Issue 13 September 2004

Eleanor Roosevelt in Liverpool 1 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004

which women were making to the war effort, and From the this point is further illustrated by the student essay on women and war. In a presidential election year, we also have a very personal reflection on the editor’s electoral process from Edward Weeden, a former American high school teacher now resident in the chair UK. This will be backed up by the ASRC annual schools conference, for which we enclose a o, the last episode of “Friends” has been programme. So, welcome to a bumper edition of aired on our screens. What are we going to American Studies Today. S watch now on Friday nights? The United States is still bogged down in Baghdad, battling to build a post-Saddam Iraq. Coca-Cola and Big Macs are among the foods being blamed for an obesity time bomb which threatens to wipe out the In this issue flower of Britain’s youth in its prime. Wherever you ASRC plays host to US visitors look, from international politics to popular culture A welcome return from an old friend and to the food on our plates, the United States visit from a prize winning writer and 3 dominates the agenda. How did it get this way? academicwere among the highlights of What is the key to the American psyche which has the centre’s year led to its being the world’s cultural, economic and political superpower? These issues are explored Eleanor Roosevelt in Liverpool in the wide range of book reviews in this bumper A dramatic personal account of an edition of American Studies Today. Read the fascinating episode in Anglo-American 4 reviews, buy the books, and you will begin to relations acquire an understanding of a large and complex Simon goes to Washington society which affects us all for good or ill. This is th what American Studies is about, and we hope that An account of a trip by a group of 6 6 our magazine makes an effective contribution to form students from Manchester in the discipline. We also have a fascinating memoir February from a time when our relationship with the United Women and War 1941-1975 States was far less ambiguous, recounting Talya Schneider considers the effect of Eleanor Roosevelt’s war-time visit to Liverpool. In wars from the Second World War to the 9 her speech she commends the vital contribution Vietnam War on the status of women American Studies Today Fictional Presidents as is the official journal of the American Studies Antagonists in American Resources Centre, The Aldham Robarts Centre, Motion Pictures Liverpool John Moores University, Mount Pleasant The portrayal of fictional presidents in Liverpool L3 5UZ American film has changed dramatically 16 Tel & fax: 0151-231 3241 over the last half century. Ralph R. e-mail: [email protected] Donald shows how presidential office is web site: www.americansc.org.uk now fair game for criticism, satire and earthy humour Editor-in-Chief: Ian Ralston Editor: David Forster Letter from New York Layout and graphics: David Forster Our regular correspondent from New York, Lenny Quart, has sent us these 24 The views expressed are those of the contributors, two personal views of life in the Big and not necessarily those of the centre, the college Apple or the university. © 2004, Liverpool John Moores University, Remembering the C's In Liverpool Community College and the Contributors. Presidential Elections Articles in this journal may be freely reproduced for In a presidential election year, retired use in subscribing institutions only, provided that high School teacher Edward T. Weeden 26 the source is acknowledged. looks back on the 2000 election and Please email us at [email protected] with considers what lessons it holds for the any changes of name or address. If you do not forthcoming election wish to continue receiving this magazine, please Book reviews send an e-mail with the word Unsubscribe and your Over 20 pages of reviews from politics subscription number in the subject line. 30 2 to media, literature to sociology

ASRC plays host to US visitors

he ASRC has again this year welcomed visits from CL Henson, former Director of TS pecial Education at the Bureau of Indian Affairs and the renowned academic and writer Professor Dan T. Carter from the University of South Carolina.

CL has become a regular visitor since his retirement from the BIA and this year returned to meet with students from JMU’s American Studies degree programme, as well as presenting a lecture to American politics students at Cheadle Hulme School in Manchester As well as discussing the role of the BIA and the problems now faced by many of America’s native Tony Tibbles of the Merseyside Maritime Museum communities, CL was also ‘grilled’ by Cheadle talking to Dan T. Carter Hulme students and their teacher Steve Pagan, on the forthcoming Presidential election. It is likely For Dan T. Carter, this was his first trip to that CL will be returning on an annual basis and Liverpool despite being a regular visitor to the UK schools wishing to contact him to check on his for many years. Perhaps best known for his availability for presenting lectures can contact him Bancroft prize-winning work Scottsboro: a at [email protected] Tragedy of the American South (later made into an award winning documentary) Professor Carter is one of the leading American academics on the history of the South and its politics. His 1995 work on George Wallace, The Politics of Rage: George Wallace, the Origins of the New Conservatism and the Transformation of American Politics not only won the Robert F. Kennedy book prize, but was also the subject of a stimulating lecture to a packed audience of staff and students at JMU. During his visit, Professor Carter also visited the Trans-Atlantic Slavery Gallery at Merseyside Maritime Museum, where he was guided by the Gallery’s Keeper, Tony Tibbles, as well as taking in other sites of the city. CL Henson with students from Cheadle High School

The Presidential Election 2004 A one-day conference for A-Level and Access students of American Government and Politics, American History and Media Studies. Wednesday October 13th 2004

The Electoral Process and 2004 Dr.Eddie Ashbee, Center for the Study of the Americas, Copenhagen Business School. The Media and Presidential Elections Dr.Niall Palmer, Brunel University. Foreign Policy and the 2004 Election Prof. John Dumbrell, University of Leicester Speakers from the Republican Party and the Democrat Party

Look for the flyer and booking form in your magazine 3 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004

Eleanor Roosevelt in Liverpool – a historical memoir By Ralph Shepherd

arlier this year the American Studies Resources Centre was visited by a local man, Ralf Shepherd. There then unfolded the story of his fascinating personal quest to uncover events E that had taken place over sixty years ago in wartime Liverpool. The ASRC was pleased to assist Ralf in this and the background to his search for details of Eleanor Roosevelt’s visit to Liverpool is recorded below by Ralf himself.

We would like to thank Bob Clark, a senior she recalls meeting the C in C of the Western archivist at the National Approaches, Sir Percy Archives and Records Noble, in Liverpool, and also Administration in Hyde Park later with WRENS following NY, for his support and help the broadcast. She notes in uncovering this ‘lost’ with some affection the piece of history. Bob in fact singing of popular songs, informed us that Mrs. such as ‘Just a song at Roosevelt had left the US twilight’ and ‘A bicycle made on October 21st 1942 to visit for two’ which provoked the UK. The purpose of her happy childhood memories. visit was to observe the Earlier in the day Mrs. wartime work of British Roosevelt had taken lunch women and to meet with US in the Adelphi Hotel with military personnel based Lord Derby. here. She toured many communities as well as Although now retired, Ralf meeting with British Shepherd remains active as government officials, a volunteer worker for members of the royal family Merseyside Maritime and leaders of foreign Museum and he also retains governments in exile. a lively interest in Liverpool’s Events of that day were also shipping and wartime recorded in a newspaper history. article by Mrs. Roosevelt Ian Ralston (‘My Day’ column) in which

8th November 1942 - a day in the life of a young telephone engineer

ne day in 1942, as a trainee telephone be used for a broadcast by the US First Lady, engineer with Post Office Telephones, Eleanor Roosevelt, who was to visit the building, the gang I was with at the time, on which, incidentally, was the headquarters of the Oo verhead construction duties, was sent WRENS from Royal Navy Western Command. to Sefton Park in Liverpool to erect cables from a distribution pole at the rear of the synagogue in I remember listening to the broadcast with my Greenbank Drive to Ackerley House, a large parents later that evening. Her speech included Victorian house in Greenbank Lane. her assessment of the work that the women of Great Britain were doing to help the war effort. It was well into the afternoon when we started and Where she was speaking from was not disclosed, with the co-operation of two other gangs we but this was not unusual for the war time period. completed the job in the dark. At that stage, no one knew what the cables were to be used for; I was eventually called up for military duty and even the gang foremen weren't told. served in the Royal Signals. Some years after being demobilised I decided to walk through the On completion of our part of the work we passed Park to see if the house was still there. It was, but the cable to the internal engineers who turned out in a very derelict condition. to be BBC staff. We were then told they were to 4 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004

the American Studies Centre. As soon as Ian Ralston received these, he sent copies onto me.

So ended a search, which made me very proud that I had saved and recorded a small piece of my great city's history that would have otherwise remained unknown. Here are some extracts from Mrs. Roosevelt’s BBC broadcast from Liverpool, November 8th 1942

Good evening. First of all I should like to thank the people of Great Britain, who everywhere have given me such a warm and sympathetic welcome, and to rejoice with them on this momentous day. I

also want to thank the many kind people who Ralph Shepherd in the ASRC have written to me…….. Some months ago, thinking of the occasion and how the speech was a piece of Liverpool’s history, I realise I am here as a symbol, a symbol I decided to repeat the walk. I was so pleased to representing an ally whom the people of Great see that quite major work was being carried out Britain are glad to have fighting with them, not on the house. On enquiry I found that it had been only because we bring them material strength, but taken over by the 'Greenbank Trust,' because the peoples of the two countries feel they (www.greenbank-project.org.uk) a charitable are fighting for the same objectives – a world organisation that works with, and creates which shall be free of cruelty and greed and opportunities for, disabled people in the oppression – a world where men shall be free to Merseyside area and beyond. worship God as they see fit and to seek the development of their own personalities and their With my curiosity aroused, I decided to make own happiness within the limits that safeguard the enquiries as to the exact date of Eleanor rights of other human beings to do the same…. Roosevelt's broadcast. First of all I carried out a search at the Liverpool City Archives and then I have seen that the women are working side by contacted the BBC archives in London, both side with men in the military forces, in industrial without success. I then contacted my son and jobs and in addition they are doing countless asked if he would conduct a search on the numbers of jobs in civilian defence as volunteers Internet to see if he could find any relevant with the Women’s Voluntary Services. They work information about her visit to Great Britain during as well in many of the long established the war years. He gave it a good try but again organisations like the Red Cross, the Y’s, the without success. However, he did come up with Women’s Institutes, which in the rural areas make the fact that Liverpool John Moores University the wheels go round…. Library had an American Studies Resource Centre who, he suggested, may be able to help.

At the first opportunity I made a visit to the centre and contacted Ian Ralston, the Director. On hearing my story he became very interested and he soon made a search of the Franklin D Roosevelt Library web site in the USA, but again initially without success.

He assured me he would keep trying, and a week or so later rang me to say he had just received an e-mail from the FDR Library to say they had found a transcript of the broadcast. It had taken place at 9.l5pm (British time) on November 8th 1942. There was also a transcript of Mrs. Roosevelt’s 'My Day' column, dated 9th November giving "Lumberjills" felling a tree in Argyllshire, some of the details of her visit to Liverpool. The library then women whose work Eleanor Roosevelt commended sent copies of both the column and the speech to 5 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004

The women of Britain are helping to win the war, desirable world we were creating in the 1920s, but in fact they are a very vital factor in the man the 30s were not very happy for many men, power of the nation and they know also that they women and young people. Like a Greek tragedy, will be a very vital factor in making the peace and the war moved forward in the wake of poverty, in carrying on the crusade which will certainly and disease and material and spiritual attrition have to be carried on in the future. Women may inevitably fell upon nation after nation. have had a feeling in the past that they did not Our hope for the future, I believe lies in the have an equal responsibility with men in world acceptance by women and young people of their affairs. The women of the future can not have that responsibility. I think we failed before because we feeling because the writing on the wall is clear that could not think on international lines. We did not if there is to be peace in the world, women as well have a broad enough vision and the peoples of as men will have to decide to work and sacrifice to the world left their business in the hands of self- achieve it. seekers who thought of themselves and their temporary gains, but now and in the future you, The price of peace in the future may be sacrifices the women and the youth of all the United of material comforts in the years after the war…… Nations, will have to awaken and accept full responsibility. It is no easy burden to assume, but The young people in high schools and colleges if we win the battle over ourselves, the vision of today, as well as those in the Armed Forces and God’s world ruled by justice and love, may industry and on the farms, will be a great factor in become a reality making these decisions of the future. If we decide „ to be selfish and to think of ourselves alone, for a time we may be able to achieve something which appears temporarily desirable. It seemed to be a Simon goes to Washington

Over the February 2004 half-term break a group of fourteen A Level Politics students and two staff from Cheadle Hulme School in Manchester spent five days visiting Washington DC. The following personal account was written by Upper 6th former Simon Holt. Simon was visiting the United States for the fourth time. He has a conditional offer to read History & Politics at St. John’s College, Oxford.

For a Politics travelling to the United States for the first time and student a visit to it was interesting for me to observe their reactions Washington DC as I also remembered how impressed I was on my would be interesting first visit. Given the nature of the press coverage at any time but with of US politics in this country, it was also the current crisis in interesting for all of us to experience parts of the Iraq, the Global War system ‘unspun’, or perhaps more spun, at first on Terror and 2004 hand. Certainly, the city of Washington itself is also being a spectacular, a fitting setting for the nation’s Presidential capital. The fact that we enjoyed blue skies (and Election year, the freezing conditions!) throughout made the public timing of the buildings and monuments seem all the more Cheadle Hulme impressive. The hotel was pleasant and well group trip appeared, facilitated, providing us with a smart and in the run-up to our comfortable base throughout our trip. This was, I departure, either wonderfully inspired or reckless. must say, a pleasant surprise, given the standard In the days preceding our trip, a number of flights of hotel we are used to staying in on school trips from the UK to Washington had been cancelled organised by Mr Pagan! The programme was both on security grounds. After some (quite) reassuring full and wide-ranging. Despite this, we probably words from Mr Pagan (the trip organiser) to only skimmed the surface of what was on offer. parents in a pre-trip meeting, our intrepid group proceeded nonetheless. Museums galore A definite highlight for me was on the first day with The trip proved to be a worthwhile and completely our visit to the prestigious Smithsonian Institute. fascinating experience. Many of the group were Home to thirteen of America’s leading museums, 6 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004 it certainly lived up to the billing it was given in the unspeakable tragedy was intelligent in the way literature we received. The Smithsonian provided that it managed to be tasteful and yet unflinchingly a revealing insight into how America interprets honest at the same time. After 2 ½ hours there, and presents its own history. We only had time to most of us were left in stunned silence, and yet visit a few of the museums in the complex. We felt we had only touched the surface of what was started with the National Air and Space Museum, available at this most comprehensive of which contains exhibits detailing American museums, a fitting tribute to those who perished achievements in aviation and space travel, from during this great human tragedy. the time of the Wright Brothers’ first flight in 1903 to the fighter planes aeroplanes in the first Gulf Understanding American politics The main reason for the trip was, however, to bolster our understanding of the American political process. Our tour of the Capitol Building was of great value in this sense. We began with meetings with two of Senator Joe Lieberman’s staff, Chris Povak, one of the Democrats’ policy advisers in Congress, and Kerry Arnot, the Senator’s parliamentary assistant. The visit was particularly topical, as just a week before our arrival, Senator Lieberman had retired from the race to win the Democrats’ nomination for the Presidential Election. The opportunity to meet ‘insiders’ and to discuss the workings of Congress was very valuable for those of us sitting examinations in US Government & Politics this summer. We also had chance to find out more about the current state of affairs in the race for the White House, the role of War. Perhaps predictably, the theme of military a Senator’s staff and the influence of outside combat was a constant feature, with exhibits from organisations and pressure groups on elected both World Wars and the Cold War featuring representatives. Having previously visited the prominently. Exhibits commemorating US Houses of Parliament at Westminster, the visit to involvement in the Vietnam War were Lieberman’s office highlighted the relative wealth conspicuous by their absence. The maxim that of resources and facilities available to US ‘The winners write history, the winners write only politicians compared to their UK counterparts. about their winning history’ was proved to be true in this case. Other displays told the story of Charles Lindbergh’s voyage across the Atlantic in 1927 and the Moon Landing of 1969.

Later, we visited the National Museum of American History. As a budding historian, I found this of particular interest. The exhibition on the Presidents was particularly impressive, and most aspects of the USA’s 229-year history were touched upon, if not all at great length. The heady mix of detail and accessibility provided for a stimulating and enjoyable experience, for There then followed a tour of Congress, visiting historians and non-historians alike. the Old Senate, the Old House of Representatives and the Old Supreme Court, all in use from 1800 However, I think it is fair to say our visit to the to 1860. Sadly, as the current Senate and House National Holocaust Museum had the most of Representatives were not in session the main powerful impact on the group as a whole. Having Chambers were closed. As a piece of visited a number of Holocaust museums, such as architecture, both inside and out, the US Capitol is in Nottingham, Manchester and the exhibition at a monument both to American democracy and its the Imperial War Museum in London, I can see historical development. In comparison, the White why it is considered by many to be the best of its House is somewhat under-whelming, much kind in the world. The three floors packed with smaller than it appears on television. But, as No. artefacts, eyewitness accounts and film, provided 10 Downing Street proves, size isn’t everything an overwhelming emotional experience. The lay- when it comes to power. out and presentation of the storyline of this

7 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004

War and Peace Without doubt, the part of the trip that divided On the stump with Kerry opinions most of all was the visit to the Pentagon, I would like to finish by recording that there was the headquarters of the hawkish US Defence one final surprise for the Cheadle Hulme School Secretary Donald Rumsfeld. In my, admittedly politicians. On the final morning before our somewhat biased opinion, the Pentagon was a departure, the group ran into a rally for John perfect demonstration of the war-mongering, Kerry’s campaign for the Democratic nomination. militaristic attitude of many within the Bush This was taking place outside the headquarters of administration. The tone was set with the the AFL-CIO, America’s TUC. As we now know, at exhaustive security checks we had to undergo to least at the time of writing, Kerry will be Bush’s get in, including being photographed and having main rival for the White House in November so our passport details logged. Our guide was a this was a happy coincidence. Please note, dear young serving officer in the US Army and he reader, that the fact I wasn’t there did not mean I managed to (just about) deliver his script while begrudged my fellow politics students from most of his time walking backwards and keeping partaking in such a fantastic opportunity (well, not us very much within his sights the whole time. He much, anyway). Instead, I took the liberty of a little was supported by two colleagues, one from the free time to go to Georgetown in Greater Air Force, the other from the Navy, who made Washington to buy some books for my A-Level sure none of us wandered off. For some in our Politics Coursework and also to have a look round group, the tour around the huge Pentagon Georgetown University, one of America’s finest. I complex was deeply impressive, demonstrating suppose the books were (sort of) useful, but I and celebrating the awesome power, patriotism must admit to feeling, at least temporarily, a little and history of the American military. For others, unfulfilled. I was joined in my trip to Georgetown myself included, it was a bit more intimidating. by the female members of the group, indulging in Personally, I found the whole visit as representing a bit of last-minute retail therapy. Later, we jingoistic, right-wing America at its worst. The visit returned to the hotel, to be greeted by much ended on a sombre note as we were allowed to derision from the rest of the group at our missed pay our respects at the memorial to the victims of opportunity and the sight of the many ‘Kerry for the 9.11 attack. All in all, this was not an President’ posters they were ‘given’ (or, at least experience I would care to repeat. that’s how they described it.)

A bit of retail therapy My abiding memories of this trip will be of the splendour of the city and the concentration of interesting sights on offer to a student of History and Politics. Aside from the main business, we also had a lot of fun and time to relax after a frantic first half term. The various shopping trips, of which there were never enough for the female members of the group, and the trip to the cinema were well-received by all. Meal times were always entertaining, mainly because of the size of the portions! Is it any wonder that the USA has an obesity problem? And where else in the world In stark contrast, our visit later on to the serves chocolate doughnuts as a staple product at headquarters of Common Cause, a pressure breakfast time, and does not serve non-fizzy soft group working to foster greater transparency and drinks in restaurants? Although I staggered out of accountability across US government, was a restaurants after mealtimes feeling like I’d eaten vastly more welcoming affair. The staff at enough for a week, other members of the group Common Cause, in particular Michael Madison, clearly did not feel the same. The doughnut-eating provided us with a really interesting overview of competition one breakfast-time between two their activities, including a briefing on one of their (male) members of the group will live long in the latest projects, an investigation into the issuing of memory, as well as the sight of a fellow student defence contracts for the reconstruction of Iraq. eating two main courses and three deserts one They patiently answered all of our many evening. On a more sombre note, there was a questions, free from the filters of political analysts strong sense that the race divide still exists, and the spin of politicians. This was probably the despite all that was achieved during the Civil most productive part of the trip in educational Rights movement of the 1960s. Most menial jobs terms. 8 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004 were performed by ethnic minorities. It was (I think) teachers alike, and one in which I, at particularly noticeable that these were least, enjoyed myself immensely. In sum, our overwhelmingly by black Americans amidst all of week at the city at the heartbeat of the American the prosperity. There was also the juxtaposition of political process was a pleasure and one from poverty. Even though it was cold, we still noticed which I will take away many memories. Sadly, quite a large number of beggars and down-and- laws concerning decency and libel prevent me outs. Although somewhat disconcerting in what from publishing many of them here! was, for the most part, a lively and affluent city, „ this did not take away from what was both a stimulating and relaxing trip for both students and

Women and War 1941-1975

‘It takes a war for women to break out of the home and to be granted human as opposed to female status’ [Beddoe D (1983]. Women have often throughout history played a subordinate role in society, but war has been instrumental in giving them a far more prominent status, both as substitute for men’s labour, and, more recently, in combatant roles. However, this change has rarely survives the end of conflict. Talya Schneider considers the effect of wars from the Second World War to the Vietnam War on the status of women. She concludes that their emancipation has been far more permanent in Vietnam than it has been in the United States.

hroughout history, the roles of women in such as these, the prominent belief that it is men, Western society have been largely and men alone, who experience ‘real’ war, Td etermined by patriarchal values. As Kate continues to be universally accepted. Millett suggests in her book - written in 1969, the same period as the Vietnam War – ‘the image of women as we know it is an image created by men and fashioned to suit their needs’ (Millet: 1999, p46). Women have always been ‘encouraged to cultivate the virtues of domesticity, piety, purity and submissiveness’ (Boydston: 1991, p148). Characteristics such as violence are not deemed to be feminine, and are not an acceptable part of womanhood, and that is ultimately why war is considered to be a specifically male affair; ‘men make war’ (MacPherson: 1988, p489).

A machinist applies her skill in an American factory, c It is not only men who experience ‘real’ 1940 war Even though it is realised that women are a part of However, as I will aim to show, the theory is not at war through their pain, a common belief even now all correct. Although information regarding the is that ‘since wars begin in the minds of men, it is roles of women in war is not in abundance - whilst in the minds of men that the defenses of peace there are plenty of resources documenting the must be constructed’ (internet: UNESCO, 7th roles of men in the very same wars - it is December 2001). This expression, from the becoming more and more apparent that women’s Constitution of the United Nations Educational, roles in these wars are of profound importance, Scientific and Cultural Organisation, was first not only for the countries they are fighting to published after the Second World War in 1945, protect, but for women as an oppressed gender. but has been re-circulated many times in the years since, due to its relevance even now. The wars of the twentieth century, and especially Although it is over half a century-old, little has those since the Second World War, have been changed: The American and British military forces effective in disproving the fallacy of war being a are still composed of a relatively small number of man’s domain. Since 1939 especially, women women in relation to men (internet: NATO, 10th have been used to fill the positions that men have December 2001), and women who have served in had to abandon due to their being drafted. The the military have ‘historically, been ignored’ number of women who ventured out of the safety (MacPherson: 1988, p527). Due to inequalities of their homes and into factories and other workplaces during World War Two is evident and 9 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004 it is these apparent changes that have altered, in of bloodshed, and many women and children many ways, the manner in which women are joined in the fighting in one way or another. viewed in the public sphere of society at the present time. In 1964 when the bombing of Vietnam commenced, in America - a country with strong At the time of the Vietnam War, and especially at patriarchal values - the widespread feeling was the onset of the war, there that the Vietnam War was a was a scarcity of female ‘man’s war’. Whilst many men members in the American were drafted into the army and Congress. In 1960 there sent abroad to fight, most were only sixteen women women remained in the safety in Congress, although this of their home country, unafraid had risen to thirty-six by of falling bombs, ignorant of 1975 (internet: Women in the terror that was ensuing Congress, 11th December over eight thousand miles 2001). In 1969 Shirley away. However, though many Chisholm became the first of the U.S forces were male, a black woman elected on number of women were also to Congress. In 1972, this sent to Vietnam to work. same woman ran in the American Presidential American women served in election, but was not Vietnam ‘as technicians, elected (internet: Shirley intelligence operators, air-flight Chisholm, 7th December ground controllers and WACs’ 2001). (Saywell: 1985, p226). Some were sent to be nurses and The seeming triumphs of some were sent to work Chisholm, and women in alongside Vietnamese Congress in general, are civilians. In Myra McPherson’s one way to illustrate the (1988, p528) opinion, it was changing attitudes of the the women nurses who American people at the suffered more severely than time of the Vietnam War. the soldiers during the war. But by examining the roles Whilst the soldiers were of ‘average’ American active, all the nurses could do women during this period Women drivers in the US army, c, 1943 was wait until the next injured and comparing these to parties were admitted. These Vietnamese women during the same period, the women saw many fatalities. They also had to deal enormity of the alterations in social prejudice and with the thousands of severely, and often ideology, in both America and Vietnam, may permanently, wounded men. become truly apparent. There are no accurate statistics stating how many American women were present in Vietnam during Women and the Vietnam War the war. Figures vary from 10,000 onwards At the beginning of the 1960s, provoked by an (Elshtain: 1990, p182). The estimated numbers of increasing fear in Communism and of the National nurses who worked in Vietnam during the war has Liberation Front’s increasing power, President reached up to 55,000. Insultingly, only eight John F Kennedy began to send American military nurses’ names are on the Vietnam Veterans personnel and helicopters into Vietnam Memorial (MacPherson: 1988, p526-529) and only (Buzzanco: 1999, p19). The Vietnam War, seven are recorded as having been killed there, considered to be the biggest, and most even though it is believed that others may have unwarranted and immoral war of American been (Saywell: 1985, p226). history, has been described, not only as a racial war, but chiefly as a war of ‘male aggression The importance of the work that these women against women and children’ (Sherry: 1995, performed cannot be overlooked, even though p300). This would suggest that only women and they are not men, and did not fight in armed children suffered the traumatic events of the war – combat. However, their achievements have often although obviously men were fighting it - and this been ignored when examining America’s part in is definitely incorrect. Many innocent people, both the Vietnam War. And if not ignored, their roles male and female, were made victims of the years have regularly been belittled, much like women’s 10 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004 roles in society. The nurses in Vietnam received Although the Women’s movement had existed much criticism. Some people referred to them as prior to the 1960s, after the vote was won in ‘Combat-boot feminists’, believing that they had America in 1920, and then again after the Second only gone out to Vietnam to ‘bag’ a husband or be World War had ended in 1945, the movement ‘hookers’. Some people even suggested that it seemed to dissolve and disappear. In 1923, the was because they were lesbians (MacPherson: Equal Rights Amendment Act, which sought to 1988, p530), the irony of which is blatantly enforce the equality of women in America, was obvious considering they were working alongside, introduced to Congress. The Act failed to be and for, mainly men. This reaction to women’s passed (McDowell: 1992, p209). achievements has emerged throughout history, and is no more than an attempt to ‘subordinate The Vietnam War, for many reasons, brought to the individual to authoritarian control and openly attention how badly women were treated within denigrate women’ (internet: McCabe, 15th society and once again, the popular feeling was September 2000). that something more needed to be done for women, whilst at the same time rallying for the One woman who received a huge amount of end of the war. The period was distinctive criticism during the Vietnam War, and provoked because ‘young men and women could be heard an onslaught of criticism for the whole anti-war voicing the same protest and passion’ (Neustatter: movement, was Jane Fonda (McPherson: 1988. 1990, p9). By protesting alongside men, women p551). In 1972, Fonda went to North Vietnam to sought to prove that they could be as effective as witness the effects that the fighting had had on the their counterparts. Vietnamese people. In a radio interview held during her visit, Fonda, who was publicly anti-war, In 1963, due to the increasing demands of talked about her shame in being American. She women, President Kennedy began to ‘assess said that although it was ‘a war against women’s places in the economy, family and legal Vietnam…the tragedy…(was)…America’s’ system’ by appointing a ‘Presidential Commission (internet: Jane Fonda, 10th December). Several on the Status of Women’ (Buzzanco: 1999, p222). years later, in a further interview, Fonda Shortly afterwards, the Equal Pay Act was apologised and retracted her statements, saying passed. In 1964, the Civil Rights Act - which that she had been ‘trying to help end the killing prohibited discrimination for black people in and the war’ but had been ‘thoughtless’ and employment - was altered and Title VII was ‘careless’ (internet: Jane Fonda, 10th December). added, prohibiting both sexual and racial discrimination in employment (Castro: 1990, At the time, many American citizens, and p263). This did not miraculously alter all of especially Vietnam Veterans, criticised Fonda for women’s problems, and even now inequalities are her poor judgment, lack of patriotism and for rife in American society. speaking about something that she could not understand, having never fought there. Women There were many ways in which women began to who protested for an end to the war were often revolt against their situation in America. In 1963, disparaged in this way. How could they be ‘anti- Betty Friedan published her book, The Feminine war’ if they never experienced war? But how could Mystique, in which she publicised the problem that they experience war if the opportunity to fight in women faced; ‘the problem with no name’ Vietnam was never an option for them? (Friedan: 1992, p310). This problem that had been kept silent for years was ‘simply the fact that American women…(were)…kept from growing to Vietnam and women’s empowerment their full human capacities’ by the general Women’s involvement in the Vietnam War did not oppression of housework and domesticity just occur in Vietnam. The fifteen-year period that (Friedan: 1992, p318). In October 1966, Friedan, American troops resided in Vietnam was not only along with Gloria Steinem and Shirley Chisholm a time of disquiet for the Vietnamese. In America (the first black Congresswoman) formed the there was growing unrest and concern amongst National Organisation for Women (NOW) (Blum: civilians with regard for the war and for civil rights. 1991, p276). Their intention was to deal with the The anti-war and civil rights movements ongoing problem of women’s inequality by emphasized the injustices within society and organising ‘Consciousness-Raising’ events. By through this, they paved the way for the Women’s making known the plight that women faced, more movement, making public once hidden issues and more support could be secured and women such as the inequality of women and black would finally realise that they were not alone. people. This publicity led to a great change in the involvement of women in America, and especially 11 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004 in the American politics of the time; women finally profound change of attitude amongst the found their voice. On 15 January 1968, a group of American people that appeared in the 1960s and women, known as the Jeanette Rankin Brigade early 1970s. Their actions could not help but after the first woman in Congress, confronted change the way in which they were viewed in Congress to show a ‘strong…female opposition to society after the end of the war in 1975. the Vietnam War’ (internet: Firestone, 27th November 2001). In Shulamith Firestone’s opinion However, the still prominent feeling at the time it was ‘naïve to believe that women who are not (and even now), even with all that American politically seen, heard, or represented…could women had done for the war, was that women change the course of a war by simply appealing to would be most helpful fulfilling their duties of the better natures of Congressmen’ (internet: housewife and mother. Using this common and Firestone, 27th November 2001). Instead, the primitive belief, America sought to encourage march was used to protest against the treatment patriotism by releasing war propaganda of women and the stereotypes that existed in suggesting the barbarity of their enemy, the society. During this event, known as ‘the Burial of Vietnamese. The idea that the Vietcong could use Traditional Womanhood’, women vowed to women as tools of war, and put them in combative sacrifice their ‘traditional female roles’ and desist situations, was used as a sign of ‘their peculiar from ‘bolstering the egos of war makers and beastliness…(and)… ideological perversion’ aiding the cause of war’1. (Sherry: 1995, p301). As with war propaganda released during the two World Wars, the intention was to demonise the opposition, making it acceptable to kill them.

The role of Vietnamese women There was much opposition to America’s portrayal of the Vietnamese as barbarians. The vast media coverage of the war showed images of Vietnamese people being grossly mistreated by U.S troops. Howard Levy, an American army doctor, became ‘a national figure when he was Women's groups joined the ranks of the Poor court-martialed for refusing to train Special Forces People's Campaign in Washington D.C. during soldiers who to him were “murderers of women June 1968 and children”’ (Buzzanco: 1999, p93). Marshall

McLuhan, in a newspaper article published on 16 Nine months after ‘the Burial of Traditional May 1975, suggested that due to television Womanhood’, another protest ensued. This time coverage of the brutality of the war, it had been the ‘Radical women of New York’ invaded the ‘lost in the living rooms of America – not on the Miss America Pageant, claiming that Miss battlefields of Vietnam’ (internet: Marshall America was a ‘military death mascot’ and a McLuhan, 10th December 2001). ‘cheerleader’ for U.S troops; ‘last year she went to

Vietnam to pep-talk…(the)…husbands, fathers, What America failed to realise was that many sons and boyfriends into dying and killing with a women in Vietnam were pleased to be performing better spirit’ (Buzzanco: 1999, p227-228). Whilst the duties that the American’s saw as this was an attack on the Vietnam War, the ‘unfeminine’. The Vietnamese people had been at protest also meant to open the eyes of women war for many years preceding the American attack who took part in the pageant. As with the in the 1960s, most recently in what was named pornography industry, people believed that beauty the Indo-China War. This had ended only years pageants acted as a factor in the ‘exploitation, earlier when the Communist-led Vietnamese objectification and denigration of women’ (Kaplan: overcame French colonial control to reclaim 1991, p322). Vietnam as one, independent nation (Enloe: 1988,

p32). At this time, women’s roles in society were All of the women who protested in America for governed by Confucian doctrine, which ‘supported women’s rights and an end to war aided the male authority and condoned the subordination of women’ (Rowbotham: 1972, p208). 1 This was written by Shulamith Firestone on an invitation handed out to women inviting them to the The years of conflict, prior to American invasion, Burial of Traditional Womanhood, and explaining had altered Vietnamese society greatly. Just as what the event would entail. I could not find a copy so American women had had to leave the confines of as to reference it, but had been given a copy in a their homes during the World Wars, the roles of previous module. 12 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004

Vietnamese women also changed due to the of Women for the Liberation of South Vietnam, ongoing conflict in their country. Women were also formed (Rowbotham: 1972, p211). made to take on ‘more and more of the jobs traditionally done by men…(playing)…a major role A third organisation, the Women’s Committee to in the militia, in operating and managing Defend the Right to Live appeared in 1970, cooperatives and factories, and in carrying out following the rape of a mother and daughter. Like repair work on the Ho Chi Minh Trail’ (Beresford: the preceding Women’s movements, this 1988, p61). movement had specific demands: For U.S troops to withdraw from Vietnam: For ex-President Thieu Differing from American society, Vietnamese to be ousted from government: For the formation society saw women’s total support for their of a new coalition government: And for women to country’s decisions and actions as being vitally gain respect and civil rights (Bergman: 1975, important. Each war that Vietnam was involved in p76). was considered to be a ‘people’s war’, fought for and by all people, including women, children and These women, in comparison to those in America, the aged (Buzzanco: 1990, p43). Many alterations were responsible for many of their country’s were made to the status of the Vietnamese victories. Not only did they fight alongside men, women in society in the century prior to American Vietnamese women initiated attacks on American invasion, as the government at the time saw it as forces, formed guerrilla sabotage units, liberated of great importance to make sure women were villages, did liaison work, held protests and sit-ins, happy and fairly treated. organised petitions and took over the administration of villages (Rowbotham: 1972, In 1930, the Vietnam Women’s Union – the first p211-214). national women’s movement in Vietnam - was formed. As with the Women’s Liberation Le Thi Rieng, known in Vietnam as a military organisations of America, which had escalated heroine, is one example of the amazing from the anti-war and civil rights movements, the achievements that Vietnamese women Vietnam Women’s Union derived from the accomplished during the war years. During the Indochinese Communist Party. Their belief was Tet Offensive – an attack launched by the that it would be impossible for women to achieve National Liberation Front at the beginning of 1968 emancipation under colonial rule. Therefore many – Le Thi Rieng led the Women’s Commando women were convinced that it was imperative for Group that assisted in the occupation of the U.S them to be a part of the revolutionary process, embassy. This act of rebellion left two hundred and that be playing a part in this revolution their American personnel dead and the NLF’s flag liberation would be achieved (Bergman: 1975, flying over the building (Boulding: 1977, p179). p50). There are many other Vietnamese women who Ho Chi Minh and members of the National have been branded with the title of ‘heroine’. Liberation Front began to stress the equality of Sixteen year old Le Thi Hong Gam – a heroine of women, not only in society, but also in marriage. the Peoples Liberation Armed Forces, an army of In the words of Ho Chi Minh; ‘women make up the NLF - insisted on being allowed to join in the half of society. If women are not liberated, then fight against U.S forces, after having witnessed society is not free’ (Bergman: 1975, p51). In 1960, the rape and murder of her best friend (Bergman: a new family law was introduced in Vietnam which 1975, p75). ‘abolished the practice of concubinage and gave women equal rights within the family and the right In 1970, Madame Ngo Ba Thanh, one of the to choose their own husband’ (Beresford: 1988, leaders of the Third Force - an independent p61). political organisation – publicly opposed Thieu who had announced that he would ‘beat to death It was, in part, due to the efforts of Vietnamese anyone who spoke for peace’. She was arrested political organisations and the increasing terror immediately, but not before her actions and that the American invasion generated, that courage had obtained a great amount of support Vietnamese women chose to join men in (Bergman: 1975, p105). protecting their country. The immense support that the Vietnam Women’s Union received One eighty-eight year old woman, known as enabled them to mobilise women’s support for the ‘Heroine Eighty-Eight’, convinced the NLF to National Liberation Front’s struggle. In 1961, thirty teach her how to set off land mines. Too old to years after the formation of the Vietnam Women’s leave the confines of her village, this woman still Union, another women’s organisation, the Union wished to be a part of her country’s emancipation. When her village was invaded by American troops 13 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004 she used her training and killed two U.S soldiers. 1997, p101). During a time where there was little Although she was immediately arrested, she was concern for human rights, rape ‘was barely seen subsequently released when the American troops as an offence if the victim was Vietnamese’ decided that she was no more than an old woman (Rowbotham: 1972, p209). On 2 August 1965, and of no threat to anyone (Bergman: 1975, during a raid on the Hoa Vang district and North of p118)! the Dien Ben district, American soldiers gathered and raped hundreds of Vietnamese women, Some Vietnamese women who had fought and ranging in age from ten to seventy. Three years achieved exceptional things received awards from later, another raid at Son My Village also led to the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, the the rape of hundreds of women (Bergman: 1975, governing body in North Vietnam (Bergman: 1975, p62). p131). In America, awards known as ‘the Gold Star Mother Awards’ were given to over 50,000 American women who had lost their sons during So how did the Vietnam War change the Vietnam War, by way of appeasement women’s lives? (MacPherson: 1988, p486). The contrast in these The Vietnam War has been seen as playing only two awards is blatant. Whilst Vietnamese women a ‘minor role in the history of women and gender’ were rewarded for their own actions, American (Sherry: 1995, p300). This is not true. The war women were rewarded for those of their children. caused a great amount of harm to people of both In an act of defiance, seventeen of ‘the Gold Star sexes, in both America and Vietnam, and the only Mothers’ formed ‘the Gold Star Mothers Against thing that can really be seen as a positive effect of the War’ and disposed of their medals, showing the war is the change in attitudes that it caused their support for the anti-war movement and for towards women in both societies. women’s liberation. Unfortunately, the situation of women continues to be unequal in many places throughout the world, Sex in the Vietnam War Vietnam and America included. In 1980, the UN The roles that Vietnamese women played during Conference on Women reported that women the Vietnam War were not always to assist their perform between thirty-three and seventy-five own people, and they were not always positive or percent of the worlds work, produce forty-five popular. Many women, due to the awful state of percent of the world’s food and yet, only receive the Vietnamese economy, were forced into ten percent of the world’s income and only own prostitution as a means of providing for their one percent of the world’s property (French: 1992, families and for themselves. One of the most p24). renowned effects of the war was the huge increase in the sex trade. Senator Fulbright In America, the actions of NOW and more militant remarked that Saigon had become ‘an American women’s organisations did succeed in making brothel’ (Bergman: 1975, p85). ‘women’s liberation a major issue in reform politics’ (Blum: 1991, p276). However, even now, Although there are no completely reliable figures women are grossly underrepresented in society, as to the number of Vietnamese women involved and they continue to be subject to inequalities. in prostitution, by the end of the war it was What is surprising is that women in Vietnam seem estimated to be around half-a-million, one-tenth of to have achieved far more respect from men, and the whole population of women in Vietnam seem to have far more idea of the ways in which (Beresford: 1988, p147). An army base at Long equality can be achieved by them. Throughout the Binn, the home to 25,000 American people, Vietnam War these women challenged the theory employed hundreds of Vietnamese prostitutes on that they would be forced back to their pre-war base as ‘service personnel’ (Enloe: 1988, p33). roles in society after the war ended (Bergman: Not only were these women used for sex, many 1975, p246). These women made sure that if they became wives of American soldiers as it seemed were to become ‘the majority of the workforce, to them to be the only way out of their war-torn they… (would)…be represented at top country. management level’ (Beresford: 1988, p61). This ensured that they could not be overlooked after Sex has regularly been used as a means of the war. oppressing women, and prostitution is just one example of this. During the Vietnam War, many It was not just the work of the Vietnamese women women were also exposed to the cruelties of rape that ensured their increased position in society. – a crime primarily about domination and Their government also valued the work that these degradation, which is often used to enforce women did, and saw that their country could not ‘hegemonic heterosexual masculinity’ (Lees: be emancipated if only half of its citizens fought. 14 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004

Even people who had argued profusely against women achieving a higher status in Vietnamese Bibliography society realised that the war could not be won without their efforts (Rowbotham: 1972, p215). In Abbott P & C Wallace (1997), An Introduction to Sheila Rowbotham’s opinion it was ‘the combined sociology: Feminist Perspectives (London: force of the military situation and the commitment Routledge) of the Communist party…(that)…pushed emancipation further’ (1972, p216). Abercrombie N, S Hill & B S Turner (1988), the Dictionary of Sociology (London: Penguin Group) Arlene Bergman writes that ‘Vietnamese women don’t experience the same isolation that separates Beddoe D (1983), Discovering Women’s History: women in the United States from each other, A Practical Manual, p40 (London: Pandora because they haven’t lived under capitalism which Press)]. thrives on competition among people’ (Bergman: Beddoe D (1988), Discovering Women’s History: 1975, p53). If this is the case, then in America - a A Practical Manual (London: Pandora Press) fundamentally anti-Communist country - neither Communism nor militarism were available to Beresford M (1988), Vietnam: Politics, Economics assist the American women in their liberation (as and Society (London: Printer Publishers) this essay has already shown, American women could play only a very limited role in the actual war Bergman A E (1975), Women of Vietnam as they were not accepted as a part of the army). (California: Peoples Press)

The dominant forces in American society are still Blum J M (1991), Years of Discord: American predominantly male and ‘appear to favour Politics and Society, 1961-1974 (London: W W patriarchy’ (Millett: 1999, p158). Women may Norton & Company) continue to protest at their unequal status, but they rarely receive the support from authority Boulding E (1977), Women in the Twentieth figures that the Vietnamese women seemed to Century World (New York: Sage) have gained. Also, American women’s protestation throughout history has been Boydston J, The Pastoralisation of Housework inconsistent. After the First and Second World cited in Kerber L K & J S De Hart (eds.) (1991), Wars women were asked to return to their homes Women’s America: Refocusing the Past (Oxford: to make available the jobs that men had Oxford University Press) previously undertaken. Governments even offered additional benefits to women to make the prospect Bryson V (1999), Feminist Debates: Issues of more appealing, such as the creation of the Theory and Political Practice (London: MacMillan Welfare State and the introduction of family Press) allowances for unemployed people that came into being after World War Two (Abercrombie: 1988, Buzzanco R (1999), Vietnam and the p269). Transformation of American Life (Oxford: Blackwell Publishers) In many ways it is this inconsistency, as well as the continual backlash that women seem to Castro G (1990), American Feminism: A provoke, that continues to force American women Contemporary History (New York: New York out of the public domain and makes them trivial, University Press) undervalued and unappreciated members of society. It is through this problem that women Elshtain J B & S Tobias (eds.) (1990), Women, continue to be the poorest and most ill treated Militarism and War: Essays in History, Politics and people in the world (Bryson: 1999, p4). Social Theory (Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers) War does seem to help women ‘break out of the home’ and for sometime at least, they are Enloe C (1988), Does Khaki Become You? The accepted as ‘humans’ rather then just as ‘females’ Militarism of Women’s Lives (London: Pandora (Beddoe: 1983, p40). However, for American Press) women especially it seems as if this humanisation lasts only as long as the war. French M (1992), The War Against Women (London: Penguin Books)

Friedan B (1992), The Feminine Mystique (London: Penguin Group)

15 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004

Firestone S, The Jeanette Rankin Brigade: Kaplan L J (1991), Female Perversions: The Woman Power? Available from Temptations of Emma Bovary (New York:

Neustatter A (1990), Hyenas in Petticoats: A Look Shirley Chisholm, Available from at Twenty Years of Feminism (London: Penguin

Rowbotham S (1972), Women, Resistance and UNESCO, Constitution of the United Nations Revolution (London: Penguin Press) Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation, Available from Saywell S (1985), Women in War: First-Hand

Fictional Presidents as Antagonists in American Motion Pictures: The New Antihero for the Post-Watergate Era By Ralph R. Donald, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, USA The portrayal of fictional presidents in American film has changed dramatically over the last half century from respectful, even adulatory portraits in the era of F.D. Roosevelt, to the oily or philandering politician in films like The Pelican Brief and Wag the Dog. Ralph R. Donald shows how the rot set in with Richard Nixon and Watergate, and how presidential office is now fair game for criticism, satire and earthy humour.

et’s face it: the presidency of the United advised that if they worked hard at school, lived a States isn’t what it used to be. Once upon a good life and made something of themselves, they L time in America the office of president was could grow up to be president. highly respected. Certainly some occupants of the No longer. Oval Office have enjoyed more public adulation than others, but they were nonetheless Now it seems that most of America’s best and presidents, and the office has always meant brightest do not seek, nor would they accept the something. In decades past, children were nomination of their party to be president – or even 16 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004 to run for state or local office. The price has interest in young, pretty White House interns. become too high – and the respect vs. reward But President Nixon was certainly the last straw: ratio too low -- to become a politician. And resigning the presidency just in time to avoid president? Just the dirty tricks the opposition party impeachment and multiple criminal indictments plays on candidates and their families are enough arguably did more than any other to sully the to cause most to decline the honour. reputation of the office of President of the United And the cultural reasons for the decline in public States. And then President Ford’s pardon of Nixon admiration for the office of president? These are convinced many Americans that the “fix was in.” certainly arguable. I posit that this erosion of After Nixon, the presidency would never be quite respect began in earnest with President Nixon the same. and the Watergate scandals. Some say it was President Johnson’s deceit in Too Tough an Act to Follow what he told the American people about the progress – or lack of it – of the war in Vietnam. Or Perhaps Nixon’s fall was more dramatic because perhaps it was LBJ’s deception regarding the Gulf of what people in the film business call the “set- of Tonkin incident, which resulted in a coerced up.” In media of the era, and especially in Congress approving deployment of hundreds of Hollywood movies produced during World War II, thousands of U.S. troops into Vietnam. Nearly Tinseltown’s producers, working closely with 60,000 Americans died there. Protests against the President Roosevelt’s appointees in the Office of war and President Johnson himself had grown so War Information in Washington, put the president strident by 1968 that he on such a lofty wisely chose not to run for Some say that the image of the presidency pedestal that re-election. few who would began to slip in earnest when the media succeeded him A few say that the image began disabusing Americans about President could keep their of the presidency began to Kennedy’s Camelot myth. balance. slip in earnest when the media began disabusing Many films of Americans about President Kennedy’s Camelot the World War II era either begin or end with myth. A decade or more after the youthful inspirational words from President Roosevelt. president was assassinated, Americans learned These quotes take the form of title crawls, that the man they believed to be the faithful deferential references to the president's wartime husband and doting father – the righteous King policies or statements and even sound bites from Arthur in the Camelot tale – was actually a satyr FDR's speeches. When these recordings are and philanderer equal or greater in dubious heard, Americans listening are portrayed as rapt stature to President Clinton, with whom and respectful -- even reverent, as though they Americans recently learned that he shared an were listening to their minister’s sermon. It’s also interesting that this deference and awe extended beyond the end of the war. A number of war films About the author produced from 1946 until the late 1950's featured scenes of shocked and tearful Americans Ralph R. Donald (Ph.D., Communication, The University of stopping whatever they were doing to listen Massachusetts, Amherst; M.A. and B.A. , Communications, California State University, Fullerton) is Professor and Chair of mournfully to radio reports of Roosevelt's death the Department of Mass Communications at Southern Illinois and funeral. University at Edwardsville. He has taught broadcasting, journalism and film at the college level for 27 years. His For example, Action in the North Atlantic begins professional credits include jobs as a newspaper reporter and and ends with the words of FDR, starting with a copy editor, radio and television news producer, TV station title-roll and ending with a voice-over from the production manager, and a producer-director of film and video. Dr. Donald's research interests include film and television President about the dogged determination of the propaganda, motion picture history, gender-related studies in U.S. Merchant Marine. The title roll reads: film and television, pedagogical and curriculum issues in mass communications. Leadership in national academic FDR: It is the will of the people that America shall organizations include serving on the executive board of the deliver the goods. It can never be doubted that the Mid-Atlantic Popular/American Culture Association and as goods will be delivered by this nation, which founding editor of that organization's journal, the Mid-Atlantic Almanack; chair of the Courses, Curricula and Administration believes in the tradition of "damn the torpedoes, Division of the Broadcast Education Association. In addition, full speed ahead." he is a member of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, the Radio-Television News During a conversation among sailors in the film, Directors Association and the National Academy of Television America’s confidence that America will win is Arts and Sciences. Dr. Donald and his wife, concert pianist summed up in this line, spoken by the ship's Patrice Stribling Donald, reside in Edwardsville, IL. They have carpenter: two married daughters. 17 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004

I got faith - in God, President In the films of World War II, Hollywood made the Roosevelt, and the Brooklyn president America’s inspiration and our anchor. Dodgers - in that order of Like George Washington, these pictures portrayed importance. the president as “first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen.” At the end, Humphrey Bogart and Raymond Massey and their long-suffering crew do indeed Arguably in recent years, such a leader has truly deliver the goods to our ally, Russia, amazingly become an impossible act to follow. destroying a German U-boat and two Luftwaffe Even before the fall from grace of President dive-bombers in the process. Then the film Nixon, in the aftermath of the unforgettable and concludes with this recording of an FDR speech: inimitable FDR, Hollywood filmmakers sometimes seized upon the opportunity to topple the Nothing on land, or on the sea, pedestal, creating fictional presidents that they or in the air, or under the sea, could use as comic foils and antagonists. But shall prevent our complete and since Nixon’s resignation, the floodgates of final victory. antagonist presidents have opened much wider. In the films Air Force (1943), God Is My Co-Pilot In the remainder of this article, I’ll discuss a (1945), and Flying Tigers (1942), American sample of relatively recent films and identify some aviators reverently and silently listen to FDR's new antagonist presidential typologies for "Day of Infamy" speech on short wave radio. In all consideration. three films, flyers, shown with serious, determined looks on their faces, are inspired by their revered Philandering Presidents commander-in-chief, who says, One of the most unfortunate side effects of the Clinton administration is a heretofore unthinkable Through our armed forces and sub-genre of presidential films under the general in the unbounded determination heading of “Clintonesque sexual escapades gone of our people, we will win the wrong.” Or, as Rep. Gary Condit unfortunately has inevitable triumph, so help us discovered, what would have resulted if God. something bad had happened to Monica In the Lewinsky? conclusio In two 1997 n of Air In the films of World War II, Hollywood made the president films, Force, it’s America’s inspiration and anchor. Executive 1945 and Power and much Absolute later on in the war, and flyers are preparing the Power, philandering presidents are themselves first bombing mission over Japan. Audiences are responsible for the deaths of their illicit lovers. In given an FDR quote for an epilogue, reminding us Executive Power, the president is conducting a that we are on the offensive, and that we will not tawdry affair with a young White House aide. relent until the enemy has his back to the wall. When she dies in the Oval Office (the body Audiences witnessed two hours of Norwegian sprawled across the great seal, no less), the courage and heroism in Edge of Darkness (1943). president enlists a Secret Service agent and a few After the defeat of the Germans, the picture trusted staff members to help him cover it up. The concludes with a fitting voice-over by the agent complies, but later he regrets his actions President, asking the audience to follow in the and retires from the Secret Service. Later he is victorious path of these "steel-like" people: called out of retirement because the other White House staffers who assisted the president in this If there is anyone who still cover up are found murdered. wonders why this war is being In this new political film sub-genre, cover ups fought, let him look to Norway; always end in disaster. This is borne out in if there is anyone who has any Absolute Power. Gene Hackman’s president is a delusions that this war could worse womanizer than the president in Executive have been averted, let him look Power. We find him in the middle of a wild, to Norway; and if there is drunken assignation with the young “trophy wife” anyone who doubts the of the rich industrialist who helped put the democratic will to win, again I president in the White House. So besides being say, let him look to Norway. profligate, the president also betrays his best friend. But when Hackman “plays too rough” with

18 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004 his lover, she fights back and jabs him with a letter act. As well, the president is depicted as a bad opener. Drunk and suddenly feeling threatened, father. His spoiled, playboy son, who also is a the president calls out for help, his Secret Service suspect in this murder, is a selfish brat whose agents break into the bedroom and they shoot the chief goal in life is to have sex in every room of woman. The chief of staff orders the two Secret the White House before his father leaves office. Service agents to use their knowledge of forensics Hollywood often provides either a chief of staff or to carefully sanitize the body and cover up the some other senior White House staffer to do the crime scene. Later, one of these agents tries to kill president’s dirty work. In this case, the president’s the one witness to the crime. Thanks to the White national security advisor, ostensibly in the House, this witness, a burglar who had the president’s camp, turns out to be the true villain of misfortune and bad timing to be hiding in the the piece – and no friend of the president. bedroom at the time of the killing, becomes the Because of the president’s indecision in this crisis, chief suspect. Later this resourceful burglar (Clint this hawkish advisor, played by Alan Alda, Eastwood), who plans to flee the country, concocts a plot for a palace coup. Although changes his mind when he hears the president’s himself responsible for the murder, the national hypocritical speech about the murder. The burglar security advisor frames the president’s son and confronts the woman’s husband with the true facts promises to reveal this evidence unless the of the crime and the husband kills the president. president immediately resigns. The vice president, who stands ready to intervene to save the The H.R. Haldeman Syndrome hostages, would then become president. Snipes’ resourceful detective character foils this plot. It’s important here to note the number of times in these films that the White House chief of staff is Cox’s president is just weak-willed, but Robert depicted as an even bigger villain than the Culp’s president in The Pelican Brief (1993) is president. If there is a contemporary model for also weak-minded. He’s a vapid, uninvolved these creatures, it appears to be President figurehead with the mental awareness of a latter- Nixon’s infamous chief of staff and principal day Ronald Reagan. Once again, this president is author of all things Watergate, H.R. Haldeman. In in thrall to a malignant chief of staff, played to the Absolute Power, to make matters more hilt by Tony Goldwyn. More engaged with interesting, the chief of staff is female. Alternately teaching his equally dim-witted Irish setter to do Lady Macbeth and Mephistopheles, this crafty tricks than with pressing affairs of state, this chief of staff leads the president down the road to president permits his chief of staff to engage in a a botched cover up and on to perdition. And in so monumental cover up. This time, one of the many films in which the President tries to cover up president’s rich campaign contributors is misdeeds, their slick right-hand men/women do responsible for the assassination of two everything but perch on the president’s shoulder, environmentalist Supreme Court justices. The pitchfork in hand, advising him to take the idea was that when the President replaces the two dastardly course and to let the end justify the dead justices with appointees less concerned means. If the president doesn’t want to have about the environment, their votes on an direct knowledge about the evil he sets in motion, upcoming Supreme Court case would permit the the chief of staff becomes his delegated evil-doer. president’s friend to make millions in shady energy dealings. But a brilliant law student and a Weak-willed and Weak-Minded Presidents Washington reporter make the scandal public. Priceless is the deer-in-the-headlights look on Although not a true villain, Ronny Cox is portrayed Culp’s face when Goldwyn informs him that the as a president with a severe Hamlet complex in scandal is about to be made public, and there’s Murder at 1600 (1997). In this Wesley Snipes nothing they can do about it. vehicle, the president, who has a Kennedy-like sexual reputation, is at first police detective President as Oily Politician Snipes’ principal suspect in the alleged rape and murder of a comely White House staffer. But later In Tom Clancy’s thriller A Clear and Present on, after Snipes’ character gets beyond the Danger (1994), audiences are presented with a obligatory White House cover-up, we discover that president, played by Donald Moffatt, whose public the head of the free world isn’t that clever, crafty persona reminds audiences of both Presidents or even that sexually active any more. The Reagan and Bush Senior. But privately, Moffatt’s president’s great fault is paralyzing indecision: He president is much more cynical than either can’t make up his mind whether to risk war by Reagan or Bush. Moffat portrays more of a mounting a military attack to rescue American stereotypical bottom-dwelling politician than the hostages held by a hostile country. Despite a elder Bush and a much craftier strategist than general public outcry for action, the president Reagan. Like Culp’s president in The Pelican does nothing. He’s not a pacifist: he’s just afraid to Brief, Moffat’s chief executive conspires with 19 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004 another Machiavellian chief-of-staff in an illegal President: (following Ryan, operation, this one involving American soldiers, blocking his exit) The country the CIA and Columbian drug lords. Because these can’t afford another scandal, drug lords murdered one of the president’s close Jack. To protect itself, it won’t friends, he authorizes his chief-of-staff to allow another deception that orchestrate an illegal, covert, Iran-Contra-style goes all the way to the top operation to assassinate drug lords and break the The president explains to Ryan that he’ll make back of the Columbian drug cartel. The plan sure that all the blame falls on his chief of staff succeeds, and a pack of Columbian drug lords, and other CIA officials. including a Pablo Escobar look-alike and their families, are killed. But CIA assistant director for intelligence Jack Ryan, played by Harrison Ford, President: But that’s as far as it finds out about it and confronts the president in will go… The old Potomac two- the Oval Office. First the president tries to deny step, Jack. his involvement: Ryan: I’m sorry, Mr. President. I Some things have gone on here don’t dance. … that I’m just becoming aware The movie ends as Ryan goes straight to Capitol of. I was kept in the dark, as Hill and tells all. you were, for a very long time. Troubling things . . . A more devious and malevolent president is Bill Mitchell – played by Kevin Kline – in the movie But Ryan shows his anger, since he knows what Dave (1993). We don’t see much of Mitchell the president knew and when he knew it. Trying to because for most of the film, a look-alike named calm Ryan down and head off disclosure and Dave is filling in for the president, who, due to a scandal, the president says: stroke, is in a vegetative state in a secret basement of the White House. The president President: You should never suffered his stroke while having wild sex with one make important decisions while of the White House secretaries. Just as well, we you’re upset. learn, as the film plays out. The president was a hateful man, unconcerned with the American Ryan: (furious) You did! And people, sarcastic, crooked and snide. An American soldiers and innocent especially odious, chew-the-carpet attack dog civilians are dead because of it! chief of staff, played with lusty, over-the-top I will not let you dishonor their malice by Frank Langella, comes up with the idea memories by pretending you of using Dave to impersonate the president long had nothing to do with it! enough for the chief of staff to perform a covert palace coup. Langella plans to frame the After the president explodes in an equal outburst innocent, boy scout-like vice-president with a bank of temper and feigned outrage, they both calm scandal that Langella and President Mitchell were down, and Ryan says that he must do his duty responsible for. That should result in the vice- and report the whole affair to the Senate oversight president’s resignation. Then the plan called for committee. The president slinks back into oily presidential stand-in Dave to appoint his chief-of- politician mode, puts on a wry grin and says: staff as vice-president. Then Langella’s character would replace Dave with the real brain-dead President: You’re not gonna do President Mitchell, announce that the president that . . . You’ve got yourself a had a stroke and ascend to the presidency by chip in the big game now! invoking the Presidential Succession Act. But You’re gonna tuck that away. instead, Dave, with the help of the first lady and a You’re going to save that for a few loyal White House staffers, performs his own time when your own ass is on palace coup, fires Langella, clears the vice the line. Then you’re gonna pull president of the false charges, incriminates the it out, and I’m gonna cash it in chief-of-staff and the real President Mitchell, fakes for you. Right? a stroke of his own and switches places in the ambulance with the vegetative president. The Ryan: (disgusted, he turns to vice-president takes the oath of office and the exit the Oval Office) I don’t think chief of staff is indicted in the bank scandal. I have any more to say to you, sir. In a way, Dave was a man very much like rank- and-file Americans, but in other ways, he was superior to the average citizen in character and in 20 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004 his love of the common people. Because he was the president might want: even a shark sandwich from common stock, the film reinforces on rye. Americans’ perceived moral distance between The president wants to cut his political losses Washington politicians, the president and the when the female senator he has nominated to citizens they are elected to serve. replace his late vice-president becomes embroiled in a sex scandal. Enemies considerably more Presidents “Just Like Us” odious than the president have faked video Unfortunately, the next two presidents to discuss footage of this nominee performing sex for a are entirely too much like the rest of us. succession of fraternity boys 20 years ago when Americans want their presidents to be intelligent, she was in college. Throughout the scandal the diplomatic, clever, wise and brave. At least senator refuses to defend herself against these Donald Pleasance, who false charges because the same standard would portrays the president in not have been applied Escape from New York Americans want their presidents to be if she were male. (1981), is intelligent. On intelligent, diplomatic, clever, wise and Finally, at the end of a flight to an important brave. the film, the woman’s international summit sense of honour and meeting, carrying a tape dignity so impresses containing a formula for cold fusion (or some the president that for at least once, over the similar kind of McGuffin), Air Force One crashes protests of yet another pit viper chief of staff, the in downtown New York, which is no longer a president decides to do the right thing and thriving metropolis, but instead has been turned supports her. into a giant, maximum security prison in which the inmates are allowed to run amok. The hero of this The Lighter Side film, Snake Plisskin (Kurt Russell), is tasked with On the lighter side of antagonist presidents, in the job of infiltrating an anarchic New York Wag the Dog (1997), director Barry Levinson populated by criminals, and rescuing the president gives us Michael Belson, another president in time to attend the summit meeting, where he reminiscent of Bill Clinton, who has a “sexual would share the contents of his tape, thereby problem.” The president is up for re-election and insuring world stability. it’s 14 days before voters go to the polls. But the Plisskin finally finds the president, held hostage by chief executive is about to fall headlong into a a criminal “lord of the flies”, the “boss of New career-ending scandal: Apparently the president York.” But Plisskin – and the audience – are has had sex with a visiting Firefly Girl (read Girl repulsed by the selfish, whining, cowardly Scout) in his office. With two weeks to go before president he is assigned to rescue. Unmindful of Election Day, the White House strategy is to the fates of others who die to help him escape, “create a diversion.” They hire a Hollywood the president is only concerned about his own producer to create a phoney war with Albania to survival. Finally, after affecting the rescue, move the Firefly Girl story to the back pages until Plisskin shows his disgust for the president by after the election. deftly switching the president’s tape cassette with President Alan Alda in Canadian Bacon (1995) a tape cassette that had belonged, ironically, to a doesn’t have a sexual problem, but he’s taxi driver who died helping the president escape. incompetent and disliked – so much that his approval ratings have dropped dangerously low. The Good and the Bad Knowing that presidential ratings always go up Some presidents seem to be bad in some ways during a war, the president decides to “pick a but possess other redeeming qualities. Such an fight” with another country. They decide on enigmatic president is Jeff Bridges’ consummate, Canada because “they’re so polite” they wouldn’t though devious politician-president in the film The cause the U.S. much harm. Expertly manipulating Contender (2000). At first the president seems the news media, the White House has TV more concerned with his image and legacy than in announcers spouting the most insane doing the best thing for the country or his party. propaganda: He seems most interested in his private game of “stump the White House chef.” At any moment of TV Announcer: Like maple the day or night, the president calls the chef to syrup, Canada's evil oozes over request the strangest and most exotic dishes, the United States. hoping one day to order something that the White House kitchen can’t deliver. But it seems that this Another TV Announcer: Think White House chef has the makings for any meal of your children pledging

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allegiance to the maple leaf. TV series, The West Wing. But in King’s The Mayonnaise on everything. Dead Zone back in 1983, Christopher Walkin Winter 11 months of the year. plays John Smith, a man who accidentally has Anne Murray - all day, every developed strange powers. By touching a person, day. Smith can see a vision of that person’s future. In this film, Sheen plays Greg Stillson, a promising Another TV Announcer: The candidate for the U.S. Senate. Running on a half- Canadians. They walk among populist, half fascist platform, this crooked us. William Shatner. Michael J. politician appears destined for success – until he Fox. Monty Hall. Mike Meyers. accidentally meets and shakes hands with John Alex Trebek. All of them Smith at a political rally. Smith sees Stillson’s Canadians. All of them here. future: he not only is elected senator, but later president. But power corrupts and the president The result? One character, the oafish Gus, goes barking mad. In a scene reminiscent of one horrified by all this anti-Canadian propaganda, of Nero’s insane outbursts, President Stillson says: orders up a nuclear war – out of a dual sense of paranoia and self-glorification. Canadians are always dreaming up a lotta ways to ruin Horrified by this vision of Armageddon, Smith our lives. The metric system, for decides to assassinate Stillson before he ascends the love of God! Celsius! Neil to power. Smith hides in the rafters of the town Young! hall with a rifle and intends to shoot the politician during a town meeting. When Stillson mounts the Under the heading of a comedy president you stage, Smith opens fire, but misses, and is himself wouldn’t invite home to dinner unless you counted shot. But in the confusion following the gunfire, the silverware afterward is Jack Nicholson’s the candidate panics, showing his lack of sleazy and inept politician in Mars Attacks! (1996). character by grabbing a child to shield himself The Martians give pretty clear notice when they from the bullets. Smith dies, but thanks to a news arrive on Earth that they haven’t come to photograph taken of Stillson grabbing frantically socialize. For example, the first thing they do is onto his human shield, the candidate is ruined and incinerate a herd of cattle. Always the politician, disgraced, never holds public office and ultimately Nicholson can only think of his place in history as commits suicide. president and first intergalactic statesman. One of his generals wants to “nuke” the Martians, while The most dated of the post-1940s films in this his science advisor leaps to the logic that because sample and the only film that predates President the Martians are capable of space flight, they Nixon, the 1968 cult film Wild in the Streets is couldn’t possibly have warlike intentions. perhaps the most bizarre and extravagant Wondering out loud what suit he should wear to example of “worst nightmare” presidents. This film meet the Martians, the president talks it over with emerged from the social unrest caused by the his wife, a Nancy Reagan clone, who insists that Vietnam War, which created the oft-cited she won’t feed them off the good china. “generation gap” between old and young. Remember the slogan, “Never trust anyone over Ultimately, when the president meets with the 30”? This was the campaign slogan of Max Frost, aliens, he shakes hands with the Martian leader 24-year-old rock idol and millionaire – soon to and the spaceman’s hand comes off. The hand become the youngest president in our history. crawls around the president’s back, stabs him and When a congressman uses the rock star to court then sprouts a flag out of his chest, insuring the younger voters, Frost, along with his cadre of president his prominent place in history. stoned-out, turned-on friends, decide to change the rules that permit only the “old” to rule over the “Worst Nightmare” Presidents young. Frost and friends manage to persuade the While Hollywood has provided us with presidents California legislature to lower the voting age to 15, on the lighter side, there are also chief executives resulting in the election of one of Frost’s friends to who reside in the darkest depths of evil. We can the U.S. Senate. There she introduces a refer to them as “our worst nightmare presidents.” constitutional amendment lowering the federal First, courtesy of Stephen King, there’s a man voting -- and office-holding -- age to 14. Because who only becomes president in another Frost’s cadres spiked the Capitol’s water with character’s worst nightmare. Ironically, this man is LSD, the drugged-out congress passes the Martin Sheen, whose film career has included measure. Later, thanks to all the adolescent roles as President Kennedy, a good chief of staff voters, Max Frost is elected president. One of his in The American President (1995), and the first acts – for the sake of “national security” – is to admirable President Josiah Bartlett on the current order everyone over the age of 30 into 22 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004 concentration camps for “re-education,” where by a keypad stored in the black box, can disable they are kept constantly drugged on LSD. the electrical power in an entire country: dial (appropriately) “6-6-6” and the whole world’s But at the end of the picture, just as Max settles electricity is permanently neutralized. The into a false stupor of security as president/dictator, rebellious Utopia has escaped to L.A. and taken a new menace arises: even younger children the black box and keypad to her lover, a Che begin plotting to overthrow his government with Guevara look-alike and gang leader. The slogan: “We’re gonna put everybody over 10 out president orders Snake to steal the keypad back, of business!” and while he’s at it, kill his daughter to avoid the Jerry Falwell is the inspiration for another “worst embarrassment of a treason trial and a public nightmare” chief executive, Cliff Robertson’s execution. president in Escape from L.A. (1996). Robertson’s This president is also cowardly. While the character, a wild-eyed religious fanatic, predicts president is waiting for Snake to do his job, an that Los Angeles, which he characterizes as earthquake shakes the building. Everyone else Sodom and Gomorrah, would suffer the wrath of goes about his/her job while the president cowers God. Coincidentally, soon afterwards L.A. is in fear under a table. Later, when the situation virtually destroyed in an earthquake, actually gets tough, the president orders his plane warmed separating it from the mainland. As a result, this up and ready so he can escape. fanatic is elected president. Shortly after, the constitution is amended making him president-for- Finally, Snake retrieves the keypad and the life. Soon, the new “Moral United States of president’s daughter. The president condemns America” becomes a religious fascist dictatorship. Utopia to die in the electric chair, but Snake takes Lynchburg, VA, is named the new U.S. Capitol, the keypad and dials “6-6-6” to neutralize all and any non-conformist, anyone who protests the electrical power, allowing Utopia to escape – and government’s actions, any citizen who sins, effectively putting the president out of business. anyone who commits crimes – along with their families, including their children – are stripped of Conclusion their citizenship and deported to L.A. Island. As in Escape from New York, L.A. Island is surrounded As you can see by the range and imagination in by national police (read S.S.) troops, who kill Hollywood’s villainous president characters, there anyone who tries to escape. In a conversation is no end to the possibilities for Hollywood with the cynical Snake Plisskin, again the antihero filmmakers. First a number of American protagonist, a national police general describes presidents in a row will have to conduct their the nation this new president has created: administrations so far above reproach that the public’s image of the presidency changes back General: America is a from one of suspicion and disrespect to nonsmoking county. No confidence and admiration. smoking, no drugs, no women, And what are the odds that will happen anytime unless you're married. No fur, soon? no curse-words, and no red meat. In the meantime, since many films with presidential villains have been commercially Snake: (sarcastically) Land of successful, the trend is likely to continue. the Free. Hollywood screenwriters have discovered a compelling new kind of villain to write about: a Plisskin, certainly not the religious type, is about person who is extremely powerful, seemingly to be deported to L.A. himself when the president respected and leads the free world. The sins of offers him a deal: his freedom and a clean record America’s leaders, especially Presidents Nixon, in return for his services. The president’s daughter Reagan, Bush and Clinton, will continue to inspire Utopia, who has become a revolutionary, has creative screenwriters to create new and stolen the president’s “black box” that controls a interesting ways to turn the president of the United string of nuclear-powered satellites surrounding States into that guy in the movies with the black the earth. One of these satellites, when activated hat.

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Filmography Title Year Director Title Year Director Absolute Power 1997 Clint Eastwood Escape from New 1981 John Action In The North 1943 Lloyd Bacon York Carpenter Atlantic Escape from L.A. 1996 John Air Force 1943 Howard Hawks Carpenter The American 1995 Rob Reiner Executive Power 1997 David Corley President Flying Tigers 1942 David Miller Canadian Bacon 1995 Michael Moore God Is My Co-Pilot 1945 Robert Florey A Clear and Present 1994 Phillip Noyce Mars Attacks! 1996 Tim Burton Danger Murder at 1600 1997 Dwight Little The Contender 2000 Rod Laurie The Pelican Brief 1993 Alan Pakula Dave 1993 Ivan Reitman Wag The Dog 1997 Barry Levinson The Dead Zone 1983 David Wild in the Streets 1968 Barry Shear Cronenberg The Edge of Darkness 1943 Lewis Milestone „

Letter from New York Our regular correspondent from New York, Lenny Quart, has sent us these two personal views of life in the Big Apple

Except for a few relatively privileged students who The Weathermen revisited had transferred to my experimental branch of New Lenny is prompted by the release of a new York’s City University from elite schools like documentary film on the Weathermen to look back Columbia and the University of Chicago (and had to the heady days of student radicalism in New read a bit of Lenin and Marx), most of my students York. never talked of “revolutionary struggle.” We were recently screened a new documentary film, graced with visits from a number of SDS’ major The Weather Underground -- an affecting figures, like the then strutting and ranting Mark mixture of archival footage, FBI reports, and Rudd, in his Columbia sit-in pre-Weathermen I days. He came to rally our students to the cause, some penetrating contemporary interviews with some of the main Weathermen: Bill Ayers, but most of the students were left unmoved by the Bernadette Dohrn, Mark Rudd. Afterwards I was appearances of these self-important radical stars moved to reflect on my time as a “radical” (movement “heavies”). In fact, they found their professor in the late 60s when I became the humourless jargon and slogan-ridden, polemics faculty adviser to my college’s nebulously defined (e.g., “fascist pigs,” “white skin privilege”) alien to SDS (Students for Democratic Society) chapter. their own much less abstract and more personal Like much of what occurred in the 60s, the role I longings. The students may have been hostile to was supposed to play wasn’t clearly defined. In authority and opposed to the war, but they were those heady days, whose emotional intensity I much more interested in “getting into their own loved, we were suspicious of all structure, and heads” than overthrowing capitalism. believed that acting spontaneously was more Some of those same movement heavies, hair authentic and preferable to making things run greying, and faces lined, resurface as the focus of effectively. Even during that era of infinite Weather Underground. The film begins with the possibilities and of lunatic acting out, however, I Weathermen’s faction’s take -over of SDS, the was uneasy with much of the political dogmatism organization then splitting into a number of of the late 60s national SDS (an organization that impotent fragments. After that, the Weathermen numbered close to 100,000 members by 1969). went underground for a decade, eluding the FBI, Still, despite my wariness with SDS, the deep helping acid-guru Timothy Leary escape from feelings I had for my emotionally fragile, prison and engaging in a series of bombings of intellectually tentative, working and lower middle police stations, the Pentagon, the U.S. Capitol, class students (many of them older than the usual and army bases. But by the end of the 70s, college age), moved me to offer them political sensing that their tactics and the movement itself advice and moral support. were played out, they turned themselves in (though because of FBI malfeasance in their cases they did not go to prison). The film, though 24 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004 never endorsing their actions, is more sympathetic movement is revived again, it takes its lead from to the Weathermen and their grand intentions than Tod Gitlin’s humanistic, non-violent SDS of 1963, I ever was. and not from its later rigid Stalinist and Maoist incarnations, nor from the Weathermen’s romantic Of course, I can understand the Weathermen’s nihilism, that led the student Left into a political momentary appeal. It was an optimistic time when abyss. Today, every time I hear soaring political you could believe that every political and personal rhetoric about transforming the world (be it from vision you had could be realized. Most of the the Left or Right) I think about the mayhem that group were well off, articulate, good looking these movements have left in their wake. Human graduates of elite colleges, who projected a risk- fallibility being what it is, what I ask for these days taking, glamorous aura. They embraced drugs is something less inspired, less noble-- an and sexual experimentation (“everyone was incremental, pragmatic politics that merely tries to supposed to sleep with everyone else”), and saw make the world a little more decent and equitable- themselves as self-styled revolutionaries, street -nothing more. fighters, and terrorists. The group viewed sit-ins and demonstrations as “defeatist,” refusing to be "spectators.” And felt the Vietnam War machine Discovering America in Queens and government violence against groups like the In this evocative article, Lenny shows how the Black Panthers could only be stopped by violent borough of Queens has changed over the last 40 action--“bringing the war home.” Yes, it was a years to become a microcosm of the ethnic volatile time, and our government was guilty of diversity of the United States countless atrocities; but these young, egocentric hen I was a pre-teen in the early 50s fantasists acted with little sense of politics and Bronx, I remember going to Queens for history and a great deal of lethal (though they the first time. One frozen December luckily killed nobody but themselves) and W night we took a bus to visit family friends in incoherent self-righteousness. Whitestone. When we stepped off the bus I recall The Weather Underground member most critical being stunned by what I saw. There were quiet of their past activities in the film, Brian Flanagan, streets of detached, sturdy red brick houses, declared: “If you could have right on your side, many of whose doors, windows and small front you could do some terrible things.” But most of the lawns were adorned with Christmas lights, other Weather Underground members, with a few decorations, and tableaux. It was something I reservations about tactics, to this day more than never experienced on my own tenement- filled three decades later, still feel little remorse about and art-deco-apartment-house streets of stoops what they did. Some convey great pathos, like the and fire escapes that barely acknowledged low-key, seemingly harmless, David Gilbert, Christmas. serving a life sentence in prison for participating in That day in Queens I felt that I had for the first a politically motivated armed robbery. But Gilbert, time entered a piece of serene small-town though he has lost everything, continues to hold, America, that I thought only existed in some of the like a majority of the others interviewed, that in a Hollywood double features that I attended every period of government sanctioned violence, it was Saturday afternoon. I fantasized that benign folks important to do something that made a stir. In with large loving families, like Jimmy Stewart and effect, they advocated revolutionary theatre --that Donna Reed in It’s A Wonderful Life, lived next destroyed real buildings and that could have cost door and Christmas carols were sung a capella real lives. under lamplight by clusters of jovial people The Weather Underground was isolated both from standing in the snow. Those films projected a very mainstream America and from much of the white, usually Protestant world where life’s American Left in the 70s. The film views them as tragedies would never undermine the basic idealists who took the wrong road, and ended up sweetness and harmony of living in America. becoming an anachronism. Idealists who However, I didn’t envy my parents’ friends for genuinely believed the world had to be changed living in a spacious house on a street with many they may have been, but also absurd, destructive, trees and white picket fences, that exuded a and self-destructive radicals, who blindly misread sense of well-being. I liked my own seedier, the nature of American society. Most striking edgier ethnic neighborhood more. But given that about the film is that it’s Mark Rudd, once one of my immigrant parents never quite became fully the angriest of the group, who hits the most assimilated Americans —most of the national poignant note. He expresses guilt and shame rituals (from Thanksgiving turkeys to Easter eggs) about what he did during that period. And though that radio and television had drummed into my he still feels his analysis of America’s horrific role consciousness played little role in their life— in the world was correct, he admits not knowing Whitestone’s Americanness fascinated me. what to do about it. I hope that if ever the student 25 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004

Over the next few decades, Queens, the city’s one of chaotic, but polite cohabitation.” Those largest borough in area, which had remained words are part of the introduction written by agricultural through the 19th century, changed Warren Lehrer and Judith Sloan’s to their radically: four and five- story nondescript Crossing the BLVD—a collage of recent apartment house developments sprang up on immigrants’ oral tales that convey many of the empty land; equally characterless attached and frustrations, yearnings, failures and successes of detached homes were built on other vacant lots; Queens’ immigrants. and the population grew (currently it’s over two One family that appears in the book are Bukharan million). But soon the ethnic and racial Jews who come from Uzbekistan and other composition of the borough was transformed. Central Asian states, and have settled in the Rego From the mid-60s on, Queens, with a great deal of Park section of Queens (30,000 live there and in available and affordable housing, became a adjoining neighbourhoods) near the deadly-to- magnet for immigrants from Columbia, Korea, pedestrians ten-lane Queens Boulevard. The India, Pakistan, China, Columbia, Ecuador, Bukharan Jews are an offshoot of Middle Eastern Guyana, and the Soviet Union among other and Persian Jewry dating from the 6th Century countries, turning it into the most ethnically A.D., who constitute a distinct group within world diverse area in the city and country. More than Jewry. They have their own language, foods, one third of Queens’ population today is foreign dance, music and unique mix of Jewish and born, and more than 110 different national groups Central Asian traditions. reside there. Rego Park is a comfortable, mundane looking Most neighborhood, with a immigrants From the mid-60s on, Queens became a magnet large variety of come to New housing - boxy six- York to seek for immigrants from many countries, turning it story apartment better economic into the most ethnically diverse area in the city houses, older one- lives, though family private there are and country. houses with political aluminium siding, refugees among them. As a result, Queens is and attached newer two and three family private now filled with busy shopping streets where homes - in a mixture of commonplace styles. Chinese, Korean, and Cyrillic lettering dominates, There are tiny Bukharan bakeries selling domed with shops owned by native-born Americans often tandoori flatbread loaves and small round an anomaly. lepeshka loaves, gift shops and restaurants where the customers all seem to be swarthy Queens remains a predominantly residential area neighborhood men. The Bukharans have where the identity of the neighbourhoods (they synagogues, Jewish day schools, and were once small towns) are much stronger that newspapers of their own. And most of them are that of the borough as a whole. And though the small shopkeepers or work in the jewellery trade. demographics of neighbourhoods change— their distinctive character endures: Asians, and Latin The Bukharan Jews have maintained an Americans have begun to move into Greek/Italian independent and vital communal identity in Astoria; Jackson Heights, which used to be Queens that is reinforced through their celebration Jewish and Irish, is now mainly Indian and of weddings, bar mitzvahs, holidays, and possibly Hispanic; and Flushing once a mixture of older two or three parties every week. They have kept ethnic groups is now predominantly Chinese and their extended families together - staying in the Korean. neighborhood or in ones nearby. And they support each other economically. None of these changes have occurred seamlessly. There have been political conflicts, as When the next generation of Bukharans go to the immigrants begin to vote and want their share college their communal identity will probably get of power, and the neighborhood old-timers resent weaker, but so far they have not quite assimilated that some immigrant shops have signs without to American life. There are other Queens ethnic any English on them. Their feeling is that the groups that have embraced American culture immigrant stores only want to serve their own, and more readily, but there are probably few streets that it has become time for them to leave the left in Queens that can evoke the image of small neighborhood. town America that Whitestone once did. That holds true for most of America as well. We are a However, ethnic conflict is not the dominant fact in vastly different country today, and the actor Jimmy Queens’ life. Sometimes there is tension, but at Smits is probably as representative of America other times friendship crosses over ethnic lines. But more often, “the choreography of Queens is now as Jimmy Stewart was then.„ 26 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004

Remembering the C's In Presidential Elections

In a presidential election year, retired high School teacher Edward T. Weeden looks back on the 2000 election and considers what lessons it holds for the forthcoming election

nother election is looming, along with all the have involved liberal amounts of drinking, bribery, depression associated with having to listen lying and cheating. Most presidential campaigns - A to bloated speech-making from the right from the beginning - have also involved candidates and incumbent. If this didn't massive amounts of spin by both contenders. have a major negative influence on our political And most have involved scandal at one or more and social outlook, how about the record of past points during the contest - against even our most incumbents and candidates? That's even more cherished persons - Washington, Jefferson and depressing. One could easily be excused from Lincoln included. Nothing is new under the 'sun' participating in this process, except . . . well of American politics. except that it is our country! What all this means can be summed up very nicely by the words of the last surviving knight in Citizens, Candidates and Choice the movie "Indiana Jones - The Last Crusade". And it truly is. We are the ones who possess the We must "choose, but choose wisely"! That is not sovereignty of the United States, loaning it to our always easy to do, but the choosing - and how we representatives during the course of their terms of choose is completely up to us. office. Since we have this highly desired gift to give, we should give it to the most deserving of College and Congress candidates. The trouble is, there seems to have Now for those of us who are so angry and been a good deal of dispute over the last 215 alienated at the selection process that we may years about who exactly most deserved our gifts. forget or forego the election process, we need to With the power of sovereignty also comes the comfort ourselves with the wisdom of the power of choice, not just of candidates, but also of Founding Fathers. You remember, those methods for determining who is the best rebellious long-hairs, who risked a hangman's candidate. Sometimes this is a simple matter of rope for an idea - that we could rule ourselves, 'what's in it for me' and sometimes it involves without being told how lesser or greater by others. amounts of 'the The United States is not a democracy – it is general welfare' - As most of us have but the choice of a republic. In a democracy, people rule learned, the United both method and directly. In a republic, we select States is not, repeat not, candidate is representatives to rule on our behalf. a democracy. We are a squarely up to us. republic. What is the difference? In a The only choice we democracy, people rule directly. In a republic, we should not make as citizens is to not exercise our select representatives to rule on our behalf. The choice. That would be voluntarily throwing away same is true of electing a president. None of us our little bit of sovereignty, our little bit of the vote for presidential candidates. We vote for United States. Gifts work best when they are representatives to elect the president for us. They given. They may be taken back, particularly in belong to a group called the Electoral College. elections, but they should at least be given. So, in essence, we go to a college to get the That being the case, it is very important that we as president we want every four years. citizens know where the candidates stand, with Why? The entire concern of these Founding respect to our own welfare, and with respect to a Fathers was that the more populous states should multitude of other issues facing the nation. not bully the less populous states. They had Americans often have an illusion about their experienced royal bullying in the American political past, particularly about presidential Colonies for over 150 years, followed by bluster elections. They have the illusion of some sort of from powerful states like Massachusetts, New golden era past, inspired by Currier and Ives York and Virginia in the Articles of Confederation lithographs showing well-dressed gentlemen for another 15 years before writing the present engaging in speeches and debates. Federal Constitution. Nothing could be further from the truth, however. To make sure that didn't continue, they decided to Most political harangues during past campaigns make states more equal during presidential 27 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004 elections. So they established an 'electoral after 36 separate debates and ballots! Given our college' in the same proportion as they did the hindsight on the character of the two candidates, it Congress - one member for each congressional seems remarkable that more than a single ballot representative, plus a member for each senator. was required. This confusion resulted in the We would vote for this group - or college - and twelfth amendment to the constitution, that federal they would actually select the president in each electors mark separate ballots for president and election. We do that to this day. The total in the vice president. Electoral College is now 538 (including three from In the latter election three separate state the District of Columbia, added in 1961). commissions convened - appointed by Congress - This college is why you can get a presidential in order to determine which electors were election where more people actually voted for un- 'genuine'. After several weeks of tense elected candidates than did for the successfully negotiations, another healthy choice was decided elected candidate. This has happened sixteen upon: Hayes not Tilden. Not that there was much times in our history, the most recently before the difference between the two. But the process of election of 2000 were Kennedy, Nixon (1968) and seeking a congressional - representative - solution Clinton (both 1992 and 1996). to a contested election was again validated. This election produced legislation to ensure that only Some of our most successful and brilliant one 'slate of electors' was deemed valid by any candidates have been elected as 'minority' one state. And that is how it remains to this day. popular vote presidents - presidents like Andrew Jackson, Abraham Lincoln, Woodrow Wilson and Harry Truman. Without Jackson we would never Contesting in the courts have gotten the broadening of democracy to non- But there is something that has recently surfaced property owners. Without Lincoln it would have over the horizon I greatly fear. And that is going taken many more years to get rid of slavery. to the courts to get a president. Why? Because Without Wilson we would never have gotten the the courts are an un-elected, unrepresentative Fourteen Points, the League of Nations, or the body. We have all heard that the courts are domestic progressive reforms of his era. Without impartial, that there is equal justice before the law. Truman, Europe might just still be recovering from Perhaps as a matter of law and justice the courts post war economic depression. are indeed impartial - that is another story. But So the argument that Al Gore got more popular with respect to politics, the courts are most votes does not hold much water with me, unless certainly not impartial. If that were not the case, we are talking about virtually disenfranchising the then why the upheaval in the U.S. Senate each voters in less populous states. If we are, then time a president makes a judicial appointment, why not just hold the election in New York, particularly with respect to the Supreme Court - Pennsylvania, Florida, Illinois, Texas and the final arbiter? California and be done with it? We could do away In contesting election results through the courts, with six months of candidates prancing around what the parties are doing is essentially asking an talking gibberish and save the proportionate un-elected, unrepresentative, politically appointed expense. We might even entice back some body to decide the validity of a supposedly voters in the few states participating. politically impartial process. Elections are Undemocratic? Perhaps. Unrepresentative, most supposed to be the 'level playing ground' onto certainly. which the contestants stride with their statements, I don't mind 'going to college to get a president'. policies, their character and strategy. When the In cases of elections where the college is unable results of an election goes to the courts for a or unwilling to vote a clear majority for one decision on the winner, it is no different than the candidate, I would even have no problem with nomination process going into a 'smoky room' for approaching yet another C - Congress. a decision on who will be the candidate. Both the judges and the politicos are part of a process Congress has determined the outcome of which is unelected and non-representative, and in presidential elections on two occasions, 1800 and which the individuals doing the choosing cannot 1876. In both cases, there was the typical help but incorporate their political view of events 'wheeling and dealing' of American politics, with into the picture. all its accusations of scandal and skulduggery. But in both cases, the outcome of the This situation has been a relative rarity in local congressional vote was a good one for the elections, and up until the last federal election was American body politic. unknown at the highest levels. With the introduction of the courts into the elective In the former, we got Thomas Jefferson instead of procedures at this level, several dangers exist. Aaron Burr, a most healthy selection - but only There is a potential for great increases in the time 28 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004 and expense of elections due to the incorporation elections, with their consequent transfer to the of the legal processes and factors (namely judicial branch for decision. This will not take lawyers) into the process. There is a potential for complex technologies, delicately negotiated obscuring the steps of the election and post changes in election processes, or populist election processes due to the 'spin' effect of panaceas. What it will take is a simple and various legal teams involved. There is the spectre straightforward method of choosing elected of the ability of the courts to nullify either the votes officials, and a population that wants to take its of the people (as in Dade County Florida), the own country back. If we can invent the telephone, votes of the Electoral College, or both. And there the airplane and the moon rocket, we should is the danger that courts may eventually be called surely be able to invent a voting machine that upon to take over the functions now performed by even the most frustrated and confused voter can the Federal Elections Commission, including the use quickly and effectively. If we can invent the certification of elections. Any of these 'incursions' income tax refund, and the grocery store coupon, by the courts into the election processes will result we ought to be able to invent a substantial refund in de facto 'government of, by, and for the judges' policy - say $100 per voter - for ballot stubs turned rather than 'government of, by and for the people'. in with tax forms or at the unemployment / welfare desk. Closing the Circle If this were the case, then the circle would be What must be done if this shows itself to be the closed, and we would be back to citizens, case in upcoming elections? Current political exercising sovereignty over their own political polls make much of the fact that both major process. Such massive participation would contenders are now 'virtually tied, even' in the run greatly reduce the risk of both ties in elections, for the next presidential election. With faction and and of any group of people deciding for politics being the order of the day, and likely to themselves what the American people allegedly remain that way, we must rely on what is the want in an election result. This does not need to surest means of keeping any group of the un- be complicated, like computers, brain surgery, or elected - no matter how lofty and high intentioned nuclear physics. It simply needs to be the taking - from hijacking the gift of temporary sovereignty back of what belongs to each and every one of us we have given our representatives. - our country and our sovereignty. „ We need an aware, aroused and active voting citizenry to counteract the danger of 'ties' in American Studies Centre presents Spirit Dancer

A day of Navajo Culture with Dennis Lee Rogers Wednesday 29th September at Liverpool Museum Dennis Lee Rogers is a well-known Native American artist and educator who is making a welcome return visit to Merseyside. He will be presenting a fascinating demonstration of traditional dance and talking about life on Navajo reservation and other aspects of Navajo arts and culture.

10.30 a.m. – 4.00 p.m. Cost: £7.00 including light lunch Tickets from: American Studies Centre Liverpool JM University Aldham Robarts Centre Mount Pleasant Liverpool L3 5UZ Phone (0151) 231 3241 (Payment by cheque to American Studies Centre JMU}

29 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004

Book Reviews Book reviews Washington could be brilliantly accessible, and Biography though Du Bois was always able to move his readers, Wells’s writings indeed seem more To keep the waters troubled: the life of Ida attuned to the desire for economic autonomy and B. Wells by Linda O. McMurray . Oxford independence that would become known as Black UP, 1998. Nationalism. In 1931, Du Bois said, upon hearing of her death; “The passing of Ida Wells Barnett ISBN hardback 0195088123, paperback calls for more than an ordinary obituary.” By 0193139275. pp 400. List price: Hardback: , , harnessing her name to his, McMurray helps paperback , $18.95. deliver such special remembrance, not only Reviewed by Andrew Warnes retelling but also reshaping our understanding of this extraordinary woman A big book about an important subject, To Keep the Waters Cultural History Troubled: the Life of Ida Chimes of Freedom: The Politics of Bob B. Wells could not, in a way, fail to be a Dylan’s Art, by Mike Marqusee New Press significant and welcome Reviewed by Gerry Cordon, Liverpool Community addition to the archive of College African-American biography. Like Hazel In July 1963 Bob Dylan Rowley’s Richard Wright: performed in a field in the Life and Times (2001) Greenwood, Mississippi in and Valerie Smith’s support of an SNCC voter Wrapped in Rainbows: the Life of Zora Neale registration drive that was Hurston (2003), Linda McMurray’s work reveals floundering, beset by white an impressive archive and a painstaking diligence racist violence. Three that handsomely do justice to its imposing subject. weeks after the murder of As with these biographies, however, it is possible Medgar Evers, the local to find fault with the book. The first few chapters, NAACP field secretary, which deal with Wells’s childhood in Holly Springs, Dylan unveiled his Mississippi and Memphis, Tennessee, are response – ‘Only a Pawn generously peppered with the word may and in in Their Game’. other ways display the weakness for speculation that often befalls biography. Similarly, because A month later, at the March on Washington, Dylan McMurray’s central thesis is that her subject was sung it again. On a day when everyone else was a political leader of the rank of W. E. B. Du Bois singing about freedom and deliverance and unity, and Booker T. Washington, her focus on Wells’s Dylan presented a class-based analysis of racism: sexual attitudes and failed affairs might seem slightly dubious – might seem an ironic symptom The South politician preaches to the poor of the very gender conventions Wells so white man, continually overhauled. In other ways, however, “You got more than the blacks, don’t McMurray does much to bolster her ambitious and complain. necessary thesis. The story of the astonishing You’re better than them, opposition that Ida B. Wells mounted to lynching You been born with white skin”, throughout the 1890s is always compelling, but it They explain is told – retold – here with a slightly different weight, which emphasises not only Wells’s At this point, Dylan is the icon, the voice, of the famous courage but also her less noted political mass movement for civil rights and social change intelligence. By sampling and analysing particular that has emerged in sixties America, responsible examples, McMurray persuades you that Ida B. for the two keynote protest songs of the year – Wells’s rhetoric deserves to be mentioned in the ‘The Times They Are A-Changin’’ and ‘Blowin’ in same breath as Martin Luther King Jr.’s sermons, the Wind’. Then, three weeks after the and that it eclipses the polemics produced by her assassination of John Kennedy and four months contemporaries Washington and Du Bois. Though 30 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004 after the March on Washington, in the eyes of the folk-protest fraternity, Dylan throws it all away. In songs such as ‘The Ballad of Hollis Brown’ and ‘The Lonesome Death of Hattie Carroll’, what In December 1963 he attends the Emergency spurs his writing, argues Marqusee, is ‘racist Civil Liberties Committee annual Bill of Rights violence, the brutality and madness of the white dinner to receive their Tom Paine Award for backlash’ – not dreams of interracial harmony. services to the cause. Dylan had been drinking heavily when he stepped up to accept his award Another strand in the sixties ferment was the with an incoherent speech that offended the movement against nuclear war. The Student audience and signalled his frustration with the Peace Union had, within a year of its formation in protest singer identity as a burden and creative 1959, chapters on a hundred campuses and in straightjacket. Amongst his more polite 1962 drew 5,000 to a Washington protest march, observations looking down on his audience of the biggest since the thirties. Dylan, too was political veterans that night were: ‘It’s not an old swept along in this current, but then came to people’s world…I look down to see people that define it. When the folk-protest magazine are governing me and making my rules – and they Broadside was launched, his ‘Talkin’ John Birch haven’t got any hair on their head – I get very Paranoid Blues’ appeared in the first issue, uptight about it…I’ve never seen one history book followed shortly by ‘Blowin’ In The Wind’, that tells me how anybody feels…And it don’t help ‘Masters of War’, ‘A Hard Rain’s A Gonna Fall’ me one little bit to look back.. There’s no black and ‘With God On Our Side’. and white, left and right to me anymore…” Marqusee notes perceptively that these songs In this book, Mike Marqusee traces Dylan’s “burst the boundaries of the soft-focus pacifism of trajectory from king of folk-protest to his previous anti-war songs…concerned not merely reluctance to be pigeonholed, his rejection of the with the imminence of war, but with its deeper confines of protest politics, and his turn to electric causes, with the forces that promote and profit rock. Marqusee puts the case that, even in his from fear and violence”. ‘post-protest’ phase, the three masterworks of the mid-1960s - ‘Bringing It All Back Home’, ‘Highway In the weeks following the March on Washington 61 Revisited’ and ‘Blonde on Blonde’ – Dylan wrote ‘The Times They Are A-Changin’. “At themselves reflect changes in counter-culture this moment, in this song”, writes Marqusee, politics from the public to the personal. “Dylan seems to believe that this movement can and will rise to the challenge of bringing justice to Marqusee skilfully sets Dylan’s emergence on the an unjust society”. But Dylan moves on, scorning New York folk scene in the early 60s within the the conservatism of his audience at the Tom context of the political and cultural forces that Paine award gathering and, 18 months later, shaped the folk movement from its roots in the outraging traditionalists at the 1965 Newport Folk popular front of the thirties, with its emphasis on Festival by going electric, singing ‘It’s All Over mobilising American identity for progressive Now, Baby Blue’. purposes (for example, Woody Guthrie’s ‘This Land is Your Land’), the continuation of attempts Marqusee explains that Dylan was never an to promote left-wing politics in the postwar period activist: “He absorbed his politics, like much else, through the Peoples Songs group (who by osmosis. His contribution to the movement proclaimed, “the people are on the march and was limited to a small number of personal must have songs to sing”), and the key role appearances, a few donations – and the songs. played by folklorists such as Woody Guthrie, Pete These, however, were an inestimable gift”. Seeger, Alan Lomax and John Hammond (who later signed Dylan to Columbia). But did Dylan’s work cease to be political from this point? Marqusee suggests otherwise. Dylan, Marqusee shows how these influences shaped who had been in the vanguard of the social the outlook of Dylan and a whole generation. protest movement, now led the way to the next Above all, the civil rights movement, with the development that defines cultural change in the importance it placed on songs (both CORE and sixties - the turn away from the regimented politics SNCC published volumes of freedom songs, and of the left towards the private politics of Folkways put out albums) was a defining factor. expressive individualism. In two further chapters From his first protest song - ‘The Death of Emmet Marqusee brilliantly demonstrates how the folk Till’ - and in a good number of the two hundred tradition, modernism, pop culture and political original compositions that followed in the next two insight are fused in Dylan's masterworks of the years, Dylan explores America’s racial divide, but mid-1960s, ‘Bringing It All Back Home’, ‘Highway always in his own unique fashion. 61 Revisited’ and ‘Blonde on Blonde’. 31 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004

What Dylan does in his post-protest songs, Eating Smoke: Fire in Urban America, argues Marqusee, is “to offer a critique of politics 1800-1950 by Mark Tebeau: Johns itself as a field of human endeavour”. In ‘My Back Hopkins University Press, 2003, 426 Pages’ he translates the incoherence of his Tom pages. Paine award rant into art, rejecting the simplicities Reviewed by Andrew Warns University of and certainties, the self-righteousness and authoritarianism in movement politics: Leeds

Lies that life is black and white “If war, famine, disease, Spoke from my skull. I dreamed and death were the four Romantic facts of musketeers horseman of the Foundationed deep, somehow. apocalypse, fire surely Ah, but I was so much older then, could have been a fifth.” I'm younger than that now. From an apocalyptic precept that is as This shift from the public to the personal was a startling as it is defining element of the sixties’ legacy. Dylan’s convincing, Mark political disillusionment reflected “not only the Tebeau’s Eating Smoke: stresses of revolt and reaction, but also the Fire in Urban America, relentless packaging of experience and identity in 1800-1950 proceeds to a consumer society”; listen: narrate the history of its subtitle’s subject in immense and impressive Disillusioned words like bullets bark detail. Starting with the emergence of voluntary As human gods aim for their mark fire-fighting units in the new American Make everything from toy guns that spark metropolises of the nineteenth century—New To flesh-coloured Christs that glow in the York, Cincinnati, Chicago, New Orleans and St. dark Louis—Eating Smoke charts the shifting It's easy to see without looking too far perceptions of these remarkable men and of the That nothing much fire they fought to smother, contain and control. Is really sacred… Throughout, Tebeau makes his case very well. And if my thought-dreams could be seen The virtues both of a traditional historical They'd probably put my head in a guillotine methodology based on empiricism and research But it's alright, Ma, it's life, and life only. and of a penetrating cultural analysis are on display here. Although the former is at times more This is not only one of the best books on Dylan, it prominent than the latter, Tebeau’s evocative is also – particularly in the first three chapters - a narratives of major conflagrations like those that brilliant and incisive reflection on the sixties beset Chicago in 1871 and Boston in 1872 are counter-culture and its roots. The remaining interestingly interspersed with passages on the chapters, which assess ‘The Basement Tapes’ conflicting interpretations that these spectacular and ‘John Wesley Harding’ are less incisive, but catastrophes inspired. Most striking among these as a whole this is a book that should be read by is perhaps that which the title indicates: the anyone interested in the currents that swirled remarkable degree to which an individual through America as the whole wide world was firefighter’s worth continued, throughout the period watching. that the book covers, to be gauged in terms of how much smoke he could “eat”—a physical Mike Marqusee has also written Redemption criterion that helps explain the necessary Song: Muhammad Ali and the Spirit of the Sixties, predominance of men in this overwhelmingly a historical analysis of Ali's role as a symbol of masculine story. dissent and a companion to the current volume in that it seeks to understand the man as a way to As a matter of fact, Tebeau is so good on such understanding the era. critical matters that that I start to wish the book "Keep a good head and carry a light bulb."—Bob could expand its somewhat limiting and slightly Dylan's response to the question "What is your unambitious scope. Tebeau’s coverage of West advice for young people?” London 1962. Coast developments, for example, is surprisingly and disappointingly scanty. Similarly, I would like to hear Tebeau’s thoughts on the role fire played in other phases of American history or in the development of other major metropolitan areas of the world. I yearn, for example, to see Tebeau

32 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004 question whether national American culture animation and less influenced by orthodox notions between 1800 and 1950 sustained its earlier of narrative. Wells also places animation’s origins association of fire with the assumed “devilry” of firmly in the era of Modernism and demonstrates the American Indian, or to explore in even fuller its links to the developments of other art forms, detail the extent to which city fires were always maintaining its individual nature. interpreted either according to a Biblical cosmology or a set of folkloric superstitions. In the Prof. Wells’s book is not a history of animation in same way, the Great Fire of London, the source of America, and although it follows a loosely so many vivid accounts and not a few fanciful chronological structure (opening with the ones, and a catastrophe intriguingly associated as beginning of the form and dedicating the later much with progress and renewal as it was with chapters to television animation and computer death and destruction, could have prompted some generated animated films, like Pixar’s Toy Story), very interesting comparative discussion. Such its aim is not an exhaustive account of the discussion, moreover, could have showcased development of the form, and it does not Tebeau’s impressive skills as a cultural constitute basic background reading for students commentator and analyst in a yet more effective completely new to the subject. Readers of this manner. book need to have a certain familiarity with concepts of both Film and Media Studies (auteur, In terms of what it sets out to do, Eating Smoke synaesthetic cinema) and American Studies succeeds unequivocally. A fascinating, (particularly a historical and social perspective) engrossing, sturdy work of empirical history, it tells and be familiar with some of the critical debates the student everything he or she needs to know regarding the topic. The style is accessible, it about its chosen subject. But it is also everything does not contain illustrations (a lack for readers that this subject is not: slow, contained, controlled, new to the topic), and its format is manageable. and unlikely to set the mind ablaze. I hope that Wells develops his thesis throughout the volume Tebeau’s next book does more justice to all of his and its six chapters are interrelated making it formidable intellectual skills. therefore not an appropriate book exclusively for reference. Film Studies Animation and America complements well other Animation and America. Paul Wells. existing sources on animation (see for instance its (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press excellent bibliography) and it will be of particular 2002) interest to students and readers with a basic Reviewed by Dr. Olga Núñez Miret knowledge of the subject and a desire to develop further their expertise. Prof. Paul Wells has used his recognised American film and politics from Reagan to expertise in the field of animation (he has also Bush Jr by Philip John Davies and Paul published Art and Animation and Understanding Wells. Manchester University Press, 2002. Animation) to provide with this short book an analysis of the subject from an American Studies ISBN hardback 0719058643, paperback perspective. As Prof. Wells 0719058651. pp 229. List price: Hardback: , , states at the opening of the paperback , . book, the animated cartoon Reviewed by Nathan Abrams University of is one of America’s four Southampton indigenous art forms, and Deciding what films to use for a film this study is a welcome studies/history course is always difficult. Finding contribution to the readings for them is often even harder. So it is discipline. This book is also always heartening to discover a new book on of interest to students of contemporary Hollywood cinema. Media or Film Studies, Philip John Davies and Paul Wells have particularly due to its assembled an impressive list of names for this emphasis on the specific collection on American film and politics from and distinctive Reagan to Bush Jr. They include Albert Auster, characteristics of animation in comparison to Leonard Quart and Brian Neve, among others. fiction films, and to the contrast between the The list of topics is broad, covering elections diverse approaches to animation in America. (Davies), Oliver Stone’s presidential films Whilst for Wells Disney represents a tradition- (Auster), gender and family values (Carol R. directed practice, Warner Bros. and the Fleischers Smith), New York City (Quart), the American follow a more inner- and other-directed practice, South (Ralph Willett), pluralism (Neve), Disney more democratic and open to the possibilities of (Wells), African Americans (Mary Ellison), 33 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004 pragmatism (Paul Watson) and adversarialism moment in American public consciousness of the (Phil Melling). An even broader range of films is Holocaust, but also the first presentation of a addressed. popular trial on television. As this example It is nice to see that films currently suffering from a suggests, Shandler’s book is useful not only for lack of academic attention are discussed but I those interested in the rise of Holocaust would liked to have seen a more in-depth analysis consciousness in contemporary America, but also of particular films, particularly Fight Club and Wag teachers and students of media studies the Dog. Indeed, it is criminal that a film like Planet of the Apes (remade in 2001) can still In a chronological study, Shandler explores not escape academic scrutiny (with the exception of simply the much-replayed newsreel footage of the Eric Greene’s fine book) and what about Three liberation of the camps in 1945 and much-debated Kings, still the single best film on Desert Storm? 1978 NBC mini-series Holocaust. He also draws It is hard to know exactly who the book is aimed our attention to less well known televising of the at. While academics will certainly read it, I’m not Holocaust such as the first appearance of a sure that it is quite within the range of an Holocaust survivor on This Is Your Life in 1953 undergraduate audience because some chapters and a 1968 episode of Star Trek featuring the are highly theoretical. In Watson’s chapter, for persecution of Zeons on the planet Ekos, which example, there is too much focus on theory at the draws on Holocaust imagery whilst also expense of discussion of the films supposedly resonating with debates over American under scrutiny. In fact, Fight Club and Magnolia engagement in Vietnam. Throughout, he (ostensibly the subject of this chapter) merely demonstrates how the Holocaust has been provide a blank screen for the projection of variously introduced into the intimate space of Watson’s (admittedly) self-confessed ‘nit-picking’ American living rooms – although he could have about the ways intellectuals use words like reflected more on popular reception of these ‘politics’, ‘ideology’ and ‘identity’ (p. 36). images - as well as how the very act of televising Overall, this book is a useful collection, which I’m such a horrific event has become increasingly sure teachers in film studies and film history will contested. Whilst public memory of the past may find some use for. often be thought as best served through the perceived permanence of monuments created from metal and stone, Shandler points to the ways While America watches by Jeffrey in which the Holocaust has entered popular Shandler. Oxford UP, 1999. consciousness through something so transient ISBN hardback 0195119355, paperback . pp 316. and flickering as the television screen. List price: Hardback: , $30, paperback , . Reviewed by Dr Tim Cole, Department of Historical Studies, University of Bristol History

As Shandler notes, Jefferson Davis's generals by Gabor S. although the Holocaust Boritt. Oxford UP, 1999. neither took place in America nor impacted the ISBN hardback 0195120620, paperback vast majority of Americans, 0195139216. pp 0. List price: Hardback: , , by the end of the twentieth paperback £, $13.95. century it had emerged as Reviewed by Dr Will Kaufman, Reader in English the dominant moral and American Studies University of Central paradigm in American Lancashire politics and society. It is the rise of the Holocaust to the This essay collection is status of a contemporary likely to interest Civil War American icon that forms the basis of While scholars, lay readers and, America Watches. However, unlike more general perhaps, undergraduates studies such as Peter Novick’s The Holocaust in more than students and American Life (1999), the novelty and value of teachers on A Level and Shandler’s work is that his focus is on the Access courses. representation of the Holocaust through the However, it is an relatively new media of television. Indeed estimable collection Shandler suggests that Holocaust representation edited by one of the and American television share something of a foremost Civil War linked history. Thus, the televising of the scholars, containing Eichmann trial in 1961 was not only a watershed essays by equally distinguished historians such as James M. 34 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004

McPherson, Harold Holzer, and Michael Parrish. not only is Lincoln the subject of more books than The essays focus on five particular Confederate any single American, he appears in more films generals and their relationship with the than any other. Mr. Spock and Captain Kirk Confederate President, Jefferson Davis. It is beamed him aboard the Enterprise to help fight an difficult to gauge the attraction of a book devoted intergalactic war, and the Simpsons invoke him on to the high command of the Southern army for the a regular basis. He has been claimed as a gay readers of American Studies Today, but there is icon, a white racist, and the ‘Spirit of the People’; no doubt that the essays are great contributions to arguably, he has withstood more parody than any the body of Civil War scholarship. other American figure (my favourite example from Craig L. Symonds explores the progressively Borrit: ‘The Stinkin’ Lincolns’, a five-piece rock deteriorating, ‘fatal relationship’ between Davis band who perform dressed up as him). This is not and General Joe Johnston, viewing it as a crucial a book about a historical figure; it is a book about factor in the ultimate failure of the Southern war an icon, rooted in historical scholarship as well as effort. Emory Thomas’s essay on ‘ambivalent cultural criticism. visions of victory’ between Davis and Robert E. Lee, groping together to devise a grand strategy Borritt’s first essay, ‘Did for the South, carries further Symonds’s He Dream of a Lily- discussion of personal ‘synergy’ and its impact on White America?’, history. For Michael Parrish, the point of conflict is confronts the conflicting as much between two individuals as between two images of Lincoln as authorities, the civilian and the military; he focuses white supremacist and on General P.T.E. Beauregard’s battle to square integrationist, pitting the his allegiance to the civilian Confederate would-be colonist of government with his ‘loathing’ (not unrequited) for black Americans against Davis, who—like Lincoln—uneasily negotiated the the spirit behind the President’s two contesting roles of civilian Emancipation executive and military commander-in-chief. Proclamation and the Steven Woodworth discusses General Braxton Thirteenth Amendment. Bragg as an embodiment of Davis’s failure in the Douglas Wilson’s ‘Young Western theatre, while John Bell Hood, in Herman Man Lincoln’ recovers lost or obscured images of Hattaway’s reading, is the general whom Davis Lincoln’s youth in a bid to rescue him from the appointed above his abilities out of personal ossification imposed by statuary and coinage, affection rather than sound military judgment. while Jean H. Baker explores his enigmatic Lesley Gordon contributes a particularly valuable marriage with Mary Todd. Two chapters—by essay, in terms of military studies, on the Gerald Prokopowicz and David Herbert Donald— triangular relationship between Davis, his analyze Lincoln’s image as a wartime generals, and their wives, building on her commander-in-chief, and two (Allen Cuelzo and acknowledged expertise of the Civil War’s military William C. Harris) focus on his relation to the marriages. Harold Holzer—well known as a Constitution and the reconstructed Union. Robert scholar on the visual images of Civil War figures— V. Bruce’s study of Lincoln’s preoccupation with turns to the prints and lithographs of Davis as death goes some way towards explaining the commander-in-chief and defeated rebel. Finally, tragic associations attached to him even before the reigning godfather of Civil War scholarship, his assassination, and concludes the book’s James M. McPherson, rounds out the collection written analysis. Without detracting from these with a general assessment of Davis’s place in the essays, what remains is, to my mind, the book’s larger question of Confederate military strategy. best offering: a richly illustrated epilogue by Boritt and Harold Holzer exploring the visual Lincoln—in The Lincoln Enigma: The changing faces painting, prints, caricature, sculpture, and film. of an American icon by Gabor Boritt, ed The epilogue, in fact, is likely to contain the most . Oxford UP, 2001. valuable material for A Level and Access ISBN hardback 0195144589, paperback . pp 324. students; but any reader interested in List price: Hardback: £21.99 iconographic processes will find something of Reviewed by Dr Will Kaufman, Reader in English interest here. and American Studies

Gabor S. Boritt’s latest book on Abraham Lincoln—it is, by my count, his eighth, along with his many other Civil War studies—gathers together a number of scholars to explore why ‘the whole country rides’ Lincoln. Well may they ask: 35 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004

the Civil War in terms of its violence, and an The Blue, the Gray and the Red: Indian extension of it in terms of its factionalism, its campaigns of the Civil War by Thom territorial basis, and its moral ambiguities. Hatch. Stackpole Books, 2003. Historical personages and places not normally ISBN hardback 081170016X, paperback . pp 0. associated with the Civil War are addressed in List price: Hardback: , , paperback , . that war’s context - Kit Carson, Cochise, Black Reviewed by Dr Will Kaufman, Reader in English Kettle, John Chivington; Arizona, New Mexico, and American Studies, University of Central Sand Creek; names often hermetically sealed in a Lancashire western history often considered as separate from While the armies of the that of the east. As Hatch makes clear, however, Blue and Gray were during the Indian War that continued for twenty engaged in America’s years after the surrender at Appomattox, ‘every bloodiest war from 1861 battle and every drop of blood that was shed was to 1865, for the most a direct result of operations conducted during the part east of the Civil War’ (xi). His history is well documented, Mississippi River, Native straightforward and accessibly written, and should Americans to the west of prove useful to many students of American the river, between the Studies at Access and A-Level. Great Plains and the Pacific, battled against American places: encounters with history: the westward progression of white a celebration of Sheldon Meyer by settlers into their William E. Leuchtenburg, ed. Oxford UP, remaining territory. Backing the ‘pioneer’ 2001. movement were whatever small units could be ISBN hardback 019513026X, paperback . pp 398. spared from both the Union and Confederate List price: Hardback: , , paperback £19.99, . armies, mercenaries and adventurers, state Reviewed by Anne-Marie Evans, militiamen, and others who extended the killing ground far enough to ensure that more Indians Sheldon Meyer is and whites would be killed in the American west credited with the during the Civil War years than at any other time. responsibility for The western military scholar, Thom Hatch, has encouraging and published numerous works devoted to the developing the Oxford campaigns of George Armstrong Custer; here he University Press to turns his attention to the western Indian wars in become the the aggregate, particularly as they dovetailed into internationally renowned the Civil War’s blood-letting in the east. publishing house on American history it is In some places, such as present-day Oklahoma, today. This collection the division of the US into Union and Confederacy honours the work of left Indian territories as buffer zones, and their Meyer, who has edited inhabitants as variously willing and unwilling six Pulitzer Prize winning texts during the course participants in the white man’s civil war. For the of his career and provides each contributor with a Creek nation, this meant division into factions that broad canvas to work on with the title of American mirrored the American war, the ‘Upper Creek’ Places. (pro-Union) and the ‘Lower Creek’ (pro- Confederate). In other places, the abandonment The articles each interpret this guideline in a of US Army posts by soldiers drawn to the eastern variety of ways: Edward L. Ayers, for example, battlefields left territory free for concerted Indian opens the collection with a consideration of resistance and attempted reclamation of lost cyberspace as a form of place in America that is lands; Hatch faithfully and even-handedly paradoxically invisible yet everywhere, T. H. documents the spirals of mutual enmity that Breen unearths a fascinating history surrounding resulted in a dispiriting series of massacres - of the Civil War monument erected in Barre, the Shoshone at Bear River, Utah, in 1863; of the Massachusetts, and James C. Cobb 350 Scandinavian, Irish, and German immigrants geographically widens the topic of American of Minnesota at the hands of the Sioux in the places with his own personal experience of the ‘uprising’ of 1862; and of numerous others on both American occupation of Mannheim from 1945- sides of the racial divide all throughout the war 1946. Other fascinating essays include John years. The Indian War (as Hatch gathers the Demos’s utilisation of the Red Sox and Fenway separate conflicts together) was a counterpart to Park as an opportunity to examine Boston’s past, 36 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004

Paula S. Fass’s compelling account of the first changing thought both at a more general level of notable child kidnapping case in the USA dating western philosophy as well as of concepts of from 1874, while Kenneth T. Jackson charts a America and what it is to be an American. Finally, personal history as he examines the integral role Thomas attends to the negotiation and of Main Street in his childhood home of Memphis. ritualisation of the memorial both as a public and Kevin Starr’s analysis of the American restaurant, private site. Thus much of the book is bound up in specifically examining Hollywood’s Musso and issues of both public and private ideas of identity Frank Grill and Joel Williamson’s amused tour of Particularly appealing is both the book’s attention Graceland, successfully contribute to this vastly to theory, particularly of modernism, and that the engrossing volume. reading was architecturally impelled. Thomas uses recently formulated and exciting theoretical This edition is likely to appeal to the interested approaches to architecture and space. He shows reader in addition to the scholar or student. the reader that the site of the memorial is one of History here becomes very personal: editor contesting narratives both historical, political and William E. Leuchtenburg’s article, for example, also in terms of its daily negotiation and habitation concentrates on life growing up in his native on public and private terms. Thus a site that is Queens, with all authors reverting to the use of a potentially weighted in fixed meaning is shown to first person narration not usually found in standard be generative, fluid and continually changing. history texts. Many essays contain personal Thomas’s theorising of the memorial is complex, anecdotes concerning Meyer, providing another exciting and rigorously worked through. He constructive line of comparison throughout the approaches major aspects of America’s cultural volume paralleling the notion of place. This is an and political history through the memorial giving a appealing and useful collection that would be an distinctive perspective which, because of its clarity extremely beneficial supplement to classroom and uniqueness, is not only illuminating but fixes teaching, allowing students access to the work of events in the mind. Because of this the text is a selection of America’s foremost historians and suitable for students at A level and access who illustrating that history can be both personal and want a distinctive and illuminating approach. Read convincing. through the memorial the complexity of different aspects of American history and what it means to be an American are easily understood. The Lincoln Memorial and American life by Christopher A. Thomas . Princeton University Press, 2002. A house divided: the antebellum slavery ISBN hardback 069101194X, paperback . pp 256. debates in America by Mason J. Lowance List price: Hardback: , $24.95, paperback , . Jr. Princeton University Press, 2003. Reviewed by Sarah Anne Heaton, Lecturer in ISBN hardback 0691002274, paperback English 0691002282. pp 492. List price: Hardback: £52, , paperback £17.95, . Christopher Thomas Reviewed by Dr Will Kaufman, Reader in English reads the Lincoln and American Studies, University of Central Memorial as a text from a Lancashire variety of approaches. Not only does he trace This volume is an the history and politics excellent anthology for surrounding the project those wishing to teach from its inception, design, and study the great construction through to debates over slavery the reception of the between the founding of memorial itself, he also the United States and the considers the memorial Civil War. The collection as an axis for a re-visioning of aspects of is preceded by a guiding American History. In particular he argues that the chapter on the historical memorial raises questions about race and the background of the legacy of the civil war. Thomas shows that the antebellum slavery memorial rather than simply being a symbol of debate, including relevant America is within itself a deeply contested site that (and suitably short) documents on the laws of raises questions about America itself. slavery, statistics on the Atlantic slave trade and The memorial is also posited as on the cusp of the US population between 1790 and 1860. An traditionalism and modernism, thus allowing it to essay on the European origins of American be seen as a literal site of transition, fluidity and slavery and extracts from colonial diaries 37 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004 establishing slavery as the country’s foundational domestic arrangements, preoccupations and issue serve to put the legal and statistical material concerns of officers’ wives. Biddle writes in an in context. The second chapter gathers together unemotional, reserved and controlled manner and the major Acts of Congress relating to slavery - only occasionally reveals her real frustrations and from the Declaration of Independence to the fears. Because of this the book appears to Fugitive Slave Laws to the Thirteenth Amendment confront inconveniences and real tragedies alike. outlawing slavery forever; these are punctuated The book would be less useful to a student by the oratory of Frederick Douglass (‘What to the interested in military matters other than domestic Slave Is the Fourth of July?’) and Justice Joseph issues. Story’s 1820 impassioned indictment of America’s participation in the slave trade, both of which, Officers’ wives were almost always upper-middle- again, bring the human voice to the legislative class ‘ladies’; Biddle describes issues. them as ‘thoroughbreds’, The succeeding chapters organize crucial primary ‘delicately bred’ and ‘fragile’, readings into accessible areas: Biblical pro- which means they were slavery arguments, Biblical anti-slavery particularly unsuited to frontier arguments, economic arguments for and against life. Biddle was ‘not robust’ and slavery, science and pseudo-science devoted to often describes herself as justifying or challenging slavery on ethnological seriously ill or close to death, grounds - all of them carefully chosen to recreate and she was given regularly to the contemporary currents of debate as the fainting. Her children, similarly, sectional crisis between North and South often gave her great cause for deepened and accelerated. One chapter is concern due to accidents and devoted to writers and essays on slavery (the illness. poets Phyllis Wheatley, Emily Dickinson, Whittier, Whitman, among others; essayists James Kirk Officers’ wives were not brought up to cook, sew, Paulding, Emerson, Thoreau; Stowe’s Uncle wash and iron, or even raise their own children, Tom’s Cabin and Mary Eastman’s pro-slavery and were supported by a network of coachmen, riposte, Aunt Phillis’s Cabin; and choice readings cooks, nurses and maids, even in the frontier of these primary extracts by current scholars). The forts. The ‘privations’ Biddle endured often penultimate chapter on the Abolitionist Crusade centred on the inconvenience of not being able to brings such major voices as Garrison, the Grimké find staff, and having to do her own sewing. She sisters, the ‘New York abolitionists’, and Wendell gives the impression that boredom (‘The days for Phillips into a whirlwind collision with the Dred the women were all alike’) and lack of ‘society’ Scott decision and the Fugitive Slave Laws; its were hardest to bear. position in the anthology succeeds in creating the sense of a rapidly gathering storm - an In fact, Biddle’s central preoccupation is with ‘irrepressible conflict’, as William Seward called it ‘society’. She provides detailed information about - that could lead to nothing but the Civil War. ‘entertainments’: weekly dances or ‘hops’, Finally, a concluding chapter on the prescience of dinners, Dramatic Societies. Reminiscences Alexis de Tocqueville’s Democracy in America exposes the strict class system which was in brings the voice of a Cassandra to a nation operation in the army. Many enlisted men had cartwheeling into war with itself. In total, the wives with them, and laundresses were employed selections are each introduced and edited by the army, but there were strict non- thoughtfully, enabling a global view of a disparate, fraternization rules which meant that officers’ and highly emotive mass of material in one compact enlisted men’s wives had no social contact with volume. each other.

It is perhaps unfair to criticise Biddle for her Reminiscences of a soldier's wife by Ellen ignorance of or attitudes towards ‘others’ because McGowan Biddle. Stackpole Books, 2002. they are unexceptional for the time and, because ISBN hardback , paperback 0811720586. pp 304. of this, revealing. She describes the Indians as List price: Hardback: , , paperback , $12.95. ‘warlike’ and ‘repulsive’, the women as ‘ugly Reviewed by Susan Forsyth, University of Essex squaws’. Her Irish nurse is judged on her appearance and found to be ‘plain’. But Biddle did Ellen McGowan Biddle travelled with her husband, not mind having either an Indian, ‘Chinaman’ or Colonel James Biddle, in the South during ‘black Mammy’ as a servant. Reconstruction, and on the western frontier between 1869 and 1886. Reminiscences of a Soldier’s Wife is a valuable first-hand record of the 38 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004

Both teachers and students may find the people and events. Although the contents pages usefulness of the text restricted by the fact that it are wonderfully detailed, and the text often directs has no contents page, chapter titles or index. the reader to other related characters and incidents, the index fails to make links between the various sections of the book. For example, The Custer companion: George James W. Forsyth’s biography and photograph Armstrong Custer and the Plains Indians are indexed but not the several references to him Wars by Thom Hatch. Stackpole Books, in connection with the Wounded Knee Massacre 2002. which, although discussed on several occasions, ISBN hardback, paperback 0811704777. pp 274. does not, surprisingly, make it into the index at all. List price: Hardback: , , paperback , $29.95. Reviewed by Susan Forsyth, University of Essex America, Russia and the Cold War, 1945-

2000; 9th ed by Walter LaFeber McGraw- Each of the nine chapters of The Custer Companion Hill, 2002. consists of an ‘Overview’ ISBN hardback, paperback 0072417587. pp 456. of the chapter’s subject List price: Hardback: , , paperback , . matter, covering between Reviewed by Jonathan Colman, Department of five and ten pages; International Politics Unversity of Wales between four and sixteen Aberystwyth ‘Sidebars’ follow, which depict related incidents; The original version of and an ‘Epilogue’ of a few Walter Lafeber’s book on pages completes the the Cold War was chapter. Scattered throughout are quotations from published as long ago as Custer’s letters, poetry, books and other, often 1967. Now in its ninth unspecified, writings. Running down the outer edition, he has managed third of the book’s pages are ‘Biographies’ of to keep the work current family members, army officers, Indian agents, by incorporating recent American Indians and other parties. Usefully, scholarship derived from each of these different sections within the openings of the U.S., chapters ends with a short bibliography. Soviet and Chinese archives. To begin with, The stories, myths and questions behind a wide there is an account of range of both little- and well-known incidents and Russian/Soviet-American characters are presented in the text, supported relations before 1945, although this is too cursory throughout by excellent illustrations – maps of to put the later issues into a proper perspective. engagements, photographs of colleagues and The book gets into its stride with the chapters on adversaries, even the music sheet for ‘Garry the still contentious issue of the origins of the Cold Owen’. Attention is paid to Custer’s controversial War from 1946 to 1950. While Soviet policy in actions as well as to his major achievements Eastern Europe certainly raised legitimate security during the Civil War and on the Plains in the concerns in Washington, US policy was driven in following years. large part by its need to capture new markets across the globe to satisfy the demands of an The book contains a few factual errors and economy reinvigorated by the Second World War. inconsistencies: Sitting Bull in one section (p.49) is described as having been killed in October The narrative continues to cover the entire Cold 1890, while in others the date is correctly shown War and beyond, focusing on the conflict mainly as December; Eli S. Ricker’s name is wrongly from the American point of view. The later given; and the sequence of events surrounding sections deal with issues such as the Clinton the arrest of Big Foot is incomplete and inaccurate doctrine and Yeltsin-Putin presidencies, the (p262). A text of this type ought to be expected to economic and military gaps (NATO expansion and present correct, even if not comprehensive, interventions etc.) that have exacerbated tensions information on the various issues it portrays. between Moscow and Washington, as well as material on the influence on American policy of Students will find this a good text for dipping into NGOs such as private US arms-control when setting out on an exploration of Custer, organisations. Throughout the book, the analysis western military history, and the ‘Indian Wars’ and is humane and sensible – albeit a little too critical the bibliographical lists, sometimes annotated, are of U.S. policy, especially in the earlier sections - useful in that they provide reading on specific and the writing style is clear. There are a number 39 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004 of useful maps, as well as some photographs, to Barton’s chronology of events, several insightful supplement the text. A bibliography for additional interviews with Erdrich and her late husband, reading is provided, and there is also a website of Michael Dorris, and two essays by the author primary source documents, web links and an herself, alongside the aforementioned critical image gallery. The main drawback of this book is studies make this an invaluable companion for shared by many similar works - it is less about readers and teachers of Native American Soviet-American relations than it is about Literature. American policy towards the Soviet Union. This is not an uncommon flaw, given that archival To identify one overarching (and in my view research behind the former ‘Iron Curtain’ is still overwhelming) criticism of the volume, it is that fairly limited. However, America, Russia and the only one essay, Alan Chavkin’s ‘Vision and Cold War, 1945-2000 is nonetheless a useful and Revision in Louise Erdrich’s Love Medicine,’ deals accessible book for students and teachers at A- “substantively” (Wong’s term) with the revised level and Access level, as well as for 1993 edition of the novel. It is highly unlikely that undergraduates. students (in the U.K. especially) will be reading the original 1984 edition of the novel, an edition Literature slimmer by four and a half chapters, many of which are also presented in a different sequence. Louise Erdrich's Love Medicine: a casebook by Hertha D. Sweet Wong . As the importance of accuracy becomes Oxford UP, 2000. increasingly more integral to Native American Studies, scholars may also query the lack of ISBN hardback , paperback 0195127226. pp 0. adequate response to Erdrich’s contested position List price: Hardback: , , paperback £10.99, . within Native American literature and the Reviewed by Dr David Stirrup, School of English, perennial awkward questions over language use, University of Kent tribal designation, and geographical location are not necessarily fully addressed - Maristuen- Both critically well Rodakowski, for instance, concentrates on the received and history of Turtle Mountain Reservation in North commercially successful, Dakota with no mention of the equally voluminous Louise Erdrich is one of similarities to the story of Minnesota’s White Earth the most prominent reservation - but these quibbles do not Native American writers overshadow the usefulness of this volume for both currently working. Love teaching and study purposes. Medicine, her debut, is a novel that has come to grace the reading lists of The Cambridge companion to nineteenth- many further and higher century American women's writing by education literature Dale M. Bauer and Philip Gould, eds. courses, on modules in Cambridge UP, 2001. Native American ISBN hardback 0521660033, paperback literatures and ethnic studies in particular. In this 0521669758. pp 336. List price: Hardback: £40, light, it is perhaps not surprising that Wong’s is the $59.95, paperback £14.95, $21.95. third separate companion text to Erdrich’s work. Reviewed by Dr Saranne Weller, Programme This casebook does, as Wong states, Leader - Learning and Teaching Programme complement the other two volumes available and it does reasonably reflect the wealth of critical attention Erdrich has received. Offering an Bauer and Gould’s edited excellent overview of key critical approaches to collection engages with Erdrich in four broad conceptual areas: history the critical assumptions and storytelling, biculturalism and narrative that have determined strategy, individual and cultural survival, and both the original reading and writing self and other. marginalisation and subsequent (and Wong has chosen carefully, offering a balance of ongoing) reappraisal of essays by both Native and non-Native scholars nineteenth-century and writers that illuminate the depth and breadth women’s writing. The of Erdrich’s reference and also the diversity of editors’ “Introduction” and incisive readings her novel has received. Dana D. Nelson’s Maristuen-Rodakowski’s useful genealogical chart excellent chapter, for the Native American characters, Beidler and “Women in Public”, develop a critically self- 40 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004 reflexive approach to the shifting aesthetic and Ultimately this collection does not provide an easy political paradigms shaping the American canon. introduction for new readers of the American This historicising of the twentieth-century critical women’s tradition. Rather it is a challenging and tradition articulates the primary thesis of the provocative recalling and redefining of collection – a necessity to re-examine ideologies contemporary scholarly discourses. Nevertheless, inherent in the scholarship of “recovered” female this collection is valuable for explicating to texts and to problematise accepted meanings of students how a literary canon is circumscribed “domesticity”, “sentimentality”, “public” and and how aesthetic and political value judgements “private”, “male” and “female”. As Lisa A. Long’s must be contextualised and interrogated rather chapter on Rebecca Harding Davis and Elizabeth than accepted as determiners of the literary Stuart Phelps exemplifies, these discourses have territory. proved empowering in politicising and contextualising mid-nineteenth-century texts such as Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin. Literary culture and U.S. imperialism from The influential generic classification and literary the Revolution to World War II by John periodisation of women’s fiction within a Carlos Rowe . Oxford UP, 2000. sentimental tradition, however, have excluded ISBN hardback, paperback 0195131517. pp 377. women writers from a “reclaimed” literary terrain if List price: Hardback: , , paperback , $14.99. their texts do not readily conform to these gender Reviewed by David Seed, University of Liverpool or genre distinctions. John Carlos Rowe is a leading specialist on Henry Divided into three sections that establish the James and a number of his earlier studies have theoretical rationale of the collection, analyse the explored the political dimension to American genre conventions of the critical tradition and draw literature. By his own account, this new volume on case studies of specific authors, this collection marks an important step towards answering the eschews authors that have already found critical question, why America became involved in the recognition in favour of texts by less well-known Vietnam War. The cut-off date for the present writers – Lydia Maria Child, Catherine Maria volume is 1940 but Rowe’s plan is to produce a Sedgwick, Augusta J. Evans Wilson, Margaret second study covering the post-war period. The Bayard Smith and Elizabeth Stoddard – habitually huge chronological span of Literary Culture and overlooked by readers precisely because they US Imperialism rules out any comprehensive cannot be easily accommodated within the coverage, so instead Rowe gives the reader a premises of mid-century sentimental fiction. As series of ten case studies, each one focusing on Rosemarie Zagarri argues in her chapter on post- some aspect of cultural imperialism. colonial culture, far from observing restrictive conventions in their writing, early women writers Rowe’s working premise is that we need to find frequently experimented with literary genre and new ways of historicising the discussion of used their socially-accepted authorship to literature so that we can see more clearly how it challenge the customary presumption of a emerges from a complex set of political and “separate spheres” ideology inherent in ideological concerns. In this respect and in his established readings of later mid-century women’s concentration on the imperial theme, Rowe’s writing. study follows an approach being pursued by Donald Pease, Amy Kaplan, and other American It is in the genre and tradition section’s analysis of scholars. Broadly speaking the approach insists captivity narratives, anti-Catholicism and that from the very beginning the USA has been an immigration, that the most unfamiliar authors are imperial expansive culture, one marked for Rowe discussed. In many cases, these popular writers by the paradox of combining ‘imperial desire and are unavailable in modern editions and a profound anti-colonial temper’ (p. 3). inaccessible to readers of this collection. As Mary Kelley notes in the “Conclusion”, availability of In his first case study he considers how Charles women’s texts remains a prerequisite for Brockden Brown expresses anxieties about sustained scholarship of nineteenth-century citizenship and nationhood by demonising the writing. Shirley Samuels, however, provides a Native Americans and playing out these concerns notable caveat in a footnoted caution that if within symbolic dreamlike landscapes. If this obscure texts that appear to unseat established sounds like Edgar Allen Poe, appropriately that norms are attributed representative status, writer follows next and Rowe argues that Poe readers must continue to question whether these appropriates British exploration narratives to texts serve to challenge of simply reinforce construct racist fantasies. Again and again a conventional boundaries. strength to Rowe’s discussion emerges from his ability to contextualise literature productively. So, 41 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004 he discusses Melville’s Typee in relation to the Sarah Winnemucca to Willa Cather, Zane Grey to colonization of the Pacific islands, Twain’s N.Scott Momaday, Dorothy Scarborough to Connecticut Yankee at King Arthur’s Court against Denise Chávez. Its range and depth is awe- the backdrop of the British campaign in the Sudan inspiring but, for the student fresh to the Literary and the Berlin conference of 1884-5 on the West in particular, might have been better served administration of Africa. The results are in virtually by a thematic, rather than chronological approach. every case an important new reading of a classic text. For instance, Crane’s Red Badge of Courage This is an impressive and valuable primary is analysed in relation to his journalism which, resource, but one that perhaps requires Rowe shows, tends to echo US foreign policy of substantially more knowledge of the West than the period. Or again, he probes behind the the anthology itself provides. aestheticisation of autobiography in The Education of Henry Adams to ask unsettling questions about Adams’s connection with the The first West: writing from the American politics of his friend John Hay. Without ever frontier, 1776-1860 by Edward Watts and simplifying the works he examines, Rowe shows David Rachels. Oxford UP, 2002. how key American classics were embedded in the ISBN hardback , paperback 0195141334. pp 0. cultural symbolism and rhetoric of their times and List price: Hardback: , , paperback £42.99, . were far less critical of imperialism than we had Reviewed by Thomas Ruys Smith University of supposed until now. East Anglia.

In an 1859 pamphlet, The literary West: an anthology of western William T. Coggeshall – American literature by Thomas J. Lyon. the last in an important Oxford UP, 1999. line of antebellum ISBN hardback , paperback 019512460X. pp 444. Cincinnati literary doyens List price: Hardback: , , paperback , $15.99. – lamented that ‘Western Reviewed by Dr David Stirrup, Lecturer in English literature, though in a and American Literature, University of Kent lively degree representing Pioneer men and Pioneer If The Literary West is intended to be a taster of times, has been all things Western, it is an abundant tome in which disregarded as a distinct a myriad flavours clash and merge. Advertised as power’ (928). Coggeshall an anthology, it should perhaps more fairly be may be little cheered to labelled an anthology of extracts; an inevitable know that his own drawback of such an endeavour but a drawback posthumous laurels rest not on his writings, but on none the less. As a means of establishing the the moment that he saved Abraham Lincoln from broadest possible sense of the literary West, the an assassination attempt on his inaugural train extracted form works fine, and if teaching a sense journey to Washington. He would be pleased, of the West is your purpose, there are few obvious however, with Watts and Rachels’ anthology of complaints about this book. writings from the first west. As should we all. Coggeshall himself realised that those who The anthology’s no-frills chronological approach controlled anthologies controlled which literature offers, as the cover blurb suggests, a “panoramic was given ‘due respect’; for too long ‘critics and literary range of the American West”. This is all compilers “down east”’ have done ‘injustice to the well and good, but the effect is to suggest that the “great west”’ (938). The very appearance of The development of a Western literary heritage can be First West is therefore reason for celebration, interpreted, in a sense, homogeneously. Each since it both reflects and confirms a growing author is usefully introduced by a paragraph of interest in that much neglected area neatly background information, but again this has a sandwiched between the Appalachians and the tendency to romanticise the West as a creative Mississippi during its antebellum adolescence. resource without necessarily explicating the As with any anthology, the weighting of authors diversity of influence on the authors involved. and texts is a difficult balancing act, especially in a collection that hopes to break new paths for Lyon states his purpose in the introduction as the others to follow. According to the editors, its identification, through this selection of writings, of structure reflects those monthly journals that first two Wests, one of Wild West stereotype, the other circulated much of this material: fiction, reportage, of cultural wealth and diversity. The former is political documents, poetry and biography served in content, the latter in inclusivity - authors miscellaneously rub against one another. In range from Lewis and Clarke to Gary Snyder, theory, this approach should create productive 42 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004 sparks. In practice, a stronger editorial hand The poetics of the limit: ethics and politics would be a distinct boon. Bemusingly, the texts in modern and contemporary American seem to appear in order of their author’s date of poetry by Tim Woods . Palgrave, 2002. birth, and the lack of thematic or geographical ISBN hardback 0312293224, paperback . pp 287. sections, or even simple publication chronology, List price: Hardback: , , paperback £35, . means that the texts cannot speak to each other as usefully as they should. It also means that the Reviewed by Dr Jo Gill, University of Exeter anthology has trouble in meeting its express aims. Tim Woods’s The The endeavour of attempting to place eastern representations of the west in a national cultural Poetics of the Limit: Ethics and Politics in context, whilst promoting western texts to the national stage, is not helped by mixing both Modern and together in a potentially confusing melee. (And Contemporary American Poetry has a title why, for that matter, is Cooper represented by appropriate to the The Prairies, a novel concerned with the trans- ambition, if not quite the Mississippi west?) Ideally, the anthology should range, of its contents. have been limited to what its subtitle promises: This, however, is a minor writings from the frontier. Alternatively, it could quibble. It is an excellent have been profitably opened up to all study; scholarly, clearly- representations of the early west, properly articulated, well- delineated and grouped. At least each author is presented (I particularly prefaced by an impressively researched like the helpful concluding summaries of each biographical sketch that helps to fix oftentimes chapter), and hugely informed – and informative – obscure figures. A guide to thematic links is also a about its primary subject, the work of the useful resource, and the suggestions for further American poet, and prime mover in what became reading are very helpful. But the lack of a defining known as the ‘Objectivist’ movement, Louis structure, editorial footnotes, and the criminal Zukofsky. In particular, Woods is interested in absence of an index, still feel like wasted establishing a link between the aesthetic and the opportunities. ethical concerns of his work (and by extension, Ultimately, the strength of any anthology resides that of other ‘Objectivist’ poets). Resisting in its texts. Watts and Rachels have done a conventional readings of the poetry’s hermeticism fantastic job in placing favourite treasures against and opacity, he looks to contemporary theorists freshly mined jewels. The Cinicinnati group are such as Theodor Adorno and Emmanuel Levinas well represented, as are the humorists, and there in order to make a case for the political and are plenty of fascinating Native materials. Indeed, philosophical engagement of the writing. the engaging juxtaposition of the Indian Removal

Act, Elias (Galegina) Boudinot’s ‘Address to the Woods’s book is refreshingly non-partisan. In an Whites’ and the Constitution of the Cherokee area of study which seems to invite rigid Nation shows how fruitful a better organisation of classification and policing, he is open-minded material throughout could have been. A list of about the contiguities between different poetic highlights – inevitably somewhat arbitrary and forms and movements, and sensitive to the personally inflected – include: Zadok Cramer’s possibility of error in applying labels (to his credit, river bible, The Navigator; Timothy Flint’s for example, he demurs from dismissing Recollections; James Hall’s forward looking Zukofsky’s personal poetry as ‘confessional’, ‘Three Hundred Years Hence’; Benjamin Drake’s referring instead to a style which might wonderfully even-handed Life of Black Hawk; ‘traditionally’ be thought of in that way [p. 49]). Audubon’s prose, too underrated; and Margaret Louis Zukofsky was born in Manhattan in 1904 of Fuller’s almost forgotten Summer on the Lakes. Russian Jewish parents. Woods is deeply attuned Any student could compile an equally diverse and to the impact of this spiritual, cultural, and entertaining list, and almost every selection linguistic (Zukofsky’s first language was Yiddish) suggests tempting new areas for exploration and heritage on the poet’s work. In particular, he development. Were it not for the hefty price tag, draws attention to the conflicts which arose as this anthology would be an indispensable Zukofsky sought to reconcile this ancestry with a resource, rather than one that simply comes Marxist politics, and to the paradox by which he highly recommended. The last word lies with and his peer, the notoriously anti-Semitic Ezra Coggeshall: ‘We may regret that our literary Pound, exerted long-lived, and fruitful, mutual pioneers did not meet wider encouragement and influence. Woods’s aim, however, is emphatically ampler reward, but we need not complain, unless not to offer a biographically reductionist survey of we take care that the future does not have reason Zukofsky’s writing. His careful delineation of the to complain of us’ (940). 43 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004 potential pitfalls of such an approach (p. 20) is a Northern counterparts in reversing the model of critical prudence. revolutionary tide - ‘drove the new higher law principles under ground’ and ‘generated a Secret Although Zukofsky’s poetry is Woods’s key Constitution’ that eventually emerged to influence interest, The Poetics of the Limit is not to be read America’s philosophical, academic, judicial, and as a single-author study. Zukofsky demands legislative landscapes. Its impact has been felt in attention in as much as his work is an exemplar of movements for free speech, religious liberty, the wider concerns of poetry in this period, and equality in the workplace, and affirmative action; it provides a bridge between the familiar concerns played a crucial role in bringing George W. Bush of modernist poetry and the complexity (and, to to power, through the intervention of the US some, impenetrability) of new avant-garde and Supreme Court in the Florida election debacle. post-modern poetic forms. Thus, Fletcher’s is a useful work for those attempting to explore further the connections Law between the Civil War and contemporary US society; but its appeal will be best reserved for Our secret Constitution: how Lincoln students of constitutional law. redefined American democracy, by George P. Fletcher. Oxford UP, 2001. Government and Politics ISBN hardback 0195141423, paperback . pp 292. Understanding American Government and List price: Hardback: , , paperback , . Reviewed by Dr Will Kaufman, Reader in English Politics by Duncan Watts . Manchester and American Studies University of Central University Press, 2002. Lancashire ISBN hardback, paperback 0179060745. pp 276. List price: Hardback: , , paperback £10.99, . In a detailed, often Reviewed by Justin Ashmore, Staffordshire idiosyncratic argument University that far exceeds the bounds of most A Level Understanding American government and politics and Access is aimed at A2 students, and is part of the requirements, George P. Understanding Politics series which covers the Fletcher explores the politics syllabuses of major examining boards. It impact of the Civil War on offers a clear and concise introduction to US the US Constitution. In a government for students new to the subject. It is sense, the war produced well written and extremely well organised. Highly a ‘second constitution’ accessible, each chapter is divided into sections that has differed from its containing numerous features to aid learning, 1787 progenitor in that it such as summaries, definitions, points to outlawed the slavery that it initially sought to consider, sample questions and addresses of protect, it exchanged a republican elitism for useful websites. Every chapter also includes popular democracy, and it redefined nationhood comparative material on US and UK politics, again as an inescapable, organic state rather than a to meet the needs of A2 students. Coverage voluntary association. Given that Fletcher is one concentrates on the machinery of government. of America’s most distinguished professors of There is nothing on the substance of US policy. jurisprudence, it follows that his argument is in Issues of social, economic and foreign policy are fact an extended disquisition on the evolution of not included. law. As he maintains, the Civil War began as a war for one thing (the preservation of the Union) The book begins by summarising major social and and ended as another (the reconstitution of the economic influences in US politics in order to United States); consequently, Abraham Lincoln show the context in which US government looms large, particularly in his invocation of the operates, outlining demographics, sectional principles of ‘higher law’ in the Gettysburg differences and inequalities, but identifying Address - principles that were translated into common values amid this diversity. It provides an ‘black-letter law’ in the Constitutional amendments overview, historical background and in-depth case of the Reconstruction period (which outlawed studies of the Constitution in action, focusing on slavery and established citizenship as a how well the Bill of Rights has protected the civil birthright). rights and liberties of black Americans and women. Discussion flows logically into a review of The legalistic rejection of the Reconstruction laws federalism, tracing the changing balance of power after 1870 - when conniving lawyers, judges and between national and states’ rights. politicians in the South colluded with their 44 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004

Using a contemporary focus to revive old debates, disenfranchised urban dweller. To make "real" case studies from the 1990s and beyond help and human those subjects otherwise one- analyse the different branches of federal dimensionalized and marginalized within a racist government. It concentrates on the President and United States, Brown offers many insightful and the Executive Office when analysing the executive nuanced readings of a wide range of gang fictions branch, but considers the national bureaucracy and autobiographical testimony that span the last only marginally. There is a helpful summary of the thirty-plus years and that crisscross the East and types of organisation which together form the West coasts (New York and LA). Though Brown bureaucracy, but nothing on the major makes a point of reminding us that Puerto Rican departments, like Defense or State. Similarly, it and Chicano subjects are shaped by different focuses on recent history to explain Congress’s histories of colonization and different experiences role, organisation and performance, and the with judicial policies of exclusion, she identifies a political power wielded by the Supreme Court. common ground: that both Puerto Rican and Looking at electoral processes and campaigning, Chicano writers tell stories that don't just portray it considers voter participation, offering their figures breaking laws, but present them as explanations for low turn out, including an complex and resistant subjects that have the assessment of alternative forms of participation, power to intervene into an racist and oppressive like direct action. A case study of the 2000 everyday. presidential election nicely rounds off consideration of how well the method of choosing Brown's close and nuance readings of such the President actually works. Explaining why the authors as Edwin Torres and Piri Thomas (Puerto two-party system dominates, it stresses Rican) and Luis Rodriguez, Xyta Maya Murray, differences between Democrats and Republicans and Monica Ruiz (Chicanos/as), to name a few, by comparing recent party platforms, and make dramatically clear, she writes, "the links considering how they play a useful albeit limited between youth violence and systemic, historically role in elections. There is a good overview of based racism, structural inequities, colonialism, pressure group activity, exploring the scale of entrenched poverty, failing educational and health lobbying, different types of groups, how they care systems, a debilitated infrastructure, as well operate and a pro and con summary. as the seeming lack of hope and the existential Understanding American government and politics despair that accompany these material makes sense of a complex and diverse subject by conditions". In a groundbreaking scholarly move, presenting information in a clear, coherent and Brown turns her discussion and analysis to uncomplicated style, and using up to date narratives that give flesh to the Chicana gang coverage. It provides a standard account experience. For example, in her reading of Monia specifically directed towards A2 students. Ruiz's memoir, Two Badges, Brown interprets Ruiz's choice to become a cop not just an act of Society turning gang tattoo into police badge, but as an empowering, feminist act that allows her serve Gang Nation: Delinquent Citizens in and protect other women that face daily a violent Puerto Rican, Chicano, and Chicana heterosexism within the Chicano community. Narratives, by Monica Brown. Brown finally seeks to demonstrate how Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Chicano/Latino authors variously represent gang Press. 2002. life as alternatives forms of intervention into a $18.95. 256 pages. ISBN 0-8166-3479-3. nation built on policies of exclusion based on race, Reviewed by Frederick Luis Aldama, University of class, and gender. While Monica Brown offers Colorado at Boulder vibrant and new readings of Chicano and Latino literature, the analysis would do well to assume a Monica Brown's Gang direct correlation between narrative fiction and the Nation powerfully "real" political activism on the part of hundreds of explores novels, thousands of people required for real resistance autobiography, and and intervention to take place. This said, Brown's drama by and about careful and nuanced analysis offer sharp insight Chicano and Puerto greatly expands the critical purview of Chicano Rican gangs to expand and Latino studies scholarship. the range of U.S. ethnic scholarly criticism and to complicate the mainstream's misconceptions of the young and 45 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004

Landscape with figures: a history of art to bring art to the public consciousness, is never dealing in the United States by Malcolm without some merit. Nevertheless, teachers Goldstein . Oxford UP, 2000. should be cautious of the popular mythologies reinforced by this work (the characterisation of ISBN hardback 019503673X, paperback . pp 370. Peggy Guggenheim is particularly troubling) and List price: Hardback: , $30, paperback , . should encourage students to think beyond the Reviewed by Lisa Rull, University of Nottingham biographical and national stereotypes used by

Goldstein. Goldstein's book is a lively and readable overview of the work and lives of many key figures from the history of art dealing in the USA. Yet, this American sexual histories by Elizabeth summary reveals a key problem with this text Reis. Blackwell Publishers, 2000. because, despite its ISBN hardback 0631220801, paperback subtitle, Goldstein actually 063122081X. pp 416. List price: Hardback: £55, focuses more on the $64.95, paperback £16.99, $27.95. "figures" than on the Reviewed by Anne-Marie Evans, University of "dealing". Though it claims Sheffield. breadth as "the first history" of this topic (inside jacket This fascinating collection description), it is of essays charts the undermined by the same evolving cultural, social problematic fascinations and historical perceptions affecting Peter Watson's of sex and sexuality in From Manet to Manhattan: America. In a well the Rise of the Modern Art argued and lucid Market (New York: Random House, 1992). Both introduction, editor delight in biographical storytelling, and - despite Elizabeth Reis claims that research notes that superficially suggest while sexuality has otherwise – they share a worrying tendency to periodically been uncritically repeat anecdotes drawn from conceived as a taboo secondary sources. subject, this volume seeks to reconsolidate Of course, the figures that Goldstein discusses the varied debates surrounding the subject by are fascinating and his prose style is highly placing them firmly in the public forum for engaging. As a counter-balance to the many discussion. exhibition dates and prices he mentions, the In a chronological approach to the material, tangled social and sexual lives of his main articles begin with a focus on colonial America characters are consistently brought to the fore. with John Murrin’s enlightening examination of the However, this emphasis on personality and legal trials addressing bestiality and homosexual personal behaviour means that beyond certain practice in the early modern era, Richard financial facts, there is almost no discussion of the Godbeer’s appraisal of the relationships existing complex economic relationships between artists, between European men and Native American dealers and collectors. The broader social and women and a thought provoking contribution from cultural implications or contexts of their actions Laurel Thatcher Ulrich and Lois K. Stabler and are hardly considered – the role of immigration their re-evaluation of New England courtship, and European cultural attitudes is never explicitly claiming that between thirty to forty percent of tackled – and this means that the anecdotes brides were pregnant at the time of their marriage. remain as anecdotes. There is little interrogation The nineteenth century is represented by of why anecdotes persist, or of their significance Lawrence Foster’s account of the Oneida or role in constructing relationships within the art community in New York, a religious community market. Moreover, because the distinctions advocating birth control and developers of a between the roles of dealer, collector and patron complex system of marriage, Patricia Cline are especially blurred in American culture - a Cohen’s intriguing exploration of a scandalous factor discussed as long ago as 1964 in W.G. court case from 1844 when the Episcopal Bishop Constable's Art Collecting in the United States of of New York was accused of sexually harassing a America (London: Thomas Nelson) - this book group of women and Martha Hodes’s absorbing only hints at the potential for a more chronicling of interracial relationships between thoroughgoing critical analysis of these roles. male slaves and white women in the antebellum South. Any text that brings to the fore those figures who make what artists do possible, who act as agents 46 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004

The twentieth century remains the focus of the political life (Roger Keil). Addressing issues of majority of essays, with an impressive and diverse fear, representation and sentiment, each chapter range of topics covered including Elizabeth is also rooted in the real conditions prevalent in Lunbeck on hysteria and cultural connotations of the city and its wider surroundings. Such writing the ‘good’ woman, Andrea Tone’s compelling is rooted firmly in the tradition of Mike Davis’s assessment of consumerism, advertising and the seminal City of Quartz, a work which greatly beginnings of the birth control industry and Rickie influences this anthology. Davis’s passion and his Salinger’s convincing account of racial remarkable capacity to synthesise from a diverse stereotyping during the population explosion in the range of sources led to an almost paradigmatic 1950s and 1960s. interpretation. Each article is clearly and concisely introduced by Reis and offers a further reading list. One of the Davis himself is an interviewee here, offering a strengths of this collection lies in the inclusion of series of rapid-fire insights into developments relevant primary sources with each essay, often since his masterwork appeared in 1990 and, documents to which the author has alluded. The somewhat incongruously, being quizzed on his brief contextualisation of each source with volume Late Victorian Holocausts. In the course suggested questions for debate encourages of this interview (Chapter Two), in which a semi- students to form their own opinions, allowing them joking Davis proposes a civil war against the well- a glimpse into the actual working processes of the to-do residents of the Valley, it becomes apparent professional historian. This is a superbly that the anthology will soon be suffering from a informative, scholarly and accessible resource heavy-handed editorial approach. In making parts aimed primarily at undergraduates; some students of this project into an overly personal extension of working at Access, A Level and below may find his own preoccupations, Sawhney undermines its some of the articles demanding for classroom potential. In the first instance this produces a study. stream of gimmicks – a selection of poems, an alphabetical list of translations of the book’s title and a section of the editor’s photographs – which Unmasking L.A.: third worlds and the city add little to the overall book. While quirky and by Deepak Narank Sawhney, ed . episodically charming, these sections are given Palgrave, 2002. parity with the other chapters, resulting in an ISBN hardback 031224049X, paperback uneven feel to the volume. 0312292899. pp 266. List price: Hardback: , , paperback , . More seriously, too many of the book’s polemical Reviewed by Graham Barnfield. University of points, which emanate directly from its editor, rely East London too much on assertion rather than explanation or evidence. When Sawhney interviews, his Academic fields such as media studies are questions are often longer than the answers and developing pedagogical strategies for using non- shot through with incendiary rhetoric, for instance fiction anthologies in the classroom, but this trend when Davis is asked to ‘put a price on lost wages, seems less advanced in American studies. the enslavement of the majority of the world, the Rectifying this situation – if appropriate – will pain, the suffering experienced at the hands of require good anthologies to work with. Deepak Britain’s genocidal empire’ (p.44). This might be Narang Sawhney’s Unmasking L.A.: Third Worlds more convincing had the logically prior case for and the City is a frustrating mixture of useful and reparations been made. Personally, I have few insightful essays and works that offer little to a problems with blood-curdling anti-imperialist sixth-form or undergraduate readership. The remarks, but here they come across as indulgent stronger chapters both provide excellent rather than insightful. At times I found myself, introductory pieces and update existing contra Voltaire, agreeing with what was said while scholarship, but others are more problematic. feeling provoked into stopping it being said in this Copyright clearance permitting, this is the kind of way. book where photocopied chapters could make a big contribution to student understanding but the Conceptually, the notion of ‘third worlds’ is an anthology as a whole will rarely be recommended interesting organising principle for the editor to for purchase. work around. L.A. demographics and the city’s broad range of migrant groups are both central to Among the well-written, clearly organised, and the way the metropolis is represented and key to jargon-free chapters are those concerned with the the ‘lessons’ other locales and their authorities expanding prison population (Christian Parenti), attempt to learn by observing southern California. illegal immigration (Joseph Nevins), and the use Likewise, it provides something of a handle on of Los Angeles imagery as a moral fable in US recent developments in the globalisation debate, 47 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004 not least given the brief post-NAFTA role of a sizeable, Spanish-speaking population in Elizabeth Rose frames her study of day care providing cheap labour (jobs that are themselves services in terms of social interpretations of gradually migrating to China). Whereas Samuel appropriate maternal behaviour. A Mother’s Job Huntingdon’s recent essay ‘The Hispanic examines the establishment of public child care in Challenge’ identifies problems, Sawhney the United States as a form of philanthropy, which celebrates diversity. This reflects Sawhney’s use enabled very poor mothers to work whilst of the concept Third World to discuss domestic removing their children from the streets or the social relations, rather than Cold War-era haphazard care of siblings barely older than developing countries. It is an imaginative themselves. Many social workers opposed their appropriation of nativist rhetoric, but it is not efforts, believing that mothers should stay home always conceptually convincing, while making a to look after their children regardless of their change from the post-City of Quartz use of noir as economic circumstances. Rose builds a picture of a key trope for investigating Los Angeles. hard-pressed mothers employed in factories, the sweated trades, and domestic service, who strove A final point on anthologies in the classroom: they to combine economic and maternal also provide an opportunity to place relevant out- responsibilities. She recognises the problems of-print documents back in public view. Here encountered by fathers bringing up children on Sawhney chooses the Situationist International’s their own, a relatively rarity in the study of child response to the 1965 riots and Morrow Mayo’s welfare. Although there were fewer lone fathers, 1933 piece, ‘The Birth of Los Angeles’. Both they also turned to public facilities for help. provide an interesting supplement to the Whether they were less likely than lone mothers contemporary essays here, which is no surprise to use a variety of public facilities is not as they tend to confirm the editor’s outlook. addressed. It would have enhanced Rose’s book Unmasking L.A. is a relevant yet frustrating work if she had contrasted the family situations of which would benefit from its editor exercising children in orphanages and those in day more self-restraint. nurseries; residential institutions cared for more children than day nurseries, a point she neglects. Why did some parents choose to place their A mother's job: the history of day care: children in residential institutions while others kept 1890-1960 by Elizabeth Rose . Oxford UP, them at home and used day nurseries? Were 1999. there differences in family size, age of the ISBN hardback 0195111125, paperback. pp 275. children, or levels of poverty? List price: Hardback: , , paperback , . Where possible, Rose uses mothers’ own words The missing middle: working families and to describe how they felt about putting their the future of American social policy by children into day nurseries. She examines the Theda Skocpol . WW Norton & Co Ltd, tensions between social workers, many of whom 2000. disapproved of public child care, the organisers of ISBN hardback 0393048225, paperback. pp 207. the nurseries and the mothers who used them. List price: Hardback: £17.95, , paperback , . While women transferred their maternal role to Reviewed by Prof.Jay Kleinberg, Dept.of day nurseries, they did not, through the middle American Studies, Brunel University decades of the twentieth century, readily accept their own husbands as substitute care givers. These two books analyse When women worked outside the home, even if different aspects of the their husbands did not (as was sometimes the provision of social welfare case during the Great Depression), they services in the late continued to use day nurseries rather than turn to nineteenth and early their husbands for child care. twentieth centuries. Both focus on the tensions Ambivalence regarding public child care remained between the needs of a feature of life in the United States even during various strata of society World War II. Unions, with the notable exception and the willingness of of the United Auto Workers, rarely took a politicians and social proactive stance on this issue. The federal welfare activists to provide government acted slowly and inadequately to assistance on acceptable ensure day care places for the many women who terms. In their several entered the defence plants so vital to the war ways, they manifest the ambivalence felt in the effort. Child care professionals opposed the rapid United States towards public services. expansion of public day care, despite the wartime 48 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004 emergency, believing that mothers should provide Skocpol’s contention that neither political party care for their own children. This reinforced has “much to say about the real-world situation of ambivalence about non-maternal care and meant the vast bulk of ordinary American families” who that working mothers and their children suffered live on modest incomes and confront the stresses real hardships during and after the war. In the late of two-wage-earner families, expensive medical 1940s and 1950s, opponents of publicly funded care, and deteriorating public services. day care portrayed them as communistic and un- American. Despite an increase in the number of Skocpol believes that the biggest winners in the working mothers with young children, day American welfare debate are the conservatives nurseries closed down or lost public support. who draw big salaries, invest in the stock market, Nevertheless, maternal demand and families’ and have persuaded politicians of all stripes to cut desire to participate in the consumer boom meant their relative tax burden. Children are losers, the an increase in two-wage earner families and elderly, seemingly, winners. The proportion of growing demand for day care, met largely by older Americans who are poor has declined private providers. dramatically since the 1970s, while the child poverty rate has increased. However not all Theda Skocpol, the elderly are well off: older women on their own, doyenne of American especially those from ethnic minority historical sociologists, backgrounds, are much more likely to be poor has written a polemical than men in general and white men in particular. book claiming that While Skocpol acknowledges that “racial and Americans now reject the ethnic differences underlie some of the popular generous social resentment” against welfare programs, she programs of previous believes that all groups share the income and decades. I question her social trends that undermine families in America rather rosy view of past today. Other studies of such as Robert C. social welfare provision, Lieberman’s Shifting the Color Line: Race and the but Skocpol makes an American Welfare State (Harvard University important point: the Press, 1998) would suggest that she middling sort have lost underestimates the significance of race and the ground relative to the top quintile of wealth way conservative rhetorical strategies use racial holders. The less affluent struggle to make ends antipathy as a means of undermining public meet on inadequate wages with no job-related provision. benefits such as medical insurance, pensions, or parental leave. Health insurance is a particular Misogyny also has a role in explaining the worry in the American medicine-for-profit health withdrawal of welfare. Many on the right attack system. Medicaid provides for some of the support for single mothers and their children as poorest and Medicare for most of the elderly, but undermining the traditional nuclear family. Yet the by the end of the 1990s, approximately 43 million decline in nuclear households has resulted from Americans had no insurance coverage. changing social values in which individualism has allowed fathers, in particular, to opt out of family The rhetoric of contemporary social policy, responsibilities. Even where families stay according to Skocpol, pits the needs of poor together, a combination of rising expectations and young children against those of the elderly, just as stagnating male wages prompts many women to the politics of child care sometimes assume that work outside the home. The male model of the needs of mothers and children are employment has been applied to employed contradictory, a point which Rose addresses. The women, leaving mothers and fathers with less needs of those in the middle, whether time to devote to parenting. Many fathers, economically or demographically, are overlooked, regardless of class, opt out of their paternal as Skocpol documents. Moreover, the majority of responsibilities by not marrying the mothers of Americans do not want to reduce social support their children or not providing adequate child for the disadvantaged so that taxes can be cut for support after divorce. the most affluent. Yet, that is precisely what has happened in the United States over the last Published in 2000, this book seems dated. The decade. Social and economic conservatives have Bush White House calls into question her vision of succeeded in drastically reducing support for the future, with a caring and sharing populace and single mothers and poor children in order that leaders motivated by social concern not public expenditure would not subsidise moral selfishness. Whether, as Skocpol hopes, a turpitude or excessive female independence, revitalised Democratic Party, with roots in local depending upon one’s political point of view. It is communities, will put forward the social welfare 49 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004 programs sketched here remains to be seen. Both undertakes it, this book, above all, feels written for these books add to our knowledge of the welfare those who are already competently versed in the state and the controversies surrounding age and larger outlines of Kentucky history. gender roles and are to be warmly recommended. An illuminating case in point is that of James Harrod. He is one of seemingly countless characters whose name sporadically appears The West before the reader as if he were a familiar figure when, rightly or wrongly, he hardly leaps off the The Hunters of Kentucky: A Narrative page. Belue informs the reader on page 77 that History of America’s First Far West, 1750- ‘Blackbearded James Harrod stood out among 1792. By Ted Franklin Belue. Stackpole this young, mostly clean-shaven crew of Books, 2003. bachelors.’ On page 107, he is described as ISBN Hardback 0-8117-0883-7. xv + 315pp. ‘Quiet, bearded, and spare.’ On page 148, Harrod $29.95.Reviewed by Thomas Ruys Smith, marries widowed Ann Mcdonald – and on page University of East Anglia. 153, the pair ‘kicked off the first dance’ at Fort Nelson’s 1779 celebrations of George Rogers We are a hardy freeborn race, Clark’s victories over the English. Frequent Each man to fear a stranger, allusions are also made to Harrod’s Town and its Whate’er the game, we join in chase precarious establishment. But who was James Despising toil and danger… Harrod? And why should we care about these intermittent details? And why does the woefully O Kentucky, the hunters of Kentucky; inadequate map in the frontispiece feature a O Kentucky, the hunters of Kentucky! ‘Harrodsburg’, a ‘Fort Harrod’, and a ‘Harrod’s Landing’, but no ‘Harrod’s Town’? The reader of The song that gives Ted Hunters of Kentucky will come away none the Franklin Belue’s book its wiser. A quick look at the reference books – in this name was first performed case, the invaluable Kentucky Encyclopaedia, in New Orleans in 1822 edited by John E. Kleber – calmly reveals that to an appreciative James Harrod was the leader of the first group to audience of Mississippi establish a permanent settlement in Kentucky, boatmen, and its instant Harrod’s Town, now Harrodsburg, in 1774. Such success helped to ensure research is hardly irksome, but Belue’s narrative that the Kentucky Hunter makes it essential. Names come so thick and fast, – the long-knife, the with so few gestures towards an establishing leather stocking, the biography or identifying character sketch, that the deerslayer of yore – reader is left to do precisely what Belue set out to would remain an iconic avoid: cling to the appearances of celebrities like figure in the American pantheon. Daniel Boone, Daniel Boone and Simon Kenton as fixed points in that most famous of Kentuckians, had died only a dizzying litany of faceless Kentuckians. two years previously, at the astonishingly ripe age This is certainly a shame, since Hunters of of 85, the wilderness of his youth transformed Kentucky is a book blessed with virtues that most almost beyond recognition into the fifteenth state lazy narratives on the likes of Boone would envy. of the Union. But Belue’s The Hunters of Kentucky By and large, it is worth the effort for readers at is not concerned either with the cultural any level. Belue’s knowledge, and love, of the era construction of the Kentucky icon, or with Boone and the men is evident on every page. His himself. Rather, this book purports to be a prodigious research, particularly with the 491 narrative history of America’s first far west. This handwritten volumes that comprise the Manuscript fudge is the first and certainly the most serious Collection of pioneering oral historian Lyman C. problem with Belue’s work. Instead of the usual Draper, allows these men to talk directly through emphasis of story over scholarship that dogs most the ages. At times, particularly in the ‘Interludes’ narrative histories, Belue concentrates on precise that separate each chapter, Belue provides the historical episodes that give little sense of either a reader with fantastically detailed descriptions of joined-up history or the transformation of the Kentucky Hunter’s life and equipment that are Kentucky. Disjointed incident – albeit authentic, unparalleled. The Interlude concerned with compelling, evocative, enigmatic and bloody Braddock’s defeat (59-65), a battle that ties so incident – fills most of the pages. The real many important Kentucky figures together, is a purpose of Belue’s book is to recreate the world of particular highlight; oftentimes the reader is able the Kentucky Hunter ‘through the eyes and the to glimpse a social world in the wilderness that lives of common, largely unheralded men’ (xiii). was at once disparate and intimately This is a worthy task, but in the way that Belue interconnected. At other moments, the obscurities 50 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004 of his narrative achieve a kind of rough poetry that mules for the railroads; he was at Promontory, provides the reader, however mystified, with an Utah, for the driving of the golden spike that impressionistic Kante-Ke, fittingly lonely and completed the first transcontinental railroad; he secret, that lingers far longer than a more took part in the now famous Hay Field Fight, in conventional history of Kentucky could hope to which nineteen frontiersmen held off a force of (take, as one example of many, the vivid vignette approximately 2,500 Sioux; and he concluded his of George Bedinger and Lewis Field’s hunting trip, career directing agriculture on the newly formed 191-195). If only the two approaches could have Shoshone reservation. All this certainly makes for found a better synthesis – or, perhaps, separate lively reading, and a useful potted history of works in which their individual merits could shine extraordinary times. Numerous chapters could be more brightly. Belue’s own frontier skills are made used in isolation as succinct and detailed evident in numerous footnotes. He proudly tells descriptions of a historical moment. But since the reader about his experiences graining and Burnett’s memory seems to be the only source for brain-tanning deerskins, serving as an extra in most of the information (there are no footnotes or Michael Mann’s Last of the Mohicans, losing part bibliography) then perhaps a ghosted of his thumb to snakebites. But in the final autobiography may have been a more successful analysis, he is hardly a trustworthy Pathfinder; too format. often, he sprints ahead with the Long-Knives, To the modern reader, it is the treatment of the tracking paths that are all too obvious to him, fighting with Native Americans that dates the whilst his reader is left far behind, struggling with piece most obviously. There is never a sense of the map and lost in the woods. even-handedness in the presentation of violence.

This is most telling adjectively: whilst the cavalry Finn Burnett, Frontiersman. By Robert ‘charged’, the Sioux descend ‘like an avalanche of Beebe David. Stackpole Books, 2003. fighting fiends’ (126). Indians ‘swarm’; they make ‘a wild yelling and jabbering’; they are ‘hideously- ISBN Paperback 0-8117-2483-2. xxi + 378pp. painted maniacs’ (185, 188). And if there is one $17.95. thing better than a dead Indian, it is an Indian who Reviewed by Thomas Ruys Smith, University of believes that ‘all white men are wise’ (275). Chief East Anglia. Washakie, the famous Shoshone chief, and the

subject of numerous works in his own right, It’s easy to imagine the appears here as Burnett’s friend and little more sort of treatment that than a cipher for manifest destiny rhetoric: ‘The Hollywood could give white men are as many as are grasshoppers upon Finn Burnett today. In the the plains […] He would be a fool who would right hands, his counsel his weak Indians to fight […] a people […] extraordinarily diverse who are all great medicine-men’ (275). career (trail breaker, mail There is, however, an even greater enemy rider, railroad man, gold contained within these pages: bureaucracy. prospector, cowboy) Whether the axe to grind is David’s or Burnett’s, would become a story of both faceless government and the army command redemption, in which a structure receive a drubbing. The ‘swivel-chair crack Indian fighter slowly officers in Washington’ who were ‘envious of the becomes a friend of the man in the field’ are accorded most of the blame Natives. Robert David Beebe’s biography was whenever it needs apportioning (93). A chapter is originally published in 1935, and it was based on devoted to the ‘Maladministration’ of the the direct reminiscences of the eponymous Shoshone reservation and is darkly amusing on frontiersman himself. Accordingly, Finn Burnett is the succession of drunks and morphine addicts much less Dances with Wolves, and far more who were placed as agent, ‘for the sole purpose John Wayne. Not that the narrative suffers for this. of removing them from Washington’ (320). The A reliance on the 177-page manuscript dictated by ending, of course, could not be more Hollywood: Burnett to his granddaughter means that, though Burnett settles down to ‘a life of love and peace avowedly disjointed, the various stages of his and sweet contentment’ on a ranch awarded to frontier life are evoked with an authentic eye for him by the Shoshone; the frontier awaits the detail. Burnett evidently had an uncanny knack for approaching ‘hosts of lovable, hard-riding being in the right place at the right time – if not for cowboys’ (366). The world of Finn Burnett is personal safety, then at least for the historical oftentimes engaging and frequently fascinating: record – and so this biography can cover many but such statements should stand as a warning to crucial moments in the transition and development all prospective readers. of the west: Finn was working at Fort Phil Kearney at the time of the Fetterman Massacre; driving 51 American Studies Today – Issue 13 September 2004

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