Annual Report 2012-2013 Agroforestry and climate change

Agroforestry and climate change 1 World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF-West and Central ), Yaounde, 2013

Coordination, compilation, editing, proofreading: Julius Atia, Dieudonne Alemagi, Ann Degrande and Zac Tchoundjeu

Cover photo: Rising global temperatures, increasing rainfall variability and more frequent extreme weather events will alter ecosystems and accelerate the degradation of soil and water resources. Smallholder farmers in developing countries are most vulnerable to climate change and stand to suffer most from its effects. Photo by Neil Palmer, CIAT International Center for Tropical Agriculture.

Design and layout: Sherry Odeyo

World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF-WCA) 2013. Annual Report 2012: Agroforestry and Climate Change. Yaounde, Cameroon.

Articles appearing in this publication may be quoted or reproduced without charge, provided the source in acknowledged. No part of this publication may be reproduced for resale or other commercial purposes. The geographic designation employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the World Agroforestry Centre concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. All images remain the sole property of their source and may not be used for any purpose without written permission of the source.

ISSN 2227-944X

2 Annual Report 2012 Contents 05 About ICRAF West and Central Africa 06 Agroforestry bringing hope in the climate change fight Agroforestry in climate change mitigation: major challenges in Efoulan municipality of South Cameroon 08 and the way forward Farmer-managed natural regeneration as a strategy to 12 cope with climate hazards in Sahelian countries Reducing natural resources degradation and improving food security: the contribution of fodder production of 18 the Sahelian agroforestry systems Variation in fuelwood properties of five tree/shrub species in the Sahelian and Sudanian ecozones of : 22 relationships with rainfall, regions, land-use and soil types 28 List of scientific publications 4 Annual Report 2012 About the ICRAF-West and Central Africa

The West and Central Africa region of the World The region’s researchers have selected, developed Agroforestry Centre covers a geographical area of and adapted vegetative tree propagation methods of 1200 million hectares, covering 21 countries with a air layering, rooting of cuttings and grafting. These population of over 330 million people. The regional techniques lead to early fruiting, replication of desired office is in Yaounde, Cameroon. The region contains traits or characteristics, easy reproduction of species two main agro-ecological zones; the dry Sahelian whose seeds are difficult to collect and conservation zone, a semi-arid landscape stretching from Chad to of valuable species. and the Humid Tropics, spreading along the coast and extending to the central part of Africa. Indigenous fruit trees such as Adansonia digitata, Cola spp, Dacryodes edulis, Garcina kola, Irvingia The region is the World Agroforestry Centre’s flag gabonensis, Ricinodendron heudelotti, Tamarindus bearer in participatory tree domestication and tree indica, Vitellaria paradoxa, Ziziphus indica have been biodiversity conservation, which aim to enhance the promoted using participatory approaches. livelihoods of smallholder farmers through increased income and non-income benefits from indigenous Others include oil tree species such as Allanblackia trees and shrubs. spp and vegetables including Adansonia digitata, Gnetum africanum, Moringa oeifera; spice species Promoting cultivation of high-value such as Afrostyrax lepidophyllus, Baillonella toxisperma, Monodora myristica and medicinal In participatory tree domestication, researchers work species, mainly Annickia chlorantha, Khaya with communities to select species from their natural senegalensis, Pausinystalia johimbe and Prunus habitats and adapt them for cultivation on farms. The africana. procedure involves the identification, reproduction, adoption and diffusion of quality and high market value germplasm (i.e. seeds, seedlings, cuttings etc).

Agroforestry and climate change 5 Agroforestry bringing hope in the climate change fight

Challenges of Climate Change

The effects of climate change on mankind, particularly the rural poor, are quite obvious today. Growing demand for food is viewed against a backdrop of rising global temperatures and changing patterns of precipitation, affecting tree and crop growth, as well as livestock performance, the availability of water and the functioning of ecosystem services in all regions. Extreme weather events are likely to become both more severe and more frequent, thereby increasing volatility in production and prices. production will also be indirectly affected by changes in sea level and river flows, although new land at high latitudes may become more

suitable for cultivation and some degree of increased CO2 fertilization is likely to take place. The World will gradually face the competition for resources. Land under agriculture (crop, pasture and rangeland) currently stands at 4.9 billion hectares whereas land under forest is 4.1 billion hectares (80% publically owned). A proportion of both will be lost to desertification, salinization and rising sea levels if appropriate action is not taken. At the same time, global energy demand is projected to double between now and 2050; fuelwood or charcoal providing up to 90% of this total in developing countries. In addition, agriculture currently consumes 70% of the total global ‘blue water’ withdrawals from rivers and aquifers available to humankind. The demand for water for agriculture could rise by over 30% by 2030 and could double by 2050.

Subsistence farmers in the developing world are particularly unable to cope with such climate variability because they do not have capital to invest in adaptive practices and they are also extremely sensitive to climate changes since they rely almost entirely on rain-fed agriculture. The Role of Agroforestry

Literature suggests that the most effective way to reduce people’s vulnerability to shocks and stresses is by improving their overall well-being. A variety of methods to improving farmers’ lives can be employed, including: improving farm productivity, providing off-farm sources of income and improving access to markets. In light of this, agroforestry - defined as the intentional use of trees in the cropping system to increase farm productivity, diversify income sources and provide environmental services - can play an important role in helping subsistence farmers reduce their vulnerability to climate change.

In this report, we highlight some of the research the World Agroforestry Centre is carrying out in West and Central Africa to strengthen the position of agroforestry in the fight against climate change.

Despite the important role that agroforestry systems play in mitigating climate change by inhibiting deforestation and forest degradation through sustainable intensification and diversification pathways, its practitioners face a lot of difficulties. The first article in this report aims to identify key challenges associated with sustainable intensification pathways within cocoa agroforestry systems, and offer some solutions.

6 Annual Report 2012 The second article focuses on how rural farmers managing natural regeneration in , Mali, and Senegal improved their livelihood in the midst of climate hazards. It demonstrates that the practice of Farmer- Managed Natural Regeneration (FMNR) reduces household vulnerability in case of food shortage and provides evidence that FMNR improves household dietary diversity.

Agroforestry systems in drylands not only improve food security, but livestock also benefit through provision of fodder. The third article presents a project in Mali that aims at optimizing the role played by woody species as sources of animal feed.

Finally, in the drylands, demand for fuelwood is rapidly increasing, resulting in severe degradation of natural resources. The impact of climate change is likely to put additional pressure on the remaining forest resources. Therefore, small-scale fuelwood plantations have been proposed as one option to help meet the demand. However, if the climate becomes increasingly hotter and drier as projected, then species that generally have desirable fuelwood properties across regions and those that generally have better fuelwood properties in drier regions may become increasingly important. The fourth article discusses variation in fuelwood properties of Balanites aegyptiaca, glutinosum, Guiera senegalensis, Piliostigma reticulatum and Zizyphus mauritiana in the Sahelian and Sudanian ecozones of Mali. It further provides recommendations regarding the species and sites to target for fuelwood production, and seed sources to use for establishing new fuelwood plantations.

Dr Zac Tchoundjeu Regional Coordinator ICRAF West and Central Africa

Agroforestry and climate change 7 Agroforestry in climate change mitigation: Major challenges in Efoulan municipality of South Cameroon and the way forward By Dieudonne Alemagi and Mireille Feudjio

Introduction is increased, this might results in a decrease in deforestation and forest degradation. Furthermore, In an effort to mitigate the impacts of global climate Kimaro et al. (2011) revealed the fundamental role change, reducing emissions from deforestation and played by rotational woodlot systems in reducing forest degradation (REDD+) was adopted in 2010 forest degradation and carbon dioxide emissions via during the Sixteenth Conference of the Parties on-farm timber supply in semi-arid Morogoro located (COP16) in Cancun, Mexico. Minang et al (2011) posit in Eastern Tanzania. By employing native vegetation that agroforestry systems can potentially mitigate fallows forests as their frame of reference, they climate change by preventing deforestation and demonstrate that after a 5-year rotation, wood forest degradation through sustainable intensification yield (23 – 51 Mg Cha-1) was adequate to meet and diversification pathways in the margins of the household needs for fuelwood. Murniati et al tropical rainforest. The reason is deeply rooted in (2001) also established that households with more the notion that when demand remains rigid and diverse farms (rice fields and other mixed gardens) suitable laws and policies are instituted to prevent in the Kirinci Seblat National Park area in Sumatra, illegal encroachment into forested ecosystems, Indonesia, depended less on adjacent national park intensification and diversification of agroforestry resources compared to those that farmed exclusively systems result in a reduction in forest loss for rice. This and other studies point to diversification agricultural purposes, thus sparing more forested through agroforestry as a robust strategy for land and permitting recovery of degraded forests mitigating climate change by reducing increasing (Borlaug, 2007). In fact, Gockowski and Sonwa (2011) pressure on forested landscapes. showed that if intensification of cocoa agroforestry systems through the use of inputs and the integration Despite the important role that agroforestry systems of timber producing trees in the Guinean rainforest can play in mitigating climate change by inhibiting of Central and West Africa was adopted in the late deforestation and forest degradation through 1960s, it could have spared about 21,000 km2 of sustainable intensification and diversification forests, thus contributing to a reduction in emissions pathways, its practitioners faced a series of of about 1.4 billion tons of carbon dioxide. challenges which might threaten this very importance service that they provide. To this end, using cocoa Robiglio et al. (2011) reported that on-farm timber agroforestry systems as an example, the objective is increasing by becoming one of the main sources of this article is to identify key challenges associated of timber in some tropical countries. Thus, with with sustainable intensification pathways within these increasing demand for fuelwood and timber in these systems, and to offer some possible ways forward for countries, if on-farm timber and fuelwood production overcoming these challenges.

8 Annual Report 2012 Methods this article, we address questions that were aimed at identifying the challenges associated to sustainable The study was conducted in ten communities intensification pathways within cocoa agroforestry located in the Efoulan municipality in the South systems in the case study communities. Specifically, Region of Cameroon where approximately 96% of respondents were asked to provide their gender, the the population are involved in agriculture with cocoa approximate size of their cocoa farm, and whether being the key produce. Structured interviews with or not they plant trees or use inputs in their cocoa a random sample of 461 cocoa farmers from the farms. Respondents who answered affirmatively were case study communities were conducted between asked to rate three important challenges that they October and November 2012 (Table 1). encounter as a result of tree planting and the use of inputs and to outline any comment that they had The questionnaire was made up of 21 open ended regarding these practices. and discrete categorical scale questions. However, in

Table 1: Population1, numbers of interviewees (cocoa farmers), and mean cocoa farm area in each of the case study communities.

Community Population* Interviewees Cocoa farm area (ha) Total Population of adults Mean Standard deviation population Ngonebok 4000 2200 156 2.92 2.22 Binyina 958 521 52 2.78 2.39 Adjap Essawoo 146 66 17 2.14 0.93 Mekalat 842 432 31 2.87 2.31 Nyazo’o 549 301 24 2.06 1.13 Bongolo 638 350 32 2.20 1.77 Mintô 367 200 32 3.53 3.15 Megale 618 339 52 1.98 1.18 Mebande 625 343 51 2.82 2.31 Minkane 185 84 14 3.04 2.49 Total 8928 4836 461 2.71 2.17

Key results and poor performance of trees planted within these systems (Figure 1). Similarly limited access to credit The most important challenges associated with facilities, minimal financial assistance, and the tree planting in cocoa agroforestry systems in the exorbitant cost involved in procuring inputs we rated case study communities included minimal access to as the most important challenges associated with the credit facilities, insufficient infrastructural resources, use of inputs (Figure 2).

1 Population estimates were obtained from ATIPAD, 2011

Agroforestry and climate change 9 Limited access to credit facilities

Inadequate infrastructural resources

Poor performance of planted trees

High overall cost

Attack by parasites (gui d’afrique)

Lack of technical support

Competition of planted trees with cocoa plants

Poor soil fertility

Planted trees are an obstacle to work in the farm

Transportation of tree products

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

Evaluation Points

Figure 1. Evaluation points of challenges to tree planting in cocoa farms in the case study communities

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 Evaluation Points

Figure 2. Evaluation points of challenges associated with the use of inputs in cocoa farms in the case study communities

10 Annual Report 2012 Way forward landscapes. As Santos-martin et al. (2011) explain, possible examples of such rural This article attempts to demonstrate that while resources include the constructing or agroforestry landscapes provide opportunities for upgrading of farm to market roads, as well climate change mitigation, there are still enormous as other effective transport infrastructure for challenges faced by those engaged in sustainable marketing. intensification and diversification practices within cocoa agroforestry landscapes. Therefore, it is time • Reduce taxes on inputs as well as the to: administrative cost of providing them by subsidizing for example, their cost of • Invest more in the banking and financial sector transportation and handling via government that provide credit schemes to smallholder and non-governmental aid. farmers. These schemes assist these farmers in obtaining planting equipment, improved • Consider investing REDD+ funds into seedlings, transport infrastructure, and sustainable intensification and diversification inputs. Considering that there is an early pathways within cocoa agroforestry period during which trees cannot yield any landscapes since these pathways could income and the fact that most small-scale significantly contribute in emission reduction farmers operating in rural areas in developing from forested landscapes. countries are very poor, credit schemes are Progress on these four key recommendations will extremely fundamental to them. help ensure that cocoa agroforestry landscapes • Deliver and improve existing rural help rather than hinder climate change mitigation by infrastructural resources that are capable of encouraging deforestation and forest degradation of influencing sustainable intensification and the tropical rainforest. diversification pathways within agroforestry

References

ATIPAD (2011). Rapport consolide des données du diagnostic participatif de la commune d’Efoulan. Programme Nationale de développement participatif, Yaoundé, Cameroun.

Gockowski J, Sonwa D (2011). Cocoa intensification scenarios and their predicted impacts on CO2 emissions, biodiversity conservation and rural livelihoods in the Guinea rainforest of West Africa. Environmental management 48: 307-321.

Kimaro, A. A.; Isaac, M. E.; Chamshama, S.A.O.; 2011. Carbon pools in tree biomass and soils under rotational woodlot systems in Eastern Tanzania. In Kumar BM, Nair PKR (eds.). Carbon sequestration potential of agroforestry systems. Opportunities and challenges. Advances in Agroforestry 8. Springer Dodrecht, Netherlands.

Minang PA, Bernard F, van Noordwijk M, Kuhurani E (2011). Agroforestry in REDD+: opportunities and challenges. ASB Policy Brief No. 26, ASB Partnership for the Tropical Forest Margins, Nairobi, Kenya.

Murniati, Garrity, D.P.; Gintings, A. Ng. 2001. The contribution of agroforestry systems to reducing farmers dependence on resources of adjacent national parks: a case study from Sumatra, Indonesia. Agroforestry Systems 52:171 – 184.

Robiglio, V.; Minang, P.A.; Asare, R. 2011. On-farm timber production for emission reduction with sustainable benefits at the tropical forest margins. ASB Policy Brief No. 23. ASB Partnership for the Tropical Forest Margins, Nairobi, Kenya.

Santos-Martin F, Bertomeu M, van Noordwijk, M., Navarro R (2011). Why smallholders plant native timber trees: lessons from the Philippines. Nairobi: ASB Partnership for the Tropical Forest Margins; Bogor, Indonesia: World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) Southeast Asia Program.

Agroforestry and climate change 11 Farmer-managed natural regeneration a strategy to cope with climate hazards in Sahelian countries

By Joachim N. Binam, Frank Place, Antoine Kalinganire With the contributions from Sigue Hamade, Moussa Boureima, Abasse Tougiani, Joseph Dakouo, Bayo Mounkoro, Sanogo Diaminatou, and Marcel Badji

Introduction risk during crises by providing alternative food and economic resources. Rural communities in Africa are on the frontlines of climate hazards due to their natural resource- The World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) initiated a dependent and climate sensitive livelihoods. In number of socioeconomic studies following the the Sahelian countries of Burkina, Mali and Niger, funds received both from IFAD (through the Free the majority of poor people live in rural areas and University of Amsterdam) and USAID to understand indigenous tree species are crucial components how rural households in are using their local of their livelihoods. Besides providing essential resources to improve livelihoods and also, mobilize nutrients and minerals to rural diets, these trees are local communities as well as development partners also harvested for medicine, fuel, other non-edible to promote local initiatives for natural resource products and as raw materials for processed good management which involve for example tree planting, (Heather et al., 2011). Often, some of these species nurseries development, farmer-managed natural provide opportunities to marginalized members of the regeneration (FMNR), and other means of generating communities such as women and the poor since they income that do not have harmful effects on nature are a valuable source of income and help to mitigate and natural resources.

While earlier research after the severe droughts of the 1970s and 1980s painted a bleak future for the people of the Sahel, more recent findings have highlighted the adaptability of residents to dramatic changes (Batterbury and Warren, 2001). A growing body of research suggests that traditional tree management is innovative and adaptive and, rather than causing environmental destruction, has in fact contributed to reforestation in many areas (Duvall, 2007). It’s distinct from most agroforestry techniques in that it relies wholly on encouraging the growth of indigenous trees and requires no nursery-raising or planting.

Moreover, activities related to agroforestry products such as the selling of shea nuts or extraction of shea butter by women in Sahel generate important incomes as they help communities overcome difficult periods, especially during and after hydrometeorological events such as droughts. The management of trees to protect the soil from drying out and the diversification of agricultural products are additional strategies to cope with climate hazards (Robledo et al., 2012).

12 Annual Report 2012 This study focuses on how rural farmers managing Data and methods natural regeneration in Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger and Senegal adaptively improve their livelihood in the The analysis was undertaken as part of a broader midst of climate hazards by examining the potential socioeconomic impact of FMNR in Sahel led by benefits of the managed natural tree species and its ICRAF and its partners. Household/farm surveys impact on household’s food security. were conducted in 2011 and 2012 in eight sites within four different strata. The final representation across the four countries is given in the table below:

Table 2: Sites selected for the FMNR study

Country Mali Burkina Faso Niger Senegal Zone Mopti North Maradi Thiès Site(s) Bankass (550mm) Zondoma (550mm) Aguie East and Niakhene (450mm) Aguie South (450mm) Tessoua

Madarounfa (400-500mm)

Zone Segou West Zinder Fatick Sites(s) Tominian (850mm) Tuy (800mm) Mayahi (450mm) Diakhao (625mm) Mirriah (650mm)

Zone East

Site(s) Gnagna (600mm)

Altogether, 1,080 surveys were completed: 480 is whether households perceive any additional in Niger, 240 each in Burkina Faso and Mali, and environmental services from FMNR, such as 120 in Senegal in order to quantify benefits from improved soil fertility, improved water management, if FMNR. Data on market values of tree products they perceive the regenerated vegetation as an asset were ascertained from households. These were to buffer against shocks, and whether the integration complemented by additional market information on of FMNR helps to reduce overall risks (e.g. variation prices and unit measures. of production and income).

Qualitative questions were also asked of household Focus group discussions were held in each of the members to understand a broad set of benefits, selected villages as the main methodology for costs, and risks associated with FMNR. Of interest addressing communitarian issues. These were

Agroforestry and climate change 13 matched with the same number of new villages in the from own farms and off farm locations. Prices were same sites where FMNR was perceived to be less obtained to value the quantity of harvested products practiced. in FCFA (500 FCFA = $1) and then all product values were added to form total values at the household Some findings and conclusion level. The mean and median value of harvested tree products and value of marketed tree products were 1. Estimated benefits from tree products estimated. The survey enumerated quantities harvested and sales of raw and processed tree products sourced

One of the immediate and obvious benefits of FMNR is the availability of fuelwood from pruned tree branches. This is especially observed in Burkina, Mali and Niger where the estimated potential values from harvested fuelwood vary in different regions from $56-$170; $102-$180 and $224-$256 respectively, with an estimated average value of $127-$154 in Sahel per household (see Figure1).

Trees also yield direct non-timber benefits. While most non-timber tree products are consumed by the households, some of them can generate significant income from their sale. This is the case in most of countries as illustrated in the figure. In Mali for example, species like Vitellaria paradoxa alone when sold can bring in as much as $237 per year translating to an additional $0.66 per day per household.

In Niger Faidherbia albida can contribute to $364 equivalent to an additional $1.1 per household per day which includes products and services for livestock and humans.

Preserving or regenerating these species through FMNR practice can also have specifically important benefits for women who can be relieved significantly of the burden of gathering fuelwood by reducing time allocated for fuel wood collection, though this was not included in the study.

2 This was collected from a single visit survey and thus the usual concerns arise with respect to how well this captures annual tree product harvesting and sales.

14 Annual Report 2012 2. Assessing the impact of FMNR on food Mali, Niger and Senegal with a special focus on security in Sahel household income, value of marketed tree products, household assets, livestock units, crop production FMNR is a very complicated technology in nature. and food security. We further used three levels of First, virtually all trees in the Sahel are regenerated FMNR adoption, uniquely defined for each country and it is not always easy to identify the degree to compare the effect of FMNR on food security to which these were facilitated by special farmer indicators. practices. And since all farms have trees or shrubs, it is fair to say that regeneration takes place to With exception of Niger and Senegal, the results from some extent on all farms. Thus, it is more a matter figures 2a and 2b indicate that FMNR households of degree of regeneration and FMNR – rather are better off in terms of food security as indicated than adopters versus non-adopters. The ‘degree’ by the food consumption score and coping strategy concerns the density of trees and the age profile of index. In most cases, the practice of FMNR reduces the trees. On the one hand are farms where there is a household vulnerability in case of food shortage. The low density of only old trees – clearly not a continuing study also explores whether there are differences in practitioner of FMNR. At another hand, there could terms of impact on households’ livelihoods including be a farm with a high density of only young trees – food security, across different parkland types as a new FMNR practitioner. And of course, there is identified in households’ farms. The results on food everything in between. The other complicating factor security and coping strategy are very strong and of FMNR is that the technology – a mixture of trees expected. Practitioners of FMNR with diversified and shrubs - requires time to provide significant high food nutritional potential as well as mixed trees- benefits. based parklands are better insulated against food shortage. The practice of FMNR can improve FCS This study builds on this approach by investigating by 20 to 24.3 points while reducing the le of food the impact of practicing FMNR in Burkina Faso, vulnerability or deprivation (CSI) by 6 to 15 points.

3 In this study, we employ two categories of food consumption indicator given. Food consumption indicators are designed to reflect the quantity and/or quality of people’s diets. The most commonly used are food consumption score (FCS) and coping strategy index (CSI). The first one is a proxy indicator that represents the dietary diversity, energy and macro and micro (content) value of the food that people eat (EFSA handbook, 2009). It is based on dietary diversity – the number of food groups a household consumes over a reference period; food frequency – the number of days on which a particular food group is consumed over a reference period, usually measured in days; and the relative nutritional importance of different food groups. The FCS is calculated from the types of foods and the frequencies with which they are consumed during a seven-day period. Households are asked to recall the foods that they consumed in the previous month. Each item is given a weight and score of 0 to 7, depending on the number of days on which it was consumed. The second one is based on the different strategies a household can adopt to cope with food shortage, the frequency of usage of different strategies and a weight is attributed to each strategy depending of their severity. A composite index is then derived to estimate the FCS and CSI.

Agroforestry and climate change 15 3. Conclusion of food shortage. The study also provides evidence that FMNR improves household dietary diversity This study emphasizes that the current agroforestry as well as reduces household vulnerability in case ecosystems in Sahel are important in delivering food of food shortage mainly, among those farmers with and shelter during extreme events (droughts and diversified high food nutritional potential and/or floods) and are thus, key assets for increasing the mixed trees-based parklands. resilience of poor communities. Recommendation Trees add significantly to household level production value and to income. It is estimated that basic fruit, As stressed by Heather et al., (2011), if efforts to pod, leaf and wood tree products harvested by improve rural livelihoods and promote traditional households are valued at about slightly above $200 tree management are to be successful, it becomes per household in Mali and Niger. Some individual critical to increase self-governance by strengthening species generate significant value, such as shea the local institutions with regard to trees by providing as much as $237 of product to households encouraging planting and sustainable management in some villages of Mali. The total value of harvested of certain species and policing illegal activities. To tree products per hectare of farm was much higher be meaningful for all resource users, it is vital that a in Niger – about $190, more than in the other three strong management institution be adaptive as well. It countries (partly due to more tree products and also must respond to divergences and provide a flexible to smaller farm sizes). In terms of effect of FMNR system that allows for and addresses the multiple on food security, analyses showed that the practice needs and socioeconomic differences of all actors. of FMNR reduces household vulnerability in case

References

Robledo, C., Clot, N., Hammill, A., and Riche, B., 2012. The role of forest ecosystems in community-based coping strategies to climate hazards: three examples from rural areas in Africa. Forest policy and Economics 24(C): 20-28.

Heather, B.L., Van der Stege, C., and Vogl, C.R., 2011. Baobab (Adansonia digitat L.) and Tamarind (Tamarindus indica L.) management strategies in the midst of conflict and change: A Dogon case study from Mali. Human Ecology 39(5): 597-612.

Batterbury, S., and Warren, A., 2001. Viewpoint: The African Sahel 25 years after the great drought: Assessing progress and moving towards new agendas and approaches. Global Environment Change 11(1): 1-8.

Duvall, C.S., 2007. Human settlement and Baobab distribution in South-Western Mali. Journal of Biogeography 34(11): 1947-1961.

16 Annual Report 2012 Agroforestry and climate change 17 Reducing natural resource degradation and improving food security: The contribution of fodder production of the Sahelian agroforestry systems By Dembele Catherine, Deme Fatoumata Tata Traore, Bayala Jules and Kalinganire Antoine

ASAPAM (Accroître la sécurité alimentaire en The specific objectives consist of: associant étroitement élevage, arbres et cultures par la pratique de l’agroforesterie au Mali) is a • improving diets and sheep fattening techniques collaborative project funded by the International by using fodder trees and shrubs; Development Research Center (IDRC). • identifying in a participatory way appropriate Livestock plays an important role in food security fodder species and develop agroforestry strategies but the changing contexts in which technologies that allow associating food pastoralists operate raise the issue of the crop production with the sustainable fodder sustainability of pastoral systems in dryland Africa production; (Ayantunde et al. 2011). More intensive systems • disseminating improved sheep fattening like the peri-urban livestock breeding in urban area techniques and agroforestry practices which and more integrated mixed crop-livestock farming integrate sheep raising in smallholder farmers in rural area which includes animal fattening during activities by specifically targeting women, and for the Islamic festival of Eid-al-Kabir may constitute credible alternatives for the Sahel (Dan-Gomma • evaluating the impacts and viability of the 1998; Hiernaux and Ayantunde 2004). The general proposed techniques from an economic, social objective of the project is to improve and disseminate and environmental point of view and determine sheep fattening techniques and agroforestry how and to what extent the proposed techniques practices which allow increasing food security for may encourage better equity between men and smallholder farmers located in semi-arid areas of women. West Africa, with emphasis to Mali. The project aims to optimizing the role played by woody species and In developing agroforestry technologies targeting by integrating species which products and services sustainable fodder production, the World Agroforestry allow reinforcing production systems and ensuring Centre (ICRAF) is reviewing the literature about the conservation of natural resources. animal feed systems in four Sahelian countries (Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger and Senegal), exploiting existing data and experiments of previous trials on

18 Annual Report 2012 managing fodder species and developing vegetative randomized bloc designs. Pterocarpus erinaceus propagation techniques for 12 local fodder tree plants were cut at 0.25 and 0.50 m height (figure species selected based on farmer criteria. The on- 1) while all plants of G. sepium were cut at 0.5 m going review tentative title is ‘Animal feed production until May 2003. The results showed that plants of P. systems for ruminants in four Sahelian countries: erinaceus cut at 0.25 m height were less productive pasture and fodder production and productivity’. A than 0.50 m. In the framework of ASAPAM project, first draft has been circulated to other partners of the all trees were measured and cut in August 2012. Two project for their inputs and review. cutting heights (0.5 m and 1.3 m) with three fodder evaluation frequencies (3, 4 and 6 times a year) were Fodder production and management: implemented for P. erinaceus. Two fodder collection frequencies (6 and 4 times a year) were retained The activity about managing fodder production is for G. sepium cut at 0.5 m. Results did not show taken advantage of exiting trials established back any significance difference between treatments for in 1995 at Samanko Station in Bamako, Mali using morphological measurement and biomass production Pterocarpus erinaceus and three varieties of Gliricidia (fodder and wood) respectively in August and sepium (ILG 50, ILG 70 and Reuthaluleu) within October 2012 (see details in Tables 3, 4, 5, 6 & 7).

Table 3: Morphological data of Pterocarpus erinaceus and of Gliricidia sepium (ILG50, ILG74 and Reuthaluleu) before applying the pruning treatment in August 2012.

P. erinaceus ILG50 ILG74 RETA

Parameter N Mean±se N Mean±se N Mean±se N Mean±se Height (m) 211 6.14±0.21 56 7.1±0.4 59 7.0±0.4 57 6.4±0.5 Canopy width North-South 210 3.02±0.10 60 2.7±0.2 60 2.8±0.2 60 2.7±0.3 (m) Canopy width East-West (m) 210 3.16±0.10 60 2.9±0.2 59 2.6±0.2 59 2.7±0.2

Table 4: Biomass production of Pterocarpus erinaceus and three varieties of Gliricidia sepium (ILG50, ILG74 and Reuthaluleu), August 2012.

P. erinaceus ILG50 ILG74 RETA

Parameter N Mean±se N Mean±se N Mean±se N Mean±se Fodder (kg) 211 4.02±0.29 60 3.69±0.57 60 3.09±0.51 60 3.68±0.58 Fresh wood (kg) 212 18.65±1.55 60 25.19±4.15 60 25.73±4.93 60 20.93±3.04 Dry wood (kg) 212 1.29±0.16 60 0.81±0.19 56 0.57±0.10 56 0.56±0.09

Agroforestry and climate change 19 Table 5: Morphological traits and fodder production of trees of Pterocarpus erinaceus collected in October 2012 (2 months after the initial harvest).

Treatment N Height (m) Canopy North- Canopy East-West Fodder - bough Fodder - bough South (m) (m) <0.5m (kg) >0.5m (kg) 1.3mx6 times 36 158.8±11.6 107.5±10.8 106.9±10.4 0.14±0.02 0.93±0.16 0.5mx6 times 36 99.9±5.8 100.3±7.8 99.6±7.5 0.15±0.02 0.66±0.12

Table 6: Morphological traits and fodder production of trees of three varieties of Gliricidia sepium (ILG50, ILG74 and Reuthaluleu) collected in October, 2012 (2 months after initial harvest).

Treatment N Height (m) Canopy North- Canopy East-West Fodder - Fodder - branch South (m) (m) branch<0.5m (kg) >0.5m (kg) ILG50 30 108.3±10.6 123.0±13.1 108.8±12.8 0.17±0.04 1.7±0.36 ILG74 30 107.7±11.0 124.5±14.2 109.9±12.2 0.34±0.11 1.5±0.32 RETA 30 98.0±11.1 113.8±13.6 109.3±13.3 0.13±0.03 1.7±0.36 Vegetative propagation of fodder trees:

Three vegetative propagation trials testing the gnaphalocarpa, Pterocarpus erinaceus, P. lucens and effect of substrates on the rooting ability of P. santalinoides); and the effect of lignification on cuttings for two species: Ficus gnaphalocarpa cutting rooting ability of P. santalinoides have been and Pterocarpus santalinoides; the effect of plant established. Preliminary results indicated signgicant growth regulator on cuttings ability of 6 fodder tree effects of growth regulator on all measured species: Afzelia africana, Kigelia africana, Ficus parameters except root length (Table 5).

Table 7: Main effect of indole butyric acid and substrate on the percentage of rooted cuttings, the number of root per rooted cutting and the length of the longest root per rooted cutting of Pterocarpus santalinoides in Samanko, Mali.

Percentage of rooted Nb of root per rooted Factor cuttings cutting Length of root (cm)

Indole butyric acid 0ppm 0.11 ±0.03b 1.7±0.1b 4.9±0.9a 5000ppm 0.25±0.06a 4.7±0.6a 6.5±1.1a 10000ppm 0.27±0.07a 4.1±0.7a 6.8±0.9a

Substrate 100% sand 0.22±0.06a 4.5±1.0a 6.1±1.2a Sand and perlite (3v+1v) 0.22±0.06a 3.4±0.9a 5.9±1.2a Sand and sawdust (1v+1v) 0.28±0.10a 3.0±0.6a 6.8±1.3a sable et sol (2v+1v) 0.12±0.04a 4.2±0.5a 6.3±1.1a

20 Annual Report 2012 Discussions only growth regular displayed a significant effect on all measured parameters except root length. All these A review of feed system revealed the importance of experiments need longer period for tangible results woody species as source of animal feed and a list of that can be transferred to end users. If appropriate a large number of local species that have attracted techniques are developed, this will reduce the attention and being domesticated. Tested pruning pressure on rangelands, reduce conflict for resource frequencies did not show significance difference for use and generate more carbon sequestration. Fresh the first pruning events whereas preliminary results of leaves as feed will also help in reducing methane the vegetative propagation experiments revealed that emissions from the livestock production systems.

References

Ayantunde A.A., de Leeuw J., Turner M.D., Said M. 2011. Challenges of assessing the sustainability of (agro)-pastoral systems. Livestock Science 139: 30-43.

Dan-Gomma A. 1998. Influence du type de fourrage et de différents niveaux de supplément en son de mil sur les performances de croissance et à l’abattage des ovins au Niger. Mémoire Ingénieur d’Etat en Agronomie, Institut agronomique et vétérinaire Hassan II, Rabat, Maroc, 71 p.

Hiernaux P., Ayantunde A. 2004. The Fakara: a semi-arid agro-ecosystem under stress. Niamey, Niger, ICRISAT, Desert Margins Programme.

Agroforestry and climate change 21 Variation in fuelwood properties of five tree/shrub species in the Sahelian and Sudanian ecozones of Mali: Relationships with rainfall, regions, land- use and soil types By Carmen Sotelo Montes, John C. Weber

Introduction and grows very slowly above ground. C. glutinosum is an evergreen tree, but in the drier north it grows Variation in fuel wood properties is due to both only near available water sources and has active genetic and environmental factors. For example, photosynthesis only during the rainy season. results from provenance trials suggest that gross G. senegalensis is a shrub that produces roots calorific value (GCV) of wood may reflect genetic extending at least 4 m deep, grows quickly above differences due to natural selection along rainfall ground and adjusts its leaf surface area to available gradients. In addition, GCV may vary with soil fertility, soil water, thereby allowing active photosynthesis land-use history, tree growth rate and tree age. during part of the dry season. P. reticulatum is a In this paper, we discuss variation in fuelwood semi-evergreen shrub that produces roots extending properties of Balanites aegyptiaca, Combretum at least 3 m deep, grows well in temporarily flooded glutinosum, Guiera senegalensis, Piliostigma sites and has adventitious shoots that tend to grow reticulatum and Zizyphus mauritiana in the Sahelian at oblique angles, thereby creating a microhabitat and Sudanian ecozones of Mali. favorable for growth. Z. mauritiana is a relatively fast growing tree that produces deep roots, avoids The five species are used for fuelwood and provide drought by shedding its leaves during the dry season additional products and environmental services for and is common in woodlands and along temporary rural communities. They tolerate or avoid drought streams. stress during the 7-8 month-long dry season, and are common in woodlands and “parkland” agroforests, The objectives of this research were to determine if which rural communities manage for the production the fuelwood properties (a) differed among regions, of food crops, tree products and livestock. They land-use and soil types and/or (b) varied with latitude, are distributed from the Sahelian to the northern longitude, elevation and mean annual rainfall. (B. aegyptiaca, Z. mauritiana) or southern part (C. Recommendations are provided regarding the glutinosum, G. senegalensis, P. reticulatum) of the species and sites to target for fuelwood production, Sudanian ecozone. B. aegyptiaca is an evergreen, and seed sources to use for establishing new drought-tolerant tree that produces a deep taproot fuelwood plantations.

22 Annual Report 2012 Materials and methods trees was 5.2, 5.8, 5.9, 6.2 and 6.4 years, respectively for B. aegyptiaca, Z. mauritiana, C. glutinosum, G. Trees were sampled in five regions extending from senegalensis and P. reticulatum. southeastern to southwestern Mali (longitude 5.5– 12°W) at the end of the dry season in 2009. For each Prior to analysis, values for all fuelwood variables species, 15-16 trees were sampled roughly along a were adjusted for differences in tree age by species latitudinal transect in each region (12.5–14°N), with a and region using analysis of covariance. Data minimum distance of 10 km between trees (79 trees transformations were not necessary as the variables total per species). Trees were selected if the shoot exhibited normal distributions. Two ANOVA models was undamaged, was growing relatively upright and were used to test differences among and within was within a predetermined diameter class (4–12 cm species: the model among species included four at 30 cm above ground). Soil type (sand, sand/loam main effects (species, region, soil type, land use type) or rocky) and land-use type (parkland agroforest or and two-way interactions between species and the woodland) were visually assessed for each tree’s other main effects; and the model within species location. Latitude, longitude and elevation of each included three main effects (region, soil type, land tree were obtained using a GPS receiver, and mean use type). Least-squares means were compared annual rainfall (mm) was obtained from the WorldClim using the Tukey HSD test. Two sets of linear database based on the geographic coordinates. regressions were used to determine if geographical A sample of the stem was cut from each tree at coordinates and rainfall had a significant effect on 30–60 cm above ground. After removing the bark, the fuelwood variables of each species: (1) analysis of samples were air-dried for one month. Tree age and all trees by species using latitude, longitude and fuelwood properties [basic density in kg m-³ (BDen); elevation as independent variables; (2) analysis of all volatile matter in % (Vol); ash in % (Ash); fixed trees by species using mean annual rainfall as the carbon in % (Carb); moisture in % (MC); gross and independent variable. Pearson correlation coefficients net calorific value in MJ kg-1(GCV and NetCV); GCV (r) were used to investigate linear relationships among in MJ m-³ (GCVm3); fuel value index (FVI) = (BDen fuelwood variables, geographical coordinates and ® x NetCV)/(Ash x MC)] were then determined from mean annual rainfall. The SAS statistical package subsamples of the stem. Mean age of the sampled was used for analyses with α ≤ 0.05 for all tests.

Photo 1. Registration of geographical coordinates of tree species

Agroforestry and climate change 23 Photo 3. Wood samples of five tree species in Mali

probably reflect the fact that most wood properties are under relatively strong genetic control so they are less affected by environmental conditions than traits such as tree height. In contrast, coefficients of Photo 2. Processing stem samples of tree species variation for Ash (27.5-39.7%) and FVI (30.2-42.8%) were very large. The large coefficient of variation for Ash suggests that it is more affected than the other fuelwood properties by local environmental conditions, such as available calcium and potassium in the soil which are the major components of ash. The large coefficient of variation for FVI reflects the fact that it was derived from four variables.

Differences in fuelwood properties among regions, soil and land-use types

Regional differences were significant for most fuelwood properties of B. aegyptiaca, G senegalensis, P. reticulatum and Z. mauritiana (Figure 2). This reflects the fact that several variables were highly correlated due to the way they were measured or derived. Vol and Ash were measured and percent Figure 1. Differences in fuelwood properties among species Carb was calculated as the difference: as a result, Vol was negatively correlated with Carb and Ash Results and discussion (mean r of species = –0.95 and –0.39, respectively, P<0.001). In addition, GCVm3 and FVI were Differences in fuelwood properties among species correlated with the variables used to derive them: if one variable differed significantly among regions All fuelwood properties differed significantly among and was strongly correlated with a second variable, species (Figure 1: Ba = B. aegyptiaca, Cg = C. then the second variable also differed significantly glutinosum, Gs = G. senegalensis, Pr = P. reticulatum, among regions. Most fuelwood properties of C. Zm = Z. mauritiana). In general, fuelwood properties glutinosum did not differ significantly among regions, were best for G. senegalensis (e.g., highest BDen, suggesting that local environmental conditions have GCV, GCVm3 and FVI; lowest Ash and moderate MC), a relatively greater effect on fuelwood properties of C. and worst for P. reticulatum (low BDen and GCV, high glutinosum trees, compared with the other species. Ash and MC). Photo 3 shows wood samples of the BDen did not differ significantly among regions tree species. for any species. This is consistent with genetic evaluation tests which generally show that there Coefficients of variation were low for BDen (5.7-7.7 is more variation in BDen within populations than %), Vol (1.0-2.0 %), Carb (4.1-8.4 %), MC (9.5-12.8 among populations. %), GCV (1.3-2.2 %) and GCVm3 (5.1-8.1 %) and

24 Annual Report 2012 Figure 2. Differences in fuelwood properties among regions

Fuelwood properties were better in drier regions for fertile soils. The higher Vol of Z. mauritiana wood in some species and in more humid regions for other parklands may be due to the production of protective species. For example, FVI was generally higher in compounds: one would expect greater production the drier eastern regions for B. aegyptiaca but in the of resins and other protective compounds in the more humid western regions for Z. mauritiana; and wood in locations with larger populations of wood- MC of C. glutinosum and P. reticulatum was generally boring insects but we do not know if wood-boring lower in the eastern regions. Fuelwood properties of insect populations are larger in parklands than in G. senegalensis were generally good in all regions woodlands. (e.g., high GCV, low Ash). Variation in fuelwood properties with Soil type had a general effect on MC and FVI of the geographical coordinates and mean annual five species (Figure 3). MC was higher on sandy rainfall and lower on rocky soils and, since MC and FVI are inversely related, FVI was higher on rocky soils. This The rainfall gradient was stronger with latitude suggests that fuelwood production for these species than with longitude and elevation (r = –0.68, 0.41 should be promoted primarily on rocky soils in the and –0.12, respectively; P<0.001 for latitude and study region. longitude, P<0.05 for elevation). If mean annual rainfall has a major effect on fuelwood properties Ash of G. senegalensis and Vol of Z. mauritiana then one would expect that latitude would account were greater in parklands than in woodlands. This for more variation than longitude and especially suggests that fuelwood production would be better elevation. Forty regressions were carried out for the in woodlands for G. senegalensis (lower Ash) but five species using geographical coordinates and parklands for Z. mauritiana (higher Vol, which is also using mean annual rainfall: 20 were significant positively correlated with FVI: r = 0.45, P < 0.001). with geographical coordinates, but only six were Calcium and potassium, the primary components significant with mean annual rainfall. Among of ash, are generally higher in plant tissues in more the 20 significant regressions with geographical fertile soils. Since farmers apply organic fertilizers coordinates, longitude and elevation generally to parkland soils, the higher Ash of G. senegalensis explained more variation than latitude: longitude wood in parklands probably reflects the more and elevation were significant in 10, but latitude was significant in only six equations.

Figure 3. Differences in fuelwood properties among land use and soil types

Agroforestry and climate change 25 Therefore, in addition to mean annual rainfall, there elevations based on Ash (lower) and GCV (higher). are other environmental variables that affect fuelwood Like C. gultinosum and P. reticulation, fuelwood properties and are correlated with latitude, longitude production of G. senegalensis would be better at and/or elevation, but were not included in this study higher elevations based on GCV (higher), but in the (e.g., available soil water, soil fertility, temperature). southern locations based on MC (lower). Fuelwood For example, other researchers noted that if the production of Z. mauritiana would also be better in depth of the water table varies geographically and the southern locations and at lower elevations based the species produces deep roots, then mean annual on Vol (higher) and MC (lower). Some of the predicted rainfall may not reflect the amount of available soil relationships are shown in Figure 4. water. B. aegyptiaca, G. senegalensis, P. reticulatum and Z. mauritiana produce deep roots, and the Results from a genetic evaluation test of B. latter two species are common along streams and aegyptiaca showed that mean GCV of provenances temporarily flooded sites, so they may be able to increased in general from the drier to the more humid extract soil water for several months during the dry parts of the sample region in Niger. In this study, season, even in the drier northern/eastern locations. regressions with geographical coordinates showed the same trend, but the relationship with rainfall was Regressions with geographical coordinates indicated not significant. This suggests that studies of GCV in that the best geographical locations for fuelwood natural populations could provide information about production depend on the species and fuelwood genetic variation in GCV. property. For example, fuelwood production of B. aegyptiaca would be better in the drier eastern Conclusions and recommendations locations based on MC (lower) and FVI (higher), but for fuelwood production in a changing in the western locations based on GCV (higher); climate at higher elevations based on Vol (higher) and Demand for fuelwood is increasing in Mali and Ash (lower), but at lower elevations based on neighboring countries, and small-scale fuelwood Carb (higher). Similar results were observed for C. plantations have been proposed as one option to glutinosum and P. reticulatum. Fuelwood production help meet the demand. If the climate becomes of C. glutinosum would be better in the drier eastern increasingly hotter and drier as projected, then locations based on BDen, GCVm3 (higher) and species that generally have desirable fuelwood MC (lower); and at higher elevations based on FVI properties across regions (such as G. senegalensis) (higher). Fuelwood production of P. reticulatum would and those that generally have better fuelwood be better in the drier eastern locations based on properties in drier regions (such as B. aegyptiaca Vol, FVI (higher) and MC (lower), but in the western and C. glutinosum) may become increasingly more locations based on Carb (higher); and at higher

Figure 4. Examples of fuelwood properties predicted by geographical coordinates and rainfall

26 Annual Report 2012 important; while species that generally have better soils. In general, this means targeting sites not fuelwood properties in wetter regions (such as Z. considered priority for crop production. mauritiana) or have undesirable fuelwood properties (such as P. reticulatum) may become increasingly less c. Conduct research to identify the specific important. We recommend the following: environmental factors that affect fuelwood properties of these and other fuelwood species. a. Collect seed of species like G. senegalensis, B. aegyptiaca and C. glutinosum in the driest d. Conduct similar research on these and other regions for the establishment of small-scale fuelwood species in neighboring countries in fuelwood plantations in Mali. This is based order to make regional recommendations for on the expectation that progeny of trees fuelwood production in a changing climate. from the driest regions are better adapted to drought than those from wetter regions and, Acknowledgements by introducing genes via pollen and seed, they This research was supported by a post-doctoral will increase the drought tolerance of local tree research grant from the World Agroforestry Centre populations. (ICRAF) to the first author, the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), the Universidade b. Promote fuelwood production of these species Federal do Paraná (UFPR) and the CGIAR on sites with rocky, less fertile soils because the Consortium Research Programme “Climate Change, wood’s moisture content was lower on rocky Agriculture and Food Security”. soils, and one would expect that the wood’s ash content would be lower on less fertile

Reference

Sotelo Montes, C., Weber, J.C., Silva, D.A., Muñiz, G.I.B., Garcia, R.A. 2012. Variation in fuelwood properties of five tree/ shrub species in the Sahelian and Sudanian ecozones of Mali: relationships with rainfall, regions, land-use and soil types. In: A. Méndez-Vilas, ed. Fuelling the future: advances in science and technologies for energy generation, transmission and storage. Boca Raton: BrownWalker Press, pp. 133-137.

Agroforestry and climate change 27 ICRAF-WCA Publications 2012

Journal Articles

Asaah, E. K.; Wanduku T. N.; Tchoundjeu Z.; Kouodiekong L.; Van Damme P. 2012. Do propagation methods affect the fine root architecture of African plum (Dacryodes edulis)?. Trees Structure and Function. Volume 26 Number 5. P.1461- 1469.

Asaah, EK, Tchoundjeu Z, Van Damme P (2012). Beyond vegetative propagation of indigenous fruit trees: case of Dacryodes edulis (G. Don) H. J. Lam and Allanblackia floribunda Oliv. Afrika focus (25)1 61-72.

Amanze J.O, Ezeh C.I, Chukwudi J; (2012). Technical Efficiency in Broiler production in Umuahia capital territory of Abia state, , Journal of sustainable development vol.9 Nos 1/2, page 10-17.

Bayala, J.; Sileshi, G.W.; Coe, R.; Kalinganire, A.; Tchoundjeu, Z.; Sinclair, F.; Garrity, D. 2012. Cereal yield response to conservation agriculture practices in drylands of West Africa: a quantitative synthesis?. Journal of Arid Environments 78 p. 13-25. [2012002]

Bouda Z. H-N., Bayala J., Markussen B., Jensen J. S., Ræbild A. 2012. Provenance variation in survival, growth and dry matter partitioning of Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) R.Br. ex G.Don seedlings in response to water stress. Agroforestry Systems. DOI: 10.1007/s10457-012-9521-9.

Cosyns, H., Degrande, A., De Wulf, R., Van Damme, P. and Tchoundjeu, Z. 2011. Can commercialization of NTFPs alleviate poverty? A case study of Ricinodendron heudelotii (Baill.) Pierre ex Pax. kernel marketing in Cameroon. Journal of Agriculture and Rural Develoment in the Tropics and Subtropics, 122 (1): 45-56.

Degrande A, Tadjo P, Takoutsing B, Asaah E, Tsobeng A, Tchoundjeu A,. 2012. Getting Trees Into Farmers’ Fields: Success of Rural Nurseries in Distributing High Quality Planting Material in Cameroon. Small-scale Forestry DOI 10.1007/ s11842-012-9220-4

Sanou J., Bayala J., Bazié P., Tecklehaimanot Z. 2012. Photosynthesis and biomass production by millet (Pennisetum glaucum) and (Colocasia esculenta) grown under baobab (Adansonia digitata) and néré (Parkia biglobosa) in an agroforestry parkland system of Burkina Faso (West Africa). Experimental Agriculture 48 (2): 283-300

Boniface, B., Gyau, A. and Stringer, R. (2012): Exploring the nature of business relationships in the Malaysian dairy industry. Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics 24 (2), 288-304

Facheux, C., Gyau, A. , R, Foundjem-Tita, Russell, D., Mbosso C., Franzel, S. and Tchoundjeu Z. (2012) : Comparison of three modes of improving benefits to farmers within agroforestry product market chains in Cameroon. African Journal of Agricultural Research 7 (15), 2336-2343

Gyau, A.,Takoutsing, B. and Franzel S. (2012): Farmers perception of collective action in kola supply chain: Cluster analysis results. Journal of Agricultural Science 4 (4), 117-128

Gyau, A. and Somogyi, S. (2012): Exploring the multi-dimensional nature of price satisfaction in business to business relationship performance. Journal of Business Market Management 5 (1), 42-53

Gyau, A., Takoutsing, B., De Grande, A. and Franzel, S. (in press): Farmers‘ motivation for collective action in the production and marketing of kola in Cameroon, Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development in the Tropics and Sub Tropics, 113(1),43-50

Gyau, A., Chiatoh, M., Franzel, S., Asaah, A. and Donovan, J. 2012. Determinants of farmers’ tree planting behavior in the North West region of Cameroon: the case of Prunus Africana. International Forestry Review, 14(10) 265-27

Bazié, H.R.; Bayala, J.; Zombré, G.; Sanou, J.; Ilstedt, U. 2012. Separating competition-related factors limiting crop performance in an agroforestry parkland system in Burkina Faso. Agroforestry Systems 84 p. 377-388. [2012]

28 Annual Report 2012 Kalinganire, A.; Weber, J.C; Coulibaly, S. 2012. Improved Ziziphus mauritiana germplasm for Sahelian smallholder farmers: first steps towards a domestication programme. Forestry Trees and Livelihoods p. 1-10. [2012071]

Makueti, J.T.; Tchoundjeu, Z.; Kalinganire, A.; Nkongmeneck, B.A.; Asaah, E.; Tsobeng, A.; Kouodiekong, L. 2012. Influence de la provenance du géniteur et du type de pollen sur la fructification sous pollinisation contrôlée chez Dacryodes edulis (Burseraceae) au Cameroun. International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences 6 (3) p. 1202-1222. [2012]

Makueti, J.T.; Tchoundjeu, Z.; Kalinganire, A.; Nkongmeneck, B.A.; Kouodiekong, L.; Asaah, E.; Tsobeng, A. 2012. Morphological traits of control-pollinated fruits in African plum (Dacryodes edulis (G.Don).Lam.) using multivariate statistical techniques. International Journal of Agronomy and Agricultural Research (IJAAR). Vol. 2, No. 8, p. 1-17, 2012

Sotelo Montes, C.; Weber, J.C.; Silva, D.A.; Andrade, C.; Muniz, G.I.B.; Garcia, R.A.; Kalinganire, A. 2012. Effects of region, soil, land use and terrain type on fuelwood properties of five tree/shrub species in the Sahelian and Sudanian ecozones of Mali. Annals of Forest Science (Online first) 10p. [2012013]

Tankoano, P.M.; Diallo, O.B.; Ouedraogo, S.N.; Some, N.A.; Noula, K.; Kalinganire, A. 2012. Inventaire des insectes nuisibles aux fruits des variétés indiennes de Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. (Rhamnaceae) au Burkina Faso. Fruits 67 p. 189-200. [2012068]

Foundjem-Tita D, Degrande A, D’Haese M, Van Damme P, Tchoundjeu Z, Gyau A, Facheux C, Mbosso C. 2012 Building long-term relationships between producers and trader groups in the Non Timber Forest Product sector in Cameroon. African Journal of Agricultural Research Vol 7(2): 230-239

Books/Book Chapters / proceedings

Tchoundjeu, Z.; Asaah, E.; Bayala, J.; Kalinganire, A.; Mng’omba, S. 2012. Vegetative propagation techniques. In: Dawson, I., Harwood, C., Jamnadass, R., Beniest, J. (eds.) Agroforestry tree domestication: a primer. Nairobi: World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Kenya p. 110-117. [2012050]

Tchoundjeu Z, Asaah E, Dawson I, Leakey R (2012) The participatory tree domestication approach. In: Dawson I, Harwood C, Jamnadass R, Beniest J (eds.) Agroforestry tree domestication: a primer. The World Agroforestry Centre, Nairobi, Kenya. pp. 134-139.

Weber, J.C.; Sotelo Montes, C. 2012. Provenance and progeny trials. In: Dawson, I., Harwood, C., Jamnadass, R., Beniest, J. (eds.) Agroforestry tree domestication: a primer. Nairobi: World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Kenya p. 64-69. [2012045]

Dawson, I.; Russell, J.; Weber, J.C. 2012. Field collection strategies. In: Dawson, I., Harwood, C., Jamnadass, R., Beniest, J. (eds.) Agroforestry tree domestication: a primer. Nairobi: World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Kenya p. 81-93. [2012045]

Kalinganire A., Bayala J. 2011. Enhancing Food Security for Farmers through Increased Soil Fertility: Case Studies for the Sahel. In: Zhong C.L., Pinyounarerk K., Franche C., Kalinganire A. Improving smallholder livelihoods through improved Casuarina productivity, pp 24-30. Proceedings of the fourth International Casuarina workshop. Haikou China, 21-25 March 2010.

Leakey, R.R.B.; Weber, J.C.; Page, T.; Cornelius, J.P.; Akinnifesi, F.K.; Tchoundjeu, Z.; Jamnadass, R. 2012. Tree domestication in agroforestry: progress in the second decade (2003-2012). Pp. 145-173 In: Ramachandran Nair PK, Garrity D (Eds.) Agroforestry – The Future of Global Land Use, Advances in Agroforestry, Vol. 9, Springer. DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-4676-3.

Degrande A., Franzel S., Siohdjie Yeptiep Y., Asaah E., Tsobeng A. and Tchoundjeu Z. 2012. Effectiveness of Grassroots Organisations in the Dissemination of Agroforestry Innovations. 2012. In: Kaonga M. (ed) Agroforestry for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services - Science and Practice. InTech, Rijeka, Croatia. Chapter 8, p 141-164. Available on line: http://www.intechopen.com/articles/show/title/effectiveness-of-grassroots-organisations-in-the-dissemination-of- agroforestry-innovations

Agroforestry and climate change 29 Sotelo Montes C, Weber JC, Silva DA, Muñiz GIB, Garcia RA. 2012. Variation in fuelwood properties of five tree/shrub species in the Sahelian and Sudanian ecozones of Mali: relationships with rainfall, regions, land-use and soil types. The Energy and Materials Research Conference, Terremolinos, Málaga, Spain, 20-22 June, 2012. (abstract only)

Working Papers

Ajayi, O.C.; Diakité, N.; Konaté, A.B.; Catacutan, D. 2012. Rapid assessment of the inner Niger Delta of Mali. -- Nairobi, Kenya: World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) ICRAF Working Paper no. 144, 66p. [B17336]

Neufeldt, H.; Dawson, I.K.; Luedeling, E.; Ajayi, O.C.; Beedy, T.; Gebrekirstos, A.; Jamnadass, R.H.; Kӧnig, K.; Sileshi, G.W.; Simelton, E.; Sotelo Montes, C.; Weber, J.C. 2012. Climate change vulnerability of agroforestry. Nairobi, Kenya: World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), ICRAF Working Paper No. 143. Occasional Papers

Boureima, M.; Abasse, T.A.; Sotelo Montes, C.; Weber, J.C.; Katkoré, B.; Mounkoro, B.; Dakouo, J-M.; Samaké, O.; Sigué, H.; Bationo, B.A.; Diallo, B.O. 2012. Analyse participative de la vulnérabilité et de l’adaptation aux changements climatiques: un guide méthodologique. -- Nairobi, Kenya: World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) ICRAF Occasional paper no. 19, 34p. [B17387]

Dkamela, G.P. 2012. Essai de reconstitution du cadre d’action et des opportunités en matière d’agroforesterie en République Démocratique du Congo : Perspectives pour une politique publique. ICRAF Occasional Paper 20. ICRAF, Yaounde, Cameroon

Policy briefs

Foundjem-Tita D, Degrande A and Tchoundjeu Z. 2012 Cameroon in need of a coordinated agroforestry strategy and program. Policy Brief nr 1. Series ‘Agroforestry and Institutions’ ICRAF, Yaounde, Cameroon

Dkamela GP et Degrande A. 2012 Agroforesterie et Institutions : Besoins de mise en cohérence des politiques et de coordination des actions en RDC. Note Politique nr 3. Série sur ‘L’Agroforesterie et les Institutions’, ICRAF, Yaounde, Cameroon

Dkamela GP et Degrande A. 2012. Agroforesterie et Institutions : Mesures relatives à la récolte, la post-récolte et au développement des marchés en RDC. Note Politique nr 2. Série sur ‘L’Agroforesterie et les Institutions’, ICRAF, Yaounde, Cameroon

Dkamela GP et Degrande A. 2012. Agroforesterie et Institutions : Besoins de mise en cohérence des politiques et de coordination des actions en RDC. Note Politique nr 3. Série sur ‘L’Agroforesterie et les Institutions’, ICRAF, Yaounde, Cameroon

Reports

World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Yaounde, Cameroon 2012. Annual Report 2011: Agroforestry, policies and institutional reforms. 32p

Feudjio, M., Magne A. N., Alemagi, D., Robiglio, V., Ewane, N., Yemefack M., Asaah, E., Tchienkoua, M. 2012. Mesures incitatives aux mécanismes REDD+ et développement durable dans la commune d’Efoulan. Aternative to Slash and Burn (ASB) Project Report. World Agroforestery Centre, Yaoundé, Cameroon. Training/Extension materials

Sado, T.; Eboutou, L.; Degrande, A.; Tchoundjeu, Z.; Tsobeng, A.; Atia, J. Installation et gestion d’un agroforêt à base de cacaoyer (Fiche technique). 2012. Yaoundé, Cameroon: World Agroforestry Centre

Takoutsing, B.; Tsobeng, A.; Degrande, A.; Tchoundjeu, Z.; Iseli, J. 2012. L’Essok: Garcinia lucidaVesque (Clusiacees). Etat des connaissances sur l’Essok au Cameroun. Yaoundé, Cameroon: World Agroforestry Center (ICRAF) [2012021]

30 Annual Report 2012 Bationo B.A., Kalinganire A., Bayala J. 2012. Potentialités des ligneux dans la pratique de l’agriculture de conservation dans les zones arides et semi-arides de l’Afrique de l’Ouest : Aperçu de quelques systèmes candidats. ICRAF Technical Manual no. 11 Nairobi : World Agroforestry Centre.

Tchoundjeu, Z.; Tsobeng, A.; Degrande, A.; Asaah, E.; Iseli, J. 2012. L’Ebaye: PentaclethramacrophyllaBenth (Mimosacees) - Acacia du Congo - Arbre a semelle - Mubala. Etat des connaissances sur l’Ebaye au Cameroun. Yaoundé, Cameroon: World Agroforestry Center (ICRAF) [2012019]

Tsobeng, A.; Batikali, V.; Sado, T.; Tchamabeu, P.; Iseli, J. 2012. Le Poivrier: Pepper spp. (negrum/gunineensis) (Piperacees) - (Sop), (Soup), (Ndong). Etat des connaissances sur le poivrier au Cameroun. Yaoundé, Cameroon: World Agroforestry Center (ICRAF)

Tsobeng, A.; Tchoundjeu, Z.; Degrande, A.; Asaah, E.; Iseli, J. 2012. L’Atom: Dacyodesmacrophylla(Oliv.) Lam (Burceracées). Etat des connaissances sur l’Atom au Cameroun. -- Yaoundé, Cameroon: World Agroforestry Center (ICRAF)

World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Yaoundé (Cameroon). 2012. Multiplication de quelques arbres agroforestiers: outils multimédia pour la formation et la vulgarisation. -- Yaoundé, Cameroon: World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) 1 DVD.

World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Yaoundé (Cameroun) 2012. Le Manguier sauvage (Irvingia gabonensis – Bush mango- ndo’o – oba – meba 2p

World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Yaoundé (Cameroun) 2012. Le greffage du manguier sauvage 2p

World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Yaoundé (Cameroun) 2012. Le greffage du kolatier 2p

World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Yaoundé (Cameroun) 2012. Le greffage du njansang 2p

World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Yaoundé (Cameroun) 2012. Le kolatier (Cola acuminate et cola nitida- noix de kola) 2p

World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Yaoundé (Cameroun) 2012. L’Ananas sauvage (Annonidium mannii – bombo-libombi- anguta) 2p

World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Yaoundé (Cameroun) 2012. Le safoutier ( Dacryodes edulis – African pear or plum – shoue – tso –assa – sao) 2p

World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Yaoundé (Cameroun) 2012. Le njansang (Ricinodendron heudelotii –African nut – ezezang – ezang – bofeko) 2p

World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Yaoundé (Cameroun) 2012. Gnetum africanum (okok – eru – fumbua 2p

World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Yaoundé (Cameroun) 2012. Le macottage du safoutier 2p

World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Yaoundé (Cameroun) 2012. Le boutourage de Gnetum 2p

World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Yaoundé (Cameroun) 2012. Arbres melliferes 2p

Theses

Asaah, E.K. 2012. Beyond vegetative propagation of indigenous fruit trees: case of Dacryodes edulis (G. Don) H.J.Lam and Allanblackia floribunda Oliv. Ghent, Belgium: Ghent University, 231p. [B17355] 631.523 ASA

Mbile Ngembeni Peter. 2012. Conservation Policies and Non Timber Forest Products Development in Cameroon. PhD thesis, Department of Forest Resources Management, Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Ibadan, Nigeria.

Students’ dissertations

WEKOP NGAMPIE Clotilde Liliane. Effets de l’action collective sur l’adoption de la concasseuse des noix de Ricinodendron heudelotii (njansang) par les groupes de producteurs du Centre et du Sud. Mémoire de fin d’études présenté en vue de l’obtention du diplôme d’Ingénieur Agronome, option: socio-économie, Faculté d’Agronomie et des Sciences Agricoles de l’Université de Dschang, Cameroun, Université de Dschang, Cameroun.

Agroforestry and climate change 31 TSEWOUE Mélanie Rosine. Contribution des espèces agro forestières aux services écosystémiques: cas de Canarium schweinfurthii (Engl) dans les agro forêts caféières du département de Bamboutos. Mémoire de fin d’études présenté en vue de l’obtention du diplôme d’Ingénieur Agronome, option: Biologie végétale. Faculté des Sciences de l’Université de Dschang, Cameroun.

Tchounji Dingues Ghislain.2012. Analyse de la filière d’approvisionnement en plants améliorés d’arbres agroforestiers dans le grand Sud Cameroun. Mémoire de fin d’études présenté en vue de l’obtention du diplôme d’Ingénieur Agronome, option: économie et sociologie rurales. Faculté d’Agronomie et des Sciences Agricoles de l’Université de Dschang, Cameroun

LIEUNANG LETCHE Alain Rostand. Dynamique de séquestration du carbone par les jachères améliorées dans les hautes terres de l’ouest Cameroun. Mémoire de fin d’études présenté en vue de l’obtention du diplôme d’Ingénieur Agronome, option: Foresterie. Faculté d’Agronomie et des Sciences Agricoles de l’Université de Dschang, Cameroun, Université de Dschang, Cameroun.

Yakeu Djiam Serge Eric. 2012. Local knowledge and socio-economic values of Picralima nitida in the humid forest zone of Cameroon. MSc Thesis. Erasmus Mundus International Master of Science in Rural Development, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium

Ferket Bram. 2012. The impacts of improved commercialization of kola nuts on farmer livelihoods in the Westhern highlands of Cameroon. MSc thesis. Master of Science in Conflict and Development. University of Gent, Belgium

32 Annual Report 2012