone. The electronic capabilities at that time were very limited, and the machine produced numerous extraneous signals, thus seriously interferring with the interpretation of the tones representing the printed letter. Reading with the d'Albe Optaphone was, of course, an impossible task and the device was soon abandoned (Murphy, 1972).
RCA A-2:
It was not until late in ¥orld War II that efforts to produce read ing devices were renewed. This renewal came as a result of the newly formed Committee on Sensory Devices of the National Research Council.
After several committee meetings a general consensus emerged based on a broad analysis of the problem of independent reading of print. It ap peared that reading devices for the blind with either audible or tactile outputs need to be developed if a resolution to the common problem of access to print were to be found. Because of the then current status of the technology, efforts were placed in developing a device which will translate the shape of the printed character into an auditory pattern
(Murphy, 1972). The first of these devices was developed by the Radio
Coporation of America (RCA). The RCA A-2 reading device, commonly known as the "reading pencil", was based on direct translation of the shape 16 of the letter into sound patterns by means of a scanning mirror and an oscillating circuit wire at approximately 60 cycles per minute. As the
"reading pencil" xjas moved across the printed line a "chirping or canary- like sound" characteristic of each letter was produced. The user was expected, through the interpretation of these sounds, to read printed material (Dufton, 1966).
Evaluation of the devices was done at the University of Michigan under the guidance of Dr. Wilma Donahue. The experiments indicated that some readers achieved reading rates of up to 36 words per minute (reported in Murphy, 1972). Because of lack of funds and discouraged by the low reading rate, the evaluation of the RCA A-2 reading aid was discontinued by the investigator. Although the results of the project were not published, Murphy (1972), summarized the findings thus;
1. Reading speeds, learning speeds, and comprehension varied
greatly but some subjects attained 93-100$ comprehension of
new words at 36 words per minute and 53-90$ comprehension
at 56 words per minute.
2. Punctuation was readily and easily incorporated.
3. Transfer to new styles of print caused little difficulty.
The subjects were never able to identify isolated letter
well; sentence reading was much easier.
4. All the subjects indicated that an instrument with a maximum
reading speed of 30 or ^0 words per minute would be extremely
useful (p. 38)» 17
Optaphone:
Following the termination of the University of Michigan project, research on reading aids development discontinued. It was not until 1957 that interest was renewed. Under sponsorship of the Veterans Administration,
Battelle Memorial Institute of Columbus, Ohio, had primary responsibility for the development and evaluation of a reading machine for the blind known as the Optaphone.
The Optaphone translates the shapes or printed symbols such as letters and numbers into tone patterns. The tonal representation for a particular symbol is directly related to its shape. For example, a straight hori zontal bar, such as a dash (-) is represented by a single tone as the sensing probe of the device is moved in a straight line from left to right across the dash. A straight vertical line (approximately repre sented by a "1”) is represented as a chord. The output code contains nine separate tone channels corresponding to nine-cell photocell array.
The Battelle Memorial Institute developed a series of instructional materials requiring a minimum of 200 hours of instruction. The Ohio State
School for the Blind served as the evaluation cite. An unspecified number of students at the school were trained to use the Optaphone. A two hundred lesson course, with special tests at the end of each ten lessons, was given. Early in the program a test for recognition of isolated letters
(the 26 letters of the alphabet presented in random and 5 repetitions of randomly selected letters) was presented. The series of lessons in the course was based on this preliminary screening test and attempted to com bine both word and sentence drill with "carefully paced introduction of new letters and drill on detection of individual letters causing difficulty" 18
(Murphy, 1972, p. 43). The better Battelle subjects achieved 15 words per minute, with an average of 10 words per minute for all subjects. An analysis of the data showed that reading speeds increased when subjects remained at a fixed level of difficulty for successive tests. When the level of difficulty increased the reading speed apparently dropped and gradually increased again until a new level of difficulty was introduced.
Based on these results the investigators concluded that prolonged train ing at a fixed level would indeed by effective in continuing to increase the reading speed (Coffey, 19^3)■
Visotoner:
The Visotoner, like its predecessors, the RCA A-2, and the Optaphone, translates the printed character into audible tones. It is through the accurate interpretation of these tones that reading print is accomplished.
It was developed by Maueh Laboratories, Inc., of Dayton, Ohio, under a research contract with the Prosthetic and Sensory Aids Services of the
Veterans Administration and was ready for distribution by 19^7 (Lauer,
1971)•
The Visotoner consists of three components; an optical system, a vertical column of 9 (nine) photocell, and electronic circuits which., generate an audible tone for each photocell. It also included control mechanisms for magnification and contrast of the print (Smith, 1966).
Each printed symbol has its own characteristic tone pattern. The user must learn to interpret these tone patterns as letters and synthesize the letters into words (Lauer, 1971)° This, of course, requires an extremely long training process which results in a higher rate of subjects dropping off from the training course. Those subjects who have completed the 19
course are reported to have achieved a reading rate of 15 Tir.p.m. or less
(Lauer, 1972)= Lauer contends that with continued practice higher read ing speeds are possible depending on the individual's abilities„
It must be stated at this point that there has been no rigorous evaluation procedure involving any of the above reading devices . IJliat information is available comes from personal experiences and some studies which offer no empirical data other than achieved reading rates.
The primary concern throughout the years appears to have been the possibility of developing a personal reading device which the totally blind person can utilize in order to participate in and share the infor mation available to the sighted population. It appears that with the advancement of technology, in general, the development of siich devices becomes a reality. However, it should also be noted that development and evaluation of the devices must occur concurrently.
Optacons
In the mid-sixties a new reading device (Optacon) based on transla tion of the printed letter into vibrating tactile patterns, was developed by the Stanford Research Institute. The development of the Optacon fol lowed closely the results obtained from its evaluation both in laboratory setting and in the field. By 1970 the Optacon was already used by several blind individuals (Bliss, 1972). Perhaps, an important element of the evaluation procedure was the distribution of Optacons to those individuals who were able to use them. Beginning with 1972, a world-wide evaluation of the Optacon and development of instructional materials were initiated.
A number of studies explored primarily its potential used (Bliss, 1972;
Nelton, 1972; Tobin, 1973; Heisgerber, 197^; Bertora, 197^; Marmolin and Nilsson, 1973)» In 1973 'the Mellon Foundation devoted some of its
resources to the provision of Optacons to blind individuals in the
Greater Pittsburgh area (ICaplan, 1976). Its purpose was to provide a
demonstration of the Optacon1s usefulness on a broad scale. It was
hoped that success in this project will encourage agencies and schools
for the blind to include training on reading ivLth the Optacon as part of
their programs (Kaplan, 1976). Three special study institutes were con
ducted at the University of Pittsburgh and more than thirty teachers were
prepared to staff the needs of the project. A survey study of project
participants conducted by the American Foundation for the Blind (Kaplan,
1976) concluded that the Optacon is a valuable reading aid for the blind.
The project also demonstrated a feasible plan for teacher preparation and
student instruction.
In 1971!- the Pennsylvania Department of Education intitiated a two
year project (Moore, 1975)« The purpose of this project was to develop
instructional materials for beginning reading with iho Optacon and provide
instruction to visually impaired students on a state-wide basis.
The success of these two projects served as a basis for the Optacon
Dissemination Project sponsored by the Office of Education, Bureau of
Education for the Handicapped (OE BEH). Under this project faculty from
universities and colleges have attended special study institutes and are
currently including in their teacher preparation programs the teaching of
reading with the Optacon (Moore, 1976).
Concurrent with these wide dissemination programs, individual studies were conducted in the United States, some European countries, and Japan.
The primary objectives of these studies were to isolate factors which con tribute to successful Optacon reading and development of instructional material, 21
Zlerer (1972), concluded that the most Important factors are age, intelligence, motivation and actual time spent in preparation and inde pendent reading.
Tobin (1973) in a one year study involving 30 teenage and adult sub jects studies the relationship between successful Optacon reading and sex, age, degree of vision, previous visual experience, speed of reading braille, short-term memory and personality factors- He concluded that only age, short-term memory and speed of reading braille were contributing factors.
Weisgerber (197*0 in a iuo year study involving a stratified sample of students, grades k - 1 2 s reported that a significant relationship exists between accuracy of reading with the Optacon and intelligence tactile ability, accuracy in braille reading, age, sex, spelling ability and atti tude towards education. Sehoof (1975) analyzed the realtionsihp between the combined score of speed and accuracy of Optacon reading and age, sex, age of onset of blindness, and braille reading speed- The study involved
58 subjects, age 10 and over, trained at TSI- He concluded that only age at time of training was positively related to speed and accuracy of reading with the Optacon with the younger students developing higher speeds at the completion of a 50-hour training course-
A number of studies have developed instructional materials for begin ning reading with -the Optacon. The San Diego City Schools (1971-1972) under a Title VI grant developed materials for primary and elementary school children. The materials consist primarily of pre-reading activities, letter identification and some preliminary reading passages-
In a two year study the American Institute for Research (Weisgerber,
197*1-) developed materials for teaching primary, elementary and secondary students- The most salient aspects of these instructional materials are 22 the attempt to introduce first those letters which occur with the greatest frequency in the language and that the introduction of new letters is always interspersed with already learned letters - Criterion, remedial and supplementary exercises follow each instructional lesson.
Perhaps, the most widely used instructional materials are those de veloped by Telesensory Systems, Inc. The development of the TSI materials is based on feedback from several years of Optacon evaluation and training programs. The main thrust of these materials is on teaching beginning reading.
Rate of Reading
Nelton (1972) in a ten (10) day concentrated instructional program
(50 hours total) reported an average of 7 words per minute with subjects ranging in age from 2^ to ifl years old. Zierer (1972), with subjects ranging from 19 to 31 years old and with 29 instructional hours spread over a period of 2 months, reported an average of 8 words per minute with the words being isolated rather than incorporated within a text. Tobin et a l. (1973) were able to achieve an average of 1 1 .2 words per minute with one group of subjects (ages 16-1 8) with a maximum of 30 hours of instructional time over a 12 day period. Marmolin and Nilsson (1973) used two groups of subjects and provided 60 hours of instruction over 15 days for the first group and 6 to 7 months for the second group. They reported no significant difference in reading rates between the two groups (7 -1 and "J.k words per minute). Bertora (197*0 demonstrated that the use of the pacing device (which regulates scanning with the camera at a pre-set uniform rate) produced a relatively higher rate of reading (average of 2J ,k words per minute) ranging from 10 to k2 words per minute. Although the 23
number of instructional hours was not reported* the individual who
achieved 1+2 words per minute had participated in the study for more than
two yearso
The American Foundation for the Blind (Kaplan, 197&) study found
that the average rate of reading was 10 to 20 words per minute across
four agencies and three schools which carried out training programs in the
Pittsburgh area. Fifty-four percent of the adult participants felt that
reading speed was not important5 however, several of them reported that
they would prefer faster speeds than they have achieved during training.
The survey also found that "the greatest use for the Optacon was reading
personal materials, such as mail, checkbooks, and bills" (p. 29). Four
of the participants also reported that the Optacon was "instrumental in
enabling them to get or hold a job." The students involved in the project viewed the Optacon "as a useful tool for the future, especially in aca
demic pursuits." Generally, ability to use the Optacon was viewed as a
significant factor in the measure of independence and privacy.
Schoof (1975) found that the average reading rate for 1+1 adult
Optacon trainees after 50 hours of training was 9-61 words per minute, while Weisgerb8r (197*+) reported 12.3 words per minute after 58 hours of training with school age children.
In a recent study reported by Craig (1977) two sighted subjects were able to achieve 100 words per minute after only several hours of training.
Craig attributes this success to "superior tactile ability" possessed by his subjects. One of his subjects was presented with identical informa
tion through two different displays— -one visual, one tactile. The sub
ject was "able to read the tactile display at ra.tes higher than those at which she could read the visual display" (1+52). 2b
A variety of instructional methods have been employed ranging from letter recognition (TSl) to whole word pattern recognition (Canfield, et al., 197*0 ° A common feature emerges from the studies, namely that materials need to be adapted to the individual trainee needs, and be presented in graded stages of difficulties. Moore (1976) pointed out that developing materials and speed and efficiency should be of the highest priority in future studies. Marmolin and Nilsson (1973) stressed that research emphasis should be placed upon training methods. Weisgerber
(197*0 suggested that perhaps new methods of training and considerably longer periods of training could increase performance rate.
Summary; Sensory Devices
The technological development of many and varied sensory devices for reading is now feasible. The ability of the visually impaired individual to make practical use of such devices, however, can be resolved only through intensive training with appropriate instructional materials.
A number of Optacon evaluations and Optacon user surveys have been conducted since 1971° These studies conclude that the Optacon is a valu able device which can enhance the educational and vocational potential of the visually handicapped. Optacon reading rates reported are results of the initial training (*+0-60 hours) and only a small number of studies re ported reading rates one year after training.
No study in the literature has been found dealing with additional training to increase reading rates. It has been assumed that each trained individual continued reading with the Optacon after training and that any increase in reading rates is due to practice alone. Braille Reading
The literature in this area has heen reviewed primarily from two standpoints in an attempt to identify approaches to teaching braille reading and increasing braille reading rates. The available literature in these areas is limited both in quantity and quality, perhaps due to the low incidence of braille readers (Harley, 1979)•
Methods of Teaching Braille
Methods of teaching braille reading have been researched primarily from three dimensions;
1. Analytic vs synthetic approach,
2. Orthography of the braille code, and
3« The degree of structure in the reading material.
The greater amount of research has concentrated on the analytic vs synthetic approach. Masefield (1928) found three prevailing methods of teaching beginning braille reading; the letter method, the word method and letter-word method. Since the majority of the teachers of the visu ally impaired surveyed preferred the whole-word approach she concluded that it is perhaps the best and most reliable one in teaching beginning braille reading. She contended that the blind child must acquire at least a 200- word vocabulary by touch before attempting to put words together by sound.
Lowenfeld, Abel and Hatlen (1969) in a study on teaching braille reading, described the status of reading and instruction in reading in residential and public school programs. They surveyed 289 public and 73 residential schools and found that approximately two-thirds of the re spondents used the whole-word method. These studies confirmed Burklen's
(1917) statement that "the reading of words and sentences occurs in a com prehensive manner through the apprehension of xrord froms" (p. 53)• 26
A number of studies have dealt with 'the perceptual factors of braille reading. Nolan (1966) in a study conducted under the Research Program of the American Printing House for the Blind contended that "the time required for tactual recognition of words is positively related to the number of characters they contain" (p. 12). He concluded that in braille reading the individual character is the perceptual unit in word recogni tion, and therefore, initial braille reading should be taught through character recognition.
Nolan and Kederis (1969) using a Tachistotactometer to expose braille cells and words for a controlled period of time found that the recogni tion of braille words required from 16 to 196 percent more exposure time than the sum of exposure time for the individual characters of the words,
They also found that the recognition time was affected by the familiarity of the word and that contextual cues and knowledge of grammatical struc ture played a part in word recognition time. Based on these findings they concluded that word recognition is the result of the accumulation of in formation over a temporal interval. In other words, the whole-word ap proach is not characteristic of braille readers.
In a series of studies, Kusajima (197*0 compared braille reading with visual reading. His findings indicate that braille characters are suc cessfully perceived through movements of the fingers. He felt that the most efficient readers perceived a group of braille cells in a totality as words or phrases. He concluded that the visual and tactual reading process are identical and that the fixations in visual reading correspond to the finger-movements in braille reading. He concedes, however, that the unit of perception in braille reading is not as wide as that in visual 27 reading. He also stressed the importance of contextual and grammatical cues in braille word recognition. Kusajima's findings indicate that the whole-word approach to teaching braille reading is desirable and pre ferred.
Harley and Rawls (1971) conducted a study to determine the most ef fective orthography in the teaching of beginning braille reading. Ma terials were developed and transcribed in Grade 2, Grade 1, and phonemic braille. Two basal readers, one using a synthetic approach and the other an analytic approach were developed. Each of the basal readers were transcribed in Grade 2, Grade 1, and phonemic braille code. These materi als were used xri.th six groups of subjects (total 39) in sine residential schools for one academic year. The Slosson Oral Reading Test and the
Gilmore Oral Reading Test were administered at the end of the academic year to all subjects. The results of the study indicated that the Grade 2 braille approach was superior to the other two approaches (Grade 1 and phonemic). The investigators indicated that beginning braille reading instruction should employ Gra.de 2 braille.
Since braille is read through the tactile sense, a number of studies have investigated the mechanics of hand and finger use and movements. In a study of reading mechanics in blind students (ages 9-18), Burk (1932) indicated that the more efficient readers made greater use of the left hand than less efficient readers. He observed that the students performed best when they simultaneously used the left and right index fingers.
Maxfield (1928) found that the right hand reads better than the left, but the use of both hands results in most efficient reading. Lowenfeld et al„,
(1969) surveyed teachers of the visually impaired and 85^ of the respond ents indicated that they encouraged the students to use both hands for 28 braille reading. They found that the best readers used a smooth hand- flow across the page rarely concentrating on individual letters. Lappin and Foulke (1973) in a study to determine the simultaneous acquisition of tactual information by several different fingers, found that recognition of tactual simuli was faster when subjects used the two index fingers than any other combination. Their findings were confirmed by those of
Kusajima (197*0 who further added that one index finger reads while the other confirms what has been read.
Holland and Eatman (1933) examined the effect of the return sweeps from the end of one braille line to the beginning of the next line.
Their findings revealed that on the average between 6% to 1% of the total reading time was spent in making the return sweeps. More efficient readers used both hands for reading and took less time for return sweeps with the left hand with the right. Lowenfeld et al., (1969) found that students who used the left hand to locate and begin reading a new line of braille while the right hand finished the preceding line tended to be more effi cient readers. In an effort to increase reading efficiency, Crandell and
Wallace (197*0 suggested that the students begin from the center of a line and move the fingers in opposite direction to the outside of the line.
After six days of training with adults they found an increase of braille reading rate; however, because of too many variables they were not able to measure the effect of the hand movements 011 reading rate.
Methods in Increasing Reading Rates
In an effort to increase braille reading rates several studies utilized devices with time-controlled exposure of the reading material. Flanigan
(1966) used a device which introduced braille on a tape moving from right 29 to left while subject's fingers remained stationary. The device utilized a variable speed selection as a means of controlling the exposure rate of the braille characters. Thirty-four subjects matched in age, I.Q. and grade placement were randomly divided into a control and an experi mental group. The experimental group received three 50~minu'te treatment periods per week for 1^ weeks while the control group continued reading braille for the same period of time under normal classroom conditions.
Reading rate measurements were taken at the beginning of the study, upon completion of treatment program, and three months after completion of program. The results of the study indicated that the experimental group performed significantly better than the control group in both the post treatment and follow-up measures.
Kederis, Nolan and Morris (1967) conducted a study similar to
Flanigan's (1966). Thirty subjects, divided into experimental and control group of fifteen children each, took part in the study. The subjects were also matched by age, I.Q., grade placement and reading rates. The ex perimental group received one-half hour daily for twenty consecutive days braille reading practice under the conditions of decreasing exposure time and increasing word presentation rate "to force the students to speed up their apprehension and integration of material presented in a continuous, meaningful context" (p. 101). A criterion test x (p. 105). Flanigan and Joslin (1969) replicated Kederis' et al., study and found that x-rith an increase of the rate of presentation there was an 30 increase in reading errors. "Tie results of their study showed that there were no significant differences in reading rates between experimental and control groups. Henderson (1966) attempted to determine the effect of increasing the rate of isolated character recognition on the total reading process. She used a pre-test, treatment, post-test design with experimental and control groups. The subjects were matched by sex, age, grade placement, I.Q., and scores on the Gates Reading Test. The experimental group re ceived exercises designed to provide practice in character discrimination as a treatment for 18 thirty-minute sessions. The results of the study showed that the experimental group decreased its character recognition time by b2% from pre to post-test. Evaluating the results he concluded that "under the conditions of this study, increasing the rate of identifi cation of isolated braille characters was accompanied by a significant increase in the rate end accuracy of the total reading process" (p. 1 0 ). Hmstead (1970) studied the effects of practice with contractions and short word forms on reading rate. Seventy-two high school students divided into a control and an experimental group received, one half-hour a day for fifteen days, training in code recognition of contractions and short word forms. The results of the study indicated that the experimental group increased in speed and accuracy in braille code recognition and silent reading rate. Umstead concluded that increasing the rate and accuracy of code recognition resulted in significant improvement in the overall reading process of high school students. Motivation, feedback and "innovations" in mechanics of braille read ing were also used as variables in increasing braille reading rates. 31 Crandell and Wallace (197^) using twenty-two adult subjects in six days of training in vertical scanning of braille texts obtained up to 225 words per minute without significant loss of comprehension, Olson, Harlow and Williams (1977) explored a variety of approaches in increasing reading rates in a 16-hour workshop. The participants (37) were divided into three groups. The first two groups consisted of braille reading children and adults while the third group consisted of large print read ers. The study utilized a pre-test, treatment, post-test design id-th no control group(s). The results of the study were based upon percentage increase from pre-test and post-test, as measured by responses on The Diagnostic Reading Scales by Spache (1963). The treatment involved primarily for approaches; 1. convincing readers that they can improve their reading (building self-confidence and motivation); 2. improvement of sweeps, independent use of both hands, vertical hand movements (mechanics); 3. use of comments after reading (feedback); and practice reading. The results showed that the two braille groups made significant gains in rate (p .01) with no significant change in comprehension, while the large print group made significant gains (p ■< .0 5) in rate and comprehension. The investigators suggested that motivation, mech anics, and feedback played a significant role in reading rate increases. Summary: Braille Reading Studies on teaching beginning braille reading and increasing braille reading rates are few in quantity and poor in quality. The majority 32 of studies dealing with beginning reading are surveys which indicate a trend in the teaching of braille reading. The difficulties with the phonics approach are that the English language is not highly consistent in its sound-spelling patterns. An enornous amount of rules need to be learned if the phonics approach is to be successfully utilized; in fact, Spache and Spache (1973) point ed out that relatively few rules have a degree of usefulness. They rec ommended that the beginning reader should look for probabilities rather than the application of specific rules. The directional function of the rules is often in reverse to that of the reading process. The reading sweep is from left to right but, many vowel sounds are controlled by ele ments which follow rather than precede them. The application of such rules to tactual reading will have an adverse effect since the unit of tactual perception is much smaller than that of visual perception (Kederis, 19&9) the finger directional movement is slower than that of the eye. Since one of the crucial elements in reading is meaning, the whole- word approach contends that children should learn to read in thought units of words, phrases, and sentences. The child is taught to identify the symbolic structure by features such as length and/or configuration. This requires that the child develop a basic touch vocabulary before word analysis begins. Whole-word method does not provide the student with sequential development of work attack skills. The student is left to discover for himself how to anlayze words and associate component sounds to their symbols. This discovery provided him xri.th necessary cues 33 cues to independently attack new words. To a large extent this analytic process is only an incidental part of the reading program. Although braille reading rates are extremely low (90-100 words per minute), there has been only a small number of studies dealing with this topic. The studies reviewed vary in detail and lack sound experimental approach. They have been carried out with too few subjects, in too short a period of time, and lacking control for many variables. Print Reading The literature on teaching print reading is enormous and explores a large number of approaches (Chall, 1967). For the purposes of this study, however, the literature dealing only with language cues, cloze procedure, and auditory pacing was considered. The review was done in order to formulate a theoretical base for material development and instructional strategy to be employed in the present investigation. Recent discussion of the nature of the reading process have broad ened the description of that process and focused on language (Goodman, 1967; Smith, 1971)• Goodman (1967, 1970) notes that reading is a selective process involving partial use of available language clues (graphic, syntactic and semantic) selected from perceptual input on the basis of the reader's experience. In processing the information, the reader confirms, rejects or refines his/her tentative decisions as reading progresses. He contends that readers utilize these cues simultaneously. Certainly, without the graphic input there would be no reading; however, for efficient reading the syntactic and semantic information must be utilized as well. Goodman's position is strongly supported by Hoskisson and Krohm (197^), Smith (1971, 1973, 1975), Burke and Goodman, Y. (1 9 7 1 ) • Hoskisson and Krohm (1 9 7 ^-) view reading as three interwoven processes: reading as a sensory process which focuses on the graphic information, reading as a language process which focuses on the syntactic information, and reading as a perceptual process which focuses on the semantic information. Wardhaugh (1 9 &9 ), further emphasis that the process of reading is not just a matter of processing graphic signals in order to convert these signals into some kind of covert speech. The reader automatically involves both the syntactic structure and semantic information present in any text. The implication, of course, is that the reader will be more efficient if he understood and utilized the language structure as one whole. The language structure, i.e., the syntax or word order, the word structure, and the possible sequential combination of the graphic symbols, redundantly define the meaning. Thus, ''the better one's knowledge of that structure is, the less his/her need is for visual information" (Dechant & Smith, 1 9 7 7 ? p. 1 3 )« Smith, Goodman and Meredith (1970)? proposed two "cue systems" within the language which enables the reader to more efficiently process the in formation extracted from the printed page. The cue system within the words consists of grapheme-phoneme correspondence, word configuration, word structure and legibility factors. Within the system in the flow of langu age they include, the grammatical and syntactical pattern, i.e., the function of word order, inflexfcional suffixes, signal or function words, and the context in which the words are placed. The two cue systems con stitute the redundancy in the language. Dechant and Smith (1977) define redundancy as information dup licated by more than one source. The cue systems delineated by Smith, Goodman and Meredith provide the reader with the information which enable him/her to anticipate and, therefore, make a prediction as to the meaning of the printed message. This position strengthens an earlier one advanc ed by Lefevre (1962, 1964). Lefevre stressed intra- and inter-word cues, i.e., cues within the language structure. He noted that the grasp of meaning is integrally linked to grasp of structure (Lefevre, 1964, 1968). He attributes reading proficiency to the reader's ability to utilize language structures. Walcutt, Lamport, and McCracken (1974) further emphasize Lefevre's contention that meaning comes through syntax, word form changes and the use of structure and function units within the langu age. The beginning reader puts most of the emphasis on word identification (Shuy, 1977). However, word recognition alone is not sufficient for ex tracting meaning from the printed page. Although the ''fluent reader" is a "competent word identifier," he normally does not need to identify individual words in the reading process (Smith, 1971, p. 125). In other words, the meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of individual words within that sentence. Dechant (1977) supports this po sition by stating that ".. awhile word identification and reading for comprehension without actually identifying all individual words" (p. 2 5). Smith (1971) contends that extraction of meaning from a text is the reduction of uncertainty. This occurs when the reader can eliminate most of the alternative meanings that a particular graphic configuration might convey. He suggests that a principle technique for reduction of uncer tainty is the application of syntactic and semantic sequential redundancy. 36 The reader continuously "predicts, samples, selects, guesses and confirms the printed message" (p. 185). In a study of word recognition involving 50 kindergarten and 50 first grade children Marchbanks and Levin (1965) found that specific letter positions were of vital importance. They found that the initial letter or letter cluster was "the most salient cue" in word recognition, while final and middle position came next in order respectively. These find ings are supported by Timko (1970) and Williams, Blumberg, and Williams (1970) in studies concerning word recognition in beginning readers. These investigators also concluded that the initial letter is the most often used cue in word recognition. While the above findings are very important in the process of building initial reading skills, they contribute only a small amount of information to reading for comprehension. Lefevre (196^) contends that the reader must perceive entire language structures as a whole, i.e., as unitary meaning-bearing patterns. These patterns in the English language are the grammatical and syntactical word groups. Therefore, the reader must be taught to read by the language patterns that carry meaning. He identifies these patterns as word structure and word order, and notes that they provide one of the most reliable clues to the total meaning-bearing pattern. A knowledge of these patterns will enable the reader to anticipate and to predict meaning. Leary (1951) notes that the reader needs to think along with the author, thus be able to antici pate probable meaning through contextual cues. Contextual cues enable the reader to check the accuracy of word tentatively identified by the 37 use of other cues and gain rapid acquisition of the meaning (plmans, 1968). Among the contextual cues identified by Emans are: 1. Structural aids - such as indications of comparison and contrast. 2. Word elements - such as prefixes, roots and suffixes. 3. Inference - such as cause-effect relationships. Presentation - such as the position of words within a sentence and sequence of sentences within a paragraph (p. 13). One of the primary signals of meaning in a language is the order in which the words appear in a sentence (Goodman, 1969). The most basic form of the sentence is a "noun phrase" plus "verb phrase" (NP+V) (Lefevre & Lefevre, 1967). Knowledge of the sentence patterns (word order within a sentence) will facilitate the development of strategies for word antici pation thereby improving reading efficiency. Heilman (1972) points out that at practically all points in the read ing continuum, one of the abilities that sets a proficient reader from a poor one is the degree to which he/she uses the available cues A pro ficient reader keeps in mind what has been read and how the sentence he is reading builds on the intended meaning. If context cues are suffici ent the reader scans through the word in order to detect its structural components. If the particular word is still not recognized, the reader may go on past the word for additional context cues. The exclusive use of only one or any method of word attack would necessarily make a slow reader. An efficient reader attacks a given word (within context) simultaneously on every froit in which it is 38 vulnerable to analyze. Thus, the more ability a reader has in utilizing phonic, structural, and context cues, the more likely he is to recognize a given word and hence increase his reading rate, A growing number of analyses of reading and reading instruction are paying particular attention to the ability of the reader to employ a "hypothesis testing" or "prediction" strategy while reading (Goodman, 1968, 1970; Hochberg, 1970; Kolers 1970; Smith, 1971, 1973, 1975). Smith (1975) contends "that prediction is essential for reading, that everyone who can comprehend spoken language is capable of prediction, and the prediction is routinely practices in reading by beginners as well as fluent readers" (p. 305), He advances four basic reasons for the need to use prediction: 1. Multiplicity of word meaning (Fries, 19^0). 2. The multiplicity of "spelling-to-sound" rules (Venezky, 1967). 3. Limitation of the amount of information of print the human brain can process during reading (Smith & Holmes, 1971). U. Limitation to the capacity of short-term memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1970; Simon, 197*0 (pp. 305-306). Examining the four reasons for prediction more closely reveals the common feature that the greater the number of alternatives the longer the time required to make a decision. Thus, if a reader is to make an "accurate" prediction "prior elimination of unlikely alternatives" is necessary. A knowledge of language structure, i.e., a knowledge of the morphemic, syntactic, and semantic aspects of the language will 39 greatly facilitate the "elimination of unlikely alternatives." Smith (1975) states "...prediction xd.ll speed up reading, and therefore, help to overcome the limitations imposed by the brain's rather sluggish rate of information processing. The fewer alternatives you consider, the faster you can read and the more efficient will be the reading that you accomplish" (p. 309)• Although much work has been done on the cloze procedure of reading since it was introduced by Taylor (1953)j only a small portion of it relates to instructional application for reading efficiency (Bortnick & Lopardo, 1973; Jongsma, 1971; Schell, 1972). The cloze procedure, according to Bortnick and Lopardo (1973) lends itself to instruction in the use of cues as a reading strategy most often employed by efficient readers, it is an effective way to zero on the use of contextual cues (both syntactic and semantic), as aids in the process of efficient reading (Dechant, 1977)° Using the cloze procedure, the reader must generate words for the blank spaces which meet the syntactic and semantic con strains of the sentence (Ammon, 1975)- The cloze procedure is based on deletion of every n "fch word (usually th every 5th or 9th) or every n noun or verb and requiring the reader to fill in the deleted x-rords. In the sentence, "The boy threw the ," the sentence structxxre requires that only a noun or a noun phrase can be used to make it complete. The semantic structure requires that only rel atively small objects can be throxm— thus the syntactic and semantic systems suggest that relatively fexj noxxns are possible. A variation -th of the cloze procedxrre is to delete a portion of every n word. This technique is particularly useful in teaching structural analysis of ^0 words. Deleting -er from "The teach was correcting the exam," forces the reader to supply the missing suffix which transforms the verbal form into a noun required by the word position and function within the, sentence. Gove (1975) notes that deleting parts of words helps the reader to use graphic cues as a bridge between grammatic and semantic cues to obtain meaning. Supplying such a bridge in the first example by introducing the first letter or letter cluster of the deleted word, such as s- or st-, further restricts the available choice of nouns or noun phrases. Although reading while listening is not new (Neville and Pugh, 1975)5 the literature concerning this topic is rather scarce. Neville and Pugh (1975) report that it was cutomary in Victorian schools for students to listen to the teacher’s reading and then try to imitate what they had heard. "Reading aloud by the teacher and silent following of the text by the students was the usual practice until the early part of the 20th Century (p. 95)° Since then, decline in employing this method has been noticed since the emphasis has been on silent reading for comprehension (Shayer, 1972), as well as the growing emphasis on individualized in struction. Heckelman (1969) employed this approach in a clinical situation, and found it to be quite useful for teaching reading to individual students. He termed it "the neurological-impress method". His approach requires that teacher and strident read aloud in unison. Hollingsworth (1970) test ed the feasibility of the "impress-method" with group instruction in a language laboratory using tape recorded materials. His results indicated that the use of such an approach is not only viable but also a desirable strategy in teaching reading. In In 19715 "the British Broadcasting Corporation developed materials consisting of tapes and printed texts for listening and reading. The aim of these materials was to provide a good quality recording of interesting stories" (to provide motivation and sustain interest) so that students could listen while reading silently the printed text (Doolan, Griffith and Kerry, 1971; Doolan, 1972). The reading while listening method was investigated by Chomsky (197*0 with five remedial readers. In addition to listening, Chomsky instructed her students in word- and sentence-analysis of the stories. She found the approach quite useful as an instructional strategy for remedial reading. Neville and Pugh (1975?a) used the same method to improve the silent reading of seven students whose primary language was not English. To accommodate the reading rates of the students, they slowed the tape rate of the recorded material. As the students progressed, they increased the rate accordingly. They also reported that this method was very help ful in increasing the proficiency of these readers. Slowing the rate of the pre-recorded materials, and its effect on comprehension was investi gated by Neville (197*0 • Neville's subjects were 118 middle-school children with normal ability. One half of his subjects only listened to the tapes at three different rates, while the other half in addition to listening also read silently. She found that variation in rate had no effect on comprehension for the "listen only" group, while those who listened and read obtained higher scores when the tape rate was slower. Neville and Pugh (1975?a) reported that "there are also grounds for thinking that listening while reading may be an aid to fluency for read ers at a certain level of attainment or stage of development" (p. 9 7)• k2 This statement is based on Goodman's (1968) model of the three stages of reading: the oral, the aural, and the silent stages. Neville be lieves that "at the aural stage, the child may benefit from having aural input provided by a tape, since this gives him experience in fluent read ing by reducing the amount of mediation which he (the child) must provide" (p. 197). In another study, Neville and Pugh (1975? k)» varied the rate of presentation of the prerecorded materials to accommodate the reading rates of individual students, they concluded that "there are indications that listening while reading, especially if the rate of the aural message is slowed to accommodate poor reading skills, may serve to give children an enjoyable experience of reading fluently. This may give them confidence to read further for themselves, while at the same time helping them to learn to build up cumulative comprehension of a passage. It also provides practice in such skills as word recognition and identification" (p. 105). The literature reviewed indicates that phonology, syntax and semantics (the three linguistic domains) used simultaneously supply the reader with cues for obtaining meaning. Goodman (1966) calls the use of these cues a "guessing game", while Smith (1971) refers to it as "reduction of uncertainty". In either case, the contention is that the use of such cues as, spelling probabilities within words, structural probabilities within syntactical units and meaning probabilities within the context will facilitate the reading process. ^3 Summary; Review of the Literature The review of the literature indicates a paucity of research and experimentation bearing on reading through the use of the Optacon. This may be true to a large extent because of the relatively small number of individuals using the Optacon, and the relative newness of the device. Much of the interest of investigators is centered on the character recog nition of individual letters, More important aspect of the problem would seem to be the accurate apperception of ideas from the printed page. No matter how good the mechanics of reading and character recognition are if one lacks the ability to synthesize what is tactually perceived one can be neither efficient nor effective in obtaining ideas from reading, A variety of strategies on increasing braille reading rates have been explored. It appears, however, that no single approach is success ful in bridging the gap between the sighted and the visually handicapped reader. A growing number of reading specialists are concentrating on the ability of the reader to employ a "hypothesis testing" or "prediction" strategy while reading. The redundancy in the graphic syntactic, and semantic aspects of the language provides a large number of cues which can be used in such a strategy. The cloze procedure has been found very useful as an instructional strategy in the development of ones ability to "hypothesize, sample and predict." While the literature reviewed on listening-while-reading suggests that such a procedure is a viable strategy in increasing reading fluency, there is still a need for more evidence on its effects on increasing the reading rate. Reading can be broadly defined as a process of communication between author and reader. If available information is to be acquired, the reader must make an active contribution to this process. Research in this area indicates that information processing involved in tactual reading does not significantly differ from that of visually reading (Ashcroft, 1961). According to Foulke (1970), the visually impaired person finds it diffi cult to perceive more than one braille character at a time because of the limited sensory area on the index finger tip. Similarly, information with the Optacon is received through the index finger one letter at a time. This would indicate that other skills must be developed if efficient read ing is to be achieved. CHAPTER THREE METHODS AND PROCEDURES Purpose The purposes of the study were to determine the effect of a sequen tial language training program on increasing reading rates with the Optacon while decreasing the oral reading errors. Sub.jects The subjects were nine totally blind individuals from the Columbus, Ohio, metropolitan area who met specified criteria on the following variables: age, handicapping condition, formal education, previous Optacon training, and age at onset of handicapping condition (see Table l). The subject selection procedure was carried out by an informal interview with each subject and perusal of records. Age: All subjects selected to participate in the study were 22 years of age and older. Handicapping Condition: All subjects selected to participate in the study were totally blind and have no other handicapping condition. Formal Education: All subjects have successfully completed the 12th grade. Optacon Training: All subjects had received the minimum of ^0 hours of previous instruction with the Optacon, and were able to recognize printed characters and manipulate the operational controls of the Optacon. TABIE 1 SUBJECT CllARAdEHISTlCS AGE AT* FORMAL** ERAI1JE** ONSET OF DEGREE OF* CAUSE OF* EDUCATION READING PREVIOUS OPflCON* SUBJECT AGE SEX BLINDNESS SEVERITY BLINDNESS IN YEARS RAWS TRAINING IN HRS. OCCUPATION Congenital Conputer 1 32 M 4 years Total Glaucoma 16 120 60 Prograjmer Optic 2 49 M 8 mos. Total Atrophy 18 50 60 Counselor Retinal 3 27 F 18 mos. Total Blastema 14 130 48 Secretary Vocational 4 25 M birth Total RLF 16 100 40 Counselor Conputer 5 24 M birth Total HLF 14 130 50 Prograniujr Substitute 6 23 F birth Total RLF 16 100 60 Teacher Conputer 7 27 F birth Total HLF 16 130 60 Progranner Optic Conputer 8 22 M birth Total Atrophy 14 120 60 Prograimtsr Caiputer 9 26 M birth Total RLF 16 130 60 Programcr 8 Data obtained from subject13 record ** Data obtained frcisn subject Age at Onset of Handicap: All .subjects were congenitally blind, (N=6) or blinded early in life (N=3) Table 1 contains a summary of subject characteristics. Setting The study was conducted at the facilities of the Vision Center of Central Ohio, located in Columbus, Ohio. A room was assigned and main tained in approximately the same arrangement through the study. The investigator met with each subject twice a week for one hour each week (see Appendix E). Equipment and Materials Equipment used in the study included: a) a table (3' x 5') on which the Optacon and instructional materials were placed; b) two chairs adjustable in height to accommodate individual participants; c) an Optacon (Model R1C) purchased from Telesensory Systems, Incorporated (TSI), Palo Alto, California, used for read ing printed material (see Appendix A); d) instructional materials developed by the investigator (see Appendix B); e) a General Electric audio tape recorder (Model 3-5193, equip ped with variable speed controls) purchased from the American Printing House for the Blind (APH), Louisville, Kentucky, used for instructional purposes, recording, and playback of oral reading; and f) a stop watch ("Walanann", accurate to one-fifth of a second) used for timing reading passages and determining reading rates and error rates. Instructional Materials An instructional materials package designed for this particular study was developed. The package consists of three sections: 1. Instructional materials based on the linguistic structure of the language (DeStefano, 1978; Lefevre and Lefevre, 19&7; Moore, 1975)• This section includes morphological and syn tactic structures presented to the subjects in brailled and printed forms. 2. Instructional materials based on the cloze procedure of reading (Bortniclc and Lopardo, 1973; Taylor, 1953) • This section includes reading passages of various lengths with certain morphological units omitted. The passages were presented to the subjects in print to be read with the Optacon. The subjects were required, using graphic, syn tactic and semantic cues, to orally find in the omitted units. 3. Instructional materials in print and pre-recorded forms (Neville, 197^; Neville and Pugh, 1975 a,b). This section included reading passages of various length pre-recorded on cassettee tapes and printed forms. The subjects were presented simultaneously with both forms. The pre-recorded passages were presented at a rate slightly faster than the subjects' oral reading rates through the use of a variable speed tape recorder (see equipment section, Part E). (The subjects were expected continuously to try to maintain the present ed pre-recorded rates, thereby, increasing their reading rates). Procedures for using the instructional package is further described in the Intervention section. Baseline reading passages consisted of approximately 200 words in length and of three levels of reading difficulty. The levels of diffi culty were based on the Dale-Chall readability formula (Dale-Chall, 19^8), These materials were presented to the subjects only in printed form and were read orally with the Optacon. Data Recording Procedure Selected passages, with a predetermined length (100-150 words each), were read orally by each subject and recorded on an audio tape and played back later for evaluation. It is assumed that audio taping eliminates a stressful situation of timed reading and results in a more accurate measurement of reading rates and reading errors. Following each session the investigator played back the audio tape and recorded the number of reading errors and the length of time (in minutes) it took the subject to read each passage. The reading rate then was computed based on the following formula: _ t, . Total number of words read Reading Rate= ______Total number of minutes The error rate was computed according to the formula: Total number of errors Error Rate= Total number of minutes $0 The reading rates (words per minute) and reading error rates are recorded on a daily log for each subject (see Figure l). 51 DAILY LOG SUBJECT # # OF # OF TIME IN WORDS PER ERRORS PER CONDITION SESSION WORDS ERRORS MINUTES MINUTE MINUTE Fig. 1 Example of Daily Log Form 52 In order to establish the reliability of the recording procedure, a second observer independently evaluated randomly selected audio tapes. An inter-observer agreement was computed based on the following formula: Number of agreements Percent of agreement= ______x 100 Number of agreements and disagreements The criteria for acceptable agreement between investigator and observer was set at 95%" When the 95% level of agreement was not reached, the procedure was re-evaluated and a new rating was taken. Design To analyze the effects of intervention strategies, a within subject multiple baseline design (Cooper, 197*0 was employed. The independent variable was the sequential presentation of instruc tional materials, while the dependent variables were reading rates (words per minute) and error rates (errors per minute). The study was comprised of two conditions: baseline and interven tion. The intervention condition was of three phases. The multiple baseline design was applied across subjects during each condition. All subjects entered baseline condition at the same time. After three sessions, subjects one, two and three entered intervention while the remaining six subjects remained at baseline condition. Subjects four, five and six entered intervention when the first group of subjects showed an increase in reading rate while the remaining three subjects remained at baseline condition. This procedure continued until baseline data was collected for all three groups of subjects. 53 Design Conditions Baseline During this condition, data were collected in order to assess the current level of performance (reading rate in words per minute and read ing error rate in errors per minute). Each subject was presented with reading passages of approximately 200 words in length. Using the Dale- Chall readability formula (Dale-Chall, 19^8), one set of passages was rated as easy, a second set as standard, and a third set as fairly dif ficult. The subjects were asked to read orally with the Optacon an equal number of passages from each set. The oral reading was recorded on an audio tape and evaluated by the investigator and independently by a second observer following each session. Intervention Phase One: The investigator sequentially presented the instructional materials to all subjects during this phase. This condition required approximately ten weeks. Each subject met individually withihe investigator for two sessions per week. The investigator presented the instructional materials sequentially beginning with word markers; inflectional and derivational suffixes; phrase markers; connectives; and sentence patterns. The sub jects were instructed in the functional aspect of the above sequence in language, its predictive capability in rapid reading with the Optacon and its contribution to comprehension. Each subject was presented with a braille copy of the material for instructional purposes. Practice materi als, in support of the instructional materials, were presented in print 5b form and read with the Optacon. After completing the linguistic sequence, subjects moved to phase two of the treatment. Phase Two: During this phase, each subject was gradually introduced to the cloze procedure and its role in rapid reading (DeStefano, 1978). This phase of the study continued for seven weeks. Introduction to the cloze procedure was presented as follows: 1. Key words were presented first in isolation. 2. Then, incorporated in a sentence. 3. Inflectional and derivational suffixes omitted from the key words. The entire word deleted from the sentence. The subjects were expected to supply, as they were reading with the Optacon, the deleted part and/or whole word. Following this sequence, the subjects were presented with short texts (100-150 words) in which every ninth word was deleted. They were asked to read the texts orally for recording and give a brief resume. For the folloxtfing two sessions, the subjects were presented with texts in which every fifth word was deleted. They were required to read the text orally for recording and provide a brief resume. At the termination of the seventh week, subjects moved to phase three of the treatment. Phase Three: For the duration of this phase (7 weeks), subjects were introduced to the variable speed tape recorder (Model 3-5193) and its use in read ing speed building. The intention of this training period was to provide the subjects with both tactual and aural input. The subjects were presented with printed texts, of various length, to be read with the Optacon. The same texts were pre-recorded on cassette tapes and presented to them aurally through earphones. Since subjects' hands were used in reading with the Optacon, a foot pedal facilitated the operation of the tape recorder. At the beginning of each session, the investigator set the speed of the recorded material at a rate slightly higher than the subject's reading rate. Each subject then was instructed to "try and catch up" with the speed of the recorded material. The intention of this instruc tion was to mkae the subjects increase their reading rate by attempting to "catch up" with the aural input. Figure 2 provides a hypothetical example of the within subject multiple baseline design. Training Procedure Rationale The main objective of this study was to increase the reading rate withlhe Optacon. To achieve this objective a set of instructional ma terials was developed and a strategy of implementing these materials was designed. The instructional materials were presented in the follow ing order: axjareness of the language structure, language predictive ability, and listening-while-reading, i.e., auditory pacing. The sequential presentation of the instructional materials necessitated three treatment phases. Although the study was carried out in three stages, WORDS PER MINUTE 0 4 20 30 0 4 0 4 20 30 20 30 10 10 0 0 i. Mlil Bsln Dsg ad riiil Data. Design Baseline Multiple and Artificial 2 Fig. Line Base L Treatment S Y A D F O R E B M U N 30 39 48 57 ujc 3 Subject ujc 2 Subject Subject 66 73 56 the investigator's interest was on the effect of the complete set of in structional materials on the reading rate and error rate rather than the effects of each separate stage. For the purpose of this study, reading was defined not as decoding individual graphic symbols, i.e., letters, or identification of individ ual words, but as means of obtaining information from the printed page. Thus, throughout the study data were gathered only from reading short passages. A visual reader gains information from the printed page by "chunking', a printed line and interpreting the graphic symbols simultaneously into meaning-bearing units (Lefevre, 196^). The Optacon reader, on the other hand, limited by the tactual mode and a letter by letter presentation of the materials, processes much smaller bits of information and obtain ing or building meaning as he moves the camera across the printed line. This would indicate that the Optacon reader needs to build skills which will enable him to anticipate and, hence, predict what will appear next on the tactile array, xihich in turn will serve as a clue to what is coming next. It would seem that the Optacon reader could increase his/her reading rate by acquiring these skills. It was felt that by introducing the subjects to the structural patterns of the language and their signifi cance to the reading process, will reflect in an increase in reading rates. The significance of understanding the structure of the language is that a myriad of cues, inherent in the language, are available to the Optacon reader beyond the tactual information being presented. It has been estimated that the English language i& redundant (Shannon, 1951). This redundancy in the language enables the reader to "sample and predict" 58 the printed material at a quicker pace, thereby increasing his/her reading efficiency. Phase One (10 weeks): The subjects were presented with materials specifically designed to emphasize the predictability of the language through its morphologi cal and syntactical structure. It must be stated, however, that the emphasis xms on the function of the structural units, rather than their grammaticalness. All materials were presented, both in braille and in print. Each subject, after receiving instruction with the braille copy was required to practice reading with the Optacon a. printed copy designed to provide application of the braille instructional material. This strategy was applied throughout the first stage. The subject x-ras first introduced to the function of the word classes within a sentence. The instruction proceeded in an identical pattern for word markers, inflec tional and derivational suffixes, prefixes, roots, connectives, phrase and sentence patterns. For data gathering purposes, once a week each subject read orally, a short passage with specified number of words which was recorded on audio-tape for evalxiation. Phase Two (7 x-;eeks): While the first stage emphasized the predictability of the language based on its morphological and syntactical structure the second stage of the study added contextual predictability. This was achieved through the cloze procedure. The cloze procedure is essentially a technique for manipulating the reader's total perception of the material being read (Greathouse and Neal, 1976). This manipulation is accomplished by a selective deletion of certain words and/or parts of words, within a given text, which the subject was required to recreate on the basis of the available cues. When the cloze procedure is used as a reading assessment tool, it results in word replacement scores which reflect the reader's ability to use context clues. “When it is used as an instructional technique, it facilitates the readers ability to predict through the use of all avail able cues (Greathouse and Weal, 1976). The subjects were introduced to the cloze procedure in the following manner: 1. Key words were presented first in isolation. 2. These words were incorporated in a sentence. 3. Suffixes were deleted from these words. The entire word was deleted from the sentence. Following this instruction, the subjects were presented with cloze pas sages. These passages were constructed using three types of deletions: 1. Deletion of portions of every n^3*1 word (ususally 5th or 9th word). *fc]n 2. Deletion of every n noun or verb (usually every 5th or 9th). 3. Deletion of every n ^ word (usually every 5th or 9th) re. gardless of its grammatical class. The type of deletion used determined the aspect of the instructional procedure. When a subject was working with cloze in which portions of words were deleted, the primary objective was the use of syntactic and semantic cues in conjunction with the graphic information to determine 6o the entire word ini. thin the context. The discussions that followed such exercises focused on the process of using graphic along with syntactic and semantic cues as a bridge to obtaining meaning without the necessity to scan every graphic symbol in a given word. For example, a passage may include the sentence "The teacher taught geography and hist The provided graphic information "hist " coupled with the syntactic information, that a noun must complete the sentence, and the semantic information that the teacher teaches a certain academic subject enables the reader to easily and quickly complete the sentence by responding "history". When every 9th or 5th noun or verb was deleted, the discussion focus ed on use of syntactic and semantic information. If a required noun to complete a thought was replaced by another noun, how did such substitu tion affect the meaning of the sentence; or if a very was replaced by a noun, how did it affect syntactic structure as well as the semantic in formation of the sentence? When the third type of deletion was used, i.e., deleting every 9th or 5th word from a passage, the discussion centered on the use of syn tactic, semantic and paragraph content. Since this type of deletion could delete any word within a passage the reader was expected to deduce the appropriate word from the rest of the passage. For example in the sentence, "She walked ______the forest to reach the hospital", syntactic and semantic information call for "through" or "around"; however, only through the rest of the passage can one determine the exact word needed to fill in the blank. The student then is encouraged to follow how the meaning of an entire passage builds on the meaning of separate sentences. 61 The emphasis in the second stage was on the effective use of graphic, syntactic and semantic cues which provide the reader with a greater power of prediction than was possible only through the instruction given during the first stage of the study. Phase Three (7 weeks); During the phase (7 weeks), subjects were introduced to the variable speed tape recorder (Model 3-5193) and used it in building reading speed. The intention of this training period was to provide the subjects with concurrent tactual and aural input. The subjects were presented with printed texts, of various length, to be read with the Optacon, The same texts were pre-recorded on the cassette tapes and presented aurally through earphones. Since subjects' hands were used in reading with the Optacon, a foot pedal facilitated the operation of the tape recorder. At the beginning of each session, the investigator set the speed of the recorded material at a rate slightly higher than the subject's reading rate. Each subject then was instructed to "try and catch up" with the speed of the recorded material. The intention of this instruc tion was to make the subjects increase their reading rate by attempting to "catch up" with the aural input. For this phase, all materials were selected from the same book (Gray, E.. Friend Within the Gates, i960) to provide continuity and the building of meaning within a story. The selections were pre-recorded by the Bell Telephone Volunteers from Columbus, Ohio, on audio tapes at a rate of 35-^0 words per minute. The same selections were typed to be read with the Optacon. 62 The procedure employed here differs from the "listen and read method" employed by Doolan (1972), Heckelman (1969), Neville (197*0, Neville and Pugh (1975) in that the pre-recorded materials were presented at a rate two to three words faster than the reading rate of the subjects. Both the printed and the pre-recorded materials were presented simultane ously. The readers were expected to continuously keep up with the recorded materials while reading the printed text with the Optacon. The pacing procedure allows the reader to gain confidence in his/her newly acquired skills in the use of graphic, syntactic and semantic cues available from the language. It was also hoped, and later confirmed, that through continuous pacing the subject's reading rate would increase. Analysis of Data Data from baseline and intervention conditions were recorded and graphed for each subject to depict reading rate and oral reading error rate. Data were presented as words per minute, read orally and errors per minute made in oral reading. Graphs were used to compare differences between baseline' and intervention conditions for each subject and for each phase of the intervention condition. Interobserver Agreement Measures Interobserver agreement measures were used to check the objectivity of the recorded data. An independent observer was instructed to listen to recordings of subject's oral reading of passages with specified number of words and record the number of errors made and the length of time (in minutes). Following this procedure the observer computer the reading rate and error rate. Interobserver agreements were measured in percentages using the formula: Number of agreements Percentage of agreement = ______x 100 Number of agreements and disagreements Interobserver agreement was set at a minimum of 95$* When the required percentage of agreement was not attained, then both, investiga tor and observer repeated the procedure independently until an agreement was reached. CHAPTER FOUR PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS O^ DATA The major purpose of this investigation was to assess the effects of sequential instruction in language cues on the oral reading rate and oral reading error rate for nine totally blind individuals using the Optacon. Three phases within the treatment condition were implemented with each subject. During each phase, subjects were instructed on the use of available language cues which facilitate the reading process. Since the major objectives of the study were to increase oral reading rate and decrease oral reading error rate no specific criteria was set. The performance of each subject, however, was measured on individual basis and no comparisons were made to the performances of other sub jects. Each subject received an equal number of instruction and super vised practice sessions. The effects of the treatments were demonstrated by a within sub ject multiple baseline design. Experimental control was evidenced when changes in reading rates occurred only at the implementation of the treatment procedure. Data were collected on oral reading rate (words per minute) and error rate (errors per minute). Each subject read orally passages with predetermined number of words and each subject's reading was recorded on cassette tapes. Following each recording session the cassette tapes were played back, reading rate and error rate were calculated and recorded on a running log. 64 Tables 2-10 depict individual subject's data for each condition by 66 Running Log for Subject One # OF # OF TIME IN 'a/ORDS PER ERRORS PER CONDITION SESSION WORDS ERRORS MINUTES______MINUTE______MINUTE a; C •H 1 1 6 0 8 . 3 7 21.51 1 . 0 3 r*“) 9 0) 2 16 8 7 - 6 3 22 .02 1 . 0 5 w 6 cd 3 1 3 3 6.23 2 1 - 3 5 0 . 96 97 n 4 . 2 ? 22 .72 1 . 6 4 2 6 3 - 0 2 1 . 9 9 7 1 2 2 3 . 5 1 j 1 2 4 ^ .65 26 .67 1.72 w h 120 5 if-.22 22 . 0 4 1 . 1 7 03 121 7 4 .4 8 27.01 1.56 w 5 cd 1 0 3 6 2 . 9 5 3 4 . 9 2 2 . 0 3 -C 2-, 7 108 4 2 . 8 5 3 7 . 8 9 1 .4 0 3 95 2 2 .4 5 3 9 . 2 6 0 . 8 2 9 77 1 1 . 8 0 43 . 7 S 0.56 o 10 1 2 6 4 3 - 1 3 4 0 . 3 9 1 . 2 3 t—I EH 11 7 4 5 1 - 5 5 46 . 3 4 3 . 1 5 hH 12 82 3 1 . 7 2 4 7 . 6 7 1 . 7 4 13 94 2 2 . 0 0 47 .00 1 . 0 0 > 03 C/3 1 4 q6 0 2.00 48.00 0 .00 OS cd 1 4 7 4 2 . 3 5 5 1 . 5 3 1 . 4 0 «■r~* 1 15 a, 16 80 2 1 .6 2 4 9 . 3 c 1 .2 3 66 1 . CO tr* 17 1 . 3 2 50 0 . 7 6 t—t f—( £ -^Subject discontinued training due to additional duties required of him at his employment. ca cd -C TABLE 3 Hunnin*?: L o s for Subject Two it OF ft OF TIME IN WORDS PER ERRORS PER 10UDITI0N SESSION NORDS ERRORS MINUTES MINUTEMINUTE 0) c • H 1 1 3 0 2 3 61.22 2 . 9I 0 . 3S r1 o 0) 16 3 22 56 .0 0 3.00 0 . 3 9 CO cd 3 1 3 3 21 1 6 . 3 3 2 . 87 0.15 1 97 21 2 6 .1 2 3 . 1 5 0 - 7 5 2 71 1 9 1 1 . 9 2 I .76 1.27 w 3 1 2 1 22 1 7 . 6 5 7 .03 1.25 a 1 2 0 20 2 0 . 0 0 6 . 0 0 1.00 T_ 3 c/3 1 2 1 1 1 . 2 5 8 . 1 5 1.21 cd 5 1 0 3 1 1 9 . 6 0 1 0 . 5 1 1.13 £ 7 1 0 3 1 1 9 - 5 3 1 1 - 3 3 1.17 5 95 9 6 . 2 5 15.20 1 . 1 1 9 ?7 5 1 . 6 0 16 .0 1 l . o l n o 10 1 2 3 8 . 0 ? 1 5 . 8 1 C .37 Eh 11 71 10 1 * 5 3 16 .31 2 . 2 1 h i 12 32 l i 1 . 5 3 1 3 . 1 0 2 . 1 3 CzJ h i 1 3 91 9 1.60 20 .13 1 . 9 6 > 0) CO l i ?6 9 I .05 23 .70 2 .2 2 a: cd 1 c. 11 6 .6 6 22.07 SZ 117 s 1 . 6 5 £x] P-. 16 60 c 3 - 3 6 2 3 . 6 7 1 . 7 3 C-( 17 66 1 2 . 7 5 2 1 . 0 0 1 . 1 5 M 13 1 2 7 9 1 . 5 ? 26 .0 2 1 . 3 1 M 1 9 62 6 2 . 9 2 2 8 . 0 3 2 .05 W h i 20 7 1 5 2 . 5 0 2 9 . 6 0 2 . 0 0 3 CD 21 1 3 1 I .67 2 8 . 0 5 1 . 7 1 CO 22 99 5 3 - 1 5 cd 3 1 . 1 3 1 - 5 9 -C 23 1 2 5 7 1 . 1 7 2 9 - 9 8 1 . 6 8 cu 21 92 6 2.98 3 0 . 5 7 2 . 0 1 TABLE 4 Running Log for Subject Three rf OF # OF TIME IN WORDS PER ERRORS PER OCNDITION SESSION WORDS ERRORS MINUTES MINUTE MINUTE 1 1 8 0 7 9 .2 2 1 9 - 4 0 0 . 7 5 2 16 8 9 . 5 0 17 .6 2 0 . 3 4 5 3 1 3 3 7 - 3 7 18 .05 0 . 5 1 p a s e l i n e n 1 97 t 4 . 3 5 20.00 1 . 4 4 2 71 ( 3 -1 3 22 .66 2 . 2 4 3 3 1 2 4 5.02 2 4 . 7 0 1 - 5 9 120 6 3 • 92 30.61 1 - 5 3 i x 7 4 5 1 - 7 5 4 2 . 2 9 2 .6 6 •“ i—t 12 32 5 1 . 9 0 4 3 . 1 6 2 . 6 3 g U 4 O) 13 2 . 0 2 46 .53 1 . °S > CO iU 9 c 2 . 1 3 * 07 1 " 4 l cd 3 ^5 i .c — ^ 4.7 6 3 . C 7 V 7 . 3 8 1 - 9 5 Jll 1 6 20 5 1 . 7 0 47.05 2 .9 4 I? CO 2 1 .3 2 50.00 1.52 W IS 1 2 7 6 2 .4 5 2 . 4 5 n 51.33 M 1 9 32 5 1 . 4 5 56.25 3 . 4 5 M 20 7 4 3 1 - 3 5 54.51 2 .2 2 0) 21 1 3 1 7 2 . 2 7 3 . 0 8 CO 57.71 cd 22 99 4 1 . 6 2 61.11 2 .4 ? x: n t 23 1 2 5 6 2 . OS 60.00 2 .S 3 24 92 5 1 . 5 2 60.53 3 - 2 9 69 TABLE 5 Running Log for Subject Four # o f # o f t i :3 i n w o r d s p e r e r r o r s p e r CONDITION SESSIONS WORDS ERRORS MINUTES______MINUTE______MINUTE T 110 16 1 9 . 9 0 12 .OS 1 . 0 7 OJ 2 15 2 IE 1 5 - 2 7 1 1 . 0 0 0 . 9 2 c 3 1 3 3 11 12 .9 0 1 0 . 3 1 0 . 2 5 r-1 QJ *4* 1 6 3 1 3 1 3 - 5 3 12 .00 0.96 W 5 2 0 7 IE 1 5 - 1 5 13 -66 0 . 9 2 ca 1 9 9 1 9 16 .-67 1 1 . 7 5 0 .25 1 °7 IE 2 .05 12.05 l . ? E £ 71 1? 5 .E 7 12 .9 3 2 . 1° t-t 3 1 2 9 15 1 0 - 3 3 12 .00 I.E 5 aj -!• 120 11 2 - 1 5 I E . 7 2 1 - 3 5 in cd 121 9 2 - 3 2 1 6 . 5 3 1.23 5 1 0 3 5 5 • 95 1 7 - 3 1 1.01 Cm 1 7 10S 1 6 - 7 5 16 .00 1 . 0 9 Q5 E E . 9 5 1 9 - 1 9 0.21 0 7 7 3 3 - 7 7 20 .9 2 0 .20 10 1 2 3 E 5 - 7 0 22 .9 6 0.70 -lit 1—1 11 ( ^ { 3.62 20 . 9 9 1 -9 3 t-H 12 Q2 3 - 5 2 23.;0 1 . 7 0 "> ~ 0) 9 9 9 3 - 7 5 2 5 . 0 7 1 . 0 7 cd ]_-** 96 5 3.97 2 7 . 6 7 1.79 — ]_ J 1 9 7 5 . 0 6 S 7 2 8 . 99 1 . 3 2 it 1 J 50 3 2 . 9 3 2 7 - 3 0 1.02 17 6 6 2 .22 2 8 . 9 5 1.32 12 1 2 7 6 9.10 30.98 1.96 M |—| 1 9 32 E 2 . 5 7 3 1 - 9 1 1 . 5 6 n h HH 2C 3 2 . 2 5 3 2 - 2 9 1 - 3 3 T 4 £ 9 cu 71 1 3 1 5 3 6 . 1 9 1 . 3 8 1, w 3 5 . 5 1 1 . 9 9 cd 22 9 ° 2.78 -C 23 125 5 3.97 36 . 0 2 1 . 9 9 1 ■ 2 9 92 3 2 . 5 5 36 .0 8 1 . 1 2 70' TABLE 6 R u n n i n s Loe for Subject Five # OF # OF TIM E IN WORDS PER ERRORS PER : c m‘DITTO?! SESSIONS WORDS ERRORS MINUTES MINUTE MINUTE 1 1 3 0 12 1 3 . 2 5 13.00 0 . 2 7 2 a> 16 3 10 1 1 . 3 S 1 9 . 7 6 O .S S C 11 • rH 3 1 3 3 3 . 7 ° 15 -1 5 1 . 2 5 n“4 10 1 0 . 9 0 1 9 . 9 5 0 . 9 2 Q) 1 6 3 SI 5 2 0 7 12 1 3 - 3 0 1 5 . 0 0 0 . 5 7 -1 ^ l( Cti 1C to 0 1 1* 1 3 . 3 2 1 9 . 5 c 0 . 7 5 1 97 11 5 . 0 7 1 5 . 9$ 1 . 5 1 2 71 10 k .1 0 1 7 . 3 2 2 .4 4 3 1 2 4 10 6 . 1 3 2 0 .2 3 1 . 6 3 HH A 1 2 0 a 9 . 9 7 2 k . I k 1 . c l 0) 5 1 2 1 7 5-22 23.13 1 .34 W to cd 103 6 3 • 92 26 . 2 5 1 . 5 3 x: 7 ICS 5 3 . 6 2 2 9 - S3 1 . 3 6 t o b 95 2 2.65 3 5 - 0 5 0 . 7 5 9 77 1 2 . 2 ? 3 5 - 9 2 0 .9 4 £ h 10 1 2 3 5 3 - 5 7 3 5 . 3 5 1 . 4 0 to w 11 ?k c 2.25 3 2 . S9 3 - 5 5 r-* M 12 32 5 2.97 3 3 . 2 C 3 . 2 4 a ; M 13 94 6 2.63 3 5 - 7 9 2 . 2 S 0) to 14 96 7 2 - 5 3 3 7 - 9 9 2 . 7 7 e-» ctf 15 ]_4? 3 - 9 7 3 7 - 0 2 1 . 5 1 x: to to 16 3 ° 5 2 .0 5 3 9 . 0 2 2 . 4 4 66 4 9 2 . 0 9 h-H 17 1 - 5 7 2 - 5 5 13 9 2 . 7 6 2.36 1 2 7 7s 2 . 9 7 M 1 0 32 1 . 8 7 9 3 . 8 5 3 . 2 1 W 20 ? 4 5 1 . 6 3 9 5. 4 0 3 - 0 7 O 21 1 3 1 7 2 . 9 2 4 9 . 8 6 2 . 4 0 ad 22 99 6 2 .07 9 7 . S 3 2 . 9 0 x: 7 23 1 2 5 2.67 46 . 2 2 2 .6 2 24 92 5 1 . 9 0 9 8 . 4 2 2 . 6 3 71 T A B L E 7 Running Log for Subject Six § OF # OF TIME IN WORDS PER ERRORS PER CONDITION SESSIONS WORDS ERRORS MINUTES______MINUTE______MINUTE 0) 1 180 17 3 1 - 5 2 5 - 7 1 0 .51 2 16 8 16 25.20 6.67 0.63 _l 3 1 3 3 1 5 3 0 . So I .32 0.49 a) u. 1 6 3 16 32 .0 2 5 - 0 9 0.50 n) 7 2 0 ? 17 4 1 .1 -0 5.00 0 .4 1 n 1 9 ^ 16 2 S . 3 3 6 . 7 3 0 . 5 5 1 97 13 1 5 - 5 7 6 . 2 3 0.23 2 71 11 1 0 . 0 6 7 . 0 4 1 . 0 9 3 1 2 4 14 1 5 - 3 0 7 .5 5 0 . 3 9 M i- 120 13 1 2 . 3 7 9 - 3 2 1.01 a) M 5 121 11 11.32 1 0 . 6 9 0.97 2 6 103 9 s .27 1 2 . 4 5 1.09 7 10 S 9 5 . 2 3 13-12 1.09 O 95 5 6 .4 0 1 4 . 3 4 0 . 7 s 1—1 77 3 5 - 6 7 1 3 - 5 8 0.53 E-* 10 1 2 ° l 9 - 6 2 1 3 - 0 3 0 .4 1 2 11 ? 4 Q 5 . 3 2 1 3 - 9 1 1 . 6 9 W H-t 12 ?2 7 5 .4 ? 1 4 . 9 9 1 . 2 S 94 17 .00 1 . 2 7 0) 13 7 5 - 5 3 M 14 96 3 5 - 3 7 1 7 . 8 2 1 . 4 9 - 15 1A7 9 7 . 4 5 1 9 - 7 3 1 . 2 1 £ 16 80 7 3 - 9 S 2 0 . 1 0 1 . 7 6 17 6 b 4 3 . 1 3 2 1 . 0 9 1 . 2 5 1? 1 2 7 S 6 .63 1 9 . 1 6 1 . 2 1 W 1—I 1 9 32 7 3 - 9 0 21.03 1 . 7 9 20 7 4 5 3 - 5 8 2 0 . 6 7 1 . 4 0 0) 21 1 3 1 7 5 - 9 3 2 2 . 0 9 1 . 1 5 22 99 5 4 . 1 0 2 4 . 1 5 1 . 2 2 23 125 6 5 - 2 5 2 3 .2 1 1 . 1 4 24 92 5 4 . 0 2 2 2 . 8 9 1 . 2 4 72 T A B L E 3 Running Log for Subject Seven # OF # OF TIME IN WORDS PER ERRORS PER OC:;DITIOr; SESSIONS WORDS ERRORS MINUTES______MINUTE______MINUTE 1 1 : 0 10 1 1 - 3 7 1 5 - 3 3 0 . 8 3 7 1 6 3 10 10.27 16 .36 0.97 Q 7 . 1 3 1 5 . 5 2 1 9? 11 A . 2 3 22.66 2 . 5 7 2 71 9 3.00 23.66 3.00 3 1 2 4 12 4 . 93 25.15 2 . 4 3 r—H 1 2 0 11 8-. 32 27.77 2 - 5 5 Q) 5 1 2 1 10 3 - 3 3 3 1 - 5 9 2 .61 cn 6 103 3 . 1 2 3 3 - 0 1 2 . 5 6 2 '7 r» ? 1 08 3 .0 0 36 .CO 2 . 3 3 4** a 95 U 2.63 36 .12 1 . 5 2 9 77 3 2 .0 3 3 7 - 9 3 1 . 4 3 10 1 2 8 5 3 .4 0 3 7 - 6 5 1 . 7 6 7 4 11 7 1 - 9 5 3 7 - 9 5 3 - 6 5 HH 12 82 2 .13 3 3 . 5 0 3 - 7 6 t-H qA 13 6 2 .4 0 3 9 . 1 7 2 . 5 0 0) 1 Li 96 5 2 .30 4 1 .7 4 2 .61 c cd 15 1 4 7 3 . fl7 4 2 . 3 6 2 . 3 1 x: T /■ Dh 30 4 1 . 9 0 A 2 . l l 2 . 1 1 17 66 3 1 . 5 7 4 2 . 0 4 1 .9 1 13 1 2 7 7 3 .02 4 2 . 0 5 2.32 •/o 19 52 1 . 3 7 4 3 . 2 5 3 .2 1 20 7 4 5 ' 1.62 45 .6 8 3.09 21 131 2 .7 0 4 3 . 5 1 2 . 2 2 aq 22 4 1 . 9 8 50.00 2 .0 2 23 1 2 5 5 2 .52 49.60 1 . 9 S 24 92 3 1 . 3 2 5 0 . 5 5 1 . 6 5 73 TABLE 9 Running Log for Subject Eight # OF # OF TIME IN WORDS PER ERRORS PER CONDITION SESSIONS WORDS ERRORS MINUTES MINUTE MINUTE 1 1 3 0 1 5 9 . 3 8 1 9 . 2 5 1.60 2 1 6 3 1 5 3 . 5 7 1 9 - 5 0 1 - 7 5 (D 3 1 3 3 11 7 .0 5 13 .3 7 1.50 c •H ~ 1 6 3 13 3 .00 2 0 . 3 3 1 . 6 3 r—4 3 20? 1 4 9 . 3 2 21 .OS 1 . 4 3 m 1 9 4 12 0 . 97 1 9 - 4 6 1.20 n) 7 160 12 7.5 0 2 1 . 3 3 1.60 c 1 ^ 3 11 6 .2 7 2 2 . 3 1 1 . 7 5 9 139. 11 6 .08 22 .04 1.31 1 97 1 3 4 . 4 8 21 .6 5 2 . 9 0 2 71 12 2 . 9 7 2 3 . 9 1 4 .0 4 3 1 2 4 15 4 . 4 3 27 . 5 9 3 - 3 5 1, 1—1 1 2 0 11 4 . 4 3 26 .7 3 2 . 4 6 0) 12 1 10 4 . 1 3 2 8 . 9 5 2 . 3 9 5 3 03 5 103 3 - 3 2 31.02 2 . 4 1 cd s 7 1 0 8 0 3.65 2 9 . 5 9 1 . 6 4 3 95 5 2 .3 3 3 2 . 9 9 1 . 7 4 Q 77 4 2 . 2 S 3 3 - 7 7 1 . 7 5 10 1 2 3 c 3 - 9 5 3 2 . 4 1 1 - 5 2 C“* 7 11 7 ^ 2 . 1 8 3 3 . 9 4 3 . 6 7 l-H 2 •Z: HH 12 92 2 .38 3 4 . 4 5 3 . 3 6 13 .I) 6 2.60 3 6 . 1 5 2 .3 1 > W li- 96 7 2 - 5 5 3 7 - 6 5 2 . 7 5 cd OS X i S 1 ^ 7 8 4 . 1 5 35 .4 2 1 . 9 3 P-* . 16 SO 5 2 .05 3 9 - 0 2 2 . 4 4 17 66 4 1.62 4 0 .74 2 . 4 2 £h Z 1? 127 n 3 - 0 7 4 1 . 3 7 2 .2 5 M HH 1 9 32 J 1 . 3 5 4 4 . 3 2 3 . 2 4 44.31 0 20 17 T- 0 1.67 3 - 5 9 rj] 21 131 7 2 .9 0 4 5 . 1 7 2 .4 1 22 99 5 2 . 1 3 4o . 4 9 2 - 3 5 Ah 23 1 2 5 6 2 . 5 7 4 8 . 6 4 2 - 3 3 21* 92 4 2 . 0 0 4 6 .0 0 2 . 0 0 T A B L E 10 Running Log for Subject Nine $ OF # OF TIME IN WORDS FER ERRORS PER CONDITION SESSIONS WORDS ERRORS MINUTES______MINUTE______MINUTE Q 1 ISO 3 . 0 2 22 .4 9 1.12 2 16? 7 7 . 4 ? 22 .4 9 0 . 9 4 3 1 3 3 6 6 .10 21 .5 0 0 . 9 5 03 3 4 16 3 7 .22 2 2 . 5 3 1.11 •H 3 20? 10 3 . 3? 2 3 . 3 3 1 . 1 3 ID lOlj. r 7 3 .20 23.66 0 . 3 5 7 1=0 6 6 . 5 7 2 4 . 3 5 0 .?1 CO n ' l iL3 5 . 7 ? 25.00 1.22 C 1 3 ^ - 5.20 2 5 .7 ? 1 . 1 5 1 97 0 3.73 25 .6 6 2 . 3 5 2 71 -5 2.72 26.10 2 . 9 4 3 1 2 4 10 9.55 2 7 . 2 5 2 . 2 0 h-1 1 2 0 9 9.13 2 9 . 0 6 2 .1 3 0) c 1 2 1 7 9.20 2 ? . 51 1 . 6 7 M z'. < Cd 1 0 3 3.35 3 0 . 9 3 1 . 4 9 7 1 0 6 9 3.57 3 0 . 2 5 1 . 1 2 T' 95 3 2.9 7 3 1 . 99 1 . 0 1 O 7 7 2 2.33 3 3 . 0 5 0 . 5 6 10 1 2 5 5 3 - 5 5 36 .06 1 . 4 1 11 7 4 z1' 1 . 9 3 3 ? . 37 3.54 hH 12 53 2 .0 0 91.50 4 . 0 0 O 13 94 a 2 - 1 5 4 3 .7 2 4 . 1 9 C/3 19 96 7 2 . 0 3 9 c .1 5 3 . 3 7 2 1 4 7 10 3 . 2 0 95.94 —1 15 3 - 1 3 SO 1 -7 3 4 c . 2 4 2 .3 1 17 66 9 1 . 4 0 9 7 . 1 4 1 . 4 3 r-. IS 1 2 ? 2 . 7 3 46 .5 2 2 .56 1— 1 19 r 2 5 1 . 6 2 4 3 . o l 2 . ?£ 20 79 7 1 . 4 ? 70.34 2 . 0 4 a C .SI C/3 21 1 3 1 J 2 . 5 3 49 1 . 9 0 cd 22 Q9 3 1 .S 3 52.66 1 . 5 0 -C 23 1 2 5 ij- 2 . 3 0 5 4 . 3 5 1 . 7 4 24 92 3 1 . 7 2 5 3 .49 1 . 7 4 Interobserver agreement measures of data recording were taken for each subject during each of the experimental conditions. The independent observer played back recordings of oral readings and computed reading rate and error rate. Reliability measures were computer for percentage of agreement on reading rate and error rate. Percentage of agreement was calculated by totaling the number of agreements and disagreements in each category and inserting the sums into the following formula: Agreements Percentage of agreement = ____ x 100 Agreements & Disagreements A criterion level of 95 percent was required as the acceptable mark for reliability checks. The percentages of interobserver agreements for responses in each condition are presented in Table 11. The percentage of agreement for each category across conditions exceeded the 95% level of acceptability. Dur ing baseline, three recordings for each subject were evaluated by the ob server with reliability measures of 100 percent for reading rate and 100 percent for error rate. During intervention phase one (Language Structure) 5 tapes were evaluated with agreement measures of 100 percent for reading rate and 98 percent for error rate. During intervention phase two (Cloze Procedure) 3 tapes were evaluated with reliability measures of 100 percent for reading rate and 100 percent for error rate. During intervention phase three (Auditory Phase) b tapes were evaluated with agreement measures of 100 percent for reading rate and 98 percent for error rate. TABLE 1.1 PERCENTAGE OF INTEROBSERVER AGREEMENT FOR READING RATE AND ERROR RATE PER CONDITION NUMBER OF RECORDINGS PERCENTAGE AGREEMENT EVALUATED______READING RATE______ERROR RATE Baseline 3 100 100 Language k; Structure 100 9 8 o 5 t-H r', W Cloze > Procedure 3 100 100 K W E h H Auditory Pacing A 100 9B TOTAL 17 100 99 77 Overall interobserver agreement for 21 tapes evaluated was 100 per cent for reading rate and 99 percent for error rate. Presentation of Data Data were collected on individual subjects throughout baseline and intervention conditions. Data collected were on number of errors made and length of time (in minutes) for each subject to read a passage with specified number of words. These raw data were converted to oral reading rate and error rate per session according to the following formula: Number of words per passage Reading rate = time (in minutes) Number of errors made per passage Error rate : time (in minute s) Experimental control for treatments is dipicted in Figures 3-6. Baseline Conditions Data for the baseline condition for each subject are summarized in Tables 12 and 13 and represented graphically in Figures 3-6. Subjects 1 2 and 3 were in baseline conditions for three sessions each prior to in tervention. The mean oral reading rates were 21,64, 2.94 and 18.37 while the mean error rates were 1 .03, 0.4l and 0.80 respectively. Subject 4, 5 and 6 remained in baseline for six sessions per to inter vention. The mean oral reading rates were 11.84, 14.51 and 5«51 and mean error rates were 0.93? 0.90 and 6.51 respectively. Subjects 7. 8 and 9 were in the baseline condition for nine sessions before entering intervention. The mean oral reading rates were 17.86, 20.41 and 23.38, while the mean error rates were 1.07, 1.57 and 1.04 respectively. INTERVENTION UBS I II III SUBJECT 1 o error rats o reading rats SUBJECT 2 SUBJECT 3 SUBJECT 4 SUBJECT 5 CO SUBJECT 6 SUBJECT 7 3USJECT 4 4 e Uj& 09 ae o 5 2a 00 < S SUBJECT 6 § s SUBJECT 7 SI. 431 SUBJECT a SUBJECT S 10 s e s s i o n s PIG. 3 ORAL RCAOiNG RATS AND ERROR RATE POR ALL SUBJECTS 7 9 Bsacu Mum II 2 GT a. Qto cc o $ Q 2 < C soajcct 3- ? c Mr cc a: aJ tt OF SESSIONS E I G 4 ORAL READING RATE AND E R R O R RATE 80 aJ Z X ■J)Q X o 5 Q < X o X K OF S E S S I O N S FIG. 5 O R A L REAOING RATS AND E R R O R RATE FOR GROUP TWO Bl 2 ►Mi* II lU Z 2 ****£* * X uJ X o 5 ° W«T_i < wr yj oX X X 'xl it OF S E S S I O N S F ig 6 ORAL READING RATE AND ERROR RATE ■82 Table 13 depicts the oral reading and error rates during baseline for each subject by session. During this condition, the investigator gave the subjects a passage with predetermined number of words and asked them to read the passage orally. The oral reading for each subject was recorded on a cassette tape for evaluation. The investigator gave no instruction or help in reading. Intervention The intervention was conducted in three phases with separate mater ials developed for each phase. The materials were presented to the subjects in the following sequential order: language structure, langu age predictability and auditory pacing. This sequential presentation en abled the participants to develop an understanding of the nature of the reading process and how to apply this understanding to reading with the Optacon as the training progressed. Although the treatment condition was carried out in three phases, the investigator was interested in the effects of the treatment as a whole rather than those of individual phases. Thus, data presented below reflects the entire treatment rather than its separate phases. Table 1*1 depicts mean oral reading and mean error rate per subject for baseline and intervention conditions. The oral reading rate for subject one ranged from 22.72 to 51*58 words per minute with a mean reading rate of ^0.55* The error rate rang ed from 3*16 to 0 with a mean error rate of 1.38. Due to additional employment duties, subject one terminated his training at the end of the second phase of intervention. TABLE 12 ORAL READING AND ERROR RATES DURING BASELINE FOR EACH SUBJECT BY SESSION SUBJECT SESSION # WORDS PER MINUTE ERRORS PER MINUTE 1 1 21.51 l.OS 9 22.02 1.05 3 21.35 0.96 2 T. 2.99 O .33 i 3.00 0.39 3 2.57 0.95 •3 ]_ 19.90 0.75 i 17.55 0.39 3 13.05 0.31 9 x 12.08 1.07 i 11.00 0.92 3 10.31 0.35 9 12.00 0.95 3 13.55 0.92 5 11.73 0.85 5 1 13-00 C .37 2 19.76 0.38 >•3 15-15 1.25 Zi 19.95 0.92 5 15-00 0.37 5 19.5c 0.75 6 1 5-71 0.59 2 C .0 / 0.63 3 9.32 C .99 9 5-09 0.50 5 5.00 0.91 0 6.73 0.55 7 I 15-33 0.33 i 16.36 0.97 13.52 3i. 1.25 1 12.08 1.07 i 11.00 0.92 3 10.31 0.85 4 12.00 0.95 5 13-66 0.92 5 11.73 0.85 1 13-00 c.8? 2 1^.76 O.SS ■3 > 15-15 1.25 4 14.95 0.92 5 15-00 0.57 5 14.56 0.75 1 5-71 0.54 2 A *7 0.63 -3 4 0 2 C .49 4 5-09 0.50 5 5.00 0.41 6 6.73 0.55 1 15.83 O.SS 2 16.36 0.97 3 15.52 1.25 4 17.72 1.20 5 19.31 1.12 6 20.68 1.17 7 19.95 1.25 1 15.77 0.53 9 15.56 1.11 1 19.25 1 .6c 2 19.60 1-75 •3 12.27 1.56 u. 20 .38 I .63 5 21.08 1.43 19-46 1.20 ? 21-33 1.50 s 22.51 1.75 9 2 2 .04 1.31 1 22.44 1.12 2 22.49 0.=4 *3 il.30 0.96 k 22.58 1.11 23-33 1.13 6 23 .56 0.55 7 24.35 C.91 25.00 1.22 9 25-77 1.15 TABLE 13 MEAN ORAL READING RATES AND MEAN ERROR RATES PER SUBJECT DURING BASELINE CONDITION NUMBER OF X READING X ERROR SUBJECT SESSIONS RATE RATE 1 3 21 J ' l 1 . 0 3 ?. 3 ?. 9 A O . A i c o o O 3 \?.}V h 6 11 .01 0 . 9 3 5 6 l'l - 5 7 0.02 r, 5 - 5 9 0 . 5 2 7 9 1 8 . h z 1.09 o R 2 0 . 5A 1 - 5 9 O Cl ? 3 I .05 The oral reading rate for subject three ranged from 20.00 to 6l.ll words per minute with a mean rate of 43.48, while the error rate ranged from 3.^5 to 0.53 errors per minute with a mean error rate of 2.01. The oral reading rate for subject four ranged from 12.00 to 36.19 words per minute with a mean reading rate of 24.38. The error rate ranged from 2.19 to 0.70 errors per minute and a mean error rate 1.3*+. For subject five the oral reading rate ranged from 15°98 to 48.42 words per minute with a mean reading rate of 35»06 while the error rate ranged from 3«55 to 0.44- errors per minute and a mean error rate of 2.l6„ The oral reading rate for subject six ranged from 6.23 to 24.15 words per minute and a mean reading rate of l6.11. The error rate ranged from 1.79 to 0.4l errors per minute with a mean error rate of 1 .16. For subject seven the oral reading rate ranged from 22.66 to 50.55 words per minute with a mean reading rate of 38.57? while the error rate ranged from 3=76 to 1.48 errors per minute and a mean error rate of 2.42. Subject eight has an oral reading rate ranging from 21.65 to 48.64 words per minute with a mean reading rate of 35.93? while the error rate ranged from 4.04 to 1.52 errors per minute and a mean error rate of 2.55« The oral reading rate for subject nine ranged from 25.66 to 54.35 words per minute with a reading rate of 40.13. The error rate ranged from 4.19 to 0.86 errors per minute with a mean error rate of 2.24, TABLE 14 MEAN ORAL READING RATES AND MEAN ERROR RATES PER SUBJECT FOR BASELINE AND INTERVENTION CONDITIONS Baseline Intervention NtlMB'-'R OF X READING X ERROR NUMBER OF X READING X ERROR SUBJECT SESSIONS RATE RATE SESSIONS RATE RATE 1* 3 21 .63 l .03 17 40.55 1 -3R 2 3 2 . 94 0.41 24 IP .78 1.60 3 3 1B . 3 7 0.20 24 43.4 P 2.01 /• A 11 .El 0 .93 24 24.33 1.34 5 6 14. 57 0.92 24 35.06 2 .16 A 6 5 -59 0.52 24 16 .11 1 .16 7 9 18.42 1 .09 24 36.57 2.42 P o 2 0.5 A 1-59 24 35-°3 2.55 9 9 23.4 9 1 .05 24 4 0.13 2.24 OD OS 87 TABLE 15 MEAN ORAL READING RATES PER SUBJECT FOR BASELINE .AMD IMTEHVEI-iTION CONDITIONS : iUMEER OF NUMBER OF O U 1E 21.63 13.7' 18.38 .1.31 35.06 16.11 18.42 33.57 15.26 ^Subject 'dropped cut of the Investigation after completing phase two of the treatment condition. 88 TABLE 16 MEAN ERROR RATE PER SUBJECT FOR BASELINE AND INTERVENTION CONDITIONS 3AEELINE II.TERVENTION 'iUMBER OF NUMBER OF SLrx-r.CT SESSIONS X RATE SESSIONS X RATE 3 1.03 17 1.38 0 C. .41 29 1.50 CO 0 OJ 3 2k 2.01 k Q .93 2k 1.39 5 6 .92 2k 2.16 5 6 .52 2k 1.16 7 9 1.09 2k 2.92 • ■ 3 9 1.59 2k 2.55 9 9 1.05 2k 2.29 TOTAL .93 1.89 *Subject dropped out of the investigation after completing phase two of the treatment condition. CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSION, LIMITATIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS Discussion of Data The central purpose of the study was to examine two questions sub sumed under the stated problem: Was there a difference in reading effici ency x^hen a systematic sequential language training was implemented in reading x-jith the Optacon? Conclusions to the two questions are presented and discussed in this section. Question 1: Would an increase in reading rate with the Optacon be observed when visxially handicapped individuals are instructed in language structure? Materials description and the order of presentation were described in an earlier section of this report (see Chapter III). Data was col lected once a week for each subject. Raw data were converted into oral reading rate (words per minute). Upon inspection of the data as represented graphically in Figxires 3-6 it is observed that a considerable increase in the reading rates for each subject from baseline condition to the termination of the in tervention condition was attained. The mean rates for each subject a- chieved during baseline and intervention conditions are reported in Table l4. The considerable increase in reading rate for each subject from base line through intervention would indicate that the sequential presentation 8 9 of the instruction materials had an overall positive effect. It might be argued at this point that practice reading during the time allotted for it also had an effect in the reading rate. While the investigator is aware of this it must be noted that the practice materials provided to the subjects were in support of the instructional materials, i.e., they reflected the nature of the instruction during each session, and as such they provided the subjects with a better understanding of the reading process and an application of that understanding to reading with the Optacon. It should also be noted the conclusions regarding the differential effect of any one phase of the intervention on reading rates cannot be drawn. The data presented in Figures 3-6 generally reflect a linear increase in reading rates across the various intervention phases. That is to say the slope of the accelerating rates remains relatively constant from one intervention phase to another. This result may be a function of the design itself since the time at which phase changes occurred were predetermined before data collection occurred. In retrospect, a better procedure would have been to determine in advance criteria for stability and proficiency necessary before a phase change would occur. A more sophisticated design in which the presentation of the three intervention phases was systematically varied across subjects would have allowed one to investigate the effects of the different treat ment phases. Question 2: Would systematic instruction in language structure de crease the rate of oral reading errors in reading with the Optacon? The procedure for obtaining data on oral reading errors was describ ed earlier in this report (see Chapter IV). Inspection of the graphic representation of the data in Figures 3-6 reveals that there was an overall increase in the oral reading error rates from baseline condition through the intervention condition. The increase of error rates, however, varies from phase to phase in the intervention condition* The investigator believes that such variability reflects the nature and the order of presentation of the instructional materials. It must be noted that a decrease in error rates was observed during the first phase of the intervention condition. The instructional materials during this phase focused on the structural aspect of languages thus, encouraging the students to concentrate on that aspect of the reading process which resulted in a decrease in the oral reading error rates. As the second and third phases of the intervention condition were implemented, an increase of the oral reading error rate was observed. The instructional materials for these phases centered on the language redundancy, i.e., its predictability and the use of language cues in the reading process. The subjects were en couraged to employ that aspect of the language in reading with the Optacon which resulted in an increase of the oral reading error rates (see Table 1^). Such an increase in oral reading error rates might have been expected since while reading at a higher rate one concentrates more on obtaining meaning from the printed page and less on the accuracy of individual words. It might be argued at this point that the increase of error rates would have an adverse effect on reading comprehension. Since formal data on reading comprehension was not collected, this argument cannot be substantiated or negated. However, it should be noted that after reading each passage sub jects were asked questions regarding its content. This informal compre hension probe showed no loss of content meaning despite the increase in error rates. 92 An over all inspection of the data as presented in Figures 3-6 and Tables 2-l4 would indicate that there was a proportionate increase in both oral reading rates and oral reading error rates (approximately 100$ increase in each) from baseline through treatment conditions. The increase in oral reading rates can be attributed to the intervention procedures. The increase in error rates is probably due to the higher reading rates. Indirect evidence for the impact of intervention on reading rates is also supplied by data obtained from other sources. Silent reading rates of readers (N=500) with the Optacon who have completed 50 hours of train ing averaged 11.5 words per minute (Brewer, Note l). Similar rates (9.16 wpm) were reported by Schoof (1975) for students who have received a mini mum of 50 hours of training. Silent reading rate measurements taken under controlled conditions on a sample of 22 from over 240 visually impaired students, trained at Telesensory Systems, Inc. (TSI, 1978) averaged 22.4 words per minute after a period of one year following training. Inspection of Table 15 indicates that subjects' mean reading rate during baseline condition (15=26 wpm) closely approximates that reported by TSI (1978)9 while the mean reading rates attained during intervention (32.55 wpm) exceeds it. Since oral reading rates are generally regarded as lower than silent reading, this comparison offers a conservation evi dence for the impact of the treatment. Limitations of the Study The results and discussion of this study must be viewed in light of several limiting factors evident in this research. No statement can be made regarding generalization of the results of this study to a wide range of visually handicapped individuals, and par ticularly to children, due to the small number and variability in age of the subjects. However, the results of the study in conjunction with num erous approaches to reading reported in the literature indicate that em ploying language structure and language predictability in reading with the Optacon have been effective in increasing the reading rate. The development and presentation of the instructional materials are another limiting factor. Since the materials were developed specifically for this study and this set of subjects, they may not be effective with other groups of subjects without considerable modification based on the level of reading with the Optacon. The subjects had previous instruction in reading with the Optacon, and as all have completed at least twelve years of formal education. The presentation of the materials, particular ly those of the first phase of intervention dealing with language struc ture did not follow a developmental approach of language acquisition as might be required for teaching beginning reading to young children. The materials selected for practice reflected the interest of the subjects which, of course, was a motivating factor. All but two of the subjects (subjects four and six) possessed Optacons, and had the opportunity to continue reading with the Optacon at home. Although reading at home might have been limited, it more than likely in fluenced, to some degree, the increase in reading rates. The extent of this relationship, however, is difficult to determine. Another limiting factor lies in the stipulated period of instruction: 2k hours of instruction and 2k hours of supervised practice reading, during the intervention condition. Additional hours of instruction would have, perhaps, yielded higher reading rates. The materials used for oral reading* although selected on the basis of readability, were not of equal length. This fact, to some extent, might have had an effect on the reading rate as xrell as on the error rate. Although the setting was familiar to the subjects, the time that each session was held (late afternoons and evenings) may have had a re tarding effect on the reading rates and may have been a contributing factor to the increase in error rate. Another factor influencing the study may have been the data gathering procedure itself. It is a commonly accepted fact that oral reading rates are lower than those in silent reading. Recording the oral reading on audio tape may have had a retarding effect on potential reading speed. Implications of the Study The results of this study indicate that visually impaired individuals reading with the Optacon can increase their reading rate through system atic intervention beyond the initial training for reading with the Optacon. Although the reading rate for Optacon users may never reach rates in other reading' modes, efficient Optacon reading enables the totally blind individ ual to have access to and function with relative success in a complex information storage and retrieval system designed for the sighted. In many mainstream classes where blind youths are increasingly educated, the traditional use of a single textbook is frequently replaced with a dis covery approach to instruction and learning through a variety of publica tions and independent readings (Moore, 1977)• The ability of a totally blind student to read efficiently with the Optacon will enhance his suc cess in the classroom with a minimum of intermediate braille transcription, audio tape recordings and/or direct reader services. Recent technological 9? advances in braille duplication and audio tape recording techniques have to some extent facilitated access to these materials. However, in most cases the most efficient approach to resolving these problems is the ability of the totally blind individual to use print„ The results of this study suggest that through further training, in language structure and language predictability, visually handicapped individuals can develop sub stantially improved abilities to read print directly. Since information with the Optacon is received through the tactile mode and only one letter at a time, the Optacon reader must develop other skills is she/he is to become a more efficient reader. As the literature points out, effective reading requires skills in the structure analysis of language and an aware ness of its predictability. The findings of this study imply that in struction with materials selected or designed to emphasize these elements of the language results in developing increased skills for efficient read ing. In designing an instructional program and providing instructional materials consideration should be given to the development of such skills through materials that are of interest to the trainee. Summary This research examined the effects of a sequential language training program on increasing the reading rates of visually impaired individuals reading with the Optacon. Outcome measures included data on oral reading rate and reading error rate. Nine totally blind subjects received instructions in language structure and application of language redundancy to the process of reading with the Optacon. The instructional package was developed by the investigator. It included materials on the morphological and syntactical structures of the langauge, utilization of the cloze procedure of reading as an instruc tional system, and simultaneous aural and tactile input. Three experimental groups were formed. Data on oral reading rate and oral reading error rate were collected during baseline and intervention conditions. During baseline condition subjects orally read short passages with a predetermined number of words (100-150 words each). The oral reading was recorded on an audio tape for evaluation. In the intervention con dition, the subjects received instruction in langauge structure and appli cation of language redundancy to the process of reading. The effects of the instructional program were analyzed by a multiple baseline design (Cooper, 197^)- Oral reading rates and oral reading error rates were evaluated across conditions. The data suggest that the nature of the instructional materials and the order of presentation had a positive effect on increasing the oral reading rates. Oral reading error rates, however, also increased. An in formal comprehension test given to each subject after each recording indi cated that even with the increase in reading errors there was no loss in comprehension. Recommendations for Further Study The findings of this study lead to many possible suggestions for further research. Experimental studies will be needed to explore the in ferences that may be drawn from this study. These inferences should be seen as the raw materials out of which hypothesis can be developed for experimental verification. Since this investigation employed a new instructional ap proach to teaching reading with the Optacon, it becomes ob vious that it needs to be replicated. Replication should include a more complex design to determine the differential effects of the intervention conditions employed in the study. As this study employed young adult readers, a similar study with school children and youth would be recommended. The impact of the use of language structure procedures on comprehension should be studied through both silent and oral reading. A more detailed investigation of the number, type and rate of reading errors would be useful. Descriptive data of this type could provide investigators with important clues for cur riculum design and for materials development. This would be especially important with younger children and youth. An investigation to determine the possibility of simultaneous training in braille and Optacon reading. An investigation to study the common variables associated with successful braille and Optacon reading skills should be undertaken. APPENDIX A: OPTACON 99 fioElIteliJBtcii: The Optacon has dramatic Impact on e¥esyday living for the blind. The Optacon is a compact, portable reading At work The Optacon has helped blind people aid which gives blind and deaf-blind people to obtain jobs, to advance on the job, and to independent and immediate access to the world enter vocational areas previously closed to of print. Using advanced electronics, the them. A number of accessories augment the Optacon converts the image of a printed letter Optacon's versatility and flexibility in adapting into a vibrating tactile form that a blind person to different vocational needs. A blind computer can feel with one finger. Different type styles programmer, in addition to being able to read and languages can be read with the Optacon a printout, can easily adapt the Optacon to because it reproduces exactly what is printed. directly read the luminous display of a cathode The usual step of tape or braille transcription is ray tube terminal. A typewriter attachment thus eliminated, providing Optacon users with a enables a blind secretary to read what is being new degree of independence and privacy. typed, make typing corrections, and fill out pre printed forms. Another accessory enables a At home With the ability to read print directly, blind engineer or scientist to use the Optacon blind people can independently carry out a to read the visual display of an electronic myriad of everyday tasks. Optacon users can calculator. read their own bank statements and bills. They can identify package labels, follow recipes in The Optacon helps to eliminate vocational printed cookbooks, and read storybooks to barriers where independent access to print is children. Personal letters and correspondence important. Optacon users are identifying can be read Drivately.The Optacon also expands and creating dozens of new, non-stereotyped the range of reading materials available to the vocational opportunities. The Optacon is blind by enabling them to enjoy books and enabling many employed blind people to magazines which are neither recorded nor be promoted beyond entry level positions brailled. which often do not fully utilize their talents. In school The Optacon makes the instructional Blind administrators, teachers, computer and resource materials of the sighted directly programmers, scientists, lawyers, social workers, usable by the blind. Departments of education, secretaries and many others who use the local school boards, and private schools Optacon feel that it has made their abilities and have initiated programs to make Optacori skills more competitive—they have more oppor instruction available to blind students. Primary tunities and greater freedom, independence, grade students use the Optacon in learning to and privacy. read. High schools and community colleges have integrated Optacon instruction into their vocational education programs, and university students use it to pursue advanced studies in the sciences, foreign languages, law and other fields. The Optacon has been particularly important to blind students in advanced mathe matics, as it enables them to read complex equations directly without relying on cumber some braille transcriptions. How the Optacon works The Optacon (OPtical-to-TActile CONverter) sophisticated, solid state circuitry and minia works by converting regular inkprint into a turized components. The application of this readable, vibrating tactile form. To read with the advanced electronic technology enables the Optacon, the blind person moves a miniature Optacon to be highly reliable and relatively camera across a line of print with one hand. The maintenance free. index finger of the other hand is placed on the Tactile Stimulator Array The Optacon's tactile Optacon's tactile array, which is approximately stimulator array is composed of 144 miniature one inch long and one half inch wide. As the rods or stimulators arranged in 24 rows and 6 camera is moved across a letter, the image is columns. Each rod corresponds to a single simultaneously reproduced on the tactile array phototransistor in the camera's retina. Rods by miniature vibrating rods. The reading finger vibrate in correspondence to the pattern "seen" feels the enlarged letter as it passes across the by the retina. tactile screen. The reader feels whatever image is viewed by the camera's lens. For example, as The stimulator parameters, such as vibration the camera is moved across an upper case "E',' frequency, amplitude, and stimulator spacing the reader feels a distinct vertical line and three used in the Optacon are based on extensive horizontal lines moving beneath the finger. research, giving the Optacon a tactile display Optacon Design The Optacon is a portable, that produces a clear, well-defined image. battery-powered unit. It weighs just four pounds Operational Controls Several controls are and is about the size of a small cassette tape used in operating the Optacon. The ZOOM LENS recorder (2’-x6"x8"). It comes in a handsome adjusts the magnification of the camera image leather case with adjustable shoulder strap for to compensate for differences in print size. The carrying. This compact unit consists of three STIMULATOR INTENSITY CONTROL adjusts integral parts: the camera module, the elec the strength of the vibrations of the rods in the tronics section, and the tactile stimulator array. tactile array. The THRESHOLD CONTROL Camera Module The miniature camera is the compensates for differences in the reflectivity size of a small pocket knife. It contains two of inks and papers and affects the apparent tiny lamps and a silicon integrated circuit con stroke width of the letters. taining 144 light-sensitive phototransistors There are some additional controls on the back (the retina). When the camera is passed over panel of the Optacon. The BATTERY CHECK an inkprint character, these phototransistors BUTTON allows the user to check the battery's produce signals that are transformed into elec charge level. An INPUT-OUTPUT CONNECTOR tronic impulses. The impulses in turn activate PLUG allows two Optacons to be joined rods in an array which vibrate to form a read together with a Repeater Cable or allows a able, tactile facsimile of the original image. The Visual Display to be connected. The NORMAL- camera lens can easily be detached from the INVERT SWITCH changes the circuitry so that retina to permit attachment of accessory lenses the user can read white letters on a black back for viewing a page in a typewriter, a calculator ground or a luminous display such as that of an display or a computer video terminal. electronic calculator. Electronics Section The Optacon is produced in a convenient, compact size through the use of 1C 2 BATTERY CHECK BUTTON r ..... NORMAL-INVERT i 1 l" "i V ' S - f f SWITCH BATTERY &Qir i w ^'-Y x ^ ti.*-t aili'?^fC'b CHARGER JACK INPUT-OUTPUT CONNECTOR PLUG r±? -t ,-' rfcz_ ( Rgt? O --I- .c«» c STIMULATOR INTENSITY CONTROL v > prfrifa. T ' ,, J),^Y 4 £ «l">* V* TACTILE SCREEN ON/OFF (ARRAY) SWITCH ZOOM LENS THRESHOLD CONTROL APPENDIX B: SAMPLE OF BASELINE MATERIALS Thinking Machines Are Getting Smarter The checker-playing computer knows every move of every game stored in its "memory," and it displays uncanny powers: it will sacrifice a piece to gain a future advantage; and it marks the plays that have led to losing games. When it next encounters the same situation, it selects a different move from its repertoire. The result is that it shows im provement in almost every game, and now easily defeats anyone except a real expert. To watch it print: "Expect to win in five moves" gives some observers an uneasy feeling. Computer men, thrilled by the powers of the genie they have created, like to speculate on the tremendous promise it holds for human advancement. "Computers open up scientific possibilities that were unthinkable before," says Ralph J. Cordiner, Chariman of the Board of General Electric Co. "They will make possible entirely new products and industries. These computer-derived technologies will be major source of new employment in the coming decades." 105 My Average Uncle But we nephews did not pass him by. We were strangely drawn to him. Especially when some of our specialist uncles wore us down with their cranki ness and difference. I spent some of the quietest Sundays of my life in Uncle Amos's yard, lying under apple trees and listening to bees and not listening to Uncle Amos. He was bumbling away at something he did not expect me to listen to at all. And caterpillars came suddenly down on fine .wires shining like gold, and hit Uncle Amos on his bald spot, and he brushed them off and went on bumbling. The heat was a burden, and the apple blossoms fell to .pieces and drifted down on me, and I could see the roof of the world over the black twigs they came from. These were my solidest hours of pure being. I did not have to do anything to live up to this quiet, friendly man. He did not expect me to stand on my head and show off, or go after his pipe, or keep the flies from lighting on his bald spot. And he always had lemon drops somewhere deep in his roomy pockets, fore or aft, and he liked to give them to me. 106 Thinking Machines Are Getting Smarter The present computers grew out of the early tabulating, calculating and teletype machines. Combined into one complete system, and speeded up by electronics, the most advanced of them can solve any problem that can be expressed in writing. Here, briefly, is how they work. An operator types information and instructions on a special typewriter that converts letters and numerals into a code of dots on a magnetic tape. The computer then reads these signals and sends them to its central brain or memory, which consists of thousands of pinhead-size iron doughnuts or cores, each linked electrically to all others. This memory temporarily stores partial answers to a long problem until the computer's ingenious circuits call them out at the right moment to complete the answers. It also permanently stores for repeated use such standard data as logarithm tables or withholding-tax figures. The actual calculating is then done on orders from an instruction tape that tells the computer precisely what to do with the stored information. 107 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea After some minutes, a loud hissing was heard. I felt the cold mount from my feet to my chest. Evidently, from some part of the vessel, they had given entrance to the water, by means of a tap, and the room was soon filled. A second door, cut in the side of the Nautilus, then opened. We saw a faint light. In another instant our feet trod the bottom of the sea And now, how can I retrace the impression left upon me by that walk under the waters? Words cannot relate such wonders 1 Captain Nemo walked in front, his companion followed some steps behind. Ned and I remained near each other. I no longer felt the weight of my clothing, or of my shoes, of my air tank, or my thick helmet. 108 My Average Uncle Uncle Amos was easy on his wives and children. He had three of them, in all. Wives, I mean. I never did get the count of his children straight. There were too many assortments of them. Three wives. It seemed surprising to me at the time. With all the trouble I had myself, having to stand on my head, or throw stones at birds, to keep the attention of just one girl for a month. I often wondered how Uncle Amos, who never stood on his head or threw stones at birds, could attract so many women as he did. With hair, a little thin on his head, and legs that could not possibly do more than three and a half miles an hour on the road, there he was, with three families behind him. Of course, he had the families spaced. The wives of Uncle Amos did not come all at once. They were drawn out. One batch of children grew pretty well up by the time the next batch came in sight, waddling and falling on their faces. APPENDIX C: SAMPLE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS 110 SUFFIXES - A. Verbs 1. The following suffixes are often used with verbs -ed -d (t) asked moved waited named stopped loved Fill in the missing part smoke ______jump start line 2. The following suffixes are often used with verbs -es -mg teaches reads swindling punches 1 i kes writting misses leads racing Fill in the missing part learn part _ catch accept creep reach PRE-CLOZE PROCEDURE 1. The candidate's speech was very convincing. He gave a very convinc— speech. The speech was well written but not con—— —. 2. His letter to the department.was illegible. He always seems to write in such ill eg— print. » The i l ——— > note was found in the bottle. 3. You must preheat the oven before baking. He always seems to forget to pre—— the oven. 4. The students seem to disagree with the professor. The students and the professor always dis— . 5. The stranger felt.the town was unfriendly. The unfriend— town gave no welcome to the stranger. The stranger left the un——— town for the country. a 6. The valuable vase was irreplaceable. The irreplac—— vase was broken. The vase was not ir— — — . 7. The usher insisted that we leave the theatre. The grandparents insist—, so the children stayed. He in— on seeing the bill. 112 Friend Within The Gates The eighteen thousand beds prepared in Brussels for wounded soldiers were never needed. So quickly did the tide of war engulf Belgium that the battle front was many miles to the southwest of the city before the dazed people of the capital had time to grasp the magnitude of the dis aster which had struck them. But the work of the hospitals went on. Babies were still born, people fell sick; and even in the quiet streets, accidents still happened. The new school which was to replace the four houses in the rue de la Culture continued, slowly, to take shape. The clinic itself, the hospital of St. Gilles, and all the other hospitals over which Edith Cavel 1 kept a watchful .eye settled dov/n to carry on with the work they had always done. In some ways it was more difficult. There were shortages, and restrictions, and many things were "Verboten." But in other ways things became easier. War had convinced the women of Belgium, at last, that there was nothing dishonorable in hard work. Patriotism persuaded them, as Edith Cavel1 had been trying to do for so many years, that an aching back and roughened fingertips were things they could be proud of. They founds too, that work helped to keep at bay the nagging anxieties about husbands and sons; helped the dark days to go more quickly and gave them the sense of taking part, with their absent menfolk, in the struggle for freedom. And yet, paradoxically, the work they did formed an oasis of neutrality in their war-torn world. In the wards and corridors of the hospitals and clinics of Brussels there were no "enemies"; only the sick and sorry who needed kindliness and help. Edith Cavel1 made sure that they received it. To her, a German soldier with a bullet wound was just as much in need of gentle nursing as a Belgian, or a French soldier, or a frightened refugee from a devastated village; just as much caught up in the great machine of war, and as hurt and puzzled by it. It was, she believed, her sacred duty to preserve life — any life, which was placed in her hands. Only God had the right to take that life away. 113 Friend Within The Gates One of the few pleasures at this time was to play simple practical jokes on the invaders, and the people of Brussels became adept in tor menting their tormentors. Whole streets of householders would enter into a conspiracy to set their alarm clocks for a certain time in the evening, when dusk was falling. The streets would empty, and the patrolling guards alerted by the unaccustomed stillness •== would gather on the corners, rifles at the ready for an ambush. The sudden, wild clamor of bells sent them scattering, stumbling, calling contra dictory orders until, as abruptly as they had started, the ringing bells were silenced, leaving the soldiers open-mouthed and foolish in the street, still empty but whose every window showed a mocking face. A variant on this trick was to tie a heavy saucepan on the end of a cord and lower it with a crash onto the pavement behind a passing patrol, whipping it in through the window a split second before he turned and caught the culprit. Punishment by curfew invariably followed, but to the inhabitants of Brussels such punishments were marked up as triumphs, for they were an unmistakable sign that the enemy's nerves were shaken, and every pin prick was a tiny wound in his armor. But pinpricks were not enough. A more positive resistance was needed, and the opportunity for it came very soon. Ill* The. Making of Champions Four hun— students, aged eleven to eig— , are enroll-— here. For six man— to a year and a half af— a stu— enters the sch— , depending on his physi — development, he spends most of his time doing spe— exercises and play— certain gam— that will tough— him and increase his spe— and ab1— to react quick-—. Before he starts his wrestling train-—» he has to be in good physi— shape. The full course of tra— lasts up to sev— years. The les — are standardiz— and given in an official syllabus. These les— begin with the most elementary rul— of the Greco-Roman style of wres — and move on to the finest points of technique that an expert wres — imist know. 115 The First Book of Music The Inven— of the phono-—, the radio, and te l— has brought music Into everybody's home. Today more peo— can hear and enjoy good mus— than ever before 1n his— . Ch1l— like mus— as a hobby, for danc— and entertain— . Grown— take pleasure in listen— to fine mus— at con— . Through— the world peo— of every re li—- use mus—- in connec— with prayer. In recent years mus— has even been pi ay— in hos— to help peo— get well. This idea, you see, goes back to the medi— man among primi— tribes. Next time you hap— to feel t1 — or out of sorts, try listen-— on the pno— or ra— to a piece you enjoy. The chances are you will feel bet— . il6 SENTENCE PATTERNS The following are considered to be the basic sentence patterns in the English language. A. Noun Phrase + Verb Intransitive (+Adjective or Adverb) A noun phrase includes: noun marker + adjective + noun personal pronouns and proper names noun marker + noun noun marker + adjective + noun personal pronoun personal pronoun + adverb proper names An intransitive verb is not followed by a noun phrase (direct object). 1. Noun Phrase + Verb Intransitive examples: The children played. The happy children played. The dog barked. The hungry dog barked. The snow melted. George skated. I happily agreed. Make the following sentences complete. Some birds ______. An eagle A few swim. A beautiful moon This boy ______. My new______, tore. The adventurous ______died. We ______. Debbie . One fell. 117 Send Your Frog To Camp The annual frog-jump contest in Calif_____ 's Calaveras County, which Mark Twain made famous, won't hap until next May; but contest_ are being train those jump amphibians for the big event. This is the word from Doctor of Frog Psych Bill Steed, who also happens to be the presid of Croaker College. Croaker College, in Sacramento, offers a three-w special cram course for serious-minded .jump frogs. For $50, each frog gets room and boa . , weight-lift train , sauna bath_, bubble b _ and hypnotic treat from Dr. Steed. Among the 250 jump alumni of Croaker College, Steed says, are several Calaveras win Croaker College can be reacher at (916) ^+89-2521. 118 Don't Be A Pal To Your Son There are many different atti on how to treat Ame youth. One we heard recent comes from A1 Capp, the cartoonist, who was once a boy him Mr. Capp, father of three, told us in what might be his la _ interview: "When I was six years old my parents put me in a clean shi pointed out the dir of school and told me not to come b _ for eight ye______. They never expected to see my tea_ and the te never e* to see my p ___ _. Each one had a func My pa were suppos __ to feed and clo me; my te was suppos , to te me how to read and wr Neither group had any effect on the o_ The only thing my p knew a _ my t was 'she was always pick ___ on me.1 "My t graded me on ari , Eng ____ , hi_____ , and geo______. Since I failed all of them, it was obvious I was go to be a car ______." APPENDIX D: SAMPLE OF READING MATERIALS 120 All through the night she lay sleepless, her ears alert for the slightest sound from either of her children. Beyond the dirt-streaked window darkness had fallen and the day-time scunds of the street had died away. Inside it was silent except for the muttering of the old man in his corner and the moans of the sick child. From time to time she bent over and looked at him by the light of a flickering candle. Towards morning she could see that he was worse. He lay motionless on his hard little bed, blue shadows about his lips. By the time daylight groped its way Into the bare and cheerless room to touch his face, Lizzie knew that she had no choice. 121 All through the night she lay sleepless, her ears alert for the slightest sound from either of her children. Beyond the dirt-streaked window darkness had fallen and the day-time scunds of the street had died away. Inside it was silent except for the muttering of the old man in his corner and the moans of the sick child. From time to time she bent over and looked at him by the light of a flickering candle. Towards morning she could see that he was worse. He lay motionless on his hard little bed, blue shadows about his lips. By the time daylight groped its way into the bare and cheerless room to touch his face, Lizzie knew that she had no choice. 122 Santa Gets Busted in Copenhagen It is Copenhagen at Christmastime. You are shopping at one of the city's largest department stores.' Suddenly, by some pre-arranged signal, 35 men and women dressed as Santa Claus emerge from the washrooms and de scend on the store's book department. There, they start taking books down from the shelves and giving them to customers. One of them warmly wishes you a merry Christman and presses several volumes on you. Giving gener ously, he says, is what Christmas is all about: Here, take these. What is this? A promotion gimmick? But then an alarmed store manager comes in and begins shouting. Customers are laughing, taking books with them. Suddenly masses of police arrive, and swiftly haul the generous Santas out into the street. There, the red-suited people are roughed up, searched and thrown into paddy wagons. Watching by-standers are horrified. Children become hysterical. 123 There was a sound of quick, light footsteps behind her and she turned. The woman approaching her was small, and very slender. Her brown hair was brushed back from her face and almost concealed by the white cap she wore. But it was her eyes which riveted Lizzie's attention. Brilliantly clear and gray, they seemed to look straight into her mind and heart, and to 'understand what they saw there. In spite of her fears of a few minutes earlier, she found herself willing to surrender Johnny for the first time since he became ill. And as she put him into the nurse's arms, it seemed that the burden had been taken not only from her arms but from her heart. 12k Friend Within the Gates She still needed, desperately, women who understood and appreciated what she was trying to do. Women she could trust to carry on when she was absent as they would when her eyes were upon them. Women inspired by the same complete conviction as she was that this work was the greatest, and most rewarding that life had to offer them. It was a lot to ask. There are few enough Edith Cavells in the world at any one time; to expect to find more than one of them in any one place at once asking for a miracle. 125 Friend Within the Gates For the first three months Edith felt that she was walking along a tightrope over a bottomless pit. If she leaned too far to one side she risked offending someone who could wreck the precious school; if she lean ed too far to the other, she would be false to her own ideals — something equally unthinkable. Something was needed to draw all of those concerned in the new venture closer in understanding — something about which they all felt deep ly, and which they all understood in the same way. When it came it was something outside nursing altogether, yet which touches every hospital, and everyone who works in one with a special magic: Christmas! APPENDIX E: WEEKLY SCHEDULE WEEKLY SCttEOULE FOR OPTACOM PARTJC1PAHIS INSTRUCTION AND PRACTICE KONOAU TUESDAV UEDJSESDAV APPENDIX F: DATA RECORDING FORM 129 DAILY LOG SUBJECT # # OP # OP TIME IN WORDS PER ERRORS PER CONDITION SESSION WORDS ERRORSMINUTES MINUTE MINUTE • • BIBLIOGRAPHY A curriculum guide for the instruction of reading with the Optacon: Unit II, Unit III. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Materials Center the Visually Handicapped, 1976. American Foundation for the Blind- The Richard King Mellon Foundation Optacon training and purchase subsidy program. New York: Author, 1975- Ammon, R. Generating expectancies to enhance comprehension. The Reading Teacher, 1975 j £2’ PP° 2*1-5-2*1-9 ° Ashcroft, S.C. Errors of oral reading of braille at elementary grave levels. Report of proceedings of conference on research needs in braille. New York:American Foundation for the Blind, I96I, pp. 16-31. Atkinson, R.C. and Shiffrin, R.M. The control of short term memory. Scientific American, 1971? 225 (2), pp. 82-90. Baer, D.M., Wolf, M.M. and Risley, T.R. Some current dimensions of applied behavior analysis. JABA, 1968, 1 , pp. 91-9 7° Baer, J.A. and Hill, J.¥. Qptical-to-Tactile image conversion for the blind. Menlo Park, California: Stanford Research Institute, 1972. Bannatyne, A. Language, Reading and Learning Disability. Springfield Illinois: C.C. Thomas, 1971° Barraga, N.C. Utilization of sensory-perceptual abilities. In B. Lowenfeld (Ed.), The Visually Handicapped Child in School. New York: The John Day Company, 1973° Barraga, N.C. Visual Handicaps and Learning: A developmental approach. Belmont, California: Wadsworth, 1976° " Bassler, H. The Optacon: A personal report. Rehabilitation Teacher, 19735 2, pp. 13-16. Berla', E. Effect of physical size and complexity on tactual discrimination of blind children. Exceptional Children: 1972, £2, pp. 120-12*)-. Bertora, de F. et al. New method of tactile reading. The Sciences. 197*)-j 6, pp. 3*)-*H° 130 131 Birch, H.G. and Belmont, L. Auditory-visual integration in normal and retarded readers. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 196*1, 6, pp. 3 ^ 1 - Blanton, B, Modalities and reading. The Reading Teacher, 1971, 2^., pp. 210-212. The blind in the age of technology? A public discussion. New Outlook for the Blind, 1970, 6^, pp. 201-218. Bliss, J.C. A relatively high-resolution reading aid for the blind. IEEE Trans. Man-Machine Systems, 1969? MMS-10, pp. 1-8. Bliss, J.C. Comments on the Tobin and James paper, "Evaluating the Optacon: General reflections on reading machines for the blind". AFB Research Bulletin, 197*+? pp. 159-16*+. Bliss, J.C. Now the blind can read the materials of the sighted. Transactions of the American Academy of Ophthalmology and Otolaryngology, 197*+, 78, pp. 722-728. Bliss, J.C. Optacon evaluation considerations. In Evaluation of 3ensory aids for the visually impaired. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, 1972. Bliss, J.C. Tactual perception of visual information. Menlo Park, California: Standord Research Institute, 1962. Bliss, J.C. and Crane, H.D. Tactile perception. Research Bulletin, 1969. American Foundation for the Blind, pp. 205-231. Bliss, J.C. and Crane, H.D. Touch as a means of communication. Stanford Research Institute Journal, 1969, 5l, P° 7° Bliss, J.C. and Moore, M.¥ . The Optacon reading system. Education of the 197*+, 6, pp. 98-102? 19755 1, pp. 15-21. Bloomfield, L. and Bamhard, C.L. Let’s read: A linguistic approach. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1961. ~™~~ Bormouth, J.R. The cloze readability procedure. Elementary English, 1968, *+59 pp. 1+29—*136. Bormouth, J.R. The cloze procedure, literacy inlhe classroom. In W. Page (Ed.), Help for the Reading Teacher: New directions in research. National Council of English, 197*+> pp. 6O-8 9. " Bortnick, R. and Lopardo, G.S. An instructional application of the cloze procedure. Journal of Reading, 19739 16, PP° 296-300. Bourne, C.P. and Ford, D.F. A study of the statistics of letters in English words. Information and Control, 1961, *+, pp. *+8-6 7. 132 Brugler, G. Efficient Optacon Reading. Unpublished paper. Palo Alto, California? Htelesensory Systems, Inc., 1978” Buchwald, A. Don't be a pal to your son. In D.E. Smith (Ed.), Learning to learn. New York; Harcourt Brace & World, Inc., 1961. Burke, C.L. and Goodman, I.M. Reading Mis cue Inventory, -Teacher's Manual. New York; MacMillan Educational Services, 1972. Burklen, K. Touch Heading of the Blind. New York; American Foundation for the Blind, 1932. Cawley, J.T., Goldenstein, H.A. and Burrow, W.H. Reading and nsychomotor disability among mentally.retarded and average children. Storrs, Connecticut; University of Connecticut, 1 9 6 8 . Chall, J.S. Learning to Read; The great debate. New York; McGraw-Hill, 1967” Chall, J.S. Measurement of Readability. Educational Digest, 1955? 21, pp. kU-46. Chall, J.S. Readability; An appraisal of research and application. Bureau of Educational Research Monographs, No. 3^-. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University, 1958“ Chomsky, C. Unpublished investigation, 197^” Reported in Neville, M.H. and Pugh, A.K. An empirical study of the reading while listening method, 1975? p. 9 6. Cleary, D.M. Reading xrithout vowels: some implications. Journal of Reading, 1976, 20, pp. 52-56. Coffey, J.L. The development and evaluation of the Battelle oral reading device. In Proceedings of the International Congress on Technology and Blindness. New York: AFB, 19637~PP^~3^3-36oT" ~ Coffin, R.P. My average uncle. In A. Casty (Ed.), The Act of Reading. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1 9 6 2 . Cooper, J.O. Measurement and analysis of behavioral techniques. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 197^* ~ ~~ Comer, G.W. The committee on sensory devices. In P.A. Zahl (Ed.), Blindness: Modern approaches to the unseen environment, New York: Hafner Press, 1963. . -...... _ Craig, J.C. Vibrotactile pattern perception: Extraordinary observer. Science, 1977? 196, pp. k50-~k52. Crandell, J.M. and Wallace, D.H. Speed reading in braille: An empirical study. New Outlook for the Blind, 197^? 68? pp. 13-19“ 133 Dale, E. and Chall, J.A. A formula for predicting readability. Educational Research Bulletin, 19^+8, 27? pp. 37-5^° Dale, E. et al. Techniques of teaching vocabulary. Palo Alto; Field Educational Publications, Inc., 1971° Dechant, E.V. Linguistics., Phonics, and the Teaching of Reading, Springfield, Illinois; Charles C. Thomas, 1969° Dachant, E.V. and Smith, H.P. Psychology in Teaching Reading, (2nd Ed.), Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey; Prentiee-Hall, Inc., 1977° DeStefano, J.S. Language, the Learner and the School. Mew York; John Wiley and Sons, 1978° Dolch, E.¥. A basic sight vocabulary. Elementary School Journal. 1936, 36, pp. ^56-^6 0. Dolch, E.W. A Manual for Remedial Reading, (2nd Ed.), Champaign, Illinois; Garrard, 19^5 ° Doolan, M.F. Listening and reading; A BBC school radio program. Reading, 1972, 6, pp. 11-17° Doolan, M.F. et al. Listening and reading. English in Education, 1971? 5,. PP° 37-38° Dufton, R. (Ed.), Proceedings of the International Conference on Sensory Devices for the Blind. London, England; St. Dunstan's, 1966. Ekwall, E.E. Locating and correcting reading difficulties. Columbu3, Ohio; Charles E. Merrill, 1970° Emans, R. Context clues. Reading in the Total Curriculum. IRA Proceedings, 1968. Erickson, R.C. Visual haptic aptitude: Effect on student achievement in reading. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 1969? 2, pp. 256-260. Farrell, G. The Story of Blindness. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1956. Flanigan, P.J. Automated training in braille reading. Mew Outlook for the Blind, 1966, 60, pp. lUl-1^9° Flanigan, P.J. and Joslin, E.S. Patterns of response in the perception of braille configuration. Mew Outlook for the Blind 1969? 63? pp° 232- 2kk. Flesch, R.F. A new readability yardstick. Journal of Applied Psychology, 19W, 3 2, pp. 221-233° 13^ Foulke, E. Won-visual communication, reading by touch. Education of Fournier d'ATbe, E.E. The optaphone: An instrument for reading by ear. Nature, 1920, 105,, pp. 295-296. Frasure, N. and Entwisle, D.R. Semantic and syntactic development in children. Development Psychology, 1973? 2? PP° 236-2*1-5. Freiberger, H. Experience in evaluation fothe Visotoner. In Evaluation of Sensory Aids for the Visually Handicapped. Washington, D .C.: National Academy of Sciences, 1 9 7 2 , pp. 47-50. Fries, G.E. Linguistics sad Reading. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1963. Gadbaw, P.D. et al. Optacon skill acquisition by blinded veterans. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 1977s 71. pp. 23-28. Gill, J. and James. G. A study of the discriminability of tactual point symbols. Research Bulletin. New Yorks AFB, 1973s 26, pp. 19~3^° Gissoni, F. The Optacon at firsthand. Dialogue, 197*!-? 13s PP- 57-61. Goldish, R.H. and Taylor, H.E. The Optacons A valuable device for blind persons. New Outlook for the Blind, 197*1-s 6 8, pp. *1-9-56. Goodman, K.S. Comprehension centered reading. Clearmont Reading Conference Year Book, 1970, 3*£, pp. 125-135. Goodman, K.S. Linguistic study of cues and mis cues in reading. The Elementary English Review, 1965s M s PP° 639—6*1-3• Goodman, K.S. Reading: A psycholinguistie guessing game. Journal of the Reading Specialist, 1967s is PP° 126-135= Goodman, K.S. (Ed.), The Psycholinguistie Nature of the Reading Process. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1968. Goodman, K.S. and Fleming, J.T. (Eds.), Psycholinguistics and the Teaching of Reading. Newark, Delaware: International Reading Association, I9 6 9. Gove, M.K. Using the cloze procedure in a first grade classroom. The Reading Teacher, 1975s Sg, pp. 36-3 8. Greathouse, L.J. and Neal, B.S. Letter cloze will conquer contractions. The Reading Teacher, 1976, 30, pp. 173=176. Grey, E. Friend Within the Gates. New York; Dell Publishing Company, Incorporated, i9 6 0. Griffin, P. Reading and pragmatics: Symbiosis. In R.W. Shuy (Ed.), Linguistic Theory: What can it say about reading? Newark, Delaware: International Reading Assocation, 1977= 135 Grunwald, A. Be the s da, Maryland; ERIC Document Reproduction Service, ED 01^831, 1 966. Guidry, L. and Knight, D.F. Comparative readability; Four formulas and neuberry books - Journal of Reading, 1976 s l£j> pp° 553-556. Guralnick, M.J. Alphabet discrimination and distrinctive features; Research review and additional implies, tions. Journal of Learning Disabilities„ 1972, 5_S PP» hr27~k-3k„ Guszalc, F. J. Diagnostic Reading Instruction in the Elementary School Mew York; Harper and Row, 1972. Hall, M.A. and Remig, C.J. Linguistic Foundations for Columbus, Ohio; Charles E. Merrill, 1978. Hall, R.V. et al. Teachers and parents as researchers using multiple baseline designs. JABA, 1970, 3, pp. 2V7--255. Hammill, D. and Crandell, J. Implications of tactile-kinesthetic ability in visually handicapped children. Education for the Visually Handicapped, 1968, 1 , p p . 65- 69 .. Hansell, T.S. Readability, syntactic transformations, and generative semantics. Journal of Reading,, 1976, 1£, pp. 557-562. Harley, R.K. and Rawls, R. Comparison of several approaches for teaching braille reading to blind children. AFB Research Bulletin,, 1971, 23., PP. 63-91o Harley, R.K. and Rawls, R. Comparison of several approaches for teaching braille reading to blind children. Education of the Visualy Handicapped, 1970, i, pp. ^7-51. Harris, A. How to Increase Reading Ability, (5th Ed.), New York; David McKay, *"*197^° ” " Keber, R.A. A Study of Programmed Instruction in Braille. Bethesda, Maryland; Document Reproduction ServiceT-'ED^T53037^L9§7“~~ ~ Heclcelman, R.G. A neurological-impress method of remedial reading instruction. Academic Therapy, 1969, k, pp. 272-282. Heilman, A.¥. Principles and Practices of Teaching (3rd. Ed.), Columbus, Ohio; Charles E. Merrill, 1972. Henderson, F.M. The effect of character recof reading. Unpublished Specialist in Education Thesis, Mashville, George Peabody College for Teachers, 1966. Herson, M. and Barlow, D.H. Single Qase Experimental Designs. Mew York; Pergamon Press, 1976. 136 Hingson, M. Report on a demonstration of the Optacon,, Blind Californian, 1973, 1U, pp. 17-2 1. Hochberg, J» Components of literacy; Speculations and exploratory research,, In Ho Levin and J.P» Williams (Eds.), Basic Studies on Reading.. New York; Basic Books, 1970 . Holland, BJ. Speed and pressure factors in braille reading„ Teachers Fo r m 9 1934, 2j> PP° 13-17= Holland, B.F. and Eatman, PoF= The silent reading habits of blind children. Teachers Forum. 1933, 6, pp. 4-11. Hollingsworth, P.M. An experiment with the impress method of teaching reading. The Reading Teacher. 1970, 24, pp. 112-114, 187. Hoskisson, K. and Krohm, B. Reading by immersion; Assisted reading. Elementary English. 1974, .51, pp. 832-83 6. Hurley, O.L. Perceptual integration and reading problems. Exceptional Children. 1968, j$4, pp= 207-215. Kaplan, I. (Ed.), Final report on the Richard King Mellon Foundation Optacon training and purchase subsidy program. Mew York; American Foundation for the Blind, 1976. Kederis, C.J. et al. The use of controlled exposure devices to increase braille reading rates. International Journal of the Education of the Blind. 1967, 16, pp. 97-105= Klare, G.R. Assessing readability. Reading Research Quarterly. 1974-75, 10. pp. 62-103. Kolers, P. Three stages of reading. In H. 'Levin and J.P. Williams (Eds.), Basic Studies on Reading. Mew York; Basic Booslc, 1970. Kotani, Masako. Summary of the Optacon Training Program. Osaka, Japan; 1975 = Kusajima, T. et al. Visual Reading and Braille Reading. New York; American Foundation for the Blind, 1974. Lappin, J.S. and Foukle, E. Expanding the tactual field of view. Perception and Psycholphvsics. 1973, 14, pp. 237-241. Lauer, H. The evaluation of the Visotoner. In Evaluation of Sensory Aids for the Visually Handicapped. Washington, D.C.; National Academic of Services, 1972, Appendix E. Lauer, H. Person reading appliances for the blind. The Braille Monitor. October, 1971* 137 Lauer j, H. Reading aids for the blinds Information for consumers and teachers. The Braille Monitor. January, 1975? pp. 1-8. Leary, B.C. Developing word perception skills in middle and upper grades. Proceedings. Seventh Annual Conference on Reading. Pittsburghs University of Pittsburgh Press, 1951? PP° 22-27. Lefevre, C.A. Linguistics and the Teaching of Reading. New York; McGraw- Hill, 1961k Lefevre, C.A. Reading our language patterns; A linguistic view— contributions to a theory of reading. Challenge and Experiment in Reading. IRA, Procedures, 1962, 2? PP° 66-70. Lefevre, H.E. and Lefever, C.A. Writing by Patterns. New York; Alfred A. Knopf, 1967. Linvill, J.G. Research and development of tactile facsimile reading aid for the blind. Final Report, 0E BEH, U.S. Department of HEW, 1973° Lopardo, G.S. LEA-cloze reading materials for the disabled reader. The Residing Teacher. 1975 ? 22? PP° *1-2-M k Lowenfeld, B., Abel, G.L. and Hatlen, P.H. Blind Children Learn to Read. Springfield, Illinois; Thomas, 1969. Lowenfeld, B. Braille and talking book reading; A comparative study. New York; American Foundation for the Blind, 19*4-5° Lowenfeld, B. (Ed.), The Visually Handicapped Child in School. New York; The John Day Company, 1973° Marchbanks, G. and Levin, H. Cues by which children recognize words. Journal of Educational Psychology. 1965? .56? pp° 57-61. Marmolin, H. and Nilsson, L. Optacon reading aid; An evaluation of instructional methods and applicability. Report #*+3° Pedagogical Institute, Uppsala, Sweden; Uppsala Normal School, 1973° Naxfield, K.E. The blind child and his reading. New York; American Foundation for the Blind, 1928. McBride, V. Encploration of rapid reading in braille. New Outlook for the Blind. 1973? 68, pp. 8-13. Mims, F.M. Sensory aids for blind persons. New Outlook for the Blind. 1973? £Z? PP° ^07-41^. Moore, M. Optacon program presented to congressional subcommittee. TSI Newsletter. Palo Alto, California; Telesensory Systems, Inc., June, 1977? p° 2. 138 Moore, M. Reading with the Optacon; A Tbac.her* sManual, (mimeographed copy), 1976o Moore, Mo of the Pennsylvania Optacon Reading to Visually Handicapped Students. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania; Pennsylvania, Department of Education, 1976. Moore, M. and Bliss, J.C. The Optacon reading system. Education of the Visually Handicapped, 1975? 2? PP° 33-39° Murphy, E.F. Evaluation of certain reading aids for the blind. In Evaluation of Sensory Aids for the Visually Handicapped. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, 1972, pp. 37-^5° Nelton, A. An Evaluation of Reading Training with Serious Visually Handicapped wdth Optacon Furulund, AMU Center, 1972. Neville, M.H. The effect of changes in rate of an aural message on listening and on reading while listening. University of Leeds, unpublished paper, 197^° Neville, M.H. and Pugh, A.K. An empirical study of the reading while listening method. In D. Moyle (Ed.), Reading; What of the Future? Londons United Kingdom reading Association, 1975? PP° 95-106. Neville, M.H. and Pugh, A.K. An exploratory study of the application of time-compressed and time-expanded speech in the developement of the English reading proficiency of foreign students. Reported in D. Moyle (Ed.), Reading; What of the Future? London; United Kingdom Reading Association, 1975? P° 96. Nolan, C.Y. Reading and listening in learning by the blind. Exceptional Children, 1963, §2? pp. 313-316° Nolan, C.Y. and Kederis, C.H. Factors in Braille Word New york; AFB, 1969. Nold, D.O. Optacon reader 'explores* the printed page. Dialogue. 1973? 12, pp. 60-6 2. Olson, M. Teaching faster braille reading in the primary grades. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 1977? 21? PP° 122-12^° Olson, M. et al. An evaluation of McBride's approach to rapid reading for braille and large print readers. 1977? 2? PP° 16-2 3. The Optacon (an Editorial) New Beacon, 1973? 52? PP° 1^1-1^6« Rodabaugh, B.J. et al. Optacon Instructional Materials; Palo Alto; AIR, 139 Samuels, S.J. Attention and visual memory in reading acquisition. Research Report #26. ERIC Documents, Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Education for the Handicapped, 1971° San Diego Optacon Project, 1971-72. San Diegos San Diego Unified School District, 1972= Schell, L.M. Promising possibilities for improving eomprhension. Journal of Readingn 1972, 15, pp° hl^-k2k . Schevill, Ho So Perceived order of auditory and visual stimuli in children. Final Report. ERIC Document, Washington, D„C„s Office of Education, 1971. Schoof, LoT= An analysis of Optacon usage. AFB Research Bulletin. New Yorks AFB, 1975° Shannon, C.E. Prediction and entrophy of printed English. Bell System Technical Journal, 1951? JO, pp. 50-61+. Shayer, D. The Teaching of English in Schools. 1900--1970o London; : Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1972. Shores, J.H. Dimensions of reading speed and comprehension. Elementary English. 1968, ^+5,5 pp. 23-28. Shuy, R.W. (Ed.), Linguistic Theory; What Can It Say About Reading? Newark, Delaware; International Reading Association, 1977° Simon, H.A. How big is a chunk? Science, 1975, 18.3pp. 482-1+88. Smith, E.B., Goodman, IC.S., and Meredith, R. Language Thinking in the Elementary School. New York; Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970. Smith, F. Making sense of reading— and of reading instruction. Harvard Educational Review. 1977, i+2, p p ° 386-395° Smith, F. Psycholinguistics and Reading. New York; Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1973° Smith, F. The role of prediction in reading. Elementary English. 1975, 52, pp. 305-311° Smith, F. Understanding Reading. New Yorks Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971° Smith, F. and Holmes, D.L. Letter, word and meaning identification in reading. Reading Research Quarterly. 1971, 6, pp. 291+-1+15* Smith, G.C. The development of recognition and direct translation reading machined for the blind. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Sensory Devices for the Blind. London, England; St. Dunstan's, 1966, pp. 367“387° iko Spache, G.D. Diagnostic Reading Scales. Monterey, California: CTB/McGraw- Hill, 1963= Spache, Go Do and Spache, E.B. Reading in the Elementary School. Rockleigh, New Jersey: Allyn and Bacon, 1973° Strother, R. Thinking machines are getting smarter. In A. Casty (Ed.), The Act of Reading. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962. Taenzer, J.C. An information processing model for visual and tactile reading. Perception, 1972, pp. lV7™l60. Taylor, W.L. "Cloze" readability scores as indices of individual differences in comprehension and aptitude. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1957s i-'rl, pp. 19-26 o Telesensory Systems, Inc. Optacon Instructional Manual. Palo Alto, Calif.: Author, 1973. Telesensory Systems, Inc. Optacon Owner’s Manual. Palo Alto, California: Author, 1976. Timko, H.G. Configuration as a cue in the word recognition of beginning readers. Journal of Experimental Education, 1970, ,32, PP° 68-6 9. Tobin, M.J. et al. Print reading bv the blind: An evaluation of the Optacon and an investigation of some learner variables and teaching methods. Burmingham, England: University of Burmingham, 1973° Umstead, R. Improving braille reading. New Outlook for the Blind. 1972, 6 6, pp. 169-1 7 7. Venezky, R.L. English orthography: Its graphical structure and its relation to sound. Reading Research Quarterly, 1967, 2, pp. 75-106. Nalcutt, C.C. et al. Teaching Reading. New York: MacMillan and Company, 19Jk. Wallace, D. The effect of rapid reading instruction and recognition on the reading rate and comprehension of adult legally blind print and braille readers. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Brigham Young University, 1973. Wardhaugh, R. Reading: A new perspective. In R. Wardhaugh (Ed.), A linguistic perspective. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Jovanovich, 1969. Weihl, C. The Optacon redding program at Monroe Public School. New Outlook for the Blind. 1971, 6^, pp. 155-162. lto Weisgerber, R.A. et al. Educational evaluation of the Optacon (Qptical- to-Tactile Converter) as a reading aid to blind elementarv and secondary students. Palo Alto, California: American Institute for Research, 197^* Wiig, E.H. and Semel, E.M. Language Disabilities in Children and Adolescents. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1976. Williams, J.P. et al. Cues used in visual word recognition. Journal of Educational Psychology. 1970, 6j - pp. 310-335• Willson, G.T. International Survey of Ootacon Users. London, England: Royal National Institute for the Blind, 197^° Zickel, V. and Hooper, M.S. The program of braille research: A progress report. International Journal for the Education o.f the Blind. 1957? 6 , pp. 79-8 6 . Zierer, I. Study in Optacon Reading in Blind Rehabilitation Sub.iects. Heidelberg, Germany: Institute for Teaching of the Deaf and Those with Speech and Visual Handicaps, 1972. Zintz, M.V. Corrective Reading. Dubuque, Iowa: W.C. Brown, 1966 .