sign in sign up
<<
Home , 2015 in Kazakhstan, Arab League, Latin Union, Regional integration, Turkic Council, TURKPA

Parliamentary Assembly of Turkic-Speaking Countries (TurkPA): Beyond Parliamentary Diplomacy Ercan DURDULAR* Abstract Key Words

TurkPA, as an example of an international TurkPA, Inter-Parliamentary Institutions parliamentary institution (IPI), constitutes (IPIs), Parliamentary Diplomacy, Regional a forum for parliamentary diplomacy and Parliaments, Role of Parliaments in IR. serves as the parliamentary dimension of the cooperation and integration of Turkic countries in Eurasia. IPIs provide new channels for the exchange of views and sharing of experiences, namely through parliamentary diplomacy. Introduction The common goal of those institutions and This paper analyses the nature and parliamentary diplomacy is to use debate, role of the Parliamentary Assembly of dialogue and personal contacts to enable parliamentarians in different countries to Turkic-Speaking Countries (TurkPA) better understand each other, help one another, as an international parliamentary and therefore provide an alternative channel institution, elaborating on its different to facilitate intraregional communication. This functions and structural properties is why these institutions also carry a symbolic importance. After the dissolution of the that make it a tool for parliamentary Soviet Union, the Turkic states in the region diplomacy. To this end, this section showed their dedication to acting together details the definition and characteristics in a coordinated way by establishing the Parliamentary Assembly of Turkic Speaking of IPIs in a theoretical sense. This is States (TurkPA). Today, TurkPA provides followed by an in-depth analysis of the oversight to regional problems, harmonises history, establishment, structure and and policies towards , activities of TurkPA, to demonstrate its and makes recommendations for legislation, democratic institutions, election observation characteristics as an IPI. Lastly, other missions, and good governance, among other IPIs have been comparatively analysed functions. for discussion based on similarities and

* PhD Candidate, Middle East Technical differences. University, Department of ; , ;Chief Advisor to the In their 25 years of independence, the Speaker of Turkish Grand National Assembly. Turkic Republics of Central have E-mail: [email protected] had many successes, each of which

115 PERCEPTIONS, Spring 2017, Volume XXII, Number 1, pp. 115-142. Ercan Durdular

has been very important and valuable As a parliamentary body, it is expected in their respective fields. One of the to provide legislative support to the most important of these achievements activities and undertakings initiated was undoubtedly the establishment of within the framework of wider Turkic the international Turkic cooperation. However, in addition to based on their commonalities in history, this main role, it has much more to and . offer as a subject and instrument of parliamentary diplomacy.

TurkPA, as an example of an In order to understand this role, it is international parliamentary necessary to take a closer look at the institution (IPI), constitutes concept of parliamentary diplomacy. a forum for parliamentary Parliamentary diplomacy is a relatively diplomacy and serves as the new phenomenon and it is the product of the current networked context parliamentary dimension of the of the global society. Parliamentary cooperation and integration of delegations around the world have Turkic countries in Eurasia. begun to play an important and increasing role in bilateral parliamentary relations with their counterparts or Serving as the cultural, parliamentary, within the parliamentary assemblies academic and commercial dimensions of international organizations. The of a whole with different but increased activities of parliamentarians complementary parts, TURKSOY, on behalf of their parliaments in TurkPA, the Turkic Academy, the Turkic international fora have been labelled as Culture and Heritage Foundation, “parliamentary diplomacy”. It is a kind the Business Council, and the Turkic of , representing a medium Council as a roof , have level positioned between interstate all become exemplary models in their diplomacy in its traditional form respective fields, both in regional and and the more current understanding global sense. of transnational cooperation. TurkPA has taken its place in the Parliamentary diplomacy aims to international arena as a successful intensify mutual understanding international parliamentary institution between countries, ensure better in the field of parliamentary diplomacy. representation of citizens in the It has become the parliamentary international sphere, and improve inter- dimension of the cooperation and governmental institutions’ democratic integration among Turkic countries. legitimacy.

116 Parliamentary Assembly of Turkic-Speaking Countries (TurkPA)

as both the result and the cause of 4 Parliamentary diplomacy : “Parliamentarians aims to intensify mutual from developing , can gain understanding between experience from their counterparts countries, ensure better from well-established democracies. For example, […including parliamentarians representation of citizens in or officials from parliamentary the international sphere, and secretariats in electoral monitoring improve inter-governmental missions is (another) advantage…] institutions’ democratic of parliamentary relations”.5 In legitimacy. this way parliamentarians gain more experience, while they also Furthermore, parliamentary diplomacy demonstrate how parliamentarians also aims at promoting can play non-traditional democratic and transparency, as well as lending accountability roles. “Parliamentarians support for further inter-parliamentary from established democracies can cooperation.1 Thus, governments share ‘best practice’ experience with are no longer seen as the only actors their counterparts from developing in the international arena. Cutler democracies.”6 defines parliamentary diplomacy as representing “a significant middle Stavridis, one of the pioneering way between the traditional means scholars on parliamentary international relations or parliamentary diplomacy, of diplomacy and new means of transnational cooperation.”2 highlights the importance and meaning Meanwhile, Fiott describes the role of the phenomenon of parliamentary of parliamentary diplomacy and diplomacy, suggesting that “all activities international parliamentary institutions and actions that parliamentary like TurkPA, attaching importance bodies and their members take in to them expressing that they are international relations, can be labelled “critical for the conflict prevention and as parliamentary diplomacy”: provision of mediation and means to “MPs’ missions abroad and establish long-term political dialogue participation in transnational on the base of trust and mutual 3 parliamentary bodies; Visits by understanding. other MPs and parliamentary For people like Malabud and Stavridis, delegations to parliaments and the parliamentarization of international other institutions (national relations is a further step, perceived or transnational); written

117 Ercan Durdular

and oral questions, reports National Assembly of Turkey, to and other studies on foreign on March 29, 2001, on affairs that take place within a the recommendation of Kazakhstan parliamentary body; the activities President . of transnational parliamentary bodies; parliamentary One month later, President Nazarbayev participation in the monitoring expressed the proposal for the of elections in third countries.”7 establishment of a parliamentary assembly among Turkish speaking Thus, TurkPA, like any other countries, in during the international parliamentary institution, Summit of the Heads of States is a manifestation of parliamentary of Turkish Speaking Countries. diplomacy. It is an independent Nazarbayev reiterated the same international institution and product 8 proposal on 17 November 2006 in of transgovernmentalism, aiming , during the 8th Summit of the at greater Turkic cooperation and Heads of States of Turkic Speaking consultation as based on commonalities and experience sharing. In the following Countries. After Nazarbayev’s sections, detailed information and initiation and insistence on the idea of analysis on different aspects of TurkPA establishing a “Parliamentary Assembly are provided to better illustrate how of Turkish Speaking Countries”, the it acts as an IPI and embodies the Speaker of the Turkish Parliament principles of parliamentary diplomacy. invited delegations from , Kazakhstan, , TurkPA: Historical and to Turkey for a Background preparatory meeting. The first working group meeting for TurkPA is the product of a lengthy the establishment of the Parliamentary process of intergovernmental Assembly of Turkish Speaking deliberations which began with the new Countries was held on 21-22 February millennium. The idea of establishing a 2008 in Antalya with the participation Parliamentary Assembly of Turkish of parliamentary delegations from Speaking Countries was put forward Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan for the first time by the Speaker of the and Turkey. A draft Letter of Intent Kazakhstan Parliament, Mr. Jarmahan with a draft text of the Agreement was Tuyakbay, during the visit of Ömer signed by the Deputy Speakers of İzgi, Former President of the Grand the participating countries. A second

118 Parliamentary Assembly of Turkic-Speaking Countries (TurkPA) preparatory meeting took place in in all respective countries are a typical Astana with delegations from the representation of IPIs. Even before its Parliaments of Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, foundation, the process of TurkPA’s Kyrgyzstan and Turkey in attendance, establishment has in itself been an with the absence of Turkmenistan and example of parliamentary diplomacy, Uzbekistan. strengthening the ties between the parliamentarians of Turkic- Nevzat Pakdil, former Vice President speaking countries and serving as a of the Grand National Assembly means for international dialogue and of Turkey, paid a visit to the rapprochement. of Turkmenistan and met with Turkmenistan Parliament Speaker Akça Nurberdiyeva in order to inform The process of TurkPA’s him of the developments and to establishment has in itself been invite Turkmenistan to join in the an example of parliamentary preparatory meetings of the Assembly. diplomacy, strengthening During the visit, Nurberdiyeva stated the ties between the that “the neutrality policy imposed by parliamentarians of Turkic- Turkmenistan gives priority to bilateral speaking countries and serving relations instead of multilateral as a means for international relations and they would closely follow dialogue and rapprochement. the Assembly’s work and that it may be possible to participate in the Assembly in observer status in the future.” Thanks to the hard work and joint efforts of the Leaders of the Turkish Likewise, Former Vice President World, the Parliamentary Assembly of of the Turkish Parliament Nevzat Turkish Speaking Countries (TurkPA) Pakdil attempted to carry out a visit was finally established with the Istanbul to Uzbekistan for talks regarding the Agreement on 21 November 2008. Assembly, however this call was not The Treaty was signed by Azerbaijan received positively by Uzbekistan on the National Assembly President Oktay grounds that they do not believe in the Asadov, Kazakhstan Senate Vice benefit of international parliamentary President Mukhambet Kopeyev, organizations.9 Kyrgyzstan Parliament Speaker The back and forth nature of these Aytibay Tagayev, and former Speaker of talks and the way they were initiated the Turkish Parliament Köksal Toptan. and spearheaded by parliamentarians TurkPA was established as a result of

119 Ercan Durdular

the long-term cooperation among the Principles and Objectives of Turkic-speaking Countries, which TurkPA had started with the First Summit of the Heads of Turkic Speaking States, The primary goals of TurkPA include held in İstanbul in 1992. TurkPA is the developing inter-parliamentary first of its kind and unique in being an cooperation among members by means international parliamentary grouping of parliamentary diplomacy, promoting based on , common political and economic dialogue between history and culture. It was established members, and creating a favourable in order to bring national legislations political climate for elaboration and closer and to work in close cooperation implementation of different initiatives on other inter-parliamentary activities. aimed at strengthening regional and With the First Article of the İstanbul global security. Agreement on the Parliamentary Assembly of Turkic-Speaking Countries, the parties declared that, Beyond the historical, cultural and linguistic unity “Parliaments of the Turkic- of its members, TurkPA speaking countries, leaning member countries also have on historical, cultural and a linguistic community, with a commonalities such as being view of the closest interaction developing and in rapprochement of national having dynamic population legislations and other questions, structures. concerning inter-parliamentary activity, have established the Parliamentary Assembly of Turkic-speaking Countries as Beyond the historical, cultural and an advisory body in order to linguistic unity of its members, develop and strengthen inter- TurkPA member countries also parliamentary cooperation.”10 have commonalities such as being developing economies and having As can be seen, the founding of dynamic population structures. These TurkPA and the articles lying at its core commonalities provide solid ground embrace and promote the intercultural for enhanced cooperation among dialogue between parliamentarians, them. Since member countries face incorporating the core properties of similar political, economic, and cultural IPIs and highlighting its role as a challenges, TurkPA intends to build medium for parliamentary diplomacy. joint action within the framework

120 Parliamentary Assembly of Turkic-Speaking Countries (TurkPA) of inter-parliamentary activities to preservation and transfer to the future overcome these challenges. As has been generations of cultural heritage and reaffirmed by the Declaration, values of history, art, literature and TurkPA is built on the common will of other areas which are of importance the member countries to adhere to the for Turkic countries; promotion of principles of national independence, effective regional cooperation in sovereign equality, territorial integrity, the fields of , science and inviolability of state , non- technology; interaction of interference in the internal affairs of and providing wider communication each other, and inadmissibility of threat aimed at efficient exchange of legal or use of force, and as such it is not information; creation of favourable against any organization or country in conditions for and ; the region. In this context, TurkPA is promotion of joint regional economic firmly committed to the principles and projects, especially in the field of energy values of the and its and transport; discussion of political Charter, as well as to other universally issues on the basis of mutual interest” recognized principles and norms of are the main goals of the establishment international . As explained in the of TurkPA.11 Introduction section, parliamentary diplomacy is a phenomenon that has developed in the broader context Members of the TurkPA of globalised multilateral relations seek to facilitate inter- and these interactions with the UN parliamentary dialogue among and its principles also showcase this Turkic-speaking countries in connection. order to generate new ideas and suggestions and to ensure The Main Responsibilities of proper legislation for their TurkPA implementation.

In parallel with the goals of parliamentary diplomacy, the Practically, members of the TurkPA Parliamentary Assembly of TurkPA seek to facilitate inter-parliamentary aims to build and strengthen mutual dialogue among Turkic-speaking trust among the member countries. countries in order to generate According to the Second Article of the new ideas and suggestions and to İstanbul Agreement “harmonization ensure proper legislation for their of legislation of the member countries; implementation. The inclusion of

121 Ercan Durdular

legislative harmonisation in the aims consensus. The Chairman of the and activities of TurkPA is a sign of the Council of Assembly is the Chairman more practical impact of IPIs, showing of the member country parliament that legal integration and cooperation hosting that session of the Council. can happen outside of traditional state- The Chairman of the Council of to-state bilateral relations. Assembly performs his duties through presiding over the plenary sessions of Organizational Structure of the Assembly for the duration of one TurkPA year. The Commissions consider the issues This section details the organisational within their competences, ensure the structure of TurkPA, especially with execution of the decisions adopted by regards to the governance structure. The the Council of Assembly and during the common pattern that can be observed Plenary Session, assess documentation is that the structure revolves around and examine proposals submitted to the equality between all members and a commissions, and adopt draft reports, revolving basis of chairmanship, which recommendations and decisions to be is a direct reflection of the participatory presented at the Plenary Sessions. and equitable nature of IPIs. At the former stage the Assembly At its core, TurkPA consists of the established four commissions; parliamentary delegations of its the Commission on International member countries. Each member Relations, the Commission on Legal country is represented in the Assembly Affairs, the Commission on Economic, by nine delegates. The Assembly Trade and Financial Affairs, and the normally holds a plenary session Commission on Social, Cultural and once a year and the supreme body Humanitarian Affairs. Due to the is the Council of Assembly composed necessities and because of the agenda, of the chairpersons of the member some of the commissions were merged parliaments. The Council meets one and new ones established. Currently day prior to the plenary session and there are still four permanent coordinates the Assembly’s activities. Commissions, but with different responsibilities. They work under the The TurkPA Chairmanship is held head of delegation of each member for one year by each member country country. Today, the Commission on in alphabetical order. Decisions of Environment and Natural Resources is the Assembly are taken based on headed by Azerbaijan, the Commission

122 Parliamentary Assembly of Turkic-Speaking Countries (TurkPA) on Social, Cultural and Humanitarian Agreement signed by the Ministry Issues is headed by Kyrgyzstan, of Foreign Affairs of Azerbaijan and the Commission on Economic the TurkPA Secretariat. However, Cooperation is headed by Kazakhstan, diplomatic immunities recognized and the Commission on Legal Affairs by Azerbaijan to the members of and International Relations is headed Secretariat, are not yet recognized by by Turkey.12 the other members.

National parliaments that are not The Secretariat’s Budget is made by members of TurkPA and international contributions of the TurkPA member parliamentary institutions and other countries determined by their annual organizations may participate in the GDP.15 TurkPA’s budget was 300,000 public meetings of the Assembly as euros in 2011, it was raised to 570,000 observers and guests upon consent euros for the year 2012 and 2013, then of the Council of Assembly and by 650,000 euros for the ongoing years. invitation of the Chairperson.13

The TurkPA International Secretariat Activities of TurkPA ensures the effective functioning of the Assembly, the Council and the The General Assembly Commissions. The General, head of the International Secretariat, This section provides a chronological manages the overall activity of the account of the sessions of TurkPA that Secretariat. The main tasks of the have convened to date, shedding light secretariat are; preparation of the on the main policy priorities, areas of necessary documents for meetings of action, and concrete steps that were the Assembly, the Council and other taken. Through these, it is possible to bodies; informing the Assembly, understand the concrete applications of Council and other bodies of the data parliamentary diplomacy and see the and information support; sending various roles IPIs can play in furthering documents to the parliaments; and relations between countries. informing them of the activities The First Plenary Session of the organization. The Secretariat employees TurkPA General Assembly took place are obliged to fulfil their responsibilities on 29 September 2009 in Baku. At this in line with the interests and objectives 14 meeting, issues such as the establishment of TurkPA. of the TurkPA Secretariat, and selection The international status of the TurkPA of the headquarters and officials were Secretariat is based on the Host-country discussed, and it was decided that the

123 Ercan Durdular

headquarters would be established in Baku and Azerbaijan would be the first For the first time, during the chairman and host country for the new organization. It was also decided that Fourth General Assembly, the next chairmen and host countries held in Ankara, a non-member for the plenary sessions would continue country, , participated in alphabetical order after Azerbaijan. as a guest to the plenary session. TurkPA Internal Rules and Secretariat Regulations were accepted and the first The that was taking place declaration of TurkPA was published. at that time was also mentioned in the It was emphasized in the Declaration Declaration and it was also remarkable that TurkPA would be “beneficial for that the intention to contribute to the increasing the cooperation among the regulation of the new global financial member countries and for bringing the 16 and economic system was declared in people closer to each other.” the global sense.

The Second Session of the TurkPA Similarly, during the 3rd General General Assembly was held on 28 Assembly of TurkPA,17 decisions were April 2011 in Astana, with Kazakhstan taken to develop a business union in taking over the presidency. An icon various areas. While the content of the and a flag were accepted for TurkPA. Declaration is similar to the Chairs of the Commissions were previous ones, it is noteworthy that the elected and the amount of the budget items related to economic issues came was redetermined. A further agreement to the forefront. was reached to make an amendment to the İstanbul Agreement for the For the first time, during the Fourth addition of the to General Assembly, held in Ankara, the working of TurkPA a non-member country, Hungary, alongside the national languages. A participated as a guest to the plenary memorandum of understanding was session. Members jointly declared signed for cooperation between the support for the settlement of libraries of the national parliaments. Azerbaijan’s territorial integrity in the The Declaration of Astana was adopted. Karabakh conflict and for a solution The importance of strengthening based on the political equality of relations between parliamentarians the two sides in Cyprus within the was emphasized and the contributions framework of the United Nations. of TurkPA to political, economic, and Members also decided to improve cultural and other fields were praised. knowledge and experience sharing

124 Parliamentary Assembly of Turkic-Speaking Countries (TurkPA) among the administrative bodies of strengthening of a certain international their parliaments and to mutually position held by a group of countries support each other’s candidacy in with a common denominator. As such, international organizations.18 At the it constitutes a powerful statement meeting, the application of the Turkish made by Turkic-speaking countries. Republic of (TRNC) to obtain observer status in TurkPA Another important development was addressed, but the decision on this during this session was that Hungary issue was postponed. The participation was granted observer status in TurkPA. of Hungary was a great example of how Despite the insistence of Turkey, TurkPA’s work to date and effectiveness no Council or General Assembly as an important regional platform had resolution was accepted on the observer come to be embraced by non-member membership of TRNC and the issue countries as well. was postponed for the second time. Because of this issue, the scope of the Baku Session and Declaration The participation of Hungary remained very limited. It was decided was a great example of how that the TRNC would be invited to TurkPA’s work to date and the meetings of TurkPA as a guest but effectiveness as an important its observer status would be evaluated regional platform had come to later. be embraced by non-member The th6 General Assembly of countries as well. TurkPA was held on 4 December 2015 in Kazakhstan’s capital city Astana. In the General Assembly, TurkPA’s 5th General Assembly was TurkPA legislative activities and the organized in Baku on 13 June 2014. The importance of increasing election Baku meeting confirmed full support to observation missions were discussed the Declaration of the Turkish and appreciated. A consensus was Council. During the 4th Heads of reached on the initiation of granting States Summit of the , TurkPA Honour Medals. Once again, the Bodrum Declaration was adopted the importance of establishing the to condemn all forms of terrorism and business union, solidarity of member give support to the territorial integrity countries in hosting international of Azerbaijan in the Karabakh conflict. conventions and support of each other’s The Bodrum Declaration can be taken candidacy for the posts in international as a showcase of how IPIs can lead to the organizations, were emphasized.

125 Ercan Durdular

commissions and their area of work to TurkPA has gradually further elaborate on TurkPA’s role as an developed as an IPI, having IPI. shifting priorities and areas In the second half of 2011, specialized of focus depending on the commissions started their work, and the broader political context. first documents of the Commissions were adopted by the Assembly after its The planned 7th General Assembly of Third Plenary Session. TurkPA in 2016 in Kyrgyzstan has The Commission for Economic been postponed several times. Finally, Cooperation covers main economic it was postponed to 2017 because issues, including economic, financial, of the Constitutional referendum in Kyrgyzstan on 11 December 2016. and commercial relations; energy and ; and commercial relations such Based on the developments so far, it can as transport, import-export volumes, be observed that TurkPA has gradually and customs processes that form the developed as an IPI, having shifting backbone of economic relations. The priorities and areas of focus depending establishment of the Business Council on the broader political context. Its within TurkPA and possible creation welcoming of observer countries and of the free economic and trade areas in participation of non-member countries the member countries are also subjects such as Hungary have also rendered it of this Commission. a successful example of parliamentary diplomacy, increasing its presence and The Commission on Legal Affairs and importance at the regional level. International Relations deals with the constitutions and legal affairs, and Commissions shares information about legislative activities in national parliaments After the initial phase of TurkPA’s between the members. It works establishment, certain structural on legislative processes and on the developments occurred which have harmonization and approximation of increased its practical output and legislation. Multilateral cooperation functions. This was mainly through issues and cooperation in international the establishment of commissions organizations and matters that had varying degrees of focus. This are discussed under the heading of section gives an overview of TurkPA international relations.

126 Parliamentary Assembly of Turkic-Speaking Countries (TurkPA)

The Commission on Environment elections in member states.19 Election and Natural Resources covers the observations are an important additional management of natural resources function of TurkPA, as they constitute that are very important for the a very concrete means through which world and trade relations. the members cooperate and interact Environmental issues that necessitate with each other’s democratic systems. multilateral work to protect the Whereas plenary sessions and the environment are also coordinated by relevant work of the commissions, this Commission. as detailed in the previous section, The Commission on Social, Cultural showcase the soft power of TurkPA and Humanitarian Issues handles and its role as a platform for dialogue issues related to the cultural ties that and cooperation, election observations constitute the foundation of TurkPA: are a very specific area in which there business alliance opportunities in social are clear and tangible outputs of and humanitarian issues; general issues international importance. and works related to Turkish language, As an important part of parliamentary translation and education initiatives diplomacy, election observations and between Turkish dialects; and other experience sharing become one of the fields of cultural art, are among the most important missions of international topics covered in this commission. parliamentary organizations. It has Through the composition and focus become an important mechanism for areas of the commissions, it can be ensuring election integrity in countries seen that TurkPA covers all areas of undergoing democratic transition or multilateral relations and facilitates in post-conflict societies. Thus, today relations between its members in all observation missions enjoy near- areas from economic cooperation to universal acceptance, and can help social and cultural issues. This is a clear raise voter confidence and evaluate the demonstration of its important role legitimacy of an electoral process and its as a tool for regional cooperation and international credibility and respect.20 increased dialogue. Election observation missions have also become a learning opportunity for Election Observations national electoral administrators and election participants. They promote According to Hasanov, the First bilateral exchanges of knowledge and Secretary General of TurkPA, the information on electoral practices that main activities of TurkPA have been usually leads to lasting cooperative holding plenary sessions and observing relations.

127 Ercan Durdular

the national elections processes in 21 Today observation missions the member countries. In member enjoy near-universal countries, 15 parliamentary and acceptance, and can help raise presidential elections have been monitored by the TurkPA International voter confidence and evaluate 22 Observers Mission since 2010. the legitimacy of an electoral Traditionally, TurkPA sends its final process and its international reports on results of elections to the credibility and respect. leading international institutions, such as the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly To ensure the legitimacy of their work, and the European Parliament. TurkPA’s international observers have to follow mandate on international observation internationally recognized standards of elections is recognized and accepted of conduct. Several organizations that by the international community. For specialize in international observation this reason, the Assembly added a have developed codes of conduct to special provision to the TURKPA guide such observers’ behaviour. Like Rules of Procedure in order to further others, TurkPA observer missions obey promote the “International Observers the Behaviour Codex of International Mission” in the non-member countries Observers accepted by the United at the global level, and, if required, Nations in 2005, and the Principles of on joint observation of elections with the Venice Commission of the Council other international organizations. of . Respecting the of the host country and the rules of its election management body is Experience- Exchange essential to maintain the credibility and Programs effectiveness of the election observation missions. Objectivity, non-interference Another important function of TurkPA in the election process, accuracy and is the organisation of experience and abstaining from conflicts of interest are exchange programmes. In accordance also among the principles that TurkPA with Article 2 of the İstanbul Observer Missions follow. Agreement, the TurkPA International TurkPA’s mandate to observe elections Secretariat develops experience- in the member countries has contributed exchange programmes among the to enhanced cooperation of the parliaments of the member countries in Assembly with public administrations order to enhance inter-parliamentary and efforts to comprehensively monitor cooperation.

128 Parliamentary Assembly of Turkic-Speaking Countries (TurkPA)

visits, greater unity and communication The increasing role of between Turkic-speaking countries parliamentary diplomacy have been achieved. becomes another tool to promote political dialogue and Relations with Other exchange of views at all levels. International Organizations

TurkPA realizes experience-exchange Since one of the objectives of TurkPA programs among Parliamentary staff is to contribute to the development of member countries. Through the of parliamentary diplomacy through reciprocal visits of parliamentary staff the establishment of relations with members to the national parliaments other parliaments and international of TurkPA members, they become regional and global organizations, it acquainted with the activities of the gives special importance to present Departments of Foreign Relations its own identity in international fora. and Protocol, Law and legislation, As have been detailed in previous Permanent Committees, Departments sections, the existence and importance of International Relations, Social of IPIs should be analysed and Legislation, Economic Legislation, understood in the bigger global the Press Secretariat, Committees context of international relations. and Commissions, and Information At a time when and Resources and Technology of the soft power is becoming so important, Turkish Parliament. In addition to the relationship of IPIs with other becoming acquainted with those international organizations becomes an departments, visitors participate in the important area of focus and influence. preparation of draft laws, works in the permanent committees and get to know The Assembly stands for interaction each other for future cooperation and and strengthening ties with all consultations. At the end of each visit international organizations, especially and seminar, the TurkPA Secretariat those in the Eurasian region, in issues Certificates of Participation for order to contribute and to maintain the staff. This function is a concrete operational coherence among various example of how parliamentary organizations in its own sphere. The diplomacy can foster dialogue, and increasing role of parliamentary the exchange of knowledge and best diplomacy becomes another tool practices between politicians from to promote political dialogue and different countries. Through these exchange of views at all levels. In this

129 Ercan Durdular

context, TurkPA supports interaction Baltic Assembly, the , between parliamentary and traditional and the Parliamentary Dimension of diplomacy and the establishment of a the Southeast European Cooperation mutually reinforcing relationship with Process. The Assembly has established both inter-governmental and inter- dialogue with the Conference parliamentary institutions. TurkPA on Interaction and Confidence pushes such an inter-parliamentary Building Measures (CICA) and the cooperation beyond the boundaries Parliamentary Assembly of the Black of the Turkic-speaking world. In this Sea Economic Cooperation. Both context, TurkPA applied for observer organizations granted observer status status in the UN General Assembly to TurkPA. As can be seen, TurkPA and has declared several times its has fostered its relations with a broad recognition of and respect for the number of organisations with different supreme role of the UN and its values. regional and substantive scopes.

Moreover, TurkPA gives particular Since 2010, the European Parliament importance to strengthening a common has initiated practical cooperation inter-parliamentary platform for with TurkPA. In this regard, the Office dialogue at a global level. As a result, for the Promotion of Parliamentary the Assembly was granted observer Democracy (OPPD) played a key role status by the Inter-Parliamentary in the process of establishing long-term Union (IPU)23 and the Parliamentary relationships between the of the Organization of Islamic Parliament and TurkPA. The OPPD Cooperation (PUIC), the largest of all assists the development of regional inter-parliamentary institutions. Close inter-parliamentary organizations cooperation between TurkPA and in order to strengthen their capacity PUIC was enhanced by granting each of inter-parliamentary legislative other observer status on a reciprocal cooperation and to share best practices. basis. At the first stage of cooperation with the OPPD, staff of the TurkPA TurkPA has also established relations International Secretariat have been with a number of international invited by the OPPD to take part in organizations through its Secretariat. a study programme in the European These organizations are the OSCE and Parliament. As the next stage of this OSCE Parliamentary Assembly, the cooperation, OPPD has organized European Parliament, the Organization an individual fellowship programme of Islamic Cooperation, the CIS Inter- and training events for the TurkPA Parliamentary Assembly, GUAM, the International Secretariat.

130 Parliamentary Assembly of Turkic-Speaking Countries (TurkPA)

Although TurkPA focuses primarily TurkPA also closely cooperates with on economic, social and cultural the Cooperation Council of Turkic- cooperation, it defines itself as a Speaking States (the Turkic Council) sub- aiming and TURKSOY in order to shape a to contribute to the promotion of joint pattern for economic, political and security across the Eurasian region. cultural cooperation among Turkic- Consequently, the Assembly pays speaking states. These relationships particular attention to cooperation are maintained through mutual with the OSCE, the largest regional participation in events and creation of organization with a comprehensive a basis for coordination activities. Thus, approach to security and political a TurkPA delegation participates in the issues in the region. TurkPA makes its Summits of the Turkic Council, where sole contribution to the achievement the Heads of STates and Ministers of Foreign Afairs are informed of the OSCE tasks and objectives. about the TurkPA’s activities on a The Organization supports a flexible regular basis. The Turkic Council and approach towards establishing a TurkPA in their adopted documents mutually reinforcing relationship with reiterate their support for each other’s the OSCE on the basis of established activities. Thus, TurkPA in its Astana principles of equality, inclusiveness and 24 Declaration, expresses its readiness transparency. Since its establishment, to continue the implementation of TurkPA has constantly maintained summit declarations by contributing regular contact with the OSCE and to effective interaction with the Turkic has supported any opportunities for Council and TURKSOY. future cooperation between the two organizations. Presently, TurkPA and the Turkic Council conduct deliberations on institutionalized interaction that would Although TurkPA focuses contribute to the promotion of political primarily on economic, social dialogue and exchange of views among and cultural cooperation, it Turkic-speaking states at various levels, defines itself as a sub-regional as well as to the consolidation of efforts organization aiming to and undertakings for enforcing relations contribute to the promotion with the international community. of security across the Eurasian Based on all these relationships, it is region. possible to observe how TurkPA has gradually increased its importance as an

131 Ercan Durdular

the Baku State University.26 Likewise, TurkPA also closely cooperates the International Conference on the “Increasing Role of Women Politicians with the Cooperation Council st of Turkic-Speaking States in the 21 Century,” dedicated to the 20th anniversary of Azerbaijan, (the Turkic Council) and Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan TURKSOY in order to shape and Uzbekistan, was organized jointly a joint pattern for economic, by TurkPA and the “Women Leaders” political and cultural Association.27 cooperation among Turkic- speaking states. The TurkPA International Secretariat also organized the International Forum on “The Role of Youth Leadership in IPI bringing together Turkic-speaking the Development Process of Interstate countries. Through the diversified Cooperation”. The aim of the Forum relationships with these organisations, was to bring together young leaders it has come to be recognized as an from the various countries to build important counterpart in parliamentary their personal networks and conduct diplomacy activities. a dialogue. Young parliamentarians, diplomats, bureaucrats and Events and Conferences representatives of international and non-governmental organizations In the context of cooperation with from 25 countries participated in the international organizations and other Forum.28 countries, TurkPA has organized a number of events. The conference The TurkPA Secretariat further on “Parliamentary Diplomacy – contributes its utmost effort to the TurkPA”25 on the occasion of the 90th development of cooperation with anniversary of the Grand National the public agencies of the member Assembly of Turkey and in line with countries, as well as with diplomatic the policy of fostering the Turkey- and international organizations present Azerbaijan and Turkey-Kazakhstan in the host country, the Republic of inter-parliamentary relations was Azerbaijan. In line with this, meetings held in the Azerbaijani Parliament. were held with the foreign ministers of The international conference on “The member countries, certain ambassadors Role of Parliamentary Democracy of the EU countries, top officials of the in the Process of the Interstate UN mission and the prime UN agencies Relations Development” was held at present in the Republic of Azerbaijan,

132 Parliamentary Assembly of Turkic-Speaking Countries (TurkPA) officials of the European Council and to mention that the members see European Parliament, and heads of that the parliamentary systems of the inter-parliamentary friendship groups. member countries differ from each other and have unique properties. The varying nature of topics and TurkPA’s willingness to address Azerbaijan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan important questions such as the role and Turkey have a unicameral system of women and youth are important while in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, developments. Through these they have bicameral system with activities, TurkPA has broadened its different competence. By bringing network beyond the participation together the rules of procedures of of parliamentarians and increased the member countries’ parliaments, its role of thought leadership and it is aimed that the similarities and representation. differences of the parliaments can be understood more clearly, facilitating the Publications analysis and follow-up of the political mechanisms of member parliaments. One important function of IPIs is to For this reason, although Turkmenistan increase understanding between its and Uzbekistan are not members of members and encourage knowledge the organization, their bylaws were exchange. For this to happen, it is included in the project. of utmost importance that there is a minimum level of understanding between participating countries when Lessons from Other Regional it comes to their respective governance Parliaments structures and political priorities. To this end, the TurkPA Secretariat In this section, regional parliament published a series of documents in order examples from all over the world to help members better understand are discussed to showcase different each other’s administrative structures approaches to parliamentary diplomacy. and parliamentary systems. For this purpose, the member countries collected These IPIs have varying degrees of constitutions which were translated into legislative power, unique characteristics the five official languages of TurkPA in terms of structure, and different and published.29 Correspondingly, the compositions in terms of membership rules of procedures of each member and participation. It is important to see, parliament were translated into the however, that their main functions still official languages of TurkPA and carry the core characteristics identified published separately.30 It is important in the previous sections for IPIs.

133 Ercan Durdular

The Inter-Parliamentary observer status in the UN General Union (IPU) Assembly, which includes the right to circulate its official documents at the General Assembly. Moreover, for The IPU is a prototype of an international many years it has been organizing parliamentary organization and the parliamentary conferences parallel to only organization of this type at the UN meetings and conferences. Since international level. It is sui generis in 2000, it has been holding World that it is an international parliamentary, Conferences of Speakers of Parliament political and representative organisation every five years and organizing an and it enjoys a significant measure of annual parliamentary hearing at the international personality.31 The IPU was UN General Assembly. If cooperation founded in 1889 as the first international becomes even closer, the IPU at some political organization composed of point could become a specialized national parliamentarians and acting “parliamentary” agency within the UN as an NGO. Overtime it developed system. from an NGO to an organization of national parliaments. The recent change of de facto membership from The European Parliament national groups in parliaments to parliaments by itself was the turning As regards to parliaments, the EP point indicating that the IPU had is the most developed example. Its gotten recognition of its international competences evolved overtime. Initially, personality by governments. The IPU the EP, like the ’s has a headquarters agreement with Parliamentary Assembly, was a forum Switzerland and has had the right to composed of delegations appointed set up a diplomatic mission in New by national parliaments and selected York since 1998. It has concluded from their own ranks, with limited international treaties with the UN, consultative functions regarding a small UN Specialized Agencies, and with number of issues, and the ability to the Parliamentary Assembly of the make legislative proposals prior to their Council of Europe. adoption by the Council.32 According to Through advancing and intensifying Malabud and Stavridis, the creation of its cooperation with the UN, a process the parliamentary assemblies in Europe officially phrased as “providing the after the Second World had more parliamentary dimension to the United than just a symbolic value. These Nations” has started. Accordingly, assemblies of the Council of Europe, following the Cooperation Agreement the ECSC and the WEU, served as with the UN, the IPU was granted an interface between the organizations

134 Parliamentary Assembly of Turkic-Speaking Countries (TurkPA) and the national parliamentarians, of parliament in their respective and allowed politicians who came countries. Each national delegation is from previously warring countries comprised of between two to eighteen to establish closer contacts, thus representatives, depending on the promoting the restoration of mutual country’s population, and must reflect trust and cooperation between former 33 the balance of political forces in the enemies. respective national parliament.

On the other hand, the idea of In the Parliamentary Assembly of the European unification and the pooling Council of Europe, the parliamentarians of sovereignty was a distinctive feature are organized not by their national of the European Community. The parliaments but according to their European Union’s founding fathers Schuman and Monnet’s idea of political groupings i.e. Socialist Group, building a polity beyond the nation Group of the European People’s Party, states led to strong activism on the part Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for of the members of the Assembly, which Europe, European Democrat Group, led to the direct election of the EP and and the Group of the Unified European to the emergence of European Party Left. These groups are important to formations. ensure that members reflect their own political views, not the interests of their Electoral dynamics, a strong Treaty own countries. and elected MPs empowerment, transformed the EP into an exceptional The Assembly meets four times supranational parliamentary assembly a year. During these sessions, the that has democratic legitimacy and parliamentarians discuss Europe’s decision-making competencies. It has most pressing socio-political questions. become the benchmark against which Within the framework of these debates, the performance of other regional 34 the Assembly adopts three different parliaments are measured. 36 types of texts: recommendations, resolutions,37 and opinions.38 The The Parliamentary Assembly of Assembly has eight permanent the Council of Europe35 committees.39 Furthermore, the Parliamentary Assembly is responsible The Parliamentary Assembly was set up for the election of the Secretary as a consultative body of the Council General of the Council of Europe, its of Europe in 1949. The Assembly Commissioner and brings together 324 delegates and the judges at the European Court of substitutes who are elected members Human Rights.

135 Ercan Durdular

The American The Central American Parliament (PARLATINO) Parliament (PARLACEN)

The Latin American Parliament PARLACEN was inaugurated in 41 is a unicameral assembly made City in 1991. It was up of members of 22 national first envisaged by Central American Latin American and Caribbean presidents as a symbol of reconciliation 40 for a region that had been devastated by parliaments. PARLATINO was years of bloody conflicts and political founded in 1964 with the aim of instability. Today it has 132 deputies promoting domestic democracy and and 42 parties from six countries. regional integration. It is composed Deputies are elected directly every five of national delegations sent by the years by member country citizens. Each member parliaments, each of which country can elect 20 representatives can appoint up to 12 representatives in and have two appointed deputies from a proportion that reflects the weight of former presidents and vice-presidents. the national parliamentary groupings. PARLACEN is the deliberative body All member countries have the same of the Central American Integration voting power regardless of population System (SICA), initially called the and attendance. PARLATINO gathers Central American Common . once a year, and it has no decision- The parliament’s legislative making authority and limits itself to competencies are limited to proposal, issuing nonbinding declarations and analysis and recommendation. It recommendations. Its main historical cannot pass laws, but it can formally merit was to provide a protective elect, appoint and remove the executive umbrella for democratic political officials of SICA institutions. leaders and aspirations during the dark era of dictatorial rule. Because it is The Pan-African Parliament composed of national parliamentarians, (PAP)42 it is intergovernmental, lacks legislative competencies and is quasi-continental The AP,P founded in 2004, is the in scope. PARLATINO resembles the parliamentary organ of the African Parliamentary Assembly of the Council Union (AU) and currently has 250 of Europe more than the EP. It is unique members from 50 countries.43 Each in that it stands independently and is parliament sends five representatives, not part of a broader organization. one of which must be a woman. The

136 Parliamentary Assembly of Turkic-Speaking Countries (TurkPA)

PAP is a semi-permanent body that and its members are supposed to convenes twice a year, has exclusively act in their personal and independent advisory and deliberative powers, capacity, deputies are still selected by and is tasked with harmonizing their own national parliaments. national legislation. It focuses more on international issues than on domestic The questions, operating as an international debate forum and an instrument of parliamentary diplomacy rather than as Members of the agreed to a community organ. create an Arab Parliament, and passed a resolution in 2001 to give the Secretary The objectives44 of the PAP are to General of the Arab League the power facilitate the effective implementation to start and create the Parliament. of the policies and objectives of the Subsequently, in 2004, all Arab League OAU and ultimately the African Members sent their representatives Union; to promote the principle to the temporary Parliament sessions of human rights and democracy in that took place in the headquarters of Africa; to encourage good governance, the Arab League in , . It transparency and accountability in remains largely symbolic, rather than Member States; to familiarise the playing an active role in its region. peoples of Africa with the objectives and policies aimed at integrating The Inter-Parliamentary the African Continent within the Assembly of Member Nations framework of the establishment of the ; to promote peace, of the Commonwealth of security and stability; to contribute to a Independent States more prosperous future for the peoples of Africa by promoting collective self- reliance and economic recovery; to The Commonwealth of Independent facilitate cooperation and development States is a regional organization in Africa; to strengthen continental formed after the dissolution of the solidarity and build a sense of common Soviet Union. Nine out of the 15 destiny among the peoples of Africa; former Soviet Republics are member and to facilitate cooperation among states, and two are associate members Regional Economic Communities and ( and Turkmenistan). Georgia their Parliamentary fora. withdrew its membership in 2008, Even though PAP prioritizes the while the Baltic States45 chose not to representation of all the peoples of participate.

137 Ercan Durdular

The CIS has few supranational powers international arena, parliaments and but aims to be more than a purely parliamentarians, the representatives symbolic organization, nominally of the people, have started to play their possessing coordinating powers in the role in international relations. Through realms of trade, finance, law making, IPIs, they became more visible in the and security. It has also promoted international arena. IPIs also provide cooperation on cross- crime moral legitimation for international prevention. decision making procedures. They become the voice of people, The Assembly was established in represent common sense and make March 1995 by the leaders of the those procedures more transparent, Supreme Soviets (parliaments) of accountable and participatory. the Commonwealth countries as a consultative institution to discuss problems of parliamentary cooperation Since governments are no and to develop proposals by the longer sole actors in the parliaments of the CIS states. Its international arena, parliaments Assembly consists of parliamentary and parliamentarians, the delegations of the member states. representatives of the people, The activities of the Assembly are have started to play their role carried out by the Assembly Council which comprises the leaders of the in international relations. parliamentary delegations. There is also an Assembly Secretariat, headed by a Secretary-General, to ensure the work Since IPIs enable the use of dialogue, of the Inter-Parliamentary Assembly, parliamentarians in different countries its Council and commissions. can better understand each other, help one another and represent their regional Conclusion identities and commonalities. They all introduce a democratic, popular element into regional and international TurkPA, like other international governance. parliamentary institutions in Asia, Africa, Europe and America, is a Since more and more governmental clear manifestation of parliamentary organizations aim to acquire diplomacy together with its symbolic supranational features and some importance. Since governments degree of regional integration and are no longer sole actors in the harmonization of laws, parliamentary

138 Parliamentary Assembly of Turkic-Speaking Countries (TurkPA) structures serve to the purpose of the activities and undertakings initiated facilitating these goals. within the framework of wider Turkic- cooperation. Although different in the level of parliamentariness and in their competences, IPIs all over the world do have a common goal to some Although different in the level degree, namely regional integration, of parliamentariness and in good governance, mediation, conflict their competences, IPIs all over prevention and a means to establish the world do have a common long term political dialogue based on goal to some degree, namely trust and mutual understanding. regional integration, good To this end, TurkPA has successfully governance, mediation, conflict managed its role and became prevention and a means to the parliamentary dimension of establish long term political cooperation and integration among dialogue based on trust and Turkic countries. As a parliamentary mutual understanding. body, it provides legislative support to

139 Ercan Durdular

Endnotes

1 Frans.W. Weisglas and Gonnie de Boer, “Parliamentary Diplomacy”, The Hague Journal of Diplomacy, Vol. 2, No. 1 (2007), pp. 93-96. 2 Robert M. Cutler, “The OSCE’s Parliamentary Diplomacy in and the South Caucasus in Comparative Perspective”, Studia Diplomatica, Vol. LIX, No. 2 (2006), pp. 82-83. 3 Daniel Fiott, “On the Value of Parliamentary Diplomacy”, Madariaga Paper, Vol. 4, No. 7 (April 2011), pp. 1-5. 4 Andrés Malamud and Stelios Stavridis, “Parliaments and Parliamentarians as International Actors”, in Bob Reinalda (ed.), Ashgate Research Companion to Non-State Actors, Aldershot, Ashgate, 2011. p.105. 5 Ibid. 6 Ibid. 7 Stelios Stavridis, “Parliamentary Diplomacy: Some Preliminary Findings”, Jean Monnet Working Paper, No. 48 (November 2002), http://aei.pitt.edu/591/1/jmwp48.htm (last visited 17 March 2017) 8 Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye Jr., Power and Interdependence: World in Transition, Boston, Pearson, 2000, p. 25. 9 Lilya Emiruseinova, “Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan abandoned membership to Parliamentary Assembly of the Turkish Republics”, http://qha.com.ua/tr/siyaset/ ozbekistan-ve-turkmenistan-turk-cumhuriyetleri-parlamentolararasi-asamblesi- uyeliginden-vazgecti/35970/ (last visited 17 March 2017). 10 Istanbul Agreement on the Parliamentary Assembly of Turkic Speaking Countries, Article 1, http://www.turk-pa.org/documents/IstanbulAgreement.pdf (last visited 17 March 2017). 11 Ibid., Article 2. 12 Permanent Commissions, http://www.turk-pa.org/cat.php?cat=2028&lang=en (last visited 17 March 2017). 13 Istanbul Agreement on the Parliamentary Assembly, Article 9. 14 Statute of the Secretariat of Parliamentary Assembly of Turkic Speaking Countries, TurkPA Report 2010, pp. 96-97, http://www.turk-pa.org/news.php?id=329&lang=en (last visited 17 March 2017). 15 Ibid. According to Article 6 of the Statute Of The Secretariat of Parliamentary Assembly Of Turkic-Speaking Countries; the Ratio of the contributions of the member countries are Azerbaijan 2/15, Kazakhstan 4/15, Kyrgyzstan 1/15, and Turkey 8/15 consecutively. 16 Baku Declaration, http://www.turk-pa.org/news.php?id=119&lang=en (last visited 17 March 2017).

140 Parliamentary Assembly of Turkic-Speaking Countries (TurkPA)

17 The 3rd General Assembly of TurkPA held on 14 June 2012 in Bishkek. 18 Ankara Declaration, at http://www.turk-pa.org/news.php?id=989&lang=en (last visited 17 March 2017). 19 Activities of TurkPA, http://www.TurkPA.org/cat.php?cat=2063&lang=en (last visited 17 March 2017). 20 OSCE- ODIHR, carries out election observation in OSCE participating States to assess the extent to which elections respect fundamental freedoms and are characterized by equality, universality, political pluralism, confidence, transparency and accountability, http://www.osce.org/odihr/elections (last visited 17 March 2017), and International IDEA, http://www.idea.int/ for more information. (last visited 17 March 2017). 21 A special provision on the activity of the TurkPA International Observers Mission in the non-member countries and, if required, on observation of elections jointly with other international organizations, has been added to the TurkPA Rules of Procedure’s Article 23/7. 22 Dates, places and subjects of those elections were as follows: 11 December 2016 Kyrgyz Republic, Amendment to the Constitution; 26 September 2016 Azerbaijan, Amendment to the Constitution; 20 March 2016 General Assembly Elections of Kazakhstan; 1 November 2015 Turkey, General Election; 1 November 2015 Azerbaijan, General Election; 4 October 2015 Kyrgyzstan, General Election; 6 June 2015 Turkey, General Election; 26 April 2015 Kazakhstan, Presidential Election; 10 August 2014 Turkey, Presidential Election; 9 October 2013 Azerbaijan, Presidential Election; 30 October 2011 Kyrgyzstan Presidential Election; 12 June 2011 Turkey, General Election; 27 April 2011 Kazakhstan, Presidential Early Election; 7 November 2010 Azerbaijan, General Election; 10 October 2010 Kyrgyzstan, General Election. 23 The TurkPA Secretary General was admitted to the Association of Secretaries General of Parliaments (ASGP) as a member with observer status. ASGP is a consultative body of IPU and seeks to facilitate personal contacts between holders of the office of Secretary General in any parliamentary assembly. 24 Astana Declaration adopted at the 2nd Plenary Session in 2011. 25 Conference was organized on 24 May 2010 in Parliament of Azerbaijan. 26 Conference was organized on 21 September 2010 in Baku State University. 27 Conference organized by TIKA and Women Leaders Association on 3-4 October 2011, hosted by Parliament of Azerbaijan. 28 Forum held in Istanbul on 15-16 October 2012. 29 TurkPA Publications, Constitutions, http://www.turk-pa.org/news.php?id=620&lang=en, (last visited 17 March 2017). 30 TurkPA Publications, Bylaws, http://www.turk-pa.org/news.php?id=2712&lang=en, (last visited 17 March 2017).

141 Ercan Durdular

31 Claudia Kissling, “Legal and Political Status of International Parliamentary Institutions”, Background Paper, No. 4, Committee for a Democratic UN, 2011, p.22 and 24. 32 Malamud p. 108. 33 Ibid. p. 109. 34 Ibid. 35 http://assembly.coe.int/nw/Home-EN.asp (last visited 17 March 2017) 36 Proposals addressed to the Committee of Ministers. 37 Decisions by the Assembly which it is empowered to put into effect on its own. 38 Answers of the Assembly to questions put to it by the Committee of Ministers. 39 http://www.europewatchdog.info/en/structure/parliamentary-assembly/ (last visited 17 March 2017). Committee on Political Affairs and Democracy; Committee on Legal Affairs and Human Rights; Committee on Social Affairs, Health and Sustainable Development; Committee on Migration, Refugees and Displaced Persons; Committee on Culture, Science, Education and Media; Committee on Equality and Non- Discrimination; Monitoring Committee; Committee on Rules of Procedure, Immunities and Institutional Affairs. 40 Members: , Aruba, , , , , , , the , , , Guatemala, , , the Netherlands Antilles, , , , , , and . 41 Members: Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and Panama 42 http://panafricanparliament.org/home (last visited 6 March 2017). 43 AU member states that have ratified the PAP protocol , , , Botswana, , Burundi, ,Cabo Verde, , , Congo, Côte d’Ivoire, DR Congo, , Egypt, Equatorial , Ethiopia, , Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia, , Madagascar, Malawi, , , Mauritius, , Namibia, , , Rwanda, Sahrawi Republic, , Seychelles, Sierra Leone, , South Africa, , Swaziland, , , , UR of Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe. 44 http://panafricanparliament.org/about-pap (last visited 6 March 2017). 45 Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia.

142