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Imamu Amiri Baraka) in His Campaign /VU8 ANALYSIS OF THE RHETORIC OF LEROI JONES (IMAMU AMIRI BARAKA) IN HIS CAMPAIGN TO PROMOTE CULTURAL BLACK NATIONALISM THESIS Presented to the Graduate Council of the North Texas State University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE By Madelyn E. Hart Denton, Texas August, 1976 Hart, Madelyn E., Analysis of the Rhetoric of LeRoi Jones (Imamu Amiri Baraka) in His Campaign to Promote Cul- tural Black Nationalism. Master of Science (Speech Commun- ication and Drama), August, 1976, 64 pp., bibliography, 41 titles. The purpose of this thesis is to discover and assess the rhetorical methods employed by LeRoi Jones in the evo- lution of cultural black nationalism. First, the thesis concentrates on his ethos and philosophy. Second, it ana- lyzes the cultural black nationalism organization in Newark, New Jersey. Third, it discusses the impact of LeRoi Jones on the black cultural nationalism movement. The conclusions drawn from this study reveal that LeRoi Jones was able to attract, maintain, and mold his followers, to build a sizable power base, and to adapt to several audiences simultaneously. Implications of the study are that because of his rigid requirements and a gradual change in ideology, LeRoi Jones is now losing ground as a leader. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. INTRODUCTION....... ....... 1 Purpose Procedure II. LEROI JONES -- FROM BOYHOOD TO MANHOOD . 6 III. ANALYSIS OF CULTURAL BLACK NATIONALISM . 17 IV. EVOLUTION THROUGH RHETORIC . 31 V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS. 57 BIBLIOGRAPHY...-.-.-.-.-..-...-.................... 62 iii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION LeRoi Jones is widely known as a poet, playwright, and essay writer. What is perhaps less well known is that he is a political organizer and the most prominent leader of the black cultural nationalist movement. Jones is considered the Father of the Black Arts Movement in the United States. The literary works of LeRoi Jones are the main weapons which he uses to spread his belief of black cultural nationalism. In 1967 when Jones taught briefly at San Francisco State College, he was impressed by a west coast black leader, Maulana Ron Karenga and his program of cultural nationalism, a program called "US." Karenga had read the literary works of LeRoi Jones and owed much to him, but Karenga knew more about the mechanics of organizing a black movement than did Jones. Inspired by Karenga's ideas and methods, after re- turning to Newark, New Jersey, Jones organized in January, 1968, the Black Community Development and Defense Organiza- tion, called BCD or simply, the "organization." It was with the origination of the BCD that LeRoi Jones created a socio- political cult and practiced his new cultural-religious- philosophical theories. Black cultural nationalism is a philosophy of bringing self-determination, self-respect, and self-reliance to 1 2 minority people, particularly black people. LeRoi Jones is the major avant-guard leader of this movement. Nationalists believe that anywhere black people comprise a majority of the space, in any city in the United States, should be con- sidered a nation. "We do not want a Nation, we are a Nation", is a statement that Jones frequently makes and strongly be- lieves in. As a black artist,. Jones attempts to change the images black people identify with, by asserting black feeling, black mind, and black judgment. Jones professes that the black man must aspire to blackness and must seek a politics which will be beneficial to his black culture. Culture is an important element in the black nationalist philosophy. Jones believes that culture is simply that way men live; how they have come to live; and what they are formed by; their total experience. He believes that only a united black consciousness can save black people from an- nihilation. As leader of the cultural nationalist movement, Jones has been instrumental in bringing black awareness to many people in his native home, Newark, New Jersey, and throughout the United States by way of his poems, plays, essays and speaking engagements in towns and.universities across the United States. Purpose The purpose of this thesis is to discover, interpret, and assess the rhetorical methods and tactics employed by LeRoi Jones (Imamu Amiri Baraka) in the evolution of cultural 3 black nationalism. For the sake of clarity, I will use the name of LeRoi Jones throughout this thesis. (Jones changed his name to Imamu Amiri Baraka in 1966.) The potential sig- nificance of the study is a better understanding of the nature of social movements in general through analyzing the campaign to promote cultural black nationalism. It may also produce understanding of a "leader-centered" conception of persuasion in social movements, and a better understanding of the nature of the black revolutionary rhetoric of LeRoi Jones through examining some of his literary works. Procedure This study is handled in the following sequence: (1) a biographical sketch of LeRoi Jones concentrating on his ethos and characteristic ways of perceiving and thinking; (2) analysis of cultural black nationalism by examining its origin, goals, values, norms, and beliefs; (3) discussion of the impact that LeRoi Jones as a leader had on the organiza- tion, and the rhetoric used to promote cultural black na- tionalism; and (4) a summary and conclusion of this study and implications as to the future of LeRoi Jones and black cultural nationalism. Data for this thesis was collected and examined from three sources: actual works written by LeRoi Jones; material related to cultural black nationalism; and rhetorical theory. The following books and articles serve as both a guiding approach and source of rhetorical evidence for this study: 4 Herbert W. Simons, "Requirements, Problems, and Strategies: A Theory of Persuasion for Social Movements," Quarterly Jour- nal of Speech, 1970; Dan F. Hahn and Ruth M. Gonchar, "Studying Social Movements: A Rhetorical Methodology," The Speech Teacher, 1971; Arthur L. Smith, Rhetoric of Black Revolution, 1969, and Herbert W. Simons, "Patterns of Persuasion in the Civil Rights Struggle," Today's Speech, 1967. Material re- lated to cultural black nationalism includes the works by August Meier, and Elliott Rudwick, Black Nationalism in America; James Boggs, "Black Revolutionary Power," Ebony, 1969; Theodore R. Hudson, From LeRoi Jones to Amiri Baraka, 1973, and Lewis M. Killian, The Impossible Revolution, 1968. The actual writings and speeches of LeRoi Jones includes: Home: Social Essays, 1966; Blues People, 1963; Raise, Race, Rays, Raze: Essays Since 1965, 1969; A Black Value System, 1970; and "Black Nationalism: 1972," The Black Scholar, September, 1972; "Needed: A Revolutionary Strategy," The Black Scholar, October, 1975. A considerable amount of information comes from first- hand experiences and revelations of members of the black cultural nationalist movement. During the years of 1969-1972, I lived in Newark, New Jersey. I came in contact with LeRoi Jones' organization through my husband, who was a member of the political arm of the organization known as the United Brothers of Newark. For eighteen months, I observed the or- ganization and followed the activities of my husband, his 5 sister, and his brother, who were also members. I also worked closely with members during the political campaign for Mayor of Newark in 1970. Unless noted otherwise, all information about LeRoi Jones and the Committee for a Unified Newark is the result of those personal experiences and revelations with former members of the black cultural natural nationalist move- ment in Newark, New Jersey, from 1969-72. Through writing this paper, I hope to discover what were the shared beliefs of the black cultural nationalist movement, and whether the leadership of LeRoi Jones attracted, main- tained, and molded workers and followers of the organization. Another aspect of this thesis will be to examine what type of. activities the black cultural nationalists engaged in; and whether these activities were aimed at reinforcing followers, converting non-members, or pressuring decision-makers. This study concludes with a summary of the leadership style of LeRoi Jones and its effect upon the black cultural nationalist organization and gives some implications as to the future of the organization. CHAPTER II LEROI JONES -- FROM BOYHOOD TO MANHOOD (Everett) LeRoi Jones was born in Newark, New Jersey, on October 7, 1934. He was raised in a black middle-class family with a lineage of teachers and preachers.1 LeRoi Jones' parents were hard working people who wanted to give their son the best possible education. His father was a postal worker, and his mother was a social worker who had started out working in sweat shops before black women were able to hold professional jobs. During World War II, Mrs. Jones got a job in the government and afterward maintained a position as a social worker. LeRoi Jones has one sister in his immediate family, Sandra Elaine, now known by her "traditional name," Kimako, who is an actress and dancer. LeRoi Jones' boyhood home life was the normal uneventful life of a working-class Negro family living in the late 1930's. His boyhood interests and activities were not unusual. He liked football, baseball, and other sports. He avidly read comic strips, listened to radio programs such as "The Shadow," and he enjoyed motion pictures. People who influenced him during his early years were people in the community, and people whom he emulated; the athletes and the hero-types for boys. During his childhood years, LeRoi was a typical boy who was a Cub Scout, had a newspaper route, earned money 6 7 who earned money by working in a store, and who went to church regularly. When he was very young, Mr. and Mrs. Jones became aware that their son had a natural gift of memorization. For ex- ample, his parents recall that because their son, at pre-school age, was fond of making political speeches; Mr.
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