Uncovering the Trade of Wild-Collected Ornamantal Plants in Thailand, Including Imports from Myanmar and Lao Pdr
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UNCOVERING THE TRADE OF WILD-COLLECTED ORNAMANTAL PLANTS IN THAILAND, INCLUDING IMPORTS FROM MYANMAR AND LAO PDR JACOB PHELPS B.S (Hons.) Michigan State University M.Phil. University of Cambridge THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2013 Declaration Declaration I hereby declare that the thesis is my original work and it has been written by me in its entirety. I have duly acknowledged all the sources of information which have been used in the thesis. This thesis has also not been submitted for any degree in any university previously. _______ __________ Jacob Phelps 08 July, 2013 II Summary Summary Wild-collected botanical resources are widely traded across Southeast Asia. There is growing concern over the conservation of commercially-traded ornamental plants— notably the family Orchidaceae, trade in which is regulated under the Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora (CITES). However, there is virtually no baseline data on their regional trade dynamics or conservation. Between May 2011 and June 2012, we interviewed plant harvesters, traders and middlemen (N=158), made market observations and conducted botanical surveys of Thailand’s four largest plant markets, at Jatujak Market (Bangkok), Chedi Sam Ong and Dan Singkorn Markets (Thailand-Myanmar border) and Mukdahan Market (Thailand-Lao PDR border). The multidisciplinary study provides initial baseline data on the ornamental plant trade, and leverages the case to explore broader themes, including wildlife farming, CITES implementation, and conservation rule-breaking. Surveys uncovered a previously undocumented regional trade dominated by Orchidaceae (87.5% of documented trade), including more than 82,000 orchid specimens of 347 species in 93 genera. Although highly conservative estimates, observed volume and richness were orders of magnitude greater than CITES-reported trade records for the region since 2004, highlighting clear potential for improved monitoring. Moreover, many encountered species were listed as threatened in Thailand (57 species), although conservation assessments are lacking for most species and countries in the region (>75% species unassessed). Yet, approximately 60% of observed trade was dominated by only 4 genera ( Dendrobium, Rhynchostylis, Aeries and Paphiopedilum ), highlighting limitations of heavy regulation, as well as scope for III Summary more nuanced trade monitoring and regulation, and potentially in situ resource management for targeted species, beginning with those identified in this study. Value Chain Analysis highlighted that most plants originated from neighbouring Myanmar and Lao PDR, traded via complex routes and networks often involving multiple steps, challenging enforcement and conservation efforts. However, mapping and nuanced study of trade dynamics uncovered prospective interventions, including through geographic targeting, trade bottlenecks, and gaps in existing enforcement efforts. Characterization of trade participants further revealed potential for integrating various human dimensions into trade regulation. For example, the relatively short tenure of most traders (~5 years), clear economic motivations for engaging in plant trade over other employment, and reported existence of alternative livelihoods suggest that the social costs of increased enforcement may be acceptable. Yet, trade is heavily gendered, and there is a clear need to account for how increased enforcement or alternative livelihoods would particularly affect women. In these ways, the thesis reflects back on how to improve wildlife trade management, and proposes a range of strategies through which to strengthen CITES implementation, related to systematic data collection, responsive monitoring, rigorous data analysis, and peer review. Improved implementation also requires an imporoved understanding of how traders circumvent conservation laws. Direct study of de facto practices at the plant markets revealed that rule-breaking can be both heterogeneous and locally institutionalized, suggesting that improved resource management requires more than simple enforcement, but efforts to align state and social forms of authority, and increased checks-and-balanced through a more functional multi-level governance. IV Summary Howver, prospective interventions extend beyond regulation and enforcement, and we also evaluated the potential for wildlife farming to yield conservation outcomes, as explored through trade of the ornamental orchid, Rhynchostylis gigantea . Morphometric measurements of wild (N=401) and cultivated (N=469) plants, and trader (N=13) and consumer interviews (N=23) highlighted a range of explanations for why such supply-side interventions may lack effectiveness. Notably, consumer and trader preferences for wild-collected products, barriers to farming, low enforcement and few financial incentives to participate in cultivation, highlight the need for additional interventions across the market chain. This thesis represents among the most in-depth, multifaceted studies on wildlife trade. It not only characterizes a largely unrecognized facet of the illegal wildlife trade in Southeast Asia, but leverages the case to explore trade dynamics of relevance to other taxa and the broader region. V Acknowledgements Acknowledgements My appreciation to the dozens of plant harvesters and traders who participated in the study—allowed us to handle their plants, patiently answered our questions, and shared details about their lives and experiences. With my most sincere appreciation to Hannah Watson for her help with fieldwork, sense of adventure, unfailing support and love. Thank you to my Supervisor, Dr. Edward L. Webb, for his insight and comments, encouragement, friendship and hospitality. Thank you to my excellent and patient field assistants and translators, Buraskorn Torut, Dr. Htee Heh and Sirinath Matra. Thank you my parents, Sybil and Bill Phelps, for their tremendous support and for fueling my interest in nature. Thank you also the rest of the Phelps and Watson families (Myra, Jacky, Cass) for their encouragement and tolerating forest walks and botanic garden visits. Thank you to: Dr. Patana Thavipoke for sharing his extensive knowledge about Thai orchids and regional trade, and for his kind friendship. Dr. Somran Suddee of his team at the Bangkok Forest Herbarium for their assistance with taxonomic verifications and CITES paperwork. Dr. Dan Arbuthnot Friess for keeping me well hydrated throughout this process. Dr. Roman Carrasco, Alison Wee, Sheila Poo, Grace Blackham for their friendship and kind technical help. Rachel Webb and the rest of the Applied Plant Ecology Lab family for their support. Dr. Thiraphong Bualar for his frequent help and long friendship. Professor Kasin Suvatabhandhu Herbarium for hosting me and sharing their resources. My Committee Members, Dr. David Bickford, Dr. Carl Grundy-Warr and the late Dr. Navjot S. Sodhi for their input and patience reviewing this thesis. Dr. Arun Agrawal, Dr. Carl Olson, Dr. Ganesh Shivakoti and Dr. Kyoko Kusakabe for their comments and suggestions. The National Research Council of Thailand for their support and for ensuring that this research could go ahead. The community of Southeast Asian orchid experts and taxonomists for their advice and help with identifications, including: Dr. Hubert Kurtzweil, Dr. Jaap Vermeulen, Jim Cootes, Peter O’Byrne, Dr. Santi Watthana, Dr. Piyakaset Suksathan, Dr. Bill Thompson, Matti Nissalo. To Reena Devi, Priscilla Li and the Graduate Committee for their support. To Kevin Glass and Mamie Heard for setting me on the right track. This research was funded by The National University of Singapore Research Scholarship and President’s Graduate Scholarship, The Rufford Small Grants for Nature Conservation, and the Harry S. Truman Scholarship. In fond memory of John M. Hall III VI Table of Contents Table of Contents Declaration II Summary III Acknowledgements VI Table of Contents VII List of Figures XI List of Tables XII List of Maps XIII List of Photographs XIII Glossary XIV Chapter 1: Introduction to ornamental plant trade in Southeast Asia 1 1.1 Wildlife trade threat to biodiversity 1 1.2 Trade in botanical resources 2 1.3 Trade in Southeast Asian Orchidaceae 4 1.4 Interventions to reduce impacts of trade 7 1.5 Overwhelming gaps in wildlife trade data 10 1.6 Study motivation and research approach 11 1.7 Research objectives 13 Chapter 2: Methods 16 2.1 Introduction 16 2.2 Market site selection 17 2.3 Site descriptions 20 2.3.1 Bangkok: Jatujak Market 20 2.3.2 Bangkok: Sanam Luang II Market 21 2.3.3 Thailand-Lao PDR Border: Mukdahan Market 22 2.3.4 Thailand-Lao PDR Border: Tha Uthen Market 23 2.3.5 Thailand-Myanmar Border: Chedi Sam Ong 23 Market 2.3.6 Thailand-Myanmar Border: Dan Singkorn Market 24 2.3.7 Thailand-Myanmar Border: Mae Sot Market 25 2.4 Ethics and consent 26 2.5 Botanical surveys 27 2.5.1 Levels of taxonomic identification 29 2.5.2 Plant origin and price 33 2.5.3 Plant units 34 2.5.4 Taxonomic verifications and identification 34 accuracy 2.6 Interviews 37 2.7 Participant Observation 41 2.8 Bias and Reflexivity 42 VII Table of Contents Chapter 3: A blooming trade in ornamental plants 47 3.1 Introduction 47 3.2 Methods 48 3.3 Results 50 3.3.1 Orchidaceae dominates ornamental plant trade 50 3.3.2 Orchid trade species list 52 3.3.3 Taxa targeted by trade 56 3.3.4 Sale prices 61 3.3.5 Market trends 65 3.3.6 Threat assessment 65 3.4 Discussion 69 3.4.1 A neglected