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Mesoscale Deformational Features Near Outcrop Analogs of a Reservoir-Seal Interface: Implications for Seal Failure

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Mesoscale Deformational Features Near Outcrop Analogs of a Reservoir-Seal Interface: Implications for Seal Failure Utah State University DigitalCommons@USU All Graduate Theses and Dissertations Graduate Studies 5-2014 Mesoscale Deformational Features Near Outcrop Analogs of a Reservoir-Seal Interface: Implications for Seal Failure Santiago L. Flores Utah State University Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/etd Part of the Geology Commons Recommended Citation Flores, Santiago L., "Mesoscale Deformational Features Near Outcrop Analogs of a Reservoir-Seal Interface: Implications for Seal Failure" (2014). All Graduate Theses and Dissertations. 2794. https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/etd/2794 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate Studies at DigitalCommons@USU. It has been accepted for inclusion in All Graduate Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@USU. For more information, please contact [email protected]. MESOSCALE DEFORMATIONAL FEATURES NEAR OUTCROP ANALOGS OF A RESERVOIR-SEAL INTERFACE: IMPLICATIONS FOR SEAL FAILURE by Santiago L. Flores A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE in Geology Approved: _____________________ _____________________ James P. Evans Peter S. Mozley Major Professor Committee Member _____________________ _____________________ Benjamin J. Burger Mark McLellan Committee Member Vice President for Research and Dean of the School of Graduate Studies UTAH STATE UNIVERSITY Logan, Utah 2014 ii Copyright © Santiago Flores 2014 All Rights Reserved iii ABSTRACT Mesoscale Deformational Features near Outcrop Analogs of a Reservoir-Seal Interface: Implications for Seal Failure by Santiago L. Flores, Master of Science Utah State University, 2014 Major Professor: Dr. James P. Evans Department: Geology The interface between a reservoir and a caprock is generally considered a flow boundary where capillary trapping at the base of the caprock and low permeability of the seal resists the upward migration of fluids. Joints and faults may act as mechanisms for seal bypass, allowing fluids to escape from the reservoir. The injection and storage of carbon dioxide (CO2) in subsurface porous sandstone with effective top seals is a proposed method for reducing the amount of anthropogenic CO2 in the atmosphere in the system of carbon capture utilization and storage (CCUS). Uplift and erosion of the San Rafael Swell in south-central Utah has exposed the Jurassic Navajo Sandstone and Carmel Formation reservoir-seal pair that is analogous to potential CO2 injection targets. The outcrops show evidence of seal failure through mesoscopic opening-mode fractures and faults in the caprock. We focus on three sites of different structural position with exposures of the reservoir-seal pair that were analyzed for fracture characteristics. Deformation-band iv faults, joints, and joint clusters are present in the Navajo Sandstone and deformation-band faults are present in the Page Sandstone where faulting has occurred. The structures in the reservoir lithologies penetrate the interface and transition into opening-mode fractures in the caprock. The fractures in the caprock show evidence of seal failure which include multiple mineralization events and bleaching, likely from reducing fluids within the fractures. Seal failure is most likely where fracture density is highest. Fracture density data acquired from scan-line measurements shows that fracture density is highest in fracture clusters, in the syncline hinge where curvature is highest, and near faults. The fracture distributions are related to the structural settings in which transmissive fractures have predictable orientations. The opening-mode fractures and faults of the study may compromise the seal integrity of the caprock and are undetectable using traditional seismic techniques. Mesoscopic subseismic seal-compromising features may allow CO2 to leak though the caprock slowly, which could be significant over the thousands of years necessary for CCUS to be feasible. (136 pages) v PUBLIC ABSTRACT Mesoscale Deformational Features near Outcrop Analogs of a Reservoir-Seal Interface: Implications for Seal Failure by Santiago L. Flores, Master of Science Utah State University, 2014 Major Professor: Dr. James P. Evans Department: Geology The boundary that separates reservoir rocks from caprock seals is generally considered a flow barrier for reservoir fluids. Buoyant fluids do no flow through the caprocks because they have low permeability and molecular forces at the base of the caprock resist upward flow. Deformation at the reservoir/caprock boundary may include fractures that increase permeability and lessen the effect of the molecular forces. The injection and storage of carbon dioxide (CO2) in porous sandstone with effective top seals below earth’s surface is a possible solution for reducing the amount of human-created CO2 in the atmosphere. Uplift and erosion of the San Rafael Swell in central Utah has uncovered and exposed the Navajo Sandstone (or Page Sandstone) and the Carmel Formation, a Jurassic-aged reservoir rock/caprock pair that is very similar to rock in nearby fields where CO2 may be injected and stored. The rock exposures show that fractures may have contributed to ancient fluid leakage through the caprock. vi We focus on three sites in different locations on the San Rafael Swell monocline with exposures of the reservoir/caprock pair that were analyzed for fracture characteristics. Deformation-band faults, joints, and joint clusters are present in the Navajo Sandstone and deformation-band faults are present where faulting has occurred. Structures in the reservoir rocks extend beyond the reservoir/caprock boundary and transition into open fractures in the caprock. The fractures in the caprock are bleached and mineralized, which is evidence of fluid migration through the fractures. Seal failure is most likely where fractures density is highest. Fracture density data acquired from scan-line measurements shows that fracture density is highest in fracture clusters, folded rocks, and near faults. The fracture distributions are related to the location of the sites on the monocline in which open fractures have predictable orientations. Open fractures and faults of the study may diminish the seal integrity of the caprock and are not visible with most subsurface imaging techniques. The features in this study occur at the cm- to m-scale and may allow CO2 to leak through the caprock slowly, which could be significant over the thousands of years necessary for subsurface CO2 storage. vii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This thesis was funded by the U.S. Department of Energy, Grant # DE-FC26- 0xNT4FE0001786 awarded to Dr. James P. Evans and DOE sponsor award # DDCK10 sponsored by New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology. I would like to thank my thesis adviser, Dr. James P. Evans. His continuing support, guidance, and enthusiasm are apparent in all aspects of his work, and it was truly my privilege to be counted among his graduate students. I would also like to thank my thesis committee members, Dr. Benjamin Burger and Dr. Peter Mozley. I am very appreciative of the time and help that they so willingly provided. My friends and colleagues have offered unending direction and encouragement, and I would like to especially thank Elizabeth Petrie, Mitchell Prante, Dave Richey, Andy Jochems, Andy Bayles, and Stephan Raduha. I would like to thank my mom, dad, and sister for their constant love and support, and lastly, I would like to thank my wife, Kimbra. I am blessed to have a wife of such enduring patience and compassion. Santiago L. Flores viii CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................... iii PUBLIC ABSTRACT .........................................................................................................v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................ vii LIST OF TABLES ...............................................................................................................x LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... xi INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................................................1 Carbon Dioxide and Natural Gas Storage ....................................................................... 1 Seal Failure ...................................................................................................................... 2 Oil and Gas Motivation ................................................................................................... 5 Justification ..................................................................................................................... 6 Main Objectives and Goals ............................................................................................. 8 GEOLOGY AND STRUCTURAL SETTING OF STUDY AREA .................................10 Jurassic Navajo Sandstone ........................................................................................... 15 Jurassic Page Sandstone ............................................................................................... 18 Jurassic Carmel Formation ........................................................................................... 19 METHODS ........................................................................................................................21
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