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Xerox University Microfilms 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 ! 75-26,636 | OUCKAMA, Michael Patrick, 1942- AN EXPLORATORY INVESTIGATION OF ATTITUDES I TOWARD SEPARATISM AMONG BLACK HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS AS RELATED TO SELECTED VARIABLES. The Ohio State University, Ph.D., 1975 Educati on , minori ti es

i t

t Xerox University Microfilms,Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106

0 Copyright by

Michael Patrick Ouckama

1975

THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED. AN EXPLORATORY INVESTIGATION OF ATTITUDES TOWARD SEPARATISM

AMONG BLACK HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS AS

RELATED TO SELECTED VARIABLES

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate

School of The Ohio State University

By

Michael Patrick Ouckama, B.S., M.Ed.

*****

The Ohio State University

1975

Reading Committee: Approved By

Dr. Raphael 0. Nystrand, Chairman

Dr. William E. Nelson, Jr.

Dr. William Wayson

Dr. Rodney Muth

Department of Educational Administration ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A project of this magnitude could never be accomplished with­ out the psychological and intellectual support of many individuals.

I sincerely thank the members of my dissertation committee— Dr.'s

Ray Nystrand, William Nelson, William Wayson and Rodney Muth— who gave freely of their time and expertise; my wife, Diane, for her ideas, patience, moral support and typing; the Superintendent, administrators, teachers and students in the school system where the study was conducted for their cooperation; and the many pro­ fessors, friends and members of my family who continually supported my educational development.

ii VITA

October 29, 1942 ...... Born - Guyana, South America

1968 ...... B.S., State University College of New York, Oswego, New York

1968-70 ...... Teacher, Dr. Martin Luther King Elementary School Syracuse, New York

1970-71 ...... M.Ed., The University of Miami Coral Gables, Florida

1971-73 ...... Graduate Research Associate, National Program for Educational Leadership, The Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio

1973-74 ...... Washington Intern in Education, Teacher Corps, Office of Education, Washington, D. C.

1974- ...... Principal, Northeast Elementary School Ithaca, New York

FIELDS OF STUDY

Major Fields: Elementary Education Educational Administration

Minor Fields: Speech and Theatre Political Science

iii TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... ii

VITA ...... iii

LIST OF TABLES ...... vi

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ...... ix

Chapter

I. THE PROBLEM ...... 1

Introduction Statement of the Problem Rationale for and Significance of the Study Objectives of the Study Hypotheses Definition of Terms Organization of the Dissertation

II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE...... 16

Introduction Black Separatism - The Concept Black Separatism - A Definition Hypotheses Summary

III. METHODOLOGY ...... 44

Introduction Identification/Selection of Locale and School System Description of Locale and School System Identification/Selection of Schools Description of Schools Selection of a Sample Treatment of the Data Instrumentation Summary

iv Page IV. ANALYSIS OF DATA 67

Introduction Subject Profile Attitudes Toward Separatism Analysis of Hypotheses Summary

V. LIMITATIONS, CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS...... 155

Limitations of the Study Conclusions Implications

APPENDIX

A. HISTORY OF BLACK SEPARATISM...... 170

B. DISSERTATION PROSPECTUS...... 174

C. SELF-ESTEEM SCALE...... 179

D. INSTRUCTIONS TO JUDGES - ANALYSIS OF JUDGES' RESPONSES ...... 183

E. QUESTIONNAIRE...... 191

BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 206

v LIST OF TABLES

Summary of Subjects According to School's Student Body Racial Composition ...... 55

Variables and Methods of Measurement ...... 58

Reliability Coefficients of the Likert and Semantic Differential Scales for Each Variable Based on the Kuder-Richardson Reliability (Formula 8). . . 60

Correlation Coefficients Between the Likert and Semantic Differential Scales for Each Variable Based on the Pearson Correlation Formula...... 61

Scale Scores and Attitude Intensity/Direction for Semantic Differential Scales...... 62

Profile of Black High School Students - Racial Composition of School/Sex/Number of Subjects. . . 68

Profile of Black High School Students - Age/Years in Present School/Years in City X Area. . . . 69

Profile of Black High School Students - Mode of Transportation/Racial Composition of School . . . 70

Profile of Black High School Students - Intellectual Self Ranking...... 71

Profile of Black High School Students - Intellectual Self Ranking/Racial Composition/Sex ...... 72

Profile of Black High School Students - Post High School Aspirations...... 73

Profile of Black High School Students - Post High School Aspirations/Racial Composition/Sex . . . . 75

Profile of Black High School Students - Post High School Aspirations/Intellectual Self Ranking. . . 76

Profile of Black High School Students - Membership in All or Mostly Black School and Community Organizations ...... 77

vi Table Page 15. Profile of Black High School Students - Membership in All or Mostly Black School and Community Organizations/Sex ...... 77

16. Profile of Black High School Students - Membership in All or Mostly Black School and Community Organizations/Racial Composition/Sex...... 79

17. Profile of Black High School Students - Neighborhood Grew Up In/Neighborhood Presently Living In . . . . 80

18. Profile of Black High School Students - Comparison of Neighborhood Grew Up In and Neighborhood Presently Living In ...... 81

19. Profile of Black High School Students - Students and Teachers in Elementary and Junior High School . . . 83

20. Attitudes Toward Separatism - Semantic Differential S c a l e ...... 85

21. Semantic Differential Scale - Black Separatism .... 87

22. Attitudes Toward Separatism - Likert Scale ...... 88

23. Attitudes Toward Separatism - Likert Scale - Total School Populations...... 89

24. Perceptions of School Integration - Semantic Differential Scale...... 99

25. Semantic Differential Scale - School Integration . . . 100

26. Attitudes Toward Separatism/Perceptions of School Integration - Semantic Differential Scales...... 101

27. Attitudes Toward Separatism In Predominantly White School - Semantic Differential Scale...... 103

28. Black Separatism - Predominantly White School - Semantic Differential Scales...... 105

29. Attitudes Toward Separatism In Predominantly White School - Likert Scale ...... 106

30. Attitudes Toward Separatism - Likert Scale - Pre­ dominantly White School ...... 107

31. Attitudes Toward Separatism In Racially Balanced School - Semantic Differential Scale...... 112

vii Table Page 32. Black .Separatism - Racially Balanced School - Semantic Differential Scale...... 114

33. Attitudes Toward Separatism In Racially Balanced School - Likert Scale...... 115

34. Attitudes Toward Separatism - Likert Scale - Racially Balanced School ...... 117

35. Attitudes Toward Separatism In Predominantly Black School - Semantic Differential Scale ...... 122

36. Black Separatism - Predominantly Black School - Semantic Differential Scale...... 123

37. Attitudes Toward Separatism In Predominantly Black School - Likert Scale...... 124

38. Attitudes Toward Separatism - Likert Scale - Pre­ dominantly Black School...... 125

39. Attitudes Toward Separatism - Student Body Racial Composition - Likert and Semantic Differential S c a l e s ...... 131

40. Descriptors of Separatism by Student Body Racial Composition - Semantic Differential Scale...... 132

41. Attitudes Toward Separatism - Student Body Racial Composition - Likert Scale ...... 134

42. Perceptions of White People - Semantic Differential Scale...... 156

43. Semantic Differential Scale - White People...... 137

44. Perceptions of White People - Likert Scale...... 138

45. Social Contact With Whites - Likert Scale ...... 139

46. Self Concept - Semantic Differential Scale...... 144

47. Semantic Differential Scale - Myself...... 146

48. Self Concept - Likert Scale ...... 147

49. Feelings Toward School - Semantic Differential Scale. . 149

50. Semantic Differential Scale - My School ...... 150

viii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page 1. Alternative Models of Separatism 18

ix Chapter I

THE PROBLEM

INTRODUCTION

Few Americans would disagree with the observation that this nation is currently experiencing a massive onslaught of highly complex pro­ blems— the cumulative effects of which are of an unprecedented nature in the history of this nation.

One might argue with sound rationale that it would be meaning­ less to rank problems of such magnitude as pollution, inflation, drugs, crime, unemployment and welfare, since they all represent critical dilemmas which must be resolved. Consequently, we are faced with a series of unique yet interrelated problems which simultaneously demand immediate attention; massive allocation of resources, both human and technological; and exploration of all possible alternatives as prere­ quisites to their solution.^"

One such problem for which solutions must evolve, is the perplexing issue of race relations, within which the highly controversial issue of

Black separatism in America resides. Similar to integration and desegre­ gation, the initial reaction to Black separatism tends to be of a highly

^For an excellent discussion regarding the complex nature of social phenomena, see Walter G. Hack, "Social Ferment on School Finance," Theory Into Practice, XI (April, 1972), pp. 88-96.

-1- -2-

emotional nature for most Americans. Indeed, if a scale were presently

available and it was used to measure the reactions of all Americans to

the concept of Black separatism, one might expect the responses to range

from: "It's impossible, not even worth discussion," through a series of

intermediary points, to: "It's inevitable, let's start to make prepara­

tions." Examples of these divergent positions are expressed by Koontz,

Young, and Lester respectively:

Separatism is a philosophy of self-defeating desperation, and worse, it flies in the face of reality in a world crying out for a new morality in social leadership.2

Separatism is not some goal we ought to aspire to. It's here. Now. We are separate in every real sense as the most convinced isolationist could hope for— and the re­ sults have been powerlessness, not power; poverty, not riches; discrimination, not equality.3

Separatism is merely the logical and rational response of a minority to the death-in-life status conferred on it by the majority. Why should black people allow themselves to be subjected to white America any longer? We have never been regarded as human beings by the white majority. There is no evidence that we ever will be. Therefore, it is im­ possible for us to live as human beings as long as we are a part of white America.^

Intervening variables such as race, socioeconomic status, geographical

location, philosophical point of view, attitudes and values would, of

course, influence the points at which responses would register on such

a scale.

2 Elizabeth Koontz, "Complete Integration Must Be the Goal," Ebony, August, 1970, p. 138.

^Whitney M. Young, Jr., "Separatism, we ARE Separated— And That's the Cause of All Our Woes," Ebony, August, 1970, p. 90. 4 Julius Lester, "The Necessity for Separatism," Ebony, August, 1970, p. 169. -3-

Black separatism is not a new phenomenon in America, as will be

discussed later, but there are several reasons why it is of growing

concern to an increasing number of both Black and white Americans.

They include:

1. Continuation of Blacks migrating to central cities.

2. Continuation of "white flight" to the suburbs.

3. Increasing militancy among Black Americans.

4. Continued resistance to integration among white Americans.

5. Emerging opposition to integration among Black Americans.

Although it may be tempting to ignore or suppress the existence of Black

separatism in America, experience in problem solving clearly demonstrates

that such an approach rarely, if ever, provides the necessary ingredients

for solution. Consequently, the times call for further examination, under­

standing and resolution of the inherent difficulties associated with the

issue of Black separatism.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

In attempting to investigate and seek alternatives to a given pro­

blem, it is necessary not only to limit the scope of the phenomenon to a

given area of study, but also to specifically define a manageable and

researchable component of that phenomenon.

The primary focus of this study is in the area of education, and more specifically: An exploratory investigation of attitudes toward

/ separatism among Black high school students as related to selected

variables. -4-

This emphasis should not be interpreted to mean that the phenomenon of separatism is limited in application to Black people in the United

States.Examples of political, cultural, economic and/or religious forms of separatism are evident in many parts of the world.^ Nor is it suggested that Black separatism exists exclusively within the educational arena.

This particular focus is suggested by the importance of education as one among many socialization mechanisms.

RATIONALE FOR AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

There are five fundamental reasons for this investigation of atti­ tudes toward Black separatism among Black high school students: 1) The current void of empirical data dealing with the issue of Black separatism;

2) The nature of race relations in the United States requires that more research studies be attempted by Blacks, particularly in regard to phe­ nomenon relevant to Black communities; 3) The importance of attitudes as a barometer of future social and political behaviors; 4) The social, political and psychological significance of this critical age group (high school students) in relation to future trends in American society; and

See Edgar Litt, Ethnic Politics in America (Illinois: Scott Foresman and Company, 1970), pp. 40-41. 11. . .we can develop three dominant responses of American ethnic groups, namely, accomodation, separatism, and radicalism." • (p. 40). "If a group decides to maximize its cultural values, it confronts the necessity of strengthening the ethnic community at the expense of broader, and more intense, political effective­ ness. This is the response of separatism." (p. 41).

^See Oscar Handlin, The Uprooted (New York: Grosset and Dunlap, 1951). His discussion in part deals with attempts by various migrant groups to "maintain" their unique cultural, political and religious norms estab­ lished in their homeland prior to migration to North America. -5-

5) The implications of Black separatism for urban school administrators,

Black communities, and indeed for all America.

Void of Empirical Data

Anyone attempting to research any aspect of the issue of Black separatism in America becomes cognizant of the fact that the quantity and quality of literature in this area has been rapidly growing as the works of Black Americans are accepted for publication. However, a less than intensive exploration would determine that a large volume of this litera­ ture consists mainly of theoretical discussions, assertion and conjecture.

Very little emphasis has been placed on problem identification, hypothesis development and '’scientific" testing. What little is available is usually of a nature incidental to the main topic of study.

Given the present concern over the issue of Black separatism, it would appear that the collection and analysis of data contributing to such

areas as attitudinal convergence or divergence and sociological and poli­

tical developments and trends, would prove to be of immense value. Ex­ plorations and findings generated by these studies would, in addition, provide more information, as suggested by Bellush and David, for continual

attempts at understanding, predicting, and controlling the behavioral manifestations of mankind.

The heart of the problem is that we need to know more about Black and white communities. We need to know what actions of our political system would satisfy Black citizens and forestall their resorting to violence.^

^Jewel Bellush and Stephen M. David, eds.. Race and Politics in New York City: Five Studies in Policy-Making, (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1971), p. 21. -6-

"Black Research" by Blacks

It is certainly no mystery that one of the many ramifications of the historical segregation of Black and white citizens in America is the contrast in perceptions of phenomena. Altshuler suggests the fol­ lowing :

Here is the crux of the problem. Whites (especially those who live in homogeneous jurisdictions) take the basic values of local government for granted. Blacks do not. Whites disagree on precise spending priorities, and they grouse about tax increases, but they do not question the system it­ self. Blacks do. Whites chuckle over bureaucratic in­ efficiency, but they assume that the objectives being sought are proper. Blacks do not. Whites are fundamentally satis­ fied because they sense that the institutions of American government have been shaped by men like them. Blacks are not because they do not. . .8

In addition to the different perceptual modes, the problem is compounded by the vastly different degrees of access to the world of publishing between Blacks and whites. The result has been that subscription, analy­ sis and interpretation of printed materials is dominated by whites to the disadvantage of Black America. Needless to say, this imbalance must be corrected. In a society where for centuries race has been such a signi­ ficant factor and where one racial group has dominated another racial group, it becomes imperative to encourage and solicit communication from members of the excluded group to not only analyze and interpret the works of those, who by the very process of socialization would logically have a tendency to be biased, but perhaps more importantly, to gather and dis­ seminate data, particularly in relationship to phenomenon relevant to

D Alan Altshuler, Community Control, (New York: Pegasus, 1970), p. 192. -7- their own group. According to Silvers, et al., "The tenor of the times dictates the need for Black academicians, scholars, and intellectuals 9 to begin to explore and analyze the Black community."

The white expert, to the detriment of the Black community, has readily had access to the media for the expression of his thoughts and analyses of the Black community. Black scholars, significantly, v. have not shared in this opportunity to express them­ selves adequately through the media. Lacking a Black perspective, half-truths by ’white experts' have become whole truths to many who do not under­ stand the nature of the Black community— its people and ethos.10

Importance of Attitudes

An attitude may be defined as an emotional tendency, organized through experience, to react positively or negatively toward a psychological object.

Among the many characteristics that comprise the human organism, attitudes emerge as one of the most significant. Consequently, it should come as no surprise that four of the most prominent and well publicized documents of our times have utilized the measurement of attitudes in attempting appraisal of the status of various social issues— the United

States Commission on Civil Rights (Racial Isolation in the Public 12 Schools); the Skolnick Report to the National Commission on the

9 Arthur H. Silvers, Arthur Frazier and Virgil Roberts, "Black Consciousness— Expression and Reality," American Behavioral Scientist, XII, (March-April, 1969), p.l.

Ibid.

"^Louis M. Smith and Bryce B. Hudgins, Educational Psychology: An Application of Social and Behavioral Theory, (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1967), p. 464. 12 U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Racial Isolation in the Public Schools, (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1967). -8-

^ 13 Causes and Prevention of Violence" (The Politics of Protest); the jj „ 14 National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (The Ferner Report); and the U.S. Office of Education survey on Equality of Educational 15 Opportunity (The Coleman Report). Research has clearly established

the significance of attitudinal variables:

. . .students’ attitudes towards themselves, towards learning and towards their environment showed the strongest relations to achievement at all school levels. The zero-order correlations of these attitudes with achievement were higher than those of any other variable, in some cases as high as the correlation of some test scores with others (between .4 and .5).^-^

Attitudes have also been found to have a high correlation with behavior. Skolnick states ". . .that attitudes, when properly measured,

IT Jerome H. Skolnick, The Politics of Protest, (New York: Ballantine Books, 1969). 14 National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, The Kerner Report, (New York: Bantam Books, 1968). 15 J.S. Coleman and staff, Equality of Educational Opportunity, (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1966). 16 'i Henry S. Dyer, "Some Thoughts About Future Studies," in On Equality of Educational Opportunity, eds., Frederick Mosteller and Daniel P. Moynihan, (New York: Vintage Books, 1972), p. 369. (Mr. Dyer cites from the Coleman Report). Further support for this correlation can be found in David P. Ausubel, Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View, (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1968), p. 389. Mr. Ausubel states that: "It is noteworthy, in this connection, that high school stu­ dents who are satisfied with school generally out-perform those who are dissatisfied with school (Brodie, 1964). This relation­ ship between favorable attitudes and achievement also holds true in such individual subject matter fields as biology (Garverick, 1964). In this same connection, it may be noted that interests are better predictors of completion of a given college curricu­ lum than is ability (J.W. French, 1961)." -9- are predictive of complex social behavior.""^ Thus, in his report, which includes the examination of racist behavior, "racist attitudes [were 18 found to be] among the most important causes."

Another critical aspect of attitudes is the manner in which they become an integral part of the human mechanism. For example, "by the time students graduate from high school, they generally have formed 19 racial attitudes and preferences that carry over into later life."

Critical Age Group

Though a fairly large amount of research dealing with the social attitudes of Black Americans has been conducted during the past five years, relatively little of this re­ search has been primarily with the views of young adults less than twenty or twenty-one years of age, and hardly any of it has dealt specifically with attitudes of high school students.20

An examination of the history of the "civil rights movement", com­ monly associated with the early 1960's, would accurately reveal that those participants involved in the many variations of protest, such as "sit-ins",

"freedom-rides", and "marches", were drawn primarily from the colleges and universities across the country. Since then there has been a dramatic

^Skolnick, Politics of Protest, p. 184.

18Ibid., p. 183. 19 U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Racial Isolation, p. 11. 20 Norman Fiddmont and Daniel U. Levine, "The Attitudes of Negro High,School Students in Kansas City, Missouri: A Preliminary Report," ERIC #ED036601. -10- shift in "activism" toward the high school students. The combination of this shift and the recent inclusion of eighteen-year olds as bonafide voters emphasizes the importance of this age group in any assessment of social and political trends in the future.

While there is great momentum toward continuance of inferior, segregated education for blacks, there are also some trends that they may avert such a future. Among these trends is. . .the growing acceptance of black power ideology in black communities particularly among the young blacks who will constitute an important political force of the future. . .21

Implications of Black Separatism

The implications of any serious shift in the philosophy and/or be­ havior of Black high school students toward Black separatism can prove to be quite serious not only for the students themselves but for members of Black communities everywhere, school personnel (especially urban administrators), and indeed for all America.

Separatist ideas and consequent behaviors on the part of Blacks will tend to change and possibly disrupt the social system as we pre­ sently know it. This is the case whether separatism is defined as a j means for the ultimate attainment of integration or an end—^the physical separation from white America. Examples of "disruptive" events are as follows: 1) the goal of a totally integrated society may have to be modified, if not disbanded; 2) present patterns of resource allocations might come under pressure for radical revision; 3) local, state and /

21 Philip Meranto, School Politics in the Metropolis, (Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co., 1970), p. 155. -11-

possibly national governmental units might have to be reorganized, in­

cluding changes in the racial complexity of leadership; 4) separatist

strategies could be diverted by the larger society to perpetuate the

state of segregation; 5) repressive forces by white America could be

utilized to "maintain adherence to law and order"; 6) separatism could

foster Black-white tensions, possibly resulting in sporadic warfare;

7) demands for such things as Black dormitories, student unions, curri­

culum, and teachers could increase rapidly; 8) attempts at excluding whites could result in uncomfortable and volatile situations; 9) con­

flict between integrationists and separatists may stimulate intensive

animosity among Blacks; and 10) an ideological unity could emerge be­

tween Black separatists and white segregationists.

In summary, the lack of empirical data, the need for more research

about and by Blacks, the significance of attitudinal variables, the

critical age group of high school students, and the serious implications

of Black separatism are presented as the significance of and rationale

for a study of this nature.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

In order to provide a focus to the direction of this investigation

of attitudes toward separatism as related to selected variables, the

following objectives were developed:

1. To examine attitudes toward Black separatism among Black high

school students. -12-

2. To examine the relationship between perceptions of school integration and attitudes toward Black separatism among Black high school students.

3. To examine the relationship between the racial composition of a school and attitudes toward Black separatism of Black high school students in attendance.

4. To examine the relationship between attitudes toward Black separatism and social contact with whites among Black high school students.

5. To examine the relationship between attitudes toward Black separatism and self concept among Black high school students.

6. To examine the relationship between attitudes toward Black separatism and feelings toward school among Black high school students.

HYPOTHESES

The following hypotheses were derived from the objectives of the study and were developed in order to test possible relationships between attitudes toward Black separatism and some selected variables (hypotheses will be restated within the context of Chapter II as they relate to the literature):

1. There will be an inverse relationship between perceptions of school integration and attitudes toward Black separatism among Black high school students.

2. There will be no significant relationship in the attitudes of

Black high school students toward Black separatism when grouped according

to the racial composition of the school. -13-

3. There will be an inverse relationship between Black high school students' social contact with white people and their attitudes toward Black separatism.

4. There will be no significant relationship between Black high school students' self concept and their attitudes toward Black separatism.

5. There will be an inverse relationship between Black high school students' feelings toward school and their attitudes toward Black separat­ ism.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

The following definitions are used throughout the text of this study. Some definitions are restated within the text when deemed appro­ priate to the discussion.

1. Black separatism - the condition which occurs when Blacks decide for themselves to be apart from whites. Unless otherwise stated, when the term "separatism" is used by itself, it should be interpreted as meaning "Black separatism".

2. School integration - the sharing of experiences among Black and white students relative to the educational environment so that race is not a criteria used to the detriment of either group or members of that group.

3. Racial composition - the percentage of Black and white students in attendance at a particular school. When racial composition is used in discussing related phenomenon, the appropriate labels are specified. For example, the racial composition of teachers in a school. . . .

4. Predominantly white high school - at least 80 percent of the students in attendance are white.

5* Racially balanced high school - at least 60 percent of the students in attendance are white and 40 percent are Black or vice versa.

6. Predominantly Black high school - at least 80 percent of the students in attendance are Black. -14-

7. Social contact - the "distance" the respondent perceives between himself/herself and white people by reference to the type of interaction he/she is willing to engage and the perceptions of white people as a group.

8. Self concept - is used interchangeably with self esteem and is defined according to Rosenberg:

. . .the individual respects himself, considers him­ self worthy, he does not necessarily consider himself better than others, but he definitely does not consider himself worse, he does not feel that he is the ultimate in perfection, but on the contrary, recognizes his limitations and expects to grow and improve.^2

9. Feelings toward school - the manner in which a student reacts to specific and inherent components of the school where he/she is in attendance. Examples of these components are teachers, administrators, counselors and courses.

10. Black - is used to refer to the race of people commonly called "Negroes". Within the context of the questionnaire, the word "Black" is spelled with a small "b" in order to avoid influencing responses to items.

ORGANIZATION OF THE DISSERTATION

Chapter I has served to introduce and provide a focus for the study under investigation. A review of literature and its relationship to the selected hypotheses is presented in Chapter II. Chapter III focuses on the procedures utilized in conducting the investigation. Processes em­ ployed to analyze judges’ responses to the original item pool and sub­ jects’ responses to the questionnaire are elaborated in this chapter.

22 The Likert-Type Self Esteem Scale was designed by M. Rosenberg in 1965 and appeared in John P. Robinson and Phillip R. Shaver, Measures of Social Psychological Attitudes, University of Michigan: Institute for Social Research, 1969, pp. 97-101. -15-

Chapter IV is divided into two basic sections. The first section presents a profile of the sample used in this study based on demographic information, while the analysis of subjects' responses relating to the variables in question and testing of hypotheses constitute the second section. The final chapter summarizes the results of the data and re­ lates conclusions, limitations and recommendations. > V — pv

Chapter II

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

INTRODUCTION

Within the confines of this chapter the literature relevant to the phenomenon of Black separatism is explored. The first section deals with

the concept of Black separatism denoting alternative ways in which sepa­

ratism has and is being defined. The following sections examine concepts which are related to Black separatism, but nevertheless elicit a variety

of interpretations as to the nature of that relationship. A definition

of Black separatism is then presented. The final section of this chapter

attempts to present the derivation of earlier defined hypotheses and inte­

grate them into the text by drawing on the literature to support the

relationship between separatism and selected variables.

BLACK SEPARATISM - THE CONCEPT

Demands for Black separatism have been an integral part of America's history for quite some time.^ For the most part, separatism represents

a calculated response by Blacks to the many ramifications of white oppres­

sion. The historical inability of Blacks to achieve justice and equality

^"For a brief description of a series of events related to Black separatism in America, see Appendix A.

-16- -17- within the social, political and economic structures, designed by and maintained for white America, continues to provide impetus for examining the possibilities of Black separatism.

Like any social phenomenon, Black separatism has evoked intense controversy among and between both its advocates and opponents. This controversy manifests itself not only in terms of goals and strategies but also in the very "meaning" of Black separatism.

Some early advocates of Black separatism proposed that the only means of escape from the destructive nature of white oppression was the physical removal of Blacks from the shores of America to some other 2 country.

Garvey. . .told his followers that black men's only hope was to build an independent nation in Africa where they could choose their own l e a d e r s . 3

There are those who still insist that "total withdrawal" represents the only option which has any merit, but a growing number of Black separ­ atists are proposing other alternatives:

1. Occupation and control of one or more states.

2. Occupation and control of large urban areas.

3. Control of all geographical areas where Blacks constitute a majority.

2 Canada, Africa and Haiti are predominantly mentioned in the literature.

3 Bradford Chambers, ed., Chronicles of Black Protest, (New York: New American Library, 1968), p. 166. -18-

4. Control of vital institutions located in Black communities.

5. Cultural, economic and/or political separation.

These separatist alternatives can be schematically described as shown in Figure 1: Alternative Models of Separatism

MODEL A

UNITED STATES AFRICA

Whites Blacks

MODEL B

UNITED STATES

Whites Blacks

MODEL C

UNITED STATES

Whites

Blacks Whites

MODEL D

UNITED STATES

1 1 r, . | Blacks | , Whites : : Blacks * Whites » ...... 1 - .1 ..... -19-

MODEL A - represents the "original" form of Black separatism and results in the physical and voluntary removal of Blacks from the

United States to some other land such as Africa or some of its nations.

The exchange of goods and services might be similar to what presently exists between the United States and Japan. In each country the leadership would reflect the dominant population, and the contact between Blacks and whites would be limited.

MODEL B - represents a similar form of separation between

Blacks and whites as proposed in Model A— the significant difference being that although independent land ownership is operational, both groups function within the same land mass, the United States. The exchange of goods and services might be similar to what presently exists between North and South Korea. The leadership within each land area would reflect the dominant population. Although the con­ tact between Blacks and whites may be at a higher level than would be the case under Model A, it would still be limited.

MODEL C - can represent separate land ownership, but in this case said ownership would be limited to the central parts of large urban areas where Blacks now or will, if present demographic trends continue, - 20- cons ti tut e the majority. The other alternative to land ownership within the confines of this model would be Black control and operation of institutions located in Black communities. The leadership within each land area would reflect the dominant population of that area.

Whether land ownership and/or institutional control is the case, the exchange of goods and services and the contact between Blacks and whites would seemingly result in a higher degree of interrelatedness than would be the case under Models A and B.

MODEL D - represents the combined option of separatism for some Blacks and the right of others to exercise the choice for inte­ gration. The exchange of goods and services between Blacks and whites would resemble Model B for some Blacks and would be jointly determined with whites for others. Likewise, leadership would be separate for some and shared with whites for other Blacks. Social con­ tact with whites would obviously be at a high level for some Blacks and much less for others.

Regardless of which separatist model is advocated, their proponents share two fundamental premises:

1. In order to achieve justice and equality for Blacks, it is necessary for Blacks to assume leadership in the struggle to define their own destiny. -21-

2. Given the historical relationship between Blacks and whites in America, in order to determine their own destiny, it is necessary to minimize the contact between Blacks and whites.

The degree to which Blacks adhere to these positions will significantly influence their philosophical stance and potential behavioral mani­ festations in relationship to Black separatism.

The above discussion provides a general framework surrounding the options involved in the meaning of Black separatism. To more fully comprehend this concept, it is helpful to examine related concepts which shed further light on the complex nature of its goals and strategies.

The Necessity for Land

The controversy surrounding the need to acquire ownership of land as a prerequisite for any separatist movement is divided between those who regard land acquisition as fundamental and others who argue that the economic limitations of Blacks, combined with the political constraints inherent in the American system, make land acquisition an unrealistic strategy.

The primary difference between these two arguments appears to re­ side in the degree of adherence to the second premise mentioned earlier.

On one hand, there are those who perceive self determination by Blacks , as being possible only when the present contact between Blacks and whites is substantially reduced, and independent land ownership as emphasized by Obadele and Llorens would be a means towards this end. -22-

Our Black American struggle— no less than that of the Azanians, the Zimbabweans, the Guineas— is the struggle for l a n d . 4

'Revolution is based on land. Land is the basis of all independence. Land is the basis of freedom, justice, and equality.' And man would cite the French Revolution, the Russian Revolution and even the American Revolution, to support his thesis.5

Those who propose this strategy suggest that land acquisition is necessary

in order to build "new" social, political and economic values and structures based upon a Black perspective. Furthermore, Gethers argues that the funda­ mental obstacle inherent in the present void of land acquisition is psycho­

logical in nature.

A great deal, however, depends on how completely Africans in America can untrack their minds from the inability to think about land, independent land, as not only an integral part of our struggle for freedom but as an essential primary goal.®

On the other side of this argument are those separatists who purport

that reliance on land acquisition would result in postponing indefinitely

the goal of self determination, and that it is necessary, although perhaps

undesirable, to maintain contact with white America. Consequently, these

advocates of separatism argue that control and operation of institutions which serve Black communities while simultaneously getting "their share"

of resource allocations (for example, tax revenues from the State and

Federal governments) would provide the means for self determination.

^Imari A. Obadele, "The Struggle is for Land," The Black Scholar, February, 1972, p. 24.

^David Llorens, "Black Separatism in Perspective,” Ebony September, 1968, p. 24.

^Solomon Gethers, "Toward a Theory of Black Liberation," Negro Digest, December, 1969, p. 9. -23-

Means or End

Closely related to the necessity and/or desire for land acquisi­ tion, is whether Black separatism is perceived as a means or an end.

It would appear that those who perceive land acquisition as a pre­ requisite to Black separatism (and the ensuing "elimination” of contact between Blacks and whites) are suggesting that Black separatism repre­ sents an end in itself. Any form of integration in the future would be ruled out.

Conversely, advocates who view Black separatism as a strategy to acquire political and economic power within the established order are suggesting that separatism represents a means to the ultimate objective of genuine integration. In other words, both Blacks and whites must independently achieve a political and economic power base so that both can operate from positions of strength. Advocates of Black separatism as a means, such as Allen, profess that "independent power" is absolutely necessary to insure that integration becomes mutually desirable.

When Black people speak of separatism, they are focusing on the need to develop and strengthen black institutions and organizations. . . . Most people [are thinking]. . . of building certain institutions; of building economic institutions; of building social-action organizations. . . . It is necessary to withdraw and develop strength in our institutions. And this can lead, itself, to integration ultimately.7

Samuel W. Allen, "The Civil Rights Struggle," in What Black Educators Are Saying, ed., Nathan Wright, Jr., (New York: Hawthorn Books, Inc., 1970), p. 240. -24-

Mutual Exclusiveness

The dichotomy relevant to a discussion of this concept exists between those separatists who believe that since Blacks have been op­ pressed as a group (including those who have "made it" out of the ghetto but encounter similar, yet perhaps more subtle, forms of white oppression),

then Blacks must struggle for self determination, through separatism, as a group, and others who propose that integration and separatism are not mutually exclusive strategies or goals. In the mind of the latter, in­

tegration can occur simultaneously with separatism, and whether one is

emphasized over the other would depend upon the desires and capabilities of the particular community. Available resources, leadership and con­ stituent commitment, political and economic realities and housing patterns of a particular locale can be such that integration would be the logical

choice. Conversely, in a community where the desire and/or resources, such as leadership, are not sufficient for integration, separatism can be chosen. The critical variable in mutual exclusivity is that neither

community would impose its "will" upon the other.

Separatism vs. Segregation

Advocates of Black separatism, regardless of their philosophical stance and/or proposed strategies for separation, agree that there is a

distinct difference between separatism and segregation even though both

concepts represent a form of separation. For example, Sizemore states: -25-

Segregation is. . .the condition of separation which occurs when A group (whites) forces B group (Blacks) to remain apart from A group. A group has power over B. The value is white supremacy; the norm (law) is segregation. Both A and B groups are motivated to conform to the belief in B group's "inferiority and worthlessness and the fear of A group reprisal by model and images.®

Separatism is the condition which occurs when B group decides for itself to separate from A group. A is equal to B. The value is usually some aspect of the pursuit of happiness (cultural preservation, a certain way of life or group mobility).9

The primary difference between these two forms of separation is the source of the decision to separate (and, of course, the consequent im­ plications of that decision).

Violence

A much debated and somewhat emotional issue revolves around the

concept of violence in relationship to Black separatism. Is violence a prerequisite to separatism? Will separatism ultimately lead to violence?

These are typically the key questions. Positive and negative responses

to either question can be found. Gersham, for example, proposes that

"social change can come about nonviolently, but rarely without tension

and stress.On the other hand, Albert Vann states:

Barbara Sizemore and Anderson Thompson, "Separation, Segrega­ tion and Integration," Educational Leadership, December, 1969, p. 241. 9 Ibid.

^Carl Gesham, "Black Separatism: Shock of Integration," Dissent, July/August, 1969, p. 294. -26-

In the final analysis, physical confrontation is in­ evitable. The community must physically take over the schools, and with that leverage demand control of all policy-making relative to operating a school.H

It is important to note that the violence which accompanied the racial disorders during the summer months in our recent history is not necessarily synonymous with the violence that concerns Black separatists 12 and others. These disorders, as documented by the Kerner Report, were for the most part unorganized and/or unpremeditated. Rather, they took the general form of individuals "collectively" reacting to years of frustration. If violence were to accompany any separatist movement, it would, by the very nature of the movement, be organized involving perhaps 13 the guerrila warfare tactics described by Sam Greenlee or as suggested by Jerome Skolnick:

If the decline of riots means the decline of disorders in general, then the view of riots as controllable explosions rooted in the black 'tension' makes a good deal of sense. If on the other hand, the decline of riots means only a change in the character of violent black protests, then the roots of black violence may go deeper and reach more profoundly into the structure of American institutions. There is some evidence— highly tentative— to suggest that the decline in the scale of riots coincides with an increase in more strategic acts of violence and a shift from mass riots to sporadic warfare. . . .14

Albert Vann, "Community Involvement in Schools," in What Black Educators Are Saying, ed., Nathan Wright, Jr., (New York: Hawthorn Books, Inc., 1970), p. 233. 12 National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, The Kerner Report. 13 Sam Greenlee presents a fictious, but plausible, account of such tactics in his novel, The Spook Who Sat By The Door, (New York: Bantam Books, 1970). 14 Skolnick, Politics of Protest, pp. 173-74. -27-

Racial Pride

Most Black separatists support, in one form or another, the pro­ position that a fundamental aspect of separatism is the building of racial pride.

In short, we can replace shame with pride, inferiority with dignity, by imbuing the child with what is coming to be known as black nationalism. 15

The black communities all across the nation are on the move. Those in Los Angeles, Seattle, Boston, and Atlanta are looking alike, talking alike, thinking alike. Black pride is the current theme.16

In several important ways, the Muslims tend to strengthen the dignity of the Negro community.17

The assumption is made that the employment of strategies to develop and strengthen racial pride is absolutely essential regardless of the fora of separatism espoused. Blacks must, through racial pride and its mani­ festations, remove the years of systematic conditioning that has led whites not only to perceive Blacks as inferior, but even more damaging, to Blacks' self rejection and consequent rejection of other Blacks. Overcoming self hatred is a central theme of the Black Muslims.

One of the greatest handicaps among the so-called Negroes is that there is no love for self, nor love for his or her own kind. This not having love for self is the root

^Robert S. Browne, "Separatism," Ebony, August, 1970, p. 51.

"^Kenneth S. Washington, "Black Power— Action or Reaction?", American Behavioral Scientist, March/April, 1969, p. 49.

^C. Eric Lincoln, The Black Muslims in America, (Boston: Beacon Press, 1961), p. 250. -28-

cause of hate (dislike), disunity, disagreement, quarreling, betraying, stool pigeons and fighting and killing one a n o t h e r . IS

Proponents of Black separatism argue that separatism offers the only

feasible alternative to achieve the objective of racial pride and that

Black leadership combined with decreasing contact with whites are necessary prerequisites.

The discussion to this point suggests that any conceptualization of Black separatism, indeed any form of separatism, necessitates under­ standing its history, examination of alternative proposals and analysis of related concepts. However, in attempting to measure attitudes toward

Black separatism, which would allow for comparative analysis of the data, an operational definition of the same had to be provided.

BLACK SEPARATISM - A DEFINITION

For the purpose of this study, Black separatism indicated the con­ dition which occurs when Blacks decide for themselves to separate from whites.

This definition not only allowed respondents to react positively or negatively to the concept but, in the case of the former reaction, to delineate preferred models and inherent goals and strategies which were perceived as necessary in order to accomplish the condition of Black separatism.

18 Elijah Muhammad, Message to the Blackman in America, (MUHAMMAD: Mosque of Islam No. 2, 1965), p. 32. -29-

HYPOTHESES

In addition to assessing students' attitudes toward Black sepa­ ratism, this study investigated the possible relationships between attitudes toward separatism and the following variables (as they related to the re­ spondents) :

1. perceived success or failure of school integration.

2. racial composition in the school/classroom.

3. social contact with whites.

4. self concept of Black students.

5. feelings toward school.

Separatism and Integration

Perhaps the most fundamental reason for the promotion of separatism has been the perceived failure of integration. Conversely, the perceived success of integration has often been cited as a rationale for the rejec­ tion of Black separatism. This controversy continues and is likely to mount in intensity as, on one hand, some barriers to integration crumble, as evidenced perhaps by the delegate composition to the 1972 Democratic

National Convention, while on the other hand, new barriers seem to be erected, such as the discussions relating to a constitutional amendment to end busing for racial integration.

< -30-

Separatists contend that an examination of the progress toward 19 integration since the 1954 Brown decision would reveal a phenomenal number of methods which have been employed to avoid compliance with the law. "These methods, both ingenious and disingenious, have been used to separate blacks from whites and to place both psychological and physi- 20 cal burdens on black students." One underlying reason for resorting to these methods (typically after a court order to desegregate, the separatist continues) is the historical difference in perceptions of integration between Blacks and whites.

White America, in the eyes of many Blacks, saw integration as a means of maintaining white control of schools when attempts to continue the dual system had failed.

Integration. . .is a one way process in which blacks gravitate to white institutions and white communities and adopt white values while implicitly rejecting their own.21

19 Although in 1954 (Brown I), the "separate but equal" law was declared unconstitutional, of equal importance was the 1955 (Brown II) decision which dealt with the implementation of the 1954 decree. See Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483, (1954); and Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 349 U.S. 294, (1955). 20 See "Segregated Classrooms," Newsweek, April 5, 1971, p. 86. Evidence of these methods of avoidance can be gathered by an examination of court cases. For example: evasion through legislation-Adkins v. School Board of City of Newport News, 148 F. Supp. 430, (Va. 1957); exercise of police powers-Orleans Parish School Board v. Bush, 242 F. 2d. 156, (5th Cir. 1957); judicial delays-Avery v. Wichita Falls Independent School District, 241 F. 2d. 230, (5th Cir. 1957); abolition of public schools-Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County, 377 U.S. 218, (Va. 1965); free­ dom of choice plans-Green v. County School Board of New Kent Co., Va., 391 U.S. 430, (1968); teacher assignments-Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education, 311 F. Supp. 265, (N.C. 1970) and Kemp v. Beasley, 389 F. 2d. 178 (8th Cir. 1968). 21 See Editor's Note, "The Terms Defined," Ebony, August, 1970, p.35. -31-

. . .in its general usage integration refers to doing something with white people and being in the presence of white p e o p l e . 2 2

It is this perception and consequent implementation of integration policies and guidelines, separatists argue, that led to one-way busing, dismissal of Black teachers, demotion of Black principals, closing of

Black schools and unequal expenditures between Black and white schools.

Carmichael, Bennett, and Wilcox state that for years Blacks were deceived by the white-control model of integration; then upon the reali­ zation of its inequities began to question it;

This concept of integration has to be based on the assumption that there was nothing of value in the Negro community and that little value could be created among Negroes, so the thing to do, was siphon off the ’acceptable1 Negroes into the surrounding white middle class communities.23

Integration was never designed to educate the black masses. . .both integration and segregation result in white control of both white and Black schools.24 25 Integration is another synonym for white supremacy.

22 Lerone Bennett, Jr., "Liberation," Ebony, August, 1970, p. 38. 23 Stokely Carmichael, "Toward a Black Liberation," reprinted from The Massachusetts Review, Autumn, 1966. It is interesting to note that this process of recruitment of the top layer of the "lower class" has been cited as a key method used by the ruling class to maintain political and economic control. See Paul M. Sweezy, "The American Ruling Class," reprinted from The Present as History: Essays and Reviews on Capitalism and Socialism, (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1962).

n / Bennett, Jr., "Liberation," p. 37. 25 Preston Wilcox, "Black Control: In Search of Humanism," in Integration and Separatism in Education, eds., Sam Goldman and Peter Clark, (New York: Syracuse University Press, 1970), p. 20. -32- and finally, as Brown and Hare point out, came to the situation today where many Blacks verbalize outright rejection:

Integration, which had a high priority among the black masses, is now being written off.26

It will be the irony of recorded history that inte­ gration will be used to hold Blacks back in the second half of the twentieth century, just as segregation held them back during the first half.27

In contrast to the white-control model of integration. Black America for the most part perceived integration as a path to the acquisition of legal rights and equal protection under the law, participation in the social system in a decision-making capacity, and achievement of political and economic justice. Thus, the Black integration model was based on co­ sharing and co-existence with white America.

Integration is a reciprocal process in which blacks and whites gravitate towards each other, sharing decision making control over institutions and communities and melding their ethical and esthetic v a l u e s . 28

Integration is the sharing of mutually self reaffirming educational experience by students from a variety of ethnic, religious, social and economic backgrounds. . .to enable students to learn to establish co-relationships and to understand the true nature of society.29

26 Browne,"Separatism," p. 47, 27 Nathan Hare, "Separate Black Studies in Higher Education," in Integration and Separatism in Education, eds., Sam Goldman and Peter Clark, (New York: Syracuse University Press, 1970), p. 20. 28 Editor's Note, Ebony, p. 35. 9Q Wilcox, "Black Control," p. 22. -33-

The separatists conclude that in regard to the concept of integration,

distinctly different perceptions on the part of Black and white America have historically existed, and since the latter "refuses" to re-examine and correct its colonialist posture, Blacks must separate in order to

achieve justice. 30 Many of those who oppose separatism, and the assumption is made

that support for integration logically follows, do not refute the major

component of the separatism position (the different perceptions of inte­

gration) , but strongly challenge the conclusion that "times have not 31 changed". They frequently cite evidence in support of the positive nature of the integrated school. For example, Katz suggests that if a

Black child ". . .has a high expectation of success in the integrated

school he should be aroused to greater effort than he would be by a 32 similar expectation of success in the segregated school." "There is

30 There is some evidence that many people who oppose Black separatism do so because they perceive separatism and segregation as synonymous. (Refer to earlier discussion on pages 24-5).

31 This does not imply that integrationists are opposed to all vari­ ables related to separatism as previously discussed. The building of racial pride, for example, is seen as crucial for Black survival by "all" Blacks, regardless of their philosophical and/or behavioral stance toward integration or separatism.

32 Irwin Katz, "Factors Influencing Negro Performance in the Desegre­ gated School," in Black Americans and White Racism; Theory and Research, ed., Marcel L. Goldschmid, (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1970), p. 217. -34-

some evidence that the academic achievement of Negro students is lower 33 in a majority-Negro than in a majority-white school. ..." In addition, those who support integration argue that ". . .the overwhelming majority of Negro American population ranging from as high as 98 percent and as 34 low as 78 percent, choose integration."

A rebuttal to the integrationist argument that separatists can utilize is stated by Vane:

The results of studies mentioned indicate that Negro and white children tend to achieve on a level com­ mensurate with their socioeconomic standing and that integration by itself is not likely to bring about significant improvement in achievement.35

Separatists also argue that the percentages which show Blacks "over­ whelmingly in favor of" integration are misleading because "the pro­ jection of present trends to describe the future is full of risk, since unforeseen events— an assassination, a war, a major racial clash, can 36 rapidly change those percentages." Furthermore, when age is controlled,

33 Marcel L. Goldschmid, "Racial Isolation and the Outcomes of Education," in Black Americans and White Racism: Theory and Research, ed., Marcel L. Goldschmid, (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1970), p. 228.

^ R o y Wilkins, "Integration," Ebony, August, 1970, p. 54. The support for integration is supported by several studies including one by A. Campbell and H. Schuman, "Black Views on Racial Issues," in Goldschmid, Black Americans, p. 245. These authors report that "Negroes in 15 cities oppose Black separatism by an overwhelming margin." 35 Julia R. Vane, "Relation of Early School Achievement to High School Achievement When Race, Intelligence and Socioeconomic Factors are Equalled," in Goldschmid, Ibid., p. 225.

Campbell and Schuman, "Black Views," p. 350. -35-

"the overall trends seem clear: younger people are somewhat more 37 accepting of separatists1 beliefs than older people."

The discussion in this section suggests that a relationship exists between the perception of integration as a failure or a success and one's attitude toward separatism. To test this notion, the following hypothesis was examined:

HYPOTHESIS #1

There will be an inverse relationship between perceptions of school integration and attitudes toward Black separatism among Black high school students.

Separatism and Racial Composition ,

For as long as the subject of school integration has been discussed, the issue of racial composition has been an integral part. What con­ stitutes racial balance in a classroom, in a school? Is it just to label a school "integrated" when an 80/20 (white to Black) ratio exists and label another school "Black" when the Black/white percentages are reversed?

Does the racial composition of a school affect students' achievement, attitudes, motivation, dropout rates? These and countless other questions are typical of discussions on racial composition.

To the separatist, existing racial compositions of integrated schools where Blacks are in the minority, only serve to diffuse "Black Power" by making white control that much easier. Where the racial composition is all Black, separatists point to the predominance of white teachers, sub­ standard buildings, inadequate financial support, and above all, the critical difference between segregation and separatism. -36-

The crucial and relevant question is: Does a relationship exist between the racial composition of a school and/or classroom and the

Black student's attitude toward separatism? Apparently, there is no empirical data which suggests the existence and/or direction of such a relationship and therefore, the following hypothesis was examined:

HYPOTHESIS #2

There will be no significant relationship in the attitudes of Black high school students toward Black separatism when grouped according to the racial composition of the school.

Separatism and Social Contact

The literature reveals that a fundamental variable associated with the success or failure of integration, and thus related to separatism if hypotheses #1 and #2 were supported, is social contact.

Webster suggests that "an analysis of successful contact situations seems to reveal three important requisite factors: equal status of the participants in the situation, contact of sufficient duration and intimacy, 38 and the sanction or support of a higher authority." Upon examination of social contact between Blacks and whites in an integrated junior high school, after only a six month duration, "the findings. . .did indicate that change was greater in the direction of more acceptance of whites by

Blacks. "39

38 Staten W. Webster, "The Influence of Interracial Contact on Social Acceptance in a Newly Integrated School," Journal of Educational Psychology, 52, (1961), p. 292.

39Ibid., p. 296. Hall and Gentry, in their study of sixteen high schools in eight different districts in a southeastern state all having been integrated at least three years prior to the study, reveal data which support

Webster's findings— "The general pattern of responses indicated that isolation was reduced as the length of time Negro and white students 40 were in a school together was increased." However, when the degree of intimacy pertaining to social contact was introduced, Hall and Gentry report that:

There was evidence that this contact did not apply to social activities by the frequency of return by Black students to their former schools to participate in social events. . .white and Negro students accept each other as classmates but do not accept each other socially.^1

When sex was controlled, the authors suggested "there was strong evidence 42 that male students had made a better adjustment.” This may be explained in light of the wider range of in-school activities for males such as athletic teams which tend to promote social contact.

One explanation for the difficulty in increasing social contact among Black and white students, as suggested by Campbell and Yarrow and related to Webster's factor of "contact of a sufficient duration and intimacy," is the age at which the contact is initiated.

^Morril M. Hall and Harold W. Gentry, "Isolation of Negro Students in Integrated Public Schools," Journal of Negro Education, 38, (Spring, 1969), p. 159. -38-

It is a commonly voiced expectation that desegregation and its concomitant changes in social relationships are accomplished more easily with younger children than with older. Support for this view comes from research findings indicating that there is greater awareness of race and increased differentiation and crystallization of racial attitudes among older children as contrasted with younger.43

In addition to the many variables involved in studying social contact,

such as age, sex and duration, Goldschmid states that an historical ex­ amination of race relations in the United States will generally reveal different attitudes toward each other between Blacks and whites which relate to social contact.

The empirical evidence indicates by and large that Black Americans have been far less prejudiced towards whites than vice v e r s a . 4 4

This is so in spite of the fact that more negative attitudes toward whites would be "much more easily justifiable in view of centuries of 45 white oppression of blacks."

It would appear based on the evidence previously discussed that

the nature of social contact between Blacks and whites should exhibit

some relationship with separatist attitudes of the former. The following hypothesis was examined in order to discern that relationship:

A3 John D. Campbell and Marian R. Yarrow, "Personal and Situational Variables in Adapting to Change," Journal of Social Issues, XIV, (1958), p. 30.

^Goldschmid, "Racial Isolation and Outcomes," p. 257.

45T, . , Ibxd. -39-

HYPOTHESIS #3

There will be an inverse relationship between Black high school students' social contact with whites and their attitudes toward Black separatism.

Separatism and Self Concept

Closely related to racial pride, the building of positive self concepts among Black youth is invariably cited by Blacks as a primary goal in the struggle for liberation.

Although many Blacks are likely to support the words of James Baldwin—

"Negroes. . .are taught to despise themselves from the minute they open their eyes on the world. This world is white and they are black,there appear to be inconsistencies in the literature as to whether: 1) signifi­ cant differences in self concept exist between Blacks and whites, and

2) self concepts of Blacks differ in predominantly white as opposed to predominantly Black environments.

Regarding the first inconsistency, several researchers, including 47 48 49 Clark and Clark, Pettigrew and Kavaraceus, have reported that Blacks

^James Baldwin, "Letter From a Region in my Mind," New Yorker, 1962, p. 65.

^S e e K.B. Clark and M.P. Clark, "Racial Identification and Pre­ ferences in Negro Children," in Readings in Social Psychology, eds., G.E. Swanson, T.M. Newcomb and E.L. Hartley, (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1952). See also, K.B. Clark, Prejudice and Your Child, (Boston: Beacon Press, 1963).

^T.F. Pettigrew as cited in R.L. Williams and H. Byers, "Negro Self Esteem in a Transitional Society; Tennessee Self-Concept Scale," Per­ sonnel and Guidance Journal, 47, 1968. 49 W.C. Kvaraceus, Negro Self Concept: Implications for School and Citizenship, (New York: McGraw Hill, 1965). -40-

1 50 tend to have lower self concepts than whites. Other studies by Coleman and Guggenheim^ suggest that no significant differences between the self concepts of Black and white students were found.

Likewise, studies reveal different findings in regard to the relation- 52 ship between self concept and racial environment. Hodgkins and Stakenas report that when comparing Blacks and whites in segregated environments,

Blacks tended to score higher than whites in self adjustment and self 53 assurance. Morris and Caplin found that regardless of race, students in desegregated environments had higher self concepts than did students in segregated environments. Finally, Williams and Byers suggest that

". . .Negroes attending integrated schools did not differ significantly 54 in self concept from those in segregated settings."

These studies suggest that it should not be surprising that when self concept is associated with separatism and/or integration, one must exercise caution in specifying a relationship. There are those who argue that in order for the Black student to endure the harshness and/or avoidance by white schoolmates in an integrated setting he/she must possess

^Coleman, Equality of Educational Opportunity.

Guggenheim, "Self Esteem and Achievement Expectations for White and Negro Children," 1967, ERIC #021938. 52 B.J. Hodgkins and R.G. Stakenas, "Study of Self Concept of Negro, and White Youth in Segregated Environments," Journal of Negro Education, 38, 1969. 53 f D. Morris and J. Caplin, "Self Concept, Level of Aspiration and Academic Achievement," Journal of Negro Education, 37, 1968.

^R. L. Williams and M. Byers, "Negro Self Esteem in a Transitional Society," Personnel and Guidance Journal, 47, 1968. -41- a very positive self concept. Also, ". . .those who feel mostly

Negro. . .are consistently more favorable to integration. . .and less 55 likely to be anti-white." Others, such as Campbell and Schuman, pro­ mote an equally convincing argument that since separatism represents a diversion from the norm, those persons adhering to this philosophy must have very positive self concepts:

. . .it is likely that many of those who hold the majority position do so with little thought or commitment." To de­ viate from a widely held norm probably requires more con­ viction than to hold it, and if we could estimate this extra factor and weigh it into the results we might find the force behind black nationalism to be considerably greater than its numbers suggest.

In light of these conflicting observations, the following hypothesis was tested:

HYPOTHESIS #4

There will be no significant relationship between Black high school students’ self concept and their attitudes toward Black separatism.

Separatism and Feelings Toward School

A primary effect of compulsory education, which includes specifica­ tions regarding the length of the school day, is that the student is

"forced" to spend a significant part of his life within the physical confines of the school building. It should logically follow, therefore,

Donald L. Noel, "Minority Group Identification and Social Integra-., tion," (unpublished paper presented at the annual meeting of the AmericaiT Sociological Association, 1966).

^A. Campbell and H. Schuman, "Black Views," p. 349. In this study (referred to earlier) the authors indicate that "six percent of the sample advocates the formation of a separate black nation." \

-42- that feelings about that institution would significantly influence a student’s attitude towards other pehnomena.

Recognizing that several variables are necessarily included when one discusses "feelings toward school," this investigation focused on the following as they related to the respondents in the selected sample:

1) administration; 2) teachers; 3) counselors; and 4) peers. Questions were designed to assess, for example, whether the respondent felt that he/she was treated "fairly" by his counselors. "Fairly" was defined in terms of perceived accessibility of the counselor to the student, fre­ quency of contact between student and counselor and the perceived role of the counselor, such as administrative and/or guidance.

The assumption was made that positive perceptions of administrators, teachers, counselors and peers, when combined, would result in the re­ spondent feeling positively toward school. The converse was also assumed.

In an attempt to investigate the relationship between the respon­ dent's feelings toward school and his/her attitude toward Black separatism, the following hypothesis was examined:

HYPOTHESIS #5

There will be an inverse relationship between Black high school students' feelings toward school and their attitudes toward Black separatism. -43-

SUMMARY

In summary, the following hypotheses were tested:

1. There will be an inverse relationship between perceptions of school integration and attitudes toward Black separatism among Black high school students.

2. There will be no significant relationship in the attitudes of Black high school students toward Black separatism when grouped according to the racial composi­ tion of the school.

3. There will be an inverse relationship between Black high school students’ social contact with whites and their attitudes toward Black separatism.

4. There will be no significant relationship between Black high school students' self concept and their attitudes toward Black separatism.

5. There will be an inverse relationship between Black high school students' feelings toward school and their attitudes toward Black separatism. Chapter III

METHODOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides the reader with background information concerning the locale, school system and schools used in the study; the processes utilized in the identification and selection of the above; methods of selecting the subjects; and examination of the in­ struments and administration procedures.

In honoring a prior agreement to provide anonymity to the locale, schools and personnel which were examined, the locale will be identi­ fied as "City X"; the schools according to their respective student body racial composition - "predominantly white", "racially balanced", and "predominantly Black"; and the various personnel according to their role titles - "students", "teachers", "principals", etc.

IDENTIFICATION/SELECTION OF LOCALE AND SCHOOL SYSTEM

The initial attempt to gain access to school systems consisted of an introductory letter and dissertation prospectus^ which were sent to ,

26 school districts in various parts of the country. Replies were re­ ceived from representatives of all but one of the school systems. With

^"A copy of the prospectus is presented in Appendix B.

-44- -45-

the exception of one letter, which indicated tentative agreement to allow

access, the responses fell into the following general categories:

1. Referral - "Your request has been referred to the appropriate department where the responsibility lies for making decisions relevant to gaining access into the school system."

2. Unable to comply - "Unfortunately, the racial compo­ sition presently existing in our schools would not satisfy the three kinds of schools you have described."

3. Denial - "I am sorry to inform you that your request for access into our school system has been denied.

The number of responses in each of these categories was 10, 5 and

10 respectively. Further communication to schools whose responses fell

into categories two and three above was deemed unnecessary. Follow-up

letters and research request forms which were completed and returned, were received from the "appropriate departments" of the 10 school dis­

tricts from category one. Further communication from 8 of these school

districts involved a category three response. The two exceptions in­

dicated that consideration for access could not be granted at this time

and suggestions were made to reapply during the 1973-74 school year.

The suggested reapplication was deemed inappropriate due to the limita­

tion of time and resources on the part of the researcher.

Access to conduct the study in one school district, which had

initially expressed an interest, was granted during a conversation with

the Superintendent.

2 The two most frequent reasons for denial were an overabundance of research requests and the controversial nature of the research study. -46-

The initial desire to conduct the study in three school systems located in varying geographical areas of the country could not be satis­ fied due to reasons previously discussed, and consequently, arrangements were initiated to utilize subjects in the one school district. While utilization of one school district was a limiting factor, it should be emphasized that the value of the study was not seriously diminished due to its exploratory nature. The primary focus of the study was not to quantitatively assess attitudes toward separatism but rather to qualita­ tively assess these attitudes by examination of their relationship to some selected variables.

DESCRIPTION OF LOCALE'AND SCHOOL SYSTEM

3 City X is an industrial city in the United States. Its population at the time of the study was over 200,000 with a racial breakdown of 70 percent white and 30 percent Black. There were more than 50,000 students enrolled in 11 high schools, 5 middle schools and 52 elementary schools.

Of the entire student population, 42 percent was Black.

In a report to the Board of Education, the School Superintendent described the area as "certainly one of the most segregated as any in

Southern systems." His statement appeared to be supported by a recent list of schools,^ based on racial composition, which revealed that only

3 As indicated earlier, City X represents a ficticious label for the locale within which the study was conducted.

^The list appeared in a local school district publication and was used by the Superintendent as evidence to argue the case for desegrega­ tion of the schools. -47- one high school and two elementary schools were defined as mixed, and all others were labeled as either Black or white.

The composition of the teaching staff was approximately equal to the 70/30 percent white/Black racial composition of the city. During the 1970-71 school year, several members of the system’s teaching staff were reassigned in order to insure that each school reflected this 70/30 ratio.

The school system of City X had been in the midst of a continuing controversy concerning the issue of school desegregation. Emphasis on the need for desegregation in the schools had on several occasions been expressed by the Superintendent of Schools and others who shared his point of view. At least equal emphasis opposing school desegregation had also been expressed by "opponents". Members of the Board of Education typically voted along liberal-conservative lines on the issue of school desegregation.

IDENTIFICATION/SELECTION OF SCHOOLS

Following the earlier mentioned meeting between the researcher and

the Superintendent, written communication was established. The Superin­

tendent suggested that he assume responsibility for the identification of schools which would satisfy the desired racial compositions. Arrange­ ments were made for the researcher to visit each school prior to the day when the questionnaire would be administered. The purpose of these visits -48-

was three-fold: 1) to meet the three principals and explain the pur­

pose of and rationale for the proposed study; 2) to identify the sample

and invite subjects to participate in the study; and 3) to collect

background information on each of the three schools.

DESCRIPTION OF SCHOOLS

Predominantly White School

This high school was located in a predominantly white area of the

city. The students numbered about 2,000 of whom 95 percent were white

and 5 percent Black. Prior to the 1969-70 school year, students attending

this school were all white. In 1970, according to the principal (a white

male who had been in the position for the preceding six years) , the School

Board adopted an Open Enrollment (0E)"* plan. This plan was designed, de­

pending on one’s point of view, to either: 1) provide the illusion that

the Board was complying with the numerous court rulings on desegregation

while in effect maintaining segregated schools, or 2) serve as a sincere

attempt to slowly move the schools from a status of segregation to one of

desegregation. Proposals to increase the chances of the OE plan by

providing free school bus transportation were defeated by the Board, and

consequently, the plan did little to achieve the verbalized objective of

desegregating the schools.

5 This plan, allows students who are members of a majority racial * group in their present school to transfer to a school where their racial group is non-existent or in the minority. -49-

Beginning in the 1972-73 school year, transportation was provided which, according to the principal, explained not only the 5 percent Black population, but also the predominance of Black freshmen and sophomores who were then enrolled in this school.

Ironically, the buses that appeared to be providing the means to desegregation were the greatest hazard to the ultimate goal of integre- gation. According to the principal, "the 3:05 p.m. bus schedule does not allow most of the Black students to fully participate in extra curricular activities, both physical and intellectual. . .if a Black student decided

to stay after school, it means that he or she has to walk through a white neighborhood, which may or may not be hostile, to the city bus line."

The principal reported that two minor racial incidents occurred in

the school during the preceding academic year. Both were apparently

initiated by a physical exchange between a Black and a white student and although neither materialized in widespread violence, "they potentially

could have because of the racial tension present."

When asked about the nature of relationships between Black and white

students, the principal indicated that "Black students generally stick

together," although he mentioned that he saw a white male and a Black

female walking hand-in-hand down the hall and no repercussions were re­

ported.

School participation on the part of both Black and white parents

was reported to be very low with the exception of some parents whose

children participated in extra curricular activities. -50-

Racially Balanced School

A request to interview the school’s principal, a Black male, was denied. The principal explained that he had recently assumed the posi­ tion and "lacked sufficient knowledge about the school's history."

Information was received from the guidance counselor, a white male, who had served in that capacity for the preceding seven years.

The school had approximately 1,500 students of whom 55 percent were

Black and 45 percent white. According to the counselor, the neighborhood within which the school was located was all, or predominantly, white during the late 1950's and early 1960's. "As the racial barriers were removed, there was a gradual influx of Black residents and the typical

'white flight' to the outlying areas of the city."

Apparently, as the number of Black students in the school increased, combined with the racial unrest at the national level, the period of

1969 to 1971 was one of extensive racial conflict in the school. According to the counselor, purse snatching, frequent incidents of physical assault between Black and white students, and isolated cases of "severe beatings" involving groups of students from opposing racial groups occurred during that time. These conflicts were concurrent with similar racial conflicts in the neighborhood and resulted in the school being closed on several occasions.

In an attempt to remedy the situation, school officials implemented various human relations workshops which were conducted primarily by

"outside consultants". The workshops were designed primarily for the teachers and administrative staff, some being voluntary and others manda­ tory. It was the opinion of the counselor that although this approach -51- was necessary, given the seriousness of the situation, "there was an over-emphasis on human relations at the expense of concentration on the academics, and the latter suffered as a result." The counselor in­ dicated that in his opinion the basic cause of the violence was a lack of preparation for a biracial environment on the part of both students and teachers.

At the time of the interview, only 25 of the 55 original teachers from 1969 remained on the staff, and the school had experienced four different principals, the first three were white and the last, at the time of the study, was Black.

On several occasions during the course of the interview, the counselor explained that there had been a significant decline in racial incidents, although he quickly added that "much tension remains". He suggested that a possible explanation for the present calm was "the ability of Black and white students to tolerate each other". Like the principal in the predominantly white school, the counselor explained that for the most part each group, Black and white, kept to themselves, for example, in the lunchroom, and in many instances by selection of seats within class­ rooms .

Predominantly Black School

During the time spent in the predominantly Black school, interviews were held with the principal, a Black male who had assumed the position at the beginning of the school year and a teacher who also had coaching responsibilities. -52-

The school was located in a Black community and had a student popu­ lation of approximately 1,800 students of whom 99+ percent were Black.

The principal explained that when he came to the school academic achieve­ ment, athletic performance and school morale were extremely low. He made a decision to revitalize the interest in athletics with the assumption that school morale would improve along with students' academic performance.

In an effort to accomplish this strategy, the principal successfully pro­ posed that all athletic programs be organized under a single department, made some coaching changes and "created an environment of accountability" for coaches. As a result of this strategy, according to the principal, performance of the school's teams improved and attendance at athletic and other school functions gradually improved. The increased interest in extra curricular activities had the effect of raising school morale which in turn had a positive effect on academic performance.

The principal indicated that the school was "apparently experiencing the 'typical' problems research had indicated were associated with an inner-city school— high drop-out rates, aging physical plants, lack of recreational facilities, and low levels of expectation of student ability by some teachers."

The teacher, who incidently had been the feature of newspaper articles complimenting him for his efforts in significantly increasing .the number of athletes from this school attending college, saw the problems of the school and the surrounding community as intricately interwoven.

"High unemployment, inadequate housing, low per capita income, affects the educational institution either directly or indirectly." -53-

In summary, the schools used in this study were located in one

school district and were identified by the Superintendent of Schools based on the researcher’s definition of the desired student body racial

composition:

1. Predominantly white high school— at least 80 percent white students.

2. Racially balanced high school— at least a 60/40 percent Black/white ratio, either way.

3. Predominantly Black high school— at least 80 percent Black students.

SELECTION OF A SAMPLE

Population

The population for this study consisted of Black high school juniors

and seniors who were enrolled in public schools located in a metropolitan

area within the United States and had been in attendance at their respective

schools for at least two years prior to administration of the questionnaire.

The latter condition of duration was included in order to minimize the

influence of intervening variables, such as effects of recent busing, which

could affect the respondent’s reaction to items concerning social contact,

perceptions of school integration and feelings toward school. -54-

Methods Used in Selecting Subjects

By implication, stratification was the initial method used in selecting subjects. In other words, because racial composition of the school was a variable under investigation, the population was divided into subgroups based on the three kinds of racially composed schools, and one school was selected from each subgroup.

The methods used to select subjects from each of the three schools varied, although in each case representativeness was achieved.

In the predominantly white high school, the number of Black high school students who met the length of attendance criteria was relatively small, and consequently all of these students were invited to participate.

Of the 29 invited students, 24 responded to the questionnaire. Upon further investigation as to the reasons for the five invited students' failure to appear, it was discovered that they were either absent from school or engaged in taking classroom examinations which conflicted with the time that the questionnaire was administered.

A systematic sampling method was used to select subjects from the racially balanced school. The guidance counselor prepared a list of students who met the desired criteria and invited every fifth name appearing on said list to participate in the study. Of the 79 students invited, 65 responded to the questionnaire. Since the latter students were not asked to identify themselves by name, it was not possible to determine which of the invited students failed to appear. In the predominantly Black school, upon the suggestion of the principal, a cluster sampling technique was utilized. A teacher who taught a required course for juniors and seniors was identified by the principal, and the researcher was "assigned" to that teacher for the day.

The principal and the teacher felt that a representative cross section of the juniors and seniors were enrolled in this particular course.

During the five periods that day, the questionnaire was administered to

80 students. According to the teacher, the absentee rate was "about normal", and consequently no attempt was made to determine reasons for the failure of students to be in class that day.

Of the total number of questionnaires completed, a few were not usable and had to be discarded. The following table summarizes the num­ ber of subjects from the three schools to whom the questionnaire was administered.

TABLE 1

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS ACCORDING TO SCHOOL'S STUDENT BODY RACIAL COMPOSITION

Data Invited Accepting Producing Description of School Subjects Subj ects Subjects

Predominantly white school 29 24 21 Racially balanced school 79 65 64 Predominantly Black school 80 80 69

Total 188 169 154 -56-

TREATMENT OF THE DATA

Data collected from administration of the questionnaire were analyzed for direction and intensity of attitudes toward separatism. The primary focus of this exploratory investigation, however, was to attempt a quali­ tative analysis of these attitudes by testing a series of hypotheses de­ signed to examine relationships between attitudes toward separatism and some selected variables. Thus, rather than emphasizing how many subjects expressed positive or negative attitudes toward separatism, a more rele­ vant concern was the relationship, if any, between a positive or negative attitude toward separatism and, for example, the self perception of the student; the social distance between that student and white people and/or the racial composition of the school which the student was attending.

In order to examine relationships among variables as suggested by the hypotheses, the following processes were completed in the analysis of the data:

1. Analysis of demographic data to present a profile of the sample under investigation.

2. Analysis of correlation coefficients among all items in the instrument.

3. Analysis of correlation coefficients among items within each of the ten scales.

4. Analysis of reliability coefficients for each of the ten scales.

5. Analysis of correlation coefficients between variables as measured by the Semantic and Likert scales.

Numerous tables are developed in the following Chapter IV to present the findings of the analyzed data. -57-

INSTRUMENTATION

The instrument utilized to gather data for this investigation

consisted of two types of scales, a Likert type and a Semantic Dif­

ferential scale. An attempt was made to measure each variable, with

the exception of racial composition, by each of the two types of

scales. Table 2 summarizes this effort.

The process employed to validate the researcher-designed items which were used to measure attitudes toward Black separatism, percep­

tions of school integration and social contact with white people, con­ sisted of the following steps:

1. After careful exploration of the literature, related instruments and consultation with the researcher’s dissertation committee, a pool of 136 items related to the previously mentioned variables was compiled by the researcher.

2. A panel of 35 judges who had either prior research ex­ perience and/or were presently employed in a research capacity was selected by the researcher. By design, the panel consisted of persons who were representative of both sexes and racial groups (Black and white) and a variety of disciplines such as psychology, sociology, political science and education.

3. The 136 items were classified by the researcher according to which of the three variables— separatism, integration or social contact— they were presumed to measure.

4. Using a table of random numbers, the 136 items were ran­ domly assigned to a "judging instrument".

5. Judges were instructed to: a) read each item carefully; b) place each item, by circling the appropriate number, in one of four categories— separatism, social contact, school integration, none of these— according to whether or not the item when answered -58-

TABLE 2

VARIABLES AND METHODS OF MEASUREMENT

Variable Type of Scale (footnotes denote the source)

Separatism ...... 6 point Likert and 7 point Semantic Differential^3

Integration ...... 6 point Likert and 7 point Semantic Differential

Racial composition ...... None (defined by the racial composi­ tion of the student body)

Social contact ...... 6 point Likert and 7 point Semantic Differential c Self concept ...... A point Likert and 7 point Semantic Differential

Feelings toward school ...... 6 point Likert** and 7 point Semantic Differential

aLikert type items designed to measure attitudes towards Black separatism, perceptions of school integration and social contact with white people were devised by the researcher and submitted to judges for analysis. (See ensuing description). k The Semantic Differential scale, which maintained constant polar adjectives for each variable, was adopted from a Research Project con­ ducted by the National Scholarship Fund for Negro Students, A National Profile of Black Youth; Class of 1971, Minnesota: Survey Research Ser­ vices, January, 1972.

The Likert type Self Esteem scale was designed by M. Rosenberg in 1965 and appeared in John P. Robinson and Phillip R. Shaver, Measures of Social Psychological Attitudes, University of Michigan: Institute for Social Research, 1969, pp. 97-101. (See Appendix C)

^Items designed to measure students1 feelings toward school were selected from a Student Opinion Survey designed by a Research and Evalua­ tion Department of a major midwestern city school system. -59-

would reveal the respondent’s attitude toward separatism, social contact with white people or perceptions of school integration, or none of these as the case might be; c) de­ note the ease or difficulty in performing instruction 5b by circling the appropriate number of a 5 point scale.^ 6 . The item pool was mailed or hand delivered to the 35 judges who were requested to respond "as quickly as possible". 7. The following criteria were established by the researcher to evaluate judges' responses and aid in selec­ tion of the strongest items: a) at least 75 percent of the judges placed the item in the same category; b) the item received a maximum of 2.2 on the ease/difficulty scale which had a 1-4 range; and c) the judged item was assigned the identical category as predetermined by the judgment of the researcher.

Of the 136 original items to which 29 of the 35 judges responded,

49 items satisfied the above criteria and were combined with the items comprising-the scales described in Table 2 to constitute the disserta­ tion ins trument.^

It was mentioned earlier that two types of measurement techniques,

Likert and Semantic Differential, were used in analyzing the data. It was anticipated by the researcher that examination of a single variable by each type of scale would yield complimentary results. In other words,

£ For a description of the instructions which were sent to the judges and the results of their responses, see Appendix D.

complete copy of the instrument is presented in Appendix E. -60- a subject who indicated positive feelings toward his/her school on the

Likert type scale would do likewise on the Semantic Differential scale which dealt with the concept of "My School". The expected similarity of response patterns on both types of scales was based on the assumption that upon analyzing the data, congruent validity between the scales would be established.

. . .unless the two scales are highly correlated (i.e. their correlations are of the same magnitude as their reliabilities), the factors that are operating to lower the correlation may be the relevant ones in determining the relationship between the test and the external vari­ ables and thus invalidate the inferences made on the basis of the intercorrelation between the tests.®

Unfortunately, in the case of two variables, perceptions of school integration and feelings toward school, the reliability and correlation coefficients between the Likert and Semantic Differential scales did not satisfy the previously mentioned criteria of congruent validity, as can be seen in Tables 3 and 4.

TABLE 3

RELIABILITY COEFFICIENTS OF THE LIKERT AND SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALES FOR EACH VARIABLE BASED ON THE KUDER-RICHARDSON RELIABILITY (FORMULA 8)

Variable Type of Scale Likert Semantic Differential

Attitudes toward separatism .865 .910 Self esteem .837 .922 Social distance .869 .908 Perceptions of school integration .670 .925 Feelings toward school .605 .928

g Frederick G. Brown, Principles of Educational and Psychological Testing, Illinois: The Dryden Press, Inc., 1970, p. 147. -61-

TABLE 4

CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS BETWEEN THE LIKERT AND SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALES FOR EACH VARIABLE BASED ON THE PEARSON CORRELATION FORMULA

Variable Correlation Coefficient

Attitudes toward separatism . . . 414 Self esteem ...... 554 Social distance ...... 370 Perceptions of school integration 164 Feelings toward school ...... 129

The results of the above scale comparisons suggested two possible alternatives: 1) eliminate the analysis of data related to the hypo­

theses which suggested possible relationships between attitudes toward

separatism and perceptions of school integration or feelings toward

school, or 2) limit the analysis of possible relationships between the

above mentioned variables to the results obtained from the Semantic

Differential scales. The exploratory nature of this research endeavor

and the strength of the reliability coefficients indicated in Table 3

suggested adoption of the latter alternative.

For the purposes of establishing the direction and intensity of

attitudes, comparing the responses of subjects and aiding in the exami­

nation of the hypothesized relationships between variables, scale scores

for each of the ten scales (indicated in Table 5) were tabulated. Thus,

in the case of the Semantic Differential scales, a subject who chose

the extreme positive response on each of the ten subscales, received a

scale score of 10. Likewise, marking the extreme negative choice in each

subscale produced a scale score of 70. Table 5 represents the transla­

tion of scale scores in terms of attitudinal direction/intensity. -62-

TABLE 5

SCALE SCORES AND ATTITUDE INTENSITY/DIRECTION FOR SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALES

Scale Score (Range) Attitude Intensity/Direction

1 0 - 2 1 ...... Completely or mostly positive 22-33 ...... Slightly positive 34 - 46 ...... Neutral 47 - 58 ...... Slightly negative 59-70 ...... Completely or mostly negative

Scale scores for the Likert type scales were tabulated to produce similar matches between a range of scores and the corresponding direction/ intensity of responses; however, the wording of some items required

certain adjustments in the tabulations. For example, the following two

items are taken from Part II of the dissertation instrument— self esteem as measured by the Likert type scale:

Item g No.______Statement______Score

21 All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am 1 2 3 4 a failure.

25 On the whole, I am satisfied with myself. 12 3 4

One would expect that a subject who revealed a strong feeling of self worth would respond negatively to item 21 (high score) and positively to item 25

(low score). In tabulating a score for these and similar items, the com­ puter was written to make the mathematical adjustment.

9 On this scale 'I* meant "strongly agree"; '2' meant "agree"; '3' meant "disagree"; and '4' meant "strongly disagree. -63-

It can be noted from an examination of the dissertation instrument that ten subscales or steps were used for each Semantic Differential scale. Although there is no "right" number, "the question of the number of steps (subscales) is very important. . .it is wise to have at least

10 steps"^ in order to allow for a detailed analysis of responses to the particular concept.

In an effort to minimize measurement error based on the pattern of responding to the Semantic Differential scale, the polar adjectives were listed according to their representation of "favorable" or "unfavor­ able" connotations:

In many studies it has been the practice to randomly or systematically alternate the polarities of scales. . . .the purpose of such reversals of polarity is to prevent subjects from being influenced from scale to scale by ratings made on previous scales. To the extent that this is accomplished by alternating directions of scales, however, the practice is probably not worth the price that is paid in measurement error. . . .The weight of the argument is for keeping the scales pertaining to any factor all pointing in the same direction.

Before administering the dissertation instrument to the subjects in

City X, arrangements were made with a teacher in another area to administer it to a group of juniors and seniors in a predominantly Black high school.

The purpose of this "pre-test" was to familiarize the researcher with the mechanics of the administration process. The following represents in­ formation which was acquired by the researcher as a result of this pre­ test experience:

■^Jim C. Nunnally, Psychometric Theory, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1967, pp. 522-23.

~^Ib i d ., pp. 542-43. -64-

1. The nature of some items, for example: "Black people should live in and control one or more states in the "U. S.", pro- .voked some students to inquire of the persons sitting next to them, "How did you answer Number ____ ?"

2. The directions for the Semantic Differential scale were unclear to several students.

3. Several students did not have their own writing instruments.

4. Students who completed the instrument well ahead of the average time (35 minutes) tended to get restless and engage in con­ versations with other students.

Based on this experience, the following corrective measures were taken by the researcher during actual administration of the instrument:

1. Prior to administering the instrument, emphasis was placed on the importance of responding on an individual basis. In two instances, students were requested to move to another seat which isolated him/her.

2. Directions for the Semantic Differential scale were reworded and explained further by the researcher’s use of a chalkboard.

3. Pencils were purchased by the researcher and dis­ tributed to those students who did not have one in their possession.

4. An additional section (Part VII) was added to the instrument to provide those students who finished ahead of time the opportunity to "make additional comments". Alternatives to this option were to either review the questionnaire to ensure that each item was answered or engage in silent reading. -65-

Every attempt was made by the researcher to maintain consistent 12 procedures in the actual administration of the dissertation instrument.

Any information given to students at the first school, which varied from

the preplanned introduction/directions, was recorded and repeated to stu­

dents in the other two schools. However, the physical environment within which students responded to the questionnaire did differ from school to

school. In the predominantly white school, the questionnaire was adminis­

tered during one class period in a previously assigned classroom. Two

groups of students of approximately equal size were assembled in the

lunchroom in the racially balanced school. One class period was utilized

for each administration session. The questionnaire was administered during

four class sections to four groups of students in a previously assigned

classroom in the case of the predominantly Black high school.

SUMMARY

The study was conducted in one school district located in a U. S.

city. A total of 154 Black high school juniors and seniors were selected

from three schools each having a different student body racial composi­

tion— predominantly white, racially balanced and predominantly Black.

Each subject responded to an instrument (consisting of two measurement

12 Some consideration was given by the researcher to administer the instrument in similar physical settings, for example, in the students’ regular classroom in each of the three high schools. However, in the case of the predominantly white and racially balanced schools, this procedure would have resulted in white students being present during the administra­ tion of the questionnaire. The inability of the researcher to detect, much less control, what influence this variable would have on the responses of the subjects precluded the use of this setting. Similar settings in all three schools were not available. -66-

techniques— Semantic Differential and Likert) which was designed to measure attitudes toward separatism; social contact with white people; self concept; feelings toward school and perceptions of school integration.

The primary foci of the ensuing chapter will include a presentation of a profile of the subjects and examination of hypothesized relation­ ships between attitudes towards separatism and previously mentioned selected variables.

\ Chapter IV

ANALYSIS OF DATA

INTRODUCTION

Chapter IV is divided into two sections. The first section pro­ vides the reader with a profile of the subjects and was developed from a series of items which elicited the following information from each respondent— sex, age, length of time spent in the City X area, mode of transportation to and from school, intellectual self ranking, post high school aspirations, membership in all or mostly Black school and com­ munity organizations and racial environment of past neighborhoods and schools experienced by subjects. In several instances comparisons between one or more of the above have been included.

The second section of the chapter presents the data and analysis relevant to subjects’ attitudes toward Black separatism and the hypothe­ sized relationships between these attitudes and subjects’ self concept; social contact with white people; feelings toward school; perceptions of school integration and student body racial composition.

SUBJECT PROFILE

Table 6 represents the total number of subjects included in the study, subdivided according to sex and student body racial composition of the three schools where students were in attendance.

-67- -68-

TABLE 6

PROFILE OF BLACK HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS - RACIAL COMPOSITION OF SCHOOL/SEX/NUMBER OF SUBJECTS N = 154

Description Total pop. Females Males of school of Abs. Rel. Abs. Rel. Abs. Rel. School Fre. Fre.% Fre. Fre% Fre. Fre.%

Predominantly white 13 61.9 8 38.1 21 13.6 Racially balanced 38 59.3 26 40.7 64 41.6 Predominantly Black 38 55.1 31 44.9 69 44.8

Total 89 57.8 65 42.2 154 100.0

r . - . . . .

In each school, and thus among the total number of subjects, female subjects outnumbered male subjects. These percentages were consistent with the findings in studies conducted by both the American Council on

Education in 1968 and the National Scholarship Service Fund for Negro

Students (NSSFNS) in 1972.1

Since the subjects consisted of high school seniors and juniors all about to enter their senior year, it was not surprising that the ages ranged between 17 and 19 years as reported in Table 7. Most of the 17-year old subjects were juniors.

Both of these studies were of a national scope involving large num­ bers of Black students from across the country. The latter included 54,415 students. For a detailed description of the NSSFNS study, which used the former for purposes of comparison, see Robert J. Ranos and Penny L. Edgert, Black Youth: Characteristics Related to Geographical Location, NSSFNS Research Reports, Vol. 1, No. 2, February, 1972. -69-

TABLE 7

PROFILE OF BLACK HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS - AGE/YEARS IN PRESENT SCHOOL/YEARS IN CITY X AREA N = 154

Relative Absolute Frequency Item Frequency (percent)

Age 17 years old ...... 59 38.3 18 years old ...... 76 49.4 19 years old ...... 19 12.3

Years in present school 2 years...... 17 11.0 3 years...... 66 42.9 4 years...... 71 46.1

Years lived in City X area 2 to 9 years ...... 21 13.6 10 to 19 years ...... 133 86.4

Recalling that a minimum of two years attendance in their respective schools was required for subjects' inclusion in the study, five question­ naires had to be discarded since this criterion was not satisfied. With a few exceptions, all of the subjects who minimally satisfied this require­ ment were in attendance at the predominantly white high school. The OE desegregation plan discussed earlier on page 48 explained this phenomenon.

Table 7 also indicates that all subjects lived in the City X area for at least two years prior to administration of the dissertation instrument.

Actually, there were only three subjects who had resided for less than seven years in the area.

Although, as indicated in Table 8, almost 80 percent of the subjects reported that their mode of transportation to and from school was by TABLE 8

PROFILE OF BLACK HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS - MODE OF TRANSPORTATION/RACIAL COMPOSITION OF SCHOOL N = 151

Student Body Racial Composition noae P redominantly Racially Bal­ Predominantly Statistics for of White School anced School Black School all Schools Transporta­ Abs. Adj. Abs. Adj. Abs. Adj. Abs. Adj. tion Fre.a Fre.% Fre. Fre.% Fre. Fre.% Fre. Fre.%

School bus 19 12.5 0 0.0 0 0.0 19 13.2

Car/motor- cycle/bike 1 . 6 36 23.6 21 13.8 58 38.2

City bus 1 . 6 5 3.2 6 3.9 11 7.2

Walking 0 0.0 21 13.8 42 27.6 63 41.4

f

aThe following key will be used throughout the tables: Abs. Fre. - Absolute Frequency; Adj. Fre.% - Adjusted Frequency (percent); Rel. Fre.% - Relative Frequency (percent); Cum. Adj. Fre.% - Cumulative Adjusted Frequency. Unless otherwise indicated, results are stated in percentages. -71- personal means, when student body racial composition was considered, differences emerged. The primary mode of transportation for subjects in the predominantly white high school was the school bus. This can be explained by the school’s location and the OE desegregation plan.

Personal means of transportation constituted the dominant mode of trans­ portation for subjects in the racially balanced and predominantly Black high schools.

The assumption was made by the researcher that high school seniors and juniors would possess fairly accurate knowledge about their academic grades. The response patterns presented in Tables 9 and 10 tended to suggest a normal distribution. This distribution appeared to be fairly consistent for most of the subgroups when student body racial composi­ tion was considered.

TABLE 9

PROFILE OF BLACK HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS - INTELLECTUAL SELF RANKING N = 154

Intellectual Abs. Rel. Self Ranking Fre. Fre.%

Below average (I get mostly D's) 5 3.2 Average (I get mostly C's) 79 51.2 Above average (I get mostly B's) 64 41.6 One of the best students (I get mostly A ’s) 6 3.9

The only variation occurred for females in the predominantly white high school where 76.9 percent ranked themselves above average (See Table 10). TABLE 10

PROFILE OF BLACK HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS - INTELLECTUAL SELF RANKING/RACIAL COMPOSITION/SEX N = 154

Student Body Racial Composition

Intellectual Predominantly White Racially Bal­ Predominantly Black School anced School School Self

Ranking Males Females Males Females Males Females

Abs. Rel. Abs. Rel. Abs. Rel. Abs. Rel. Abs. Rel. Abs. Rel. Fre. Fre.% Fre. Fre.% Fre. Fre.% Fre. Fre.% Fre. Fre. % Fre. Fre.%

Below average 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 2.6 3 9.7 1 2.6

Average 4 50.0 1 7.7 16 61.5 19 50.0 18 58.0 21 55.3

Above average 4 50.0 10 76.9 9 34.6 16 42.1 10 32.3 15 39.3

One of the best 0 0.0 2 15.4 1 3.9 2 5.3 0 0.0 1 2.6 -73-

The "academic profile" was designed to provide a rough and general com­ posite of the subjects under investigation. A more thorough analysis would take specific subject areas into account to denote, for example, whether a student was outstanding in mathematics while average in science.

Such an analysis might also provide comparisons among fellow students and/or with academic norms for the district/nation.

An analysis of post high school aspirations (Table 11) revealed that attendance at a four year institution of higher education, a junior college or trade school and full time employment, in that order, repre­ sented approximately 80 percent of the choices. The majority of female respondents who selected "other" indicated a combination of part-time employment and part-time attendance at either a two or four year college.

In the case of male subjects, service in some aspect of the military was also listed.

TABLE 11

PROFILE OF BLACK HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS - POST HIGH SCHOOL ASPIRATIONS N = 149

Post High School Abs. Rel. Cum. Adj . Aspirations Fre. Fre.% Fre.%

Full time employment 30 19.5 20.0 Four year college 59 38.3 59.3 Post high school training (2 year college, trade school, etc.) 33 21.4 81.3 I don’t know yet 18 11.7 93.3 Other (describe) 9 5.8 99.3 -74-

When racial composition was considered, (Table 12) it was observed that as the number of Black students in the school increased, so did the number of subjects who chose full time employment. One possible explanation for this trend is that since, for a variety of reasons, the percentage of white high school students who attend college is much larger than that of Black high school students, Black students are more likely to be influenced to choose college as an alternative when that choice is directly or indirectly suggested by his/her peers. This phenomenon may also be explained by an examination of the economic and/ or educational status of the students' parents to determine whether a relationship exists between said status and the racial composition of the school their children are attending. Such analysis was beyond the scope of this study.

As explained earlier, some juniors were included in the sample under consideration. Post high school aspirations was the only item where not­ able differences occurred between juniors and seniors. The total number of subjects who indicated a choice of "I don't know as yet" (18) con­ sisted of juniors. This was not surprising, however, since, as explained earlier, the instrument was administered within a month of the conclusion of the academic year. At this point, it was expected that graduating seniors would have a fairly good vision of post high school aspirations., and juniors, with an entire academic year remaining, would have more time to decide on a specific course of action.

When post high school aspirations were analyzed on the basis of both sex and racial composition of the school, there was some indication that TABLE 12

PROFILE OF BLACK HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS - POST HIGH SCHOOL ASPIRATIONS/RACIAL COMPOSITION/SEX N = 149

Student Body Racial Composition

Post Predominantly White Racially Balanced Predominantly Black High School School School School Aspirations Males Females Males Females Males Females

Abs. Rel. Abs. Rel. Abs. Rel. Abs. Rel. Abs. Rel. Abs. Rel. Fre. Fre.% Fre. Fre.% Fre. Fre.% Fre. Fre.% Fre. Fre.% Fre. Fre.%

Full time employ. 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 4.0 9 24.3 8 26.7 12 33.3

4 yr. college 5 62.5 6 46.2 15 60.0 14 37.8 10 33.3 9 25.0

Post H. S. training 1 12.5 3 23.1 3 12.0 8 21.7 9 30.0 9 25.0

Don't know 1 12.5 3 23.1 4 16.0 5 13.5 2 6.7 3 8.3

Other 1 12.5 1 7.6 2 8.0 1 2.7 1 3.3 3 8.3 -76-

females in both the racially balanced and predominantly Black schools

chose full time employment more often than did male subjects. In addition,

females, more so than males in the racially balanced and predominantly

white schools, indicated a choice of some type of post high school training.

The cross tabulation of intellectual self ranking and the three most popu­

lar choices denoting post high school aspirations seen in Table 13, revealed

a positive relationship between the students' self ranking and his/her

choice of a four year college.

TABLE 13

PROFILE OF BLACK HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS - POST HIGH SCHOOL ASPIRATIONS/ INTELLECTUAL SELF RANKING N = 121

Intellectual Self Ranking

,- Post Below Above One of Average Average Average the Best

High School

Abs. Rel. Abs. Rel. Abs. Rel. Abs. Rel. Aspirations Fre. Fre.% Fre. Fre.% Fre. Fre.% Fre. Fre.%

Full time employ. 1 20.0 22 27.8 7 10.9 0 0 . 0

4 yr. college 1 20.0 28 35.4 26 40.6 4 66.6

Post H.S. training 2 40.0 12 15.1 18 28.1 . 0 0.0

Table 14 represents the responses of the total sample to the ques­

tion of membership in community and/or school organizations where all or most of the membership is Black. It can be observed that about one-third -77-

of the sample responded positively in each case. The data were analyzed

further to determine the number who indicated membership in both school and community organizations, and the results indicated 25 percent.

TABLE 14 PROFILE OF BLACK HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS - MEMBERSHIP IN ALL OR MOSTLY BLACK SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY ORGANIZATIONS N » 154

Description of Yes/ Abs. Rel. Group Membership No Fre. Fre.%

Membership in all or mostly Yes 60 38.9 Black school organizations No 94 60.1 Membership in all or mostly Yes 52 33.1 Black community organizations No 102 66.9 Membership in both school and Yes 38 24.7 community organizations No 116 75.3

When membership in school organizations was compared with the sex of the respondent, males were slightly ahead of females in said member­ ship. The same was true for membership in community organizations as can be seen in Table 15.

TABLE 15 PROFILE OF BLACK HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS - MEMBERSHIP IN ALL OR MOSTLY BLACK SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY ORGANIZATIONS/SEX

Description Yes Males Females of or Abs. Rel. Abs. Rel. Group Membership No Fre. Fre.% Fre. Fre.%

Membership in school organi­ Yes 29 44.6 31 34.9 zations/sex No 36 55.3 58 65.1 Membership in community Yes 24 36.9 28 31.5 organizations/sex No 41 63.1 61 68.5 -78-

Going a step further and including the racial composition of the

school in the analysis, the picture presented in Table 16 emerged.

Regardless of sex and racial composition of the school, more subjects responded negatively than positively to membership in all or mostly

Black school organizations. The only exception was Black males in the predominantly Black school where the percentage of membership was greater than non-membership. Similarly, when sex and racial composi­ tion were compared with membership in all or mostly Black community organizations, the pattern was for more subjects to respond negatively than positively. The exception in this case, however, was Black fe­ males in the predominantly white school.

Because of the nature of the topic under investigation, combined with the knowledge that the sample would come from a "single" geo­ graphical region, the researcher placed greater priority on gaining a composite of the racial environment of the subjects than on identifi­ cation of said environment. Thus, greater interest was placed on whether a student grew up in a totally Black neighborhood as opposed

to knowledge of whether that neighborhood was, for example, a sub­ urban district located in New York. TABLE 16

PROFILE OF BLACK HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS - MEMBERSHIP IN ALL OR MOSTLY BLACK SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY ORGANIZATIONS/RACIAL COMPOSITION/SEX

Predominantly White Racially Balanced Predominantly Black School School School Yes

or Males Females Males Females Males Females

No Abs. Rel. Abs. Rel. Abs. Rel. Abs. Rel. Abs. Rel. Abs. Rel. Fre. Fre.% Fre. Fre.% Fre. Fre. % Fre. Fre.% Fre. Fre.% Fre. Fre.%

i Membership in School Organizations/Racial Composition/Sex vo

Yes 1 12.5 3 23.0 8 30.8 11 28.9 20 64.5 17 44.7 No 7 87.5 10 77.0 18 69.2 27 71.1 11 35.5 21 55.3

Membership in Community Organizations/Racial Composition/Sex

Yes 3 37.5 8 61.5 9 34.6 9 23.9 12 38.7 11 28.9 No 5 62.5 5 38.5 17 65.4 29 76.3 19 61.3 27 71.7 -80-

Recalling the remarks of the Superintendent of Schools in regard to the segregated nature of neighborhoods and of the school system in

City X, the data presented in Tables 17 and 18 should not be too surprising.

TABLE 17

PROFILE OF BLACK HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS - NEIGHBORHOOD GREW UP IN/NEIGHBORHOOD PRESENTLY LIVING IN

Neighborhood Abs. Rel. Cum. Adj. Description Fre. Fre.% Fre.%

t Neighbor hood Grew Up In

All Black 94 61.0 61.0 Mostly Black 43 27.9 89.0 Approx. half Black and half white 12 7.8 96.8 Mostly white 4 2.6 99.4

Neighborhood Presently Living In

All Black 63 40.9 40.9 Mostly Black 57 37.0 77.9 Approx. half Black and half white 25 16.5 94.2 Mostly white 9 5.8 10 0 . 0 -81-

TABLE 18

PROFILE OF BLACK HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS - COMPARISON OF NEIGHBORHOOD GREW UP IN AND NEIGHBORHOOD PRESENTLY LIVING IN

Description of Neighborhood Abs. Adj . Presently Living In Fre. Fre.%

Grew Up In All or Mostly Black Neighborhood

All or Mostly Black 110 71.8 1/2 Black & 1/2 white 20 13.0 Mostly white 7 4.5

Grew Up In 1/2 Black & 1/2 White Neighborhood

All or Mostly Black 8 5.3 1/2 Black & 1/2 white 4 2.6 Mostly white 0 0 . 0

Grew Up In Mostly White Neighborhood

" ' ' r " " ...... All or Mostly Black 2 1.3 1/2 Black & 1/2 white 1 .6 Mostly white 1 .6

Of the total sample, 89 percent of the subjects grew up in all or mostly Black neighborhoods and 78 percent presently lived in neighborhoods of that description. When past and present neighborhood environments, de­ scribed solely on the basis of race, were compared, 72 percent of the sample revealed that they had spent their entire lives in all or mostly Black neighborhoods. -82-

On the other hand, only 2.6 percent of the total sample reported that they had grown up and at the time of the study lived in a de­ segregated environment. As one might suspect, many of the subjects who reportedly grew up in an all or mostly Black environment and pre­ sently lived in a neighborhood about half Black and half white, were presently attending the racially balanced school. This coincides with the changing character of the school’s neighborhood described earlier by the guidance counselor.

The racial environment picture changed somewhat when students and teachers with whom the subjects had been in contact were considered

(Table 19). It can be observed in Table 19 that as students moved from elementary to junior high school, the percentage of subjects who attended school with white students increased. The racial composition of teachers remained relatively stable. These findings are not unusual since there are typically less junior high than elementary schools in most school districts, and thus segregation is less easily accomplished at the advanced level. In regard to the second observation, given the greater number of white as opposed to Black teachers, schools with predominantly or all

Black student bodies typically have a majority of white teachers. In addition, the pattern of desegregation is usually initiated at the staff as opposed to the student population. Previous description of City X's school system supports this trend.

The following descriptions represent a summary of the subjects’ profile:

1. There were a greater number of females than males in each of the three schools. -83-

TABLE 19

PROFILE OF BLACK HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS - STUDENTS AND TEACHERS IN ELEMENTARY AND JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL

Students Teachers Racial

Description Abs. Adj. Cum. Adj. Abs. Rel. Cum. Adj. Fre. Fre.% Fre.% Fre. Fre.% Fre.%

a Students and Teachers in Elementary School

All Black 75 49.3 49.3 19 12.3 12.3 Mostly Black 33 21.7 71.1 29 18.8 31.2 Approx. 1/2 & 1/2 36 23.7 94.7 64 41.6 72.7 Mostly White 8 5.3 100.0 42 27.3 10 0 . 0

Students and Teachers in Junior High School

All Black 57 39.9 39.9 15 10.6 1 0 . 6 Mostly Black 27 18.9 58.7 26 18.3 28.9 Approx. 1/2 & 1/2 47 32.9 91.6 71 50.0 78.9 Mostly White 12 8.4 10 0 . 0 30 19.5 1 0 0 . 0

aThe number of subjects responding to Students in Elementary school was 152 and those responding to Teachers in Elementary school was 154.

^The number of subjects responding to Students in Junior High School was 143 and those responding to Teachers in Junior High School was 142. -84-

2. Subjects’ ages ranged between 17 and 19 years— the median being 17.7 years.

3. All subjects had been in attendance at their respective schools for a minimum of two years— the median being 3.4 years.

4. All subjects had lived in the City X area for at least two years and the overwhelming majority for at least 10 years.

5. The dominant mode of transportation for subjects in the predominantly white high school was the school bus, while personal means (walking, car, etc.) were employed by subjects in the other two schools.

6 . Almost 93 percent of the subjects ranked themselves academically as average or above average students.

7. A four year college, some post high school training and full time employment, in that order, were chosen by subjects as being representative of their post high school aspirations.

8 . Approximately one-fourth of the subjects reported being members of all or mostly Black school and community organizations.

9. Almost 90 percent of the subjects grew up in all or mostly Black neighborhoods.

10. Almost 80 percent of the subjects at the time of the study lived in all or mostly Black neighborhoods.

11. Three-fourths of the subjects attended elementary schools where the student body was all or mostly Black.

12. 58.7 percent of the subjects reported that they attended a junior high school where the student body was all or mostly Black.

13. The teaching staff in both elementary and junior high school was approximately one-half Black and one-half white for approximately 50 percent of the subjects.

Although the preceding discussion does not represent an exhaustive description of the subjects under investigation, it does provide the reader with a general overview of the total sample. These data will be applied in an appropriate manner to the ensuing examination of attitudes toward sepa­ ratism and the identified hypotheses. -85-

ATTITUDES TOWARD SEPARATISM

The design of the study suggests that subjects' attitudes toward separatism represent the fundamental variable in that these attitudes are examined in relationship to each of the other variables. It is therefore appropriate to present and analyze the findings relevant to these attitudes prior to examination of the hypothesized relationships.

Semantic Differential Scale

Attitudes toward separatism, as measured by this scale, are summarized by the following table.

TABLE 20

ATTITUDES TOWARD SEPARATISM - SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE N = 154

Attitude Intensity/Direction Percentage

Completely or mostly positive...... 16.3 Slightly positive...... 13.7 Neutral...... 27.5 Slightly negative...... 12.7 Completely or mostly negative...... 29.5

When these results were collapsed into positive, neutral and negative attitudes, it was observed that 30 percent of the subjects indicated positive attitudes, 27.5 percent neutral attitudes and 42.2 percent nega­ tive attitudes toward separatism. Table 20 also reveals, when intensity of attitudes is considered, that subjects responded more intensely on the negative end than the positive end of the scale. This positive/neutral/ negative response pattern and intensity on the negative end of the scale -86- can be seen in a more detailed fashion when one observes the ten subscales presented in Table 21 which comprise the Semantic Differential Scale.

There are, however, notable exceptions to the above mentioned patterns:

1. The "near/far" subscale was the only instance when the

percentage of positive responses was greater than the percentage

of negative responses.

2. More than one-half of the subjects felt that separatism

was ''dangerous'1 and "violent". The intensity of these negative

attitudes was especially strong.

3. In responding to the "safe/dangerous" and "non-violent/

violent" subscales, subjects were less likely to remain neutral.

These were the only two instances where the number of neutral

responses fell below 20 percent.

4. A degree of intensity of attitudes on the positive end

of the scale, not consistent with the general pattern, was evident

in the "non-violent/violent" and "beautiful/ugly" subscales.

In summary, data from the Semantic Differential Scale measuring attitudes toward separatism indicated that 30 percent of the subjects had positive attitudes, 27.5 percent had neutral attitudes and 42.2 percent had negative attitudes toward separatism. Attitudes of subjects responding negatively to separatism tended to be more intense than attitudes of those who responded positively. The two descriptors of separatism chosen most often by subjects were "dangerous" and "violent". TABLE 21

SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE BLACK SEPARATISM3 N = 154

Descriptive Completely Completely Descriptive Word or Mostly Slightly Neutral Slightly or Mostly Word

Good 14.9 17.7 31.8 9.7 25.9 Bad

Fair 17.6 14.3 29.2 12.3 26.6 Unfair

Relevant 19.0 15.6 27.3 11.7 26.4 Not Relevant

Near 17.5 18.2 30.5 9.8 24.0 Far

Safe 13.6 11.0 19.5 16.9 39.0 Dangerous

Kind 13.0 14.3 30.5 11.7 30.5 Cruel

Necessary 18.2 16.2 24.7 13.6 26.6 Useless

Fast 13.6 13.0 30.5 19.5 23.4 Slow

Non-violent 15.6 9.1 19.5 11.0 44.8 Violent

Beautiful 20.8 8.4 31.9 11.0 27.9 Ugly

Kuder-Richardson Reliability - .910

A number of tables such as the one above will be presented in the text. The headings "Completely or Mostly" and "Slightly" to the left of the "Neutral" position apply to the descriptive words on the left. Likewise, "Completely or Mostly" and "Slightly" to the right of "Neutral" apply to the descriptive Words on the right. -88-

Likert Scale

The direction and intensity of subjects' attitudes toward separatism, as measured by the Likert-type scale, can be observed in Table 22. When the data were collapsed into positive and negative categories the results indicated that 34.2 percent of the subjects expressed positive attitudes and 65.4 percent negative attitudes toward separatism (the percentage of positive responses was acquired by the summation of the completely, mostly and slightly agree columns. A similar process was performed on the negative end of the table).

TABLE 22

ATTITUDES TOWARD SEPARATISM LIKERT SCALE N = 154

Attitude Intensity/Direction Percentage

Completely Agree. . 12.0 Mostly Agree. . . . 8.2 Slightly Agree. . . 14.0 Slightly Disagree . 18.3 Mostly Disagree . . 13.7 Completely Disagree 33.4

The following Table 23 presents the responses of subjects to

individual items which comprised the Likert-type measurement of atti­

tudes toward separatism. TABLE 23

ATTITUDES TOWARD SEPARATISM - LIKERT SCALE TOTAL SCHOOL PRPULATIONS N = 154

Question­ Attitude Direction and Intensity (Percent) Item naire Item Statement Completely Mostly Slightly Slightly Mostly Completely Number Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Disagree

43 Black people should leave the U.S. and live in Africa. 2.6 3.9 6.5 9.2 14.4 63.0

49 The United States should split into two nations, one black and one white. 3.3 4.7 5.3 11.3 14.0 61.3

39 Black people should live in and control one or more states in the I U.S. { 16.2 9.1 20.1 21.4 11.7 21.4

29 Black people should take control of all U.S. cities in which they are the majority. 20.8 19.5 24.0 18.2 9.1 8.4 TABLE 23 — Continued

Question­ Attitude Direction and Intensity (Percent) Item naire Item Statement Completely Mostly Slightly Slightly Mostly Completely Number Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Disagree

47 Black people should form an independent black political party in the U.S. 16.9 14.3 23.4 21.4 10.4 13.6

61 Black people should vote for black poli­ tical candidates. 7.2 11.8 17.6 19.6 11.8 32.0

67 Unless a black candi­ date is running for the office of the U.S. President in 1976, black people should not vote for President 5.3 4.0 10.7 14.0 17.3 48.7

55 Black people should join together and buy land in the U.S. 17.0 13.7 15.0 26.8 12.4 15.0

35 Blacks with money should create black 27.5 12.4 19.6 19.0 10.5 11.1 suburbs. 72 All businesses located in the black communi­ ties should be owned 27.6 8.6 14.5 19.7 9.9 19.7 by blacks. TABLE 23 — Continued

Question­ Attitude Direction and Intensity (Percent) Item naire Item Statement Completely Mostly Slightly Slightly Mostly Completely Number Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Disagree

36 Blacks should only shop in black owned stores. 6.6 9.2 11.8 13.8 16.4 42.1

57 At predominantly white colleges, blacks should live together. 15.1 11.8 21.1 23.7 9.9 18.4

44 Black teachers should only teach black stu­ dents. 0.6 3.2 3.2 11.7 18.8 62.3

69 Black students should only attend school with other black students. 3.3 3.3 5.2 17.0 19.6 51.6

74 After graduation from high school, black stu­ dents should attend black colleges. 8.5 5.9 15.0 30.1 15.7 24.8

54 Black people should refuse to join the military. 11.8 5.2 10.5 26.1 21.6 24.8

42 Black athletes should get together and form leagues (e.g. football) of their own. 28.6 13.0 20.1 16.2 4.5 17.5 TABLE 23 — Continued

Question­ Attitude Direction and Intensity (Percent) Item naire Item Statement Completely Mostly Slightly Slightly Mostly Completely Number Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Disagree

68 Black people should have nothing to do with white people. 4.6 1.3 9.2 13.7 19.6 51.6

63 Blacks should not attend performances by white artists. 5.3 1.3 13.8 17.1 14.5 48.0 -93-

In response to the various models of Black separatism presented earlier on page 18, the data revealed that there was overwhelming disagreement with the notion of Black people either leaving the U.S.

to live in Africa (86.6 percent) or the splitting of the U.S. into

two nations, one Black and one white (86.6 percent). The percentage of subjects disagreeing with the idea of Black people living in and controlling one or more states was 54.5. Interestingly, however, 64.3 percent of the subjects agreed that Black people should take control of all U.S. cities in which they represent a majority of the population.

An examination of political attitudes as they relate to Black separatism yielded the following results. Slightly more than one-half of the subjects (54.6 percent) agreed that Black people should form an

independent Black political party in the U.S., but 64.3 percent of the

subjects disagreed with the notion that Black people should vote only

for Black candidates. Disagreement with the latter item was further

supported when 80 percent of the subjects rejected the suggestion that unless a Black candidate were running for the office of President of

the U.S. in 1976, Black people should not vote for other presidential

candidates.

To assess feelings concerning the acquisition of land for separatist

purposes, subjects were asked whether Black people should join together

and buy land in the U.S. and/or create Black suburban districts. To the

former, less than one-half (45.7 percent) of the subjects responded

favorably and in the latter instance, 59.5 percent of the subjects did

likewise. -94-

In response to whether all businesses located in Black communities should be owned by Blacks, 50.7 percent of the subjects agreed with the idea. However, only 27.6 percent of the subjects agreed that Black people should only patronize stores which were owned by Blacks.

Attitudes toward separatism in relationship to educational issues were assessed by four items. The data indicated overwhelming disagreement with: a) Black teachers only teaching Black students (92.8 percent) and b) Black students only attending schools with other Black students (88.2 percent). Although there was also disagreement on the part of the total group with the other two items, the percentage of subjects was less— 70.6 and 52.0 percent respectively disagreed with: a) Black high school students upon graduation attending only Black colleges and b) Black students only living with other Black students at predominantly white colleges.

Four items were included in the assessment of attitudes toward separatism which did not precisely fit into one of the above categories but were recommended by item judges as appropriate determinants of said attitudes. Almost three-quarters of the subjects (72.5 percent) disagreed with the notion that Black people should refuse to join the military.

Disagreement was also indicated with Black people not having anything to do with white people (84.9 percent) and Blacks not attending performances by white artists (79.6 percent). However, 61.7 percent of the subjects agreed that Black athletes should get together and form leagues of their own. -95-

In summary, data derived from the Likert-type scale measuring

attitudes toward separatism suggested that the majority of Black high

school students under investigation rejected the notion of Black sepa­

ratism. These negative feelings, for the most part, were expressed at

a very intense level.

Discussion

Perhaps the first "discrepancy" observed by the reader when the data

from both the Semantic Differential and the Likert scale are compared, is

the percentage of subjects who indicated positive and/or negative attitudes

toward separatism. Results from the former scale showed 30 percent posi­

tive and 42.2 percent negative attitudes while 34.2 percent indicated positive attitudes and 65.4 percent negative attitudes toward separatism

on the Likert scale.

The reader is cautioned to be cognizant of important differences between the two types of measurement techniques which help to explain the

above mentioned "discrepancy". The first difference is the neutral option

provided on the Semantic Differential Scale and not made available on the

Likert scale. Since it is known, from an examination of the data, that most subjects who responded neutrally on the Semantic Differential Scale

responded negatively on the Likert scale where the neutral option was un­

available, one or both of the following probably occurred: a) subjects who responded neutrally to Black separatism on the Semantic Differential

Scale did have positive or negative feelings which were revealed on the

Likert scale; b) subjects who were "forced" to agree or disagree on the

Likert scale did not really have positive or negative feelings toward -96-

Black separatism and thus chose the neutral option on the Semantic

Differential scale.

The second important difference between the two scales is the format within which the concept of separatism was presented to the subjects. When the items which make up each scale were compared, it became apparent that the specificity of the Likert items tended to minimize the variance in interpretation among subjects as they responded to items. Thus, an item which suggested that Black people should only shop in Black owned stores placed more parameters on possible interpre­ tations of its meaning than an item which asked whether Black separatism was "near" or "far".

Despite these differences, it is important to mention that: a) the overwhelming majority of subjects who responded neutrally on the Semantic

Differential scale changed to slightly negative on the Likert scale (in other words, the "shift in attitudes" was relatively minor), and b) the differences in format between the two types of scales were minimized con­ siderably when scale scores derived from the total number of items for each scale were considered as opposed to individual items.

The data obtained from both scales suggested that approximately 30 percent of the subjects under investigation expressed positive attitudes toward Black separatism. The percentage of subjects who were categorized as having negative attitudes toward separatism was at least 42 percent if one accepts a neutral response as a legitimate choice. If, on the other hand, one argues that a neutral response, especially to an emotional issue such as Black separatism, is unrealistic and point to the shift in -97-

attitudes (neutral to slightly negative) described earlier as supporting evidence, then the percentage of subjects who can be categorized as having negative attitudes toward separatism would increase from 42 to approximately 65 percent.

Interestingly, if one carefully examines subjects’ responses to the Likert-type items, it becomes apparent that absolute separatism between Blacks and whites is not being advocated. This is so even among those subjects whose responses could categorize them as Black separatists.

Support for this observation becomes evident when one realizes that at least 78 percent and as much as 93 percent of the subjects rejected the following items:

1. Black students should only attend school with other Black students (88.2 percent).

2. Blacks should only shop in Black owned stores (79.4 percent).

. 3. Blacks should not attend performances by white artists (79.6 percent).

4. Unless a Black candidate is running for the office of the U.S. President in 1976, Black people should not vote for President (80.0 percent).

5. Black people should have nothing to do with white people (84.9 percent).

6 . Black teachers should only teach Black students (92.8 percent).

Recalling that social contact with whites in relationship to attitudes toward separatism was examined and will be discussed at a later point, additional data to explore this phenomenon will be presented. -98-

In summary, examination of attitudes toward Black separatism among

Black high school students yielded the following results:

1. Approximately 30 percent of the subjects expressed positive attitudes toward separatism.

2. At least 42 percent of the subjects expressed negative attitudes toward separatism.

3. Negative attitudes were expressed more intensely than positive attitudes toward separatism.

4. Separatism was described as "violent" and "dangerous" most often by subjects.

5. Almost three-fourths of the subjects who expressed positive attitudes toward separatism rejected the notion of absolute separation between Blacks and whites.

Having examined attitudes toward Black separatism, it is now appro­ priate to examine the hypotheses in an attempt to observe the nature of the relationship between those attitudes and some selected variables.

ANALYSIS OF HYPOTHESES

2 Separatism and Integration Hypothesis #1

There will be an inverse relationship between perceptions of school integration and attitudes toward Black separatism among Black high school students.

A tabulation of scale scores derived from responses to the Semantic

Differential measurement of perceptions of school integration indicated

2 For reasons suggested in Chapter III (page 60 ) data used in the analysis of this hypothesis will be limited to results obtained from the Semantic Differential scales. -99- that 35.9 percent of the subjects expressed positive feelings, 32.4 per­ cent responded neutrally and 30.7 percent felt negatively toward school integration.

The following Table 24 shows the breakdown of the feelings when intensity of feelings were considered.

TABLE 24 PERCEPTIONS OF SCHOOL INTEGRATION - SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE N = 154

Attitude Intensity/Direction Percentage

Completely or mostly positive...... 21.2 Slightly positive...... 14.7 Neutral...... 32.4 Slightly negative...... 10.1 Completely or mostly negative...... 20.6

Unlike the findings related to attitudes toward separatism, there was little difference between the intensity of responses expressed at either the positive or negative end of the scale. However, examination of the data for each of the ten subscales presented in Table 25 indicated that the direction and intensity of feelings about school integration did differ in relationship to some of the descriptors. At least 40 percent of the sub­ jects chose the adjectives "good", "fair", "relevant", "near" and "necessary" to describe school integration. For three of the above adjectives, "good",

"relevant", and "necessary", approximately one-third of the responses were in the "completely or mostly positive" category. Interestingly, on the neg­ ative end of the scale, the only two adjectives selected by at least 40 per­ cent of the subjects were "dangerous" and "violent", and in both instances approximately one-third of the responses were in the "completely or mostly negative" category. TABLE 25

SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE SCHOOL INTEGRATION N = 154

Descriptive Completely Completely Descriptive Word or Mostly Slightly Neutral Slightly or Mostly Word

Good 35.1 16.2 27.3 6.5 14.9 Bad

Fair 24.7 16.9 28.6 12.3 17.5 Unfair

Relevant 33.2 15.6 30.5 6.5 14.2 Not Relevant

Near 26.6 14.9 33.8 9.8 14.9 Far

Safe 14.4 13.0 27.9 12.3 32.4 Dangerous

Kind 7.8 21.4 43.5 12.4 14.9 Cruel

Necessary 35.9 9.8 27.5 7.2 19.6 Useless

Fast 19.0 13.0 35.1 9.1 23.8 Slow

Non-violent 8.4 13.6 29.9 13.6 34.5 Violent

Beautiful 17.0 12.3 40.3 11.0 19.4 Ugly

Kuder-Richardson Reliability - .925 -101-

Table 26 below reports the responses of subjects to Black separatism and school integration.

TABLE 26

ATTITUDES TOWARD SEPARATISM/PERCEPTIONS OF SCHOOL INTEGRATION - SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALES N = 154

► Comp. or Slightly Slightly Comp. or Mostly Pos. Pos. Neutral Neg. Mostly Neg.

Attitudes toward separatism 16.3 13.7 27.5 12.7 29.5 Perceptions of school inte­ gration 21.2 14.7 32.4 10.1 20.6

To test the hypothesized inverse relationship between attitudes toward separatism and perceptions of school integration, the Pearson Correlation

Coefficient Formula was applied to the scale scores derived from responses to the two Semantic Differential scales. The correlation coefficient between these variables (-.167), though suggesting the hypothesized direction, was not significant at the .05 level. Consequently, the hypothesis was rejected.

Discussion

Unfortunately, the researcher-designed Likert-type scale intended to assess perceptions of school integration in a more detailed manner could not be used since: a) the correlations of more than one-half of the items did not satisfy the .05 level of significance and b) the criterion of -102- congruent validity between the Semantic Differential and Likert scale was not satisfied. However, for purposes of discussion, there were five items from the latter scale where the correlation coefficient was significant at the .05 level, and the reliability coefficient ranged from .517 to .591.

The results of these items were as follows: Given a school where one-half of the students and teachers are white and one-half Black,

1. 85 percent of the subjects felt that some Black and some white students would become close friends.

2. 72 percent of the subjects felt that white students would receive a good education.

3. 75 percent of the subjects felt that Black students would receive a good education.

4. 71 percent of the subjects felt that some white males would date Black females.

5. 86 percent of the subjects felt that some Black males would date white females.

Although the above results were not used in testing the relationship between attitudes toward separatism and perceptions of school integration, they do provide supporting evidence for the conclusion stated earlier that separatism in the absolute sense was not being advocated even among some subjects who responded positively to Black separatism. In other words, some of the subjects who indicated a position of Black separatism not only re­ jected the notion of Black teachers only teaching Black students but also agreed that in an integrated school, Black students would receive a good education. Thus, it becomes clear why the hypothesis suggesting an inverse relationship between attitudes toward separatism and perceptions of school integration was not supported by the data. -103-

Separatism and Racial Composition Hypothesis #2

There will be no significant relationship in the attitudes of Black high school students toward Black separatism when grouped according to the racial composition of the school.

It was mentioned earlier that subjects were selected from three schools each having different student body racial compositions— pre­ dominantly white, racially balanced and predominantly Black. Data were analyzed for each of these subgroups to examine the relationship between attitudes toward separatism and racial composition of the school.

Predominantly White School

Semantic Differential Scale - Data derived from this scale indicated that 29.6 percent of the subjects from the predominantly white high school had positive attitudes, 30.5 percent neutral attitudes and 39.7 percent negative attitudes toward separatism. Table 27 reveals that when the intensity of these attitudes is examined a larger percentage of subjects appeared in the "completely or mostly" column as opposed to the "slightly" column at both the positive and negative ends of the scale. However, the agree/neutral/positive pattern and the level of attitudes toward

TABLE 27 ATTITUDES TOWARD SEPARATISM IN PREDOMINANTLY WHITE SCHOOL - SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE N = 21 Attitude Intensity/Direction Percentage Completely or mostly agree. . 20.6 Slightly agree...... 9.0 Neutral ...... 30.5 Slightly disagree ...... 8.6 Completely or mostly disagree 31.1 -104- separatism suggested by Table 27 did not hold true for each of the ten subscales as indicated by Table 28.

1. On the positive end of the scale, subjects chose

the adjectives "necessary", "good" and "fair" most often.

2. Among subjects who indicated agreement with the

relevancy and speed of Black separatism, a larger percentage

fell into the "slightly agree" column as opposed to the

"completely or mostly agree" column.

3. In three instances, "near-far", "fast-slow" and

"beautiful-ugly", the percentage of subjects who indicated

neutral responses was above 40 percent.

4. At the negative end of the subscales, it can be

observed that the adjectives "dangerous" and "violent" were

chosen most often to describe Black separatism by subjects

in the predominantly white high school. TABLE 28

BLACK SEPARATISM - PREDOMINANTLY WHITE SCHOOL SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE N = 21

Descriptive Completely Completely Descriptive Word or Mostly Slightly Neutral Slightly or Mostly Word

Good 29.4 4.7 23.8 9.5 33.7 Bad

Fair 29.4 4.7 28.5 4.7 33.7 Unfair

Relevant 9.4 23.8 33.3 4.7 28.5 Not Relevant

Near 28.5 4.7 47.6 — 19.4 Far

Safe 23.7 — 23.8 9.5 42.8 Dangerous

Kind 24.2 4.7 28.5 9.5 33.2 Cruel

Necessary 33.7 — 14.7 19.0 33.3 Useless

Fast 9.4 23.8 47.6 4.7 14.2 Slow

Non-violent 19.0 19.0 14.7 9.5 38.5 Violent

Beautiful 4.7 4.7 42.8 14.7 33.7 Ugly

Kuder-Richardson Reliability - .910 -10 6 -

Likert Scale - Tabulation of the scale scores derived from responses to this scale revealed that 26.8 percent of the subjects indicated positive attitudes and 72.7 percent negative attitudes toward separatism (Table 29).

TABLE 29

ATTITUDES TOWARD SEPARATISM IN PREDOMINANTLY WHITE SCHOOL - LIKERT SCALE N = 21 Attitude Intensity/Direction Percentage Completely or mostly agree...... 13.8 Slightly agree...... 13.0 Slightly disagree ...... 17.2 Completely or mostly disagree ...... 55.5

An examination of the individual items which comprised the Likert scale (the results can be seen in Table 30) revealed the following infor­ mation.

1. Black high school students in the predominantly white

school overwhelmingly rejected the notions of Black people leaving

the U.S. or splitting the U.S. into two nations (Black and white);

they rejected the idea of Black people controlling one or more

states and were almost evenly divided on the issue of Blacks con­

trolling the cities in which they represent a majority.

2. Subjects were almost evenly divided in regard to the

formation of an independent Black political party; rejected voting

only for Black politicians; and almost unanimously rejected with­

drawal from voting in the 1976 presidential election unless a

Black candidate were running. TABLE 30

ATTITUDES TOWARD SEPARATISM - LIKERT SCALE PREDOMINANTLY WHITE SCHOOL N = 21

Question­ Attitude Direction and Intensity (Percent) Item naire Item Statement Completely Mostly Slightly Slightly Mostly Completely Number Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Disagree

43 Black people should leave the U.S. and live in Africa. 0.0 9.5 4.7 0.0 4.7 80.9

49 The United States should split into two nations, one black and one white. 0.0 0.0 4.7 14.2 4.7 76.1

39 Black people should live in and control one or more states in the U.S. 14.2 9.5 23.8 14.2 14.2 23.8

29 Black people should take control of all U.S. cities in which they are the majority. 14.2 23.8 14.2 23.8 14.2 9.5

47 Black people should form an independent political party in the U.S.- 19.0 14.2 23.8 14.2 9.5 19.0 TABLE 30 — Continued

Question­ Attitude Direction and Intensity (Percent) Item naire Item Statement Completely Mostly Slightly Slightly Mostly Completely Number Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Disagree

61 Black people should vote only for black political candidates. 4.7 4.7 14.2 4.7 19.0 52.3

67 Unless a black candi­ date is running for the office of the U.S. President in 1976, black people should not vote for President. 0.0 0.0 9.5 9.5 23.8 57.1

55 Black people should join together and buy land in the U.S. 9.5 9.5 14.2 19.0 23.8 23.8

35 Blacks with money should create black suburbs. 14.2 9.5 19.0 38.0 9.5 9.5

72 All businesses located in the black communi­ ties should be owned by blacks. 14.2 14.2 9.5 19.0 4.7 38.0

36 Blacks should only shop in black owned stores. - 4.7 0.0 14.2 19.0 9.5 52.3 TABLE 30 — Continued

Question­ Attitude Direction and Intensity (Percent) Item naire Item Statement Completely Mostly Slightly Slightly Mostly Completely Number Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Disagree

57 At predominantly white colleges, blacks should live together. 9.5 9.5 23.8 33.3 0.0 23.8

44 Black teachers should only teach black stu­ dents. 0.0 0.0 0.0 9.5 19.0 71.4

69 Black students should only attend school with other black stu­ dents. 0.0 0.0 0.0 14.2 23.8 61.9

74 After graduation from high school, black students should attend black colleges. 0.0 0.0 19.0 33.3 19.0 28.5

54 Black people should refuse to join the military. 4.7 9.5 33.3 14.2 33.3 4.7

42 Black athletes should get together and form leagues (e.g. football) of their own. 14.2 19.0 9.5 28.5 9.5 19.0 TABLE 30 — Continued

Question­ Attitude Direction and Intensity (Percent) Item naire Item Statement Completely Mostly Slightly Slightly Mostly Completely Number Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Disagree

68 Black people should have nothing to do with white people. 0.0 0.0 4.7 9.5 19.0 66.6

63 Blacks should not attend performances by white artists. 9.5 0.0 4.7 9.5 9.5 66.6 \ -111-

3. A majority of subjects rejected the notions of

a) Blacks joining together to buy land in the U.S., b) the

creation of Black suburbs, and c) Black ownership of all

businesses located in Black communities. An overwhelming

majority disagreed with the idea of Blacks only shopping in

Black owned stores.

4. All of the subjects disagreed with the notion of

Black teachers only teaching Black students, and Black students

only attending school with other Black students; 80 percent did

not agree with Black students only attending Black colleges; and

50 percent disagreed with Blacks living together on predominantly

white campuses.

5. A majority of subjects disagreed that Blacks should

refuse to join the military and also with the idea of the forma­

tion of Black athletic leagues. An overwhelming majority re­

jected the notion of Blacks having nothing to do with whites and

Blacks not attending performances by white artists.

In summary, data from both the Likert and Semantic Differential scales indicated that at least 27 percent of the subjects in the predominantly white high school revealed positive attitudes toward Black separatism. De­ pending on one's interpretation of the neutral responses on the latter scale, the percentage of subjects who rejected separatism ranged from

40 to 73 percent. -112-

Attitudes at the negative end of the scale tended to be more intense than attitudes expressed on the positive end.

The two adjectives chosen most often by subjects to describe

Black separatism were "dangerous11 and "violent".

Of the 19 items on the Likert scale which were designed to assess attitudes toward separatism, only two met with agreement by a majority of subjects in the predominantly white high school— 1) Black control of

U.S. cities in which Blacks are in the majority (52.2 percent), and

2) the formation of a Black independent political party (57.0 percent).

Racially Balanced School

Semantic Differential Scale - As the data in Table 31 indicate,

36.6 percent, 26.9 percent and 36.4 percent of the subjects in this school revealed, according to this scale, positive, neutral and negative atti­ tudes toward separatism. In a similar fashion to subjects in the predomi­ nantly white high school, it was observed that an intensity of attitudes at both ends of the scale was apparent.

TABLE 31 ATTITUDES TOWARD SEPARATISM IN RACIALLY BALANCED SCHOOL - SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE N = 64

Attitude Intensity/Direction Percentage Completely or mostly agree. . 21.5 Slightly agree...... 15.1 Neutral ...... 26.9 Slightly disagree ...... 11.2 Completely or mostly disagree 25.2 -113-

When the ten subscales were observed as can be seen in Table 32, there were a few exceptions to the general pattern of responses:

1. Of the ten descriptors of separatism at the

positive end of the subscale, the word "necessary" was

chosen most frequently by subjects.

2. Approximately one-third of the subjects indicated

neutral responses to the "near-far" and "kind-unkind" descriptors.

3. "Dangerous" and "violent" on the negative end of the

scale, were chosen most often to describe separatism by subjects

in the racially balanced high school. TABLE 32

BLACK SEPARATISM - RACIALLY BALANCED SCHOOL SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE N = 64

Descriptive Completely Completely Descriptive Word or Mostly Slightly Neutral Slightly or Mostly Word

Good 22.9 26.4 26.4 1.4 21.5 Bad

Fair 26.0 18.5 25.0 9.2 20.9 Unfair

Relevant 26.0 18.5 23.3 10.6 20.6 Not Relevant

Near 18.8 12.3 34.2 9.2 24.6 Far

Safe 16.8 9.2 20.2 18.5 34.6 Dangerous

Kind 9.9 20.2 35.6 12.3 18.4 Unkind

Necessary 30.8 18.5 17.1 12.3 19.8 Useless

Fast 16.7 9.2 25.0 - 20.2 27.7 Slow

Non-violent 15.4 7.5 23.3 10.6 41.6 Violent

Beautiful 29.4 10.6 28.8 7.5 22.9 Ugly

Kuder-Richardson Reliability - .910 -115-

Likert Scale - Results derived from this scale (Table 33) re­ vealed that 35.9 percent of the subjects from the racially balanced school had positive attitudes and 63.6 percent negative attitudes toward separatism.

TABLE 33

ATTITUDES TOWARD SEPARATISM IN RACIALLY BALANCED SCHOOL - LIKERT SCALE N = 64

Attitude Intensity/Direction Percentage

Completely or mostly agree. . 22.9 Slightly agree...... 13.0 Slightly disagree ...... 18.6 Completely or mostly disagree 45.1

Specific responses to the Likert items can be seen in the following

Table 34. The data revealed that:

1. There was overwhelming rejection of the notions that

Black people leave the U.S. to live in Africa and splitting the

U.S. into two nations, one Black and one white. A majority of

these subjects also rejected, although less convincingly, the

idea of Black people controlling one or more states within the

U.S. Interestingly, however, almost three-quarters of the sub­

jects in this school agreed that Black people should take control

of all U.S. cities in which they represent a majority of the

population. -116-

2. Although a majority of subjects agreed with the formation of an independent Black political party, they re­ jected the notions that Blacks only vote for Black candidates and withdrawal from the 1976 presidential elections unless a

Black candidate were running.

3. A majority of subjects rejected the suggestion that

Blacks should join together and buy land in the U.S. but agreed with the establishment of Black suburbs. Although a majority of these subjects agreed that all businesses located in Black communities should be owned by Blacks, they disagreed with the idea of Black people limiting their shopping to Black owned stores.

4. In the area of education as it relates to separatism, a majority of the subjects in the racially balanced school rejected

Black teachers only teaching Black youth; Black students only attending schools with other Black students; and Black students only attending Black colleges after graduating from high school. However, unlike the reaction of subjects in the predominantly white school, a majority of these subjects favored the idea of Blacks living together on predominantly white college campuses.

5. A majority of these subjects agreed with the formation of Black athletic leagues, but they disagreed with Blacks refusing to join the military; not attending performances by white artists and having nothing to do with whites. TABLE 34

ATTITUDES TOWARD SEPARATISM - LIKERT SCALE RACIALLY BALANCED SCHOOL N = 64

Question­ Attitude Direction and Intensity (Percent) Item naire Item Statement Completely Mostly Slightly Slightly Slightly Completely Number Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Disagree

43 Black people should leave the U.S. and live in Africa 3.1 4.6 7.8 7.8 10.9 65.6

49 The United States should split into two nations, one black and one white. 6.2 4.6 6.2 7.8 10.9 64.0

39 Black people should live in and control one or more states in the U.S. 24.6 3.1 14.0 18.5 10.9 28.1

29 Black people should take control of all U.S. cities in which they are the majority. 29.6 21.8 21.8 14.0 4.6 7.8

47 Black people should form an independent black political party in the U;S. 29.6 10.9 18.5 18.5 6.2 15.6 TABLE 34 — Continued

Question­ Attitude Direction and Intensity (Percent) Item naire Item Statement Completely Mostly Slightly Slightly Mostly Completely Number Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Disagree

61 Black people should vote only for black political candidates. 7.8 12.3 18.5 26.5 6.2 28.1

67 Unless a black candi­ date is running for the office of the U.S. President in 1976, black people should not vote for President. 6.2 3.1 6.2 12.3 12.3 60.8

55 Black people should join together and buy land in the U.S. 20.3 9.3 12.3 32.8 7.8 17.1

35 Blacks with money should create black suburbs. 29.6 17.1 20.3 20.8 4.6 7.8

72 All businesses located in the black communi­ ties should be owned by blacks. 40.6 3.1 15.6 26.5 7.8 6.2 TABLE 34 — Continued

Question­ Attitude Direction and Intensity (Percent) Item naire Item Statement Completely Mostly Slightly Slightly Mostly Completely Number Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Disagree

36 Blacks should only shop in black owned stores. 7.8 9.3 12.3 12.3 12.3 45.3

57 At predominantly white colleges, blacks should live together. 21.8 14.0 17.1 18.5 9.3 18.5

44 Black teachers should only teach black stu­ dents. 0.0 4.6 4.6 10.9 21.8 59.3

69 Black students should only attend school with other black students. 4.6 3.1 4.6 17.1 17.1 53.1

74 After graduation from high school, black stu­ dents should attend black colleges. 10.9 4.6 10.9 34.3 15.6 23.4

54 Black people should refuse to join the military. 17.1 6.2 10.9 17.1 20.3 28.1

42 Black athletes should get together and form leagues (e.g. football) of their own. 31.2 4.6 21.8 15.6 3.1 23.4 TABLE 34 — Continued

Question­ Attitude Direction and Intensity (Percent) Item naire Item Statement Completely Mostly Slightly Slightly Mostly Completely Number Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Disagree

68 Black people should have nothing to do with white people. 6.2 1.5 10.9 21.8 14.0 45.3

63 Blacks should not attend performances by white artists. 1.5 0.0 12.3 20.3 17.1 48.4 -121-

In summary, the data indicated that approximately one-third of the subjects from the racially balanced school had favorable attitudes and between 37 and 64 percent unfavorable attitudes toward separatism.

As was the case in the predominantly white school, the largest percentage of responses fell into the "completely or mostly negative" category. The adjectives chosen most often by subjects in the racially balanced school to describe Black separatism were "dangerous" and

"violent".

Like subjects previously discussed, a majority of students in the racially balanced school agreed with Black control of cities which have

Black majorities and the formation of a Black independent political party. However, in addition, there was also agreement with Black owner­ ship of stores located in Black communities; Black students living together on white college campuses and the formation of Black athletic leagues.

Predominantly Black School

Semantic Differential Scale - As can be observed in Table 35, 27.6 percent of the subjects in the predominantly Black school expressed posi­ tive attitudes toward separatism while 28.1 percent and 43.7 percent respectively indicated neutral and negative attitudes. As was the case with previously discussed data related to the other two schools, the in­

tensity of attitudes at the negative end of the scale was apparent for

these subjects. However, as the table indicates, the intensity of atti­

tudes at the positive end of the scale was not evident for subjects in

the predominantly Black high school. -122-

TABLE 35

ATTITUDES TOWARD SEPARATISM IN PREDOMINANTLY BLACK SCHOOL - SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE N = 69

Attitude Intensity/Direction Percentage

Completely or mostly agree...... 13.3 Slightly agree...... 14.3 N e u t r a l ...... 28.1 Slightly disagree ...... '...... 14.2 Completely or mostly disagree ...... 29.5

Examination of the ten subscales shown in Table 36 revealed the following attitudes of subjects in the predominantly Black school:

1. On the positive end of the scale, the word

"near" was chosen most often by subjects to describe

separatism.

2. At least 34 percent of these subjects indicated

neutral responses on the subscales of "good-bad", "necessary-

useless" and "fast-slow".

3. The adjectives on the negative end of the scale

chosen most often by subjects to describe separatism were

"dangerous", "violent" and "unkind". TABLE 36

BLACK SEPARATISM - PREDOMINANTLY BLACK SCHOOL SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE N = 69

Descriptive Completely Completely Descriptive Word or Mostly Slightly Neutral Slightly or Mostly Word

Good 9.8 13.3 36.2 17.3 22.8 Bad

Fair 12.8 14.3 27.4 18.6 26.9 Unfair

Relevant 12.7 11.4 28.7 15.7 30.0 Not Relevant

Near 18.9 23.1 24.4 10.1 23.4 Far

Safe 12.8 14.3 18.6 14.3 38.8 Dangerous

Kind 15.7 11.4 27.4 8.5 35.9 Unkind

Necessary 6.8 18.6 34.5 13.3 25.8 Useless

Fast 12.8 11.4 34.5 20.2 20.5 Slow

Non-violent 14.4 13.3 17.3 10.1 44.6 Violent

Beautiful 15.7 11.4 31.6 14.3 26.6 Ugly

Kuder-Richardson Reliability - .910 -124-

Llkert Scale - According to data derived from tabulations of responses to the Likert items assessing attitudes toward separatism,

34.6 percent of the subjects indicated positive attitudes and 63.6 percent negative attitudes toward separatism. This is shown in the following Table 37.

TABLE 37

ATTITUDES TOWARD SEPARATISM IN PREDOMINANTLY BLACK SCHOOL - LIKERT SCALE N = 69

Attitude Intensity/Direction Percentage

Completely or mostly agree...... 19.5 Slightly agree...... 15.4 Slightly disagree ...... 18.0 Completely or mostly disagree ...... 46.4

Responses to individual Likert items (seen in Table 38) can be summarized in the following manner:

1. Subjects overwhelmingly disagreed with the notions of

Blacks leaving the U.S. to live in Africa and splitting the U.S.

into two nations, one Black and one white. Though to a lesser

degree, subjects also disagreed with Black control of one or more

states in the U.S. In a pattern similar to the other two schools,,

a majority of subjects in the predominantly Black school agreed

with the idea of Black people controlling all U.S. cities in

which Blacks represent a majority of the population. TABLE 38

ATTITUDES TOWARD SEPARATISM - LIKERT SCALE PREDOMINANTLY BLACK SCHOOL N = 69

Question­ Attitude Direction and Intensity (Percent) Item naire Item Statement Completely Mostly Slightly Slightly Mostly Completely Number Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Disagree

43 Black people should leave the U.S. and live in Africa. 2.8 1.4 5.7 13.0 20.2 56.5

49 The United States should split into two nations, one black and one white. 1.4 5.7 4.3 13.0 18.8 56.5

39 Black people should live in and control one or more states in the U.S. 8.6 14.4 24.6 26.0 11.5 14.4

29 Black people should take control of all U.S. cities in which they are a majority. 14.4 15.9 28.9 20.2 11.5 8.6

47 Black people should form an independent black political party in the U.S. 8.6 15.9 27.5 24.6 11.5 11.5 TABLE 38 — Continued

Question­ Attitude Direction and Intensity (Percent) Item naire Item Statement Completely Mostly Slightly Slightly Mostly Completely Number Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Disagree

61 Black people should vote only for black political candidates. 7.2 13.0 17.3 17.3 14.4 30.4

67 Unless a black candi­ date is running for the office of the U.S. President, black people should not vote for President. 5.7 5.7 15.9 15.9 17.3 39.1

55 Black people should join together and buy land in the U.S. 15.9 18.8 17.3 24.6 13.0 10.1

35 Blacks with money should create black suburbs. 30.4 8.6 18.8 11.5 15.9 14.4

72 All businesses located in the black communi­ ties should be owned by blacks. 21.7 10.1 14.4 13.0 13.0 27.5 TABLE 38 — Continued

Question­ Attitude Direction and Intensity (Percent) Item naire Item Statement Completely Mostly Slightly Slightly Mostly Completely Number Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Disagree

36 Blacks should only shop in black owned stores. 5.7 11.5 10.1 13.0 21.7 37.6

57 At predominantly white colleges, blacks should live together. 11.5 10.1 23.1 26.0 13.0 15.9

44 Black teachers should only teach black stu­ dents . 1.4 2.8 2.8 13.0 15.9 63.7

69 Black students should only attend school with other black students. 2.8 4.3 7.2 17.3 18.8 49.2

74 After graduation from high school, black students should attend black colleges. 8.6 8.6 17.3 26.0 14.4 24.4

54 Black people should refuse to join the military. 8.6 5.7 10.1 31.8 24.6 18.8

42 Black athletes should get together and form leagues (e.g. football) of their own. 30.4 18.8 21.7 13.0 4.3 11.5 TABLE 38 — Continued

Question­ Attitude Direction and Intensity (Percent) Item naire Item Statement Completely Mostly Slightly Slightly Mostly Completely Number Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Disagree

68 Black people should have nothing to do with white people. 4.3 1.4 8.6 7.2 24.6 53.6

63 Blacks should not attend performances by white artists. 7.2 2.8 17.3 15.9 13.0 43.4 -129-

2. A majority of subjects disagreed, with the formation

of a Black political party, voting only for Black candidates and

withdrawal from the 1976 presidential elections unless a Black

candidate is running for office,

3. Over 50 percent of the subjects agreed with Blacks

getting together to purchase land in the U.S. and the formation

of Black suburbs. However, a majority disagreed that all busi­

nesses located in Black communities should be owned by Blacks

and that Blacks should only shop in Black owned stores.

4. There was overwhelming disagreement with the notions

of Black teachers only teaching Black students and Blacks

attending school with only other Black students. Disagreement,

though less emphatically, was also expressed in regard to Black

high school students attending Black colleges and Blacks living

together on white college campuses.

5. Approximately three-fourths of the subjects in the

predominantly Black school disagreed with: refusal to join the

military, having nothing to do with whites and non-attendance at

performances by whites on the part of Black people. Interestingly,

however, 70 percent of these subjects agreed with the formation of

Black athletic leagues.

In summary, the data indicated that at least 27 percent of the sub­ jects in the predominantly Black high school favored separatism while 40 to 60 percent disagreed with the concept. -130-

Like the other two schools, the ''completely or mostly negative" attitude toward separatism received the highest percentage of responses.

Adjectives chosen most often to describe Black separatism were "dangerous" and "violent". Of the 19 Likert items used to assess attitudes toward separatism, only the following five met with approval by a majority of subjects in this school: 1) Black control of cities where Blacks are in the majority; 2) formation of a Black independent political party;

3) Blacks joining together to buy land in the U.S.; 4) the formation of Black suburbs; and 5) the formation of Black athletic leagues.

Discussion

The examination of attitudes toward separatism in relationship to student body racial composition included the collection and analysis of data in three schools utilizing the Likert and Semantic Differential measurement techniques. Tables 39, 40, and 41 represent a summary of previously discussed data.

Table 39 reveals that the range of percentage of students in the three schools who either responded positively, neutrally or negatively on the Semantic Differential scale was relatively small. Pro-separatist responses ranged from 27.6 to 36.6 percent, neutral responses ranged from

26.9 to 30.5 percent and negative responses ranged from 36.4 to 43.7 per­ cent. Similarly, when the percentages of subjects who responded positively, neutrally or negatively to separatism was considered, as assessed by the

Likert scale, the range was relatively small. -131-

TABLE 39

ATTITUDES TOWARD SEPARATISM - STUDENT BODY RACIAL COMPOSITION - LIKERT AND SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALES N = 154

Student Body Attitude Intensity & Direction - Type of Scale

Racial Positive Neutral Negative

Composition Likert S.D. Likert S.D. Likert S.D.

Predom. white 26.8 29.6 . . 30.5 72.7 39.7 Racially balanced 35.9 36.3 . . 26.9 63.6 36.4 Predom. Black 34.6 27.6 . . 28.1 63.6 43.7

In other words, when attitudes toward separatism (positive, neutral or negative) of subjects in the three schools (predominantly white, racially balanced or predominantly Black) as measured by either scale

(Likert or Semantic Differential) was considered, approximately nine percentage points was the largest difference between the highest and lowest number of responses.

Considering these relatively small differences when student body racial composition and attitudes toward separatism were compared, it was not surprising that the correlation (.197) was not significant at the .05 level. Consequently, the hypothesis of no significant relationship in attitudes of Black high school students toward separatism when grouped according to the racial composition of the school was supported by the data. The most frequently chosen descriptors of separatism derived from results of the Semantic Differential scale can be observed in Table 40.

Although there were several similarities between responses from subjects in two of the three schools, the only descriptors most frequently chosen by subjects in all three schools to describe Black separatism were

"dangerous" and "violent".

TABLE 40 DESCRIPTORS OF SEPARATISM BY STUDENT BODY RACIAL COMPOSITION SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE N = 154

Student Body Racial Composition Scale

i m

Predominantly Racially Balanced Predominantly Descriptors White School School Black School

Most frequently Non-violent Good Fair chosen positive Necessary Necessary ! Safe descriptors Good Beautiful Beautiful Relevant Fair Kind Near Relevant Non-violent

Most frequently Near-far Near-far Necessary-useless chosen neutral Fast-slow Kind-cruel Fast-slow descriptors Beautiful-ugly Beautiful-ugly Good-bad

Most frequently Dangerous Dangerous Dangerous chosen negative Useless Violent Violent descriptors Violent Slow Cruel Ugly

Most frequently Dangerous Dangerous Violent chosen Violent Violent Dangerous descriptors Useless Good Cruel Ugly Necessary -133-

Results of the Likert items assessing attitudes toward separatism can be observed in Table 41. Examination of these 19 items revealed the following:

1. Approximately 73 percent of the items received a negative

response from a majority of subjects in all three schools. The per­

centage of items rejected by a majority of subjects in each school

was 89 percent for the predominantly white school, 68 percent for the

racially balanced school and 73 percent for the predominantly Black

school.

2. Of the 19 items, only the following two met with agreement

from a majority of subjects in each of the three schools: 1) Black

people should take control of all U.S. cities in which Blacks are in

the majority, 2) Black people should form an independent political

party in the U.S.

3. Of the 19 items, there were only two where 100 percent of

the subjects responded in the same manner. All subjects in the pre­

dominantly white high school rejected the following items: 1) Black

teachers should only teach Black students; 2) Black students should

only attend school with other Black students.

4. Although the overall scale scores suggested no significant

difference between student body racial composition and separatist •

attitudes, Table 41 does reveal some differences among responses on

certain items. For example, among the three schools the percentage

of respondents were: a) highest in the predominantly white school for items that suggested Blacks only voting for Black candidates

and Blacks’ withdrawal from the 1976 elections; b) highest in the

racially balanced school for items that suggested Blacks controlling

cities where the majority of the population is Black and the

formation of Black suburbs; and c) highest in the predominantly

Black school for items that suggested Blacks’ refusal to join the

military and the formation of Black athletic leagues. The data

did not provide information which would explain the above differences.

TABLE 413

ATTITUDES TOWARD SEPARATISM - STUDENT BODY RACIAL COMPOSITION LIKERT SCALE N = 154

Item Student Body Racial Composition

Description Pre. White Rac. Bal. Pre. Black School School School

Blacks leaving the U.S. to live in Africa -85.6 -84.3 -89.7

The U.S. splitting into two nations (Black and white) -95.0 -82.7 -84.3

Blacks controlling one or more states -52.2 -57.5 -51.9

Blacks controlling cities where the majority is Black +52.2 +73.2 +59.2

The formation of a Black in­ dependent political party +57.0 +59.0 +52.0

Blacks only voting for Black candidates -76.0 -60.8 -62.1 -135-

TABLE 41 — Continued

r———————————— ——

Item Student Beidy Racial Composition

Description Pre. White Rac. Bal. Pre. Black School School School

Blacks withdrawing from voting in 1976 -90.4 -85.4 -72.3

Blacks joining together to buy land -66. 6 -57.7 +52.3

The formation of Black suburbs -57.0 +67.0 +57.8

Blacks owning stores located in Black communities -61.7 +59.3 -53.5

Blacks only shopping in Black owned stores -80.8 -69.9 -72.3

Black teachers only teaching Black students -100.0 -92.0 -92.6

Blacks only attending school with Black students -100.0 -88.5 -88.2

Blacks only attending Black colleges -80.8 -73.3 -64.8

Blacks living together on pre­ dominantly white campuses -57.1 +52.9 -54.9

Blacks refusing to join the military -52.2 -65.5 -75.2

Blacks having nothing to do with whites -95.1 -81.1 -85.4

Blacks not attending perform­ ances by whites. -85.6 -85.8 -72.3

The formation of Black athletic leagues -57.0 +57.6 -70.9

+ indicates agreement by a majority of subjects. - indicates disagreement by a majority of subjects. -136-

Separatism and Social Contact Hypothesis #3

There will be an inverse relationship between Black high school students' social contact with whites and their attitudes toward Black separatism.

The definition of social contact (page 14) suggested that two kinds of responses were elicited from subjects. On the Semantic Differential scale, subjects were asked to react to white people as a group while on the Likert scale, items were designed to have subjects indicate their willingness (or unwillingness) to engage in certain kinds of social in­ teraction with white people.

Semantic Differential Scale

Tabulation of scale scores revealed (as seen in Table 42 below) that

24.2 percent of the subjects expressed positive feelings, 42.2 percent neutral feelings and 33.2 percent negative feelings toward white people.

TABLE 42 PERCEPTIONS OF WHITE PEOPLE SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE N = 154 Attitude Intensity/Direction Percentage Completely or mostly positive...... 7.9 Slightly positive...... 16.3 Neutral...... 42.2 Slightly negative...... 12.6 Completely or mostly negative...... 20.6

A closer examination of these responses (reported in Table 43) indicated that the three most frequently selected positive descriptors of white peo­ ple were "necessary", "relevant" and "fast", while on the negative end of the scale, "ugly", "unfair" and "violent" were most frequently selected.

However, it is important to stress that a relatively large percentage of subjects, when compared with responses to the other variables, indicated neutral responses to white people. TABLE 43

SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE WHITE PEOPLE N = 154

Descriptive • Completely Completely Descriptive Word or Mostly Slightly Neutral Slightly or Mostly Word

Good 6.5 13.6 48.1 14.3 17.5 Bad

Fair 7.1 11.7 37.8 20.8 22.6 Unfair

Relevant 12.3 16.9 37.0 14.3 19.5 Not Relevant

Near 5.9 16.2 46.1 11.0 20.8 Far

Safe 8.4 13.6 42.9 15.6 19.5 Dangerous

Kind 7.1 20.8 40.9 13.0 18.2 Cruel

Necessary 14.3 19.5 42.9 9.1 14.2 Useless

Fast 14.4 16.9 43.5 9.7 15.5 Slow

Non-violent 8.4 10.4 39.0 13.0 29.2 Violent

Beautiful 4.5 7.8 44.2 13.6 29.9 Ugly

Kuder-Richardson Reliability - .908 -138-

Likert Scale

As indicated in the following Table 44, 34.5 percent of the subjects responded positively and 65.2 percent negatively to interactions with white people involving various levels of social contact.

TABLE 44

PERCEPTIONS OF WHITE PEOPLE LIKERT SCALE N = 154

Attitude Intensity/Direction Percentage Completely or mostly positive . 22.2 Slightly positive...... 12.3 Slightly negative...... 17.2 Completely or mostly negative . 48.0

As expected, given the variety of situations presented, the percentage of subjects who expressed a willingness or unwillingness to be involved in a specific type of contact with white people varied from situation to situa­ tion. The results can be observed in Table 45.

Several observations become readily apparent from an analysis of the results reported in Table 45:

1. There were five situations where at least 75 percent of

the subjects expressed agreement: a) becoming friends with an inter­

racial (Black-white) couple (86.2 percent); b) taking part in a

discussion group in which one half of the membership is Black and the

other half white (84.4 percent); c) becoming friends with a Black

person who is married to a white person (78.5 percent); d) not being

bothered by the sight of a white person and a Black person kissing TABLE 45

SOCIAL CONTACT WITH WHITES LIKERT SCALE N = 154

Question­ Attitude Direction and Intensity (Percent) Item naire Item Statement Completely Mostly Slightly Slightly Mostly Completely Number Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Disagree

30 I would like a few of my friends to be white. 13.8 23.7 31.6 12.5 5.9 12.5

31 I feel uncomfortable shopping in a store when most of the shoppers are white. 6.6 8.6 10.5 14.5 13.8 46.0

33 I could never dis­ cuss my problems with a white person. 18.3 3.9 11.8 20.3 22.2 23.5

40 It really bothers me to see a white person and a black person kissing. 12.3 2.6 7.8 18.2 15.6 43.5

45 I would want a white roommate (in college). 4.6 7.9 23.0 23.0 15.8 25.7 TABLE 45 — Continued

Question­ Attitude Direction and Intensity (Percent) Item naire Item Statement Completely Mostly Slightly Slightly Mostly Completely Number Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Disagree

46 When at the movies, it bothers me if most of the audience is white. 6.5 6.5 11.1 17.0 18.3 40.5

48 I would feel uncomfort­ able dating a white person. 24.2 10.5 14.4 6.5 12.4 32.0

50 I could have a good time at a party where half of the people are white and half black. 23.0 16.4 21.1 11.8 14.5 13.2

52 I could become friends with an interracial (black/white) couple. 40.8 25.7 19.7 6.6 2.6 4.6

60 I could never become close friends with a black person who is married to a white person. 6.5 6.5 8.4 13.6 12.3 52.6 TABLE 45 — Continued

Question­ Attitude Direction and Intensity (Percent) Item naire Item Statement Completely Mostly Slightly Slightly Mostly Completely Number Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Disagree

64 I feel uncomfort­ able eating in a restaurant where most of the people are white. 13.1 9.2 13.7 22.2 20.9 20.9

71 It would bother me to take part in a discussion with a group that is half black and half white. 4.6 5.9 5.1 18.3 19.0 47.1

76 I would like a few of my best friends to be white. 7.9 15.7 20.4 19.1 19.1 17.8 / -142-

(77.3 percent); and e) attendance at the movies when most of the

audience is white (75.8 percent).

2. There was one situation where subjects were almost evenly

divided: feeling uncomfortable dating a white person (49.1 percent

agreed and 50.9 percent disagreed).

3. There were two situations where a majority of the subjects

disagreed: a) having a few best friends who are white (56.0 percent)

and b) wanting a white roommate in college (64.5 percent).

In testing the hypothesized relationship between social contact with white people and attitudes toward separatism on the part of Black high school students, correlations between the two variables for each scale were derived. The correlation coefficient for the Semantic Differential scales was -.089 and for the Likert scale it was -.105.

Although in both instances the inverse relationship between these variables was evident, the magnitude of the correlations indicated that said relationship was not significant at the .05 level. Thus, the hypo­ thesis suggesting an inverse relationship between Black high school stu­ dents’ social contact with whites and their attitudes toward separatism was rejected.

Discussion

There appear to be at least three primary reasons why the hypothesized inverse relationship between social contact and attitudes toward separatism was not supported by the data. -143-

In the first instance, the data indicated an apparent conditional rejection of white people on the part of some respondents. In choosing descriptors on the Semantic Differential scale, although some subjects described white people as "ugly", "unfair" and/or "violent", several of these subjects also described white people as "necessary" and "relevant".

Thus, the scale score of said subjects tended to include them as neutral as opposed to either positive or negative.

The second explanation, which is related to the above, was the relatively large number of neutral responses to the term "white people".

This may have occurred in cases other than the above either because sub­ jects saw white people in neither a positive nor negative light or because they chose not to generalize or stereotype white people on the basis of experiences (positive and/or negative) with a few white people. In any event, whether the neutral response was a result of choosing both negative and positive descriptors or a deliberate choice of that category, the results affected the establishment of an inverse relationship between two variables.

The final reason, which is also related to the first, involves the results obtained from the Likert scale. Recalling the manner in which per­ centages of subjects who agreed or disagreed were affected by the type of social contact described in a particular item, it becomes clear that the pattern of responding, on the part of some subjects, was similar to that obtained from the Likert scale's measurement of Black separatism. In other words, there was evidence which indicated that white people were not -144-

rejected in an absolute manner by many subjects, including some of those who would be classified (based on responses to the instrument) as Black separatists. For example, some subjects would apparently feel uncomfort­ able eating in a restaurant where most of the patrons were white, but comfortable in a discussion group with white people.

The extent to which each of these factors affected the hypothesized relationship, if indeed they did, was beyond the scope of this study but should be taken into consideration as one reviews the results of the study.

Separatism and Self Concept Hypothesis #4

There will be no significant relationship between Black high school students' self concept and their attitudes toward Black separatism.

Semantic Differential Scale

Results from the Semantic Differential scale revealed, as indicated in Table 46, that 76.3 percent of the subjects expressed positive feelings,

15.7 percent neutral feelings and 8.0 percent negative feelings toward self.

TABLE 46 SELF CONCEPT - SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE - N = 154 Attitude Intensity/Direction Percentage Completely or mostly positive...... 60.6 Slightly positive...... 15.7 Neutral...... 15.7 Slightly negative...... 2.5 Completely or mostly negative...... 5.5 A closer examination of feelings toward self as reported in the following Table 47, indicates that the most frequently chosen de­ scriptors of self on the part of subjects were "good", "kind", "fair" and "beautiful". Interestingly, "dangerous" and "violent" were chosen by approximately 12 percent of the subjects, all of whom also used the four former descriptors of self.

The table also reveals that a relatively large number of sub­ jects indicated neutral responses to the "near-far" and "fast-slow" descriptors. It is quite probable that these subscales were con­ fusing and/or irrelevant descriptors of self and therefore resulted in subjects choosing a neutral response. TABLE 47

SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE MYSELF N = 154

Descriptive Completely Completely Descriptive Word or Mostly Slightly Neutral Slightly or Mostly Word

Good • 68.2 18.8 9.1 1.3 2.6 Bad

Fair 67.5 14.3 11.0 2.6 4.6 Unfair

Relevant 59.5 19.5 14.9 1.9 4.2 Not Relevant

Near 47.4 20.8 26.6 0.0 5.2 Far

Safe 65.6 7.8 14.3 3.9 8.4 Dangerous

Kind 68.8 13.6 10.4 2.6 4.6 Cruel

Necessary 64.3 13.0 13.0 2.6 7.1 Useless

Fast 47.4 16.9 25.3 1.3 9.1 Slow

Non-violent 55.8 13.0 18.2 7.1 5.8 Violent

Beautiful 61.7 19.5 14.3 1.3 3.2 Ugly

Kuder-Richardson Reliability - .922 -147-

Likert Scale

The Likert scale indicated that 91.7 percent of the subjects had

positive feelings about self while 8.2 percent expressed negative feelings.

Responses to individual items are shown in Table 48.

TABLE 48 SELF CONCEPT LIKERT SCALE N = 154

Percentage Statement Agreeing Disagreeing

I feel that I am a person of worth, at least on an equal level with others. 98.0 2.0

I feel that I have a number of good qualities. 98.7 1.3

All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure. 7.2 92.8

I am able to do things as well as most other people. 96.8 3.2

I feel that I do not have much to be proud of. 11.7 88.3

I take a positive attitude toward myself. 89.5 10.5

On the whole, I am satisfied with myself. 85.0 15.0

I wish I could have more respect for myself. 3.2 96.8

I certainly feel useless at times. 15.0 85.0

At times I think I am no good at all. 13.0 .87.0 -148-

An examination of the hypothesized relationship between self concept and attitudes toward separatism resulted in correlation coef­ ficients of .184 for the Semantic Differential scales and .126 for the Likert scales. Since neither of these coefficients were signifi­ cant at the .05 level, the hypothesis suggesting no significant relation­ ship between the variables in question was accepted.

Discussion

Although the preceding analysis suggested that no significant rela­ tionship existed between self concept and attitudes toward separatism, the reader is cautioned that there is certainly no consensus of opinion on what constitutes an accurate assessment of self. Furthermore, as suggested earlier, the self concept instruments used in this study were designed to produce very general measurements of self. Whether data obtained from an instrument which yielded more precise information about self would also lead to the conclusion of no significant relationship between self concept and attitudes toward separatism was obviously not answered in this study.

This display of positive feelings about self on the part of subjects regardless of their attitudes toward separatism or racial composition of the school they attended, may be one direct result of the 1960's civil right era when racial pride and self worth were predominant social issues vocalized by leaders in Black communities across America. -149-

Separatism and Feelings Toward School Hypothesis #5

There will be an inverse relationship between Black high school students1 feelings toward school and their attitudes toward Black separatism.

Semantic Differential Scale

Results of the Semantic Differential scale assessing how subjects felt about their particular schools indicated that 44.2 percent felt positively, 31.0 percent neutrally and 24.6 percent negatively. The intensity of these feelings can be ovserved in Table 49.

TABLE 49 FEELINGS TOWARD SCHOOL - SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE N = 154 Attitude Intensity/Direction Percentage Completely or mostly positive...... 27.3 Slightly positive...... 16.9 Neutral...... 31.0 Slightly negative...... 9.0 Completely or mostly negative...... 15.6

Further examination of these feelings, based on the ten subscales of the Semantic Differential scale are presented in Table 50.

The three most frequently chosen positive descriptors of the schools were "relevant", "fair" and "necessary" while "violent", "dangerous" and

"ugly" represented the three most frequently chosen negative descriptors.

In the neutral column of the instrument, "near-far", "kind-cruel" and "fast- slow" received the most responses by subjects. The latter was probably a result of a perceived lack of relevancy of these words as descriptors of schools. TABLE 50

SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE MY SCHOOL N = 154

Descriptive Completely Completely Descriptive Word or Mostly Slightly Neutral Slightly or Mostly Word

Good 30.5 17.5 29.2 7.2 15.6 Bad

Fair 26.6 22.7 : 27.3 6.5 16.9 Unfair

Relevant 35.3 17.5 27.3 8.4 11.5 Not Relevant

Near 25.2 15.6 33.8 5.8 19.6 Far

Safe 23.5 18.2 31.2 11.0 16.1 Dangerous

Kind 19.0 18.2 39.0 12.3 11.5 Cruel

Necessary 43.4 14.3 24.7 3.2 14.2 Useless

Fast 22.0 15.6 43.5 8.4 10.5 Slow

Non-violent 15.6 16.2 26.6 15.6 26.0 Violent

Beautiful 32.0 13.6 27.9 11.7 14.8 Ugly

Kuder-Richardson Reliability - .928 -151-

A correlation coefficient was derived to test the hypothesized inversed relationship between feelings toward school and attitudes toward Black separatism. The correlation coefficient was -.303 which was significant at the .05 level and consequently hypothesis #5 was accepted based on the results obtained from the Semantic Differential scale.

Likert Scale

As was the case in the assessment of perceptions of school integra­ tion, the researcher-designed Likert scale intended to measure feelings toward school could not be used since: a) the correlations of more than one-half of the items did not satisfy the .05 level of significance; and b) congruent validity with the Semantic Differential scale measuring the same variable was not established.

Discussion

The failure of the Likert scale suggests that the hypothesis indi­ cating an inverse relationship between feelings toward school and atti­ tudes toward separatism must be accepted on a tentative basis. This caution is based on the manner in which feelings toward school was de­ fined on page 14 and elaborated on pages 40-41 respectively of the dissertation text.

The Semantic Differential scale was designed to measure global feelings toward school while the Likert scale assessed feelings about specific components of the school such as administrators, teachers,

counselors and peers. Thus, the data which supported the inverse -152- relationship between attitudes toward separatism and feelings toward school were limited to general feelings toward school, and consequently, do not completely satisfy the definition of feelings toward school.

SUMMARY

Within the context of this chapter data were analyzed to present:

A. A profile of the subjects under investigation.

B. Attitudes of subjects toward separatism.

C. The relationship between attitudes toward separatism and selected variables.

The following represents a summary of said analyses.

Subject Profile

1. Subjects consisted of 154 Black high school juniors and seniors from a city in the United States.

2. Subjects were chosen from three high schools, each having a different student body racial composition— predominantly white, racially balanced and predominantly Black.

3. All subjects had been in attendance in their respective schools and lived in the geographical area for a minimum of two years.

4. Subjects consisted of 57.8 percent females and 42.2 percent males and ranged between 17 and 19 years of age.

5. The school bus represented the dominant mode of trans­ portation for subjects from the predominantly white school, while personal means of transportation were employed by subjects in the racially balanced and predominantly Black school.

6. Almost 93 percent of the subjects ranked themselves as being academically average or above average. -153-

7. Post high school aspiratinns on the part of subjects were the four year college, some post high school training and full time employment in respective order.

8. Approximately one-fourth of the subjects reported being members of all or mostly Black school and community organizations.

9. Almost 90 percent of the subjects grew up and 80 percent lived in all or mostly Black neighborhoods at the time of the study.

10. Three-quarters of the subjects attended elementary schools and 57.8 percent junior high schools where the student body populations were all or mostly Black.

11. 50 percent of the subjects reported that in the above schools approximately one-half of the teaching staff was Black and one-half white, while 39.5 percent indicated that the staff was all or mostly Black.

Attitudes Toward Separatism

1. Approximately 30 percent of the subjects expressed positive attitudes toward Black separatism.

2. Approximately 70 percent of the subjects expressed neutral or negative attitudes toward Black separatism.

3. Negative attitudes toward separatism tended to be expressed more intensely than positive attitudes.

4. Almost one-half of the subjects who expressed positive - attitudes toward separatism rejected the notion of an absolute separation between Black and white people.

5. "Dangerous" and "violent" were the two descriptors of Black separatism chosen most often by subjects. -154-

Attitudes Toward Separatism in Relation to Selected Variables

1. Hypothesis #1 — There will be an inverse relationship between perceptions of school integration and attitudes toward Black separatism among Black high school students — rejected.

2. Hypothesis #2 — There will be no significant relation­ ship in attitudes of Black high school students toward Black separatism when grouped according to the racial composition of the school — accepted.

3. Hypothesis #3 — There will be an inverse relationship between Black high school students' social contact with whites and their attitudes toward Black separatism — rejected.

4. Hypothesis #4 — There will be no significant relation­ ship between Black high school students’ self concept and their attitudes toward Black separatism — accepted.

5. Hypothesis #5 — There will be an inverse relationship between Black high school students' feelings toward school and their attitudes toward Black separatism — conditional acceptance.

In addition to an indication of limitations related to the study,

Chapter V will present conclusions and implications based on this analysis of data. Chapter V

LIMITATIONS, CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

Although the results of this investigation served the purpose of providing empirical (although preliminary) evidence relating to the phenomenon of Black separatism, there are certain limitations which must be taken into consideration before drawing conclusions, as presented in

the next section.

Recalling that letters requesting access to school systems in order

to conduct this study were sent to 26 school districts in various parts

of the country, and the fact that the study was conducted in only one of those districts, raises the question of whether City X's school system was so unique that generalizations drawn from the data collected there would be seriously impaired.

Recognizing that school systems in each part of the country are

inevitably affected in different ways by the dynamics of interactions

among people and institutions of the particular locale thus providing

uniqueness, the researcher was unable to detect any unusual occurrences which would drastically differentiate City X's school system from others

with comparable characteristics. In spite of the above, however, the use

of one school district represents a limitation in that generalizations

from the data to numerically and/or geographically different student pop­

ulations should only be attempted with caution.

-155- -156-

A second limitation of the study results from the researcher's inability to control variables which may have had a direct or indirect affect on the data. For example, the data do not indicate whether or not the involuntary transfer of some teachers, in order to achieve racial balance, resulted in overt or covert behavior on the part of those teachers which might have influenced the attitudes of subjects who came, under their jurisdiction. Thus, it is quite possible that a white teacher who was involuntarily assigned to the predominantly Black school could have manifested certain kinds of behaviors which in turn could have resulted in the creation of reinforcement of negative attitudes toward white people on the part of some subjects. This phenomenon would be especially critical in the case of a subject whose contact with white people was limited to teachers in his/her school due to an otherwise pre­ dominantly Black environment.

Similarly, the extent to which subjects' responses were affected by publicity surrounding the desegregation controversy is unknown. For ex­ ample, whether subjects were influenced by "conservative" white groups and/ or "militant" Black groups, was not reflected in the data.

A third limitation relates to the size of the sample and more

specifically, as alluded to earlier, the subsample taken from the pre­

dominantly white school. As observed, when the responses of the subsample were analyzed, a relatively small "N" emerged in several instances. Al­

though the possibility exists that even if a larger number of students

from the predominantly white school were available for inclusion in the

study, the pattern of responses would remain relatively stable, this pos­

sibility cannot be verified. -157-

Failure of some researcher-designed items in the questionnaire had the effect of introducing a fourth limitation to the study, since all variables being investigated could not be analyzed as previously planned by both types of scales. These scales were selected not only for the purpose of verification of consistency between responses to certain variables, but more importantly, to provide a more indepth analysis of attitudes towards Black separatism. The fact that certain items did not correlate at a significant level and the consequent nega­

tive effect on the reliability of the scales, inevitably results in weakening the impact of the study.

In summary, the utilization of only one school district; the possible influence of extraneous variables; the size of the sample and

imperfections in the questionnaire represent factors which indepen­ dently or in combination must be taken into account when consideration is given to this study.

CONCLUSIONS

In the introduction to this study of attitudes toward Black sepa­

ratism as related to selected variables, it was suggested that America

is currently experiencing a massive onslaught of highly complex and

difficult to resolve problems. The issue of Black separatism was pro- ,

posed as one of those problems which requires continuous empirical ex­

amination in order to provide greater understanding, and thus hopefully

some resolution, to the problem. The following conclusions which emerged

from this investigation should contribute to this process. -158-

Sample Profile

The "average" subject used in this investigation was a Black high school student of 17.7 years of age who had been in attendance at his/her school for approximately three years and lived in a metropolitan area for most of his/her life. Said subject most often provided his/her means of transportation to and from school, ranked himself/herself as average in academic ability and planned to engage in full time employment or some form of post secondary education upon graduation from high school.

The "average" subject belonged to either a school or community organization where all or most of the membership was Black and spent most of his/her life in a neighborhood of similar racial composition.

Attitudes Toward Separatism

1. Approximately 30 percent of the subjects favored some form of

Black separatism. However, for most of these subjects Black separatism did not mean an absolute separation between Black and white people.

2. Approximately 70 percent of the subjects responded neutrally or negatively to Black separatism. Subjects who responded neutrally tended

to shift to a "slightly negative" position when the neutral option was

removed. Conversely, subjects who had previously responded "slightly negative" to Black separatism indicated a neutral position when the latter

option was available. -159-

3. The Intensity of attitudes against Black separatism was more pronounced than favorable attitudes toward separatism. In other words, subjects were more likely to respond "completely or mostly" disagree on the negative as opposed to positive ends of the scales.

4. Pro-separatist subjects tended to describe Black separatism as

"beautiful" and "non-violent" while anti-separatists most often chose

"dangerous" and "violent" as primary descriptors of separatism. Compared to the other eight pairs of polar adjectives, subjects were least likely to remain neutral on the "safe-dangerous" and "violent-non-violent" sub­ scales.. Generally, the change in attitudes shifted from a neutral position to one of describing Black separatism as "dangerous" and "violent".

5. Of the nineteen items on the Likert scale which were designed to assess attitudes toward separatism, only the following five met with agreement by more than 50 percent of the subjects: a) Black people should take control of all U. S. cities in which they represent a majority of the population; b) Black people should form an independent political party in the U. S. ; c) Black people with money should create Black suburbs? d) All businesses in Black communities should be owned by Blacks; and e)

Black athletes should form leagues of their own.

Hypotheses

Conclusions derived from examination of possible relationships between attitudes toward separatism and some selected variables were as follows: -160-

1. The suggested inverse relationship between perceptions of school

integration and attitudes toward separatism was not supported by the data.

The data did suggest that the primary reason for the rejection of this

hypothesis was inherent in a previously stated conclusion— rejection, on

the part of most subjects, of an absolute state of separation between Black

and white people in the U.S. Thus, even among pro-separatist subjects,

there were positive perceptions of school integration expressed.

2. When subjects were grouped according to the racial composition

of the school— predominantly white, racially balanced and predominantly

Black— no relationship was evident in their attitudes toward Black sepa­

ratism. In other words, there were negligible differences in attitudes

toward separatism between subjects examined as a group and when they were

divided according to respective student body racial composition.

3. The suggested inverse relationship between social contact with whites and attitudes toward separatism was not supported by the data.

The rejection of this hypothesized relationship appeared to be influenced

by the fact that pro-separatism did not necessarily translate into being

against white people. Conversely, having negative attitudes toward white

people did not necessarily indicate a pro-separatism stand.

4. No significant relationship was found between a subjects' self

concept and his attitudes toward separatism. The data did indicate that

the overwhelming majority of subjects indicated positive appraisals of

self.

5. There was some indication that attitudes toward separatism and

feelings toward school were inversely related. However, because the latter

variable was not fully assessed, caution must be exercised when giving

consideration to this conclusion. -161-

IMPLICATIONS

Despite the enactment of numerous pro-integration statutes over the decades, the results of this study suggested that for many Black high school students, some form of separation between Blacks and whites was deemed appropriate. However, without the benefit of prior information relating to the status of separatists’ attitudes throughout the history of America, some degree of speculation must be tolerated when considera­ tion is given to the implications of the above findings.

On one hand, the approximately 30 percent pro-separatist attitudes could imply that feelings of Black separatism in America is on the in­ crease if one assumes that, for example, 20 years ago a similar survey would have revealed a smaller percentage of pro-separatist subjects.

Conversely, if the assumption is held that a previous survey would have revealed a larger percentage of pro-separatist subjects, then a decline in separatist attitudes would logically be concluded from the results of this study. In any event, whether separatist attitudes are increasing or declining, the results of this study indicated that a larger number of subjects opposed rather than favored a move toward the separation of people along racial lines.

The reader is cautioned, however, that the latter statement can be misleading. Our history contains many examples of how powerful and dis­ ruptive a small group committed to an ideal can be. Thus, the disruptive events referred to on pages 1 0 - 1 1 of this text are by no means void simply because "anti-separatists” outnumber "pro-separatists". For example, a "small" number of pro-separatists can: 1 ) force modification -162- of the goal of an integrated society; 2) become a rationalization for perpetuating a state of segregation; 3) increase Black-white tensions; and 4) increase animosity between integrationists and separatists. A crucial determinant of whether separatism disrupts society in a posi­ tive or negative manner would be the attitudes that were held toward separatism by "others". In light of this, the finding that "dangerous" and "violent" were the only two descriptors of Black separatism which more than 50 percent of the subjects selected, suggests the first im­ plication of the study. It would appear that any phenomenon which is described as "dangerous" and "violent" will more likely than not elicit reactions of fear or aggression or both.

The above raises an interesting observation. Recalling that most

"pro-separatists" described separatism as "non-violent", it would be

ironic if separatists turned out to be non-violent people who were

subjected to similar abuses experienced by so many groups (or individuals

associated with a group) throughout the course of our history.

The difficulty in suggesting implications based on the description of separatism as "dangerous" and "violent" is the inability to clearly

determine whether subjects were describing separatists in those terms

and/or the creation of a "dangerous" and "violent" environment if Blacks

decided to be apart from whites— the latter could be the result of

reactions to separatism.

A second and perhaps more basic implication of this study may be

that the categories of "pro" and "anti" separatist are not functional

in describing Black people in America. The responses of these Black -163- high school students may reflect a recognition, by Black people in general, of the need for unity or collectiveness in some aspects of their existence in America in order to function more effectively in a predominantly white society.

Evidence for this implication is suggested by the rejection of an absolute state of separation between Black and white people on the part of those who favored or opposed Black separatism. For example, on one hand, many subjects who favored some form of separatism:

a) described separatism in a positive manner— "beautiful" and "non-violent”.

b) had some positive perceptions of school integration.

c) opposed the limitation of teaching Black youth to only Black teachers.

d) rejected a system of separate schools for Blacks.

e) expressed "pro-Black" but not necessarily "anti-white" feelings.

f) rejected the notion of Blacks having "nothing to do with whites".

On the other hand, although 70 percent of the subjects revealed neutral or negative attitudes toward separatism, the following state­ ments were made by many who opposed Black separatism:

a) Black people should take control of all U.S. cities in which they are the majority.

b) Black people should form an independent Black political party in the U.S. -164-

c) Blacks with money should create Black suburbs.

d) At predominantly white colleges, Blacks should live together.

In other words, if the "pro" and "anti" separatist labels were removed and the rejection of an absolute state of separation were realized, the end result might be a desire for a peaceful form of coexistence between Blacks and whites in America. The above would also suggest caution in generalizations about separatism since one's

reaction to it may be related to particular circumstances.

The overwhelming number of subjects who saw themselves in posi­

tive images suggests a third implication that was derived from the study. It has been well documented that the images of Black people which were provided to the public and invariably served as role models were, to say the least, a cruel distortion of reality. This condition

combined with the deliberate exclusion by the news media of positive

Black contributions has had a devastating effect on the self image

of so many Black people. In spite of this, one of the dominant themes

throughout the struggles of Black people in America has been the cry

for self determination through the development of positive self images.

Perhaps more so than any other time the 1960's represented a period of

Black history when the pro-Black image was presented on a widespread .

basis. The slogan "Black is Beautiful" typifies this era when most sub­

jects used in this study were just entering elementary school. -165-

Recognizing the general measure of self esteem used in this study, the results may imply that despite the many obvious barriers to the realization of equal opportunity for Black people that lay ahead, the goal of Blacks' development of positive attitudes toward self is finally being realized. The "correction" of many negative stereotypes and attempts at displaying positive Black contributions is undoubtedly a major part of this pehnomenon.

The school has been (and continues to be) the major institution in

America around which the issue of segregation/separation/integration revolves. One might expect, therefore, to find ambiguities in feelings toward these institutions. On one hand, because the burden of school integration has been disproportionately borne by Black students, the latter could very easily have viewed school negatively. Conversely, because school has been closely associated with success (upward mobility), the negative experiences relating to school integration could have been internalized as being a "necessary evil" in order to benefit from the positive experience— a better school.

The relatively positive feelings toward school on the part of these

Black high school students may imply, in addition to the above, that school continues to represent a primary step toward self determination.

The finding that "necessary" and "relevant" were the two most frequently chosen descriptors of school indicated support for this implication.

Before relating the fifth and final implication derived from this study— the need for further research— it would be appropriate to examine a few instances of how the above implications relate to educational institutions. -166-

The first implication suggests to school personnel that many students who can be classified as Black separatists do not necessarily perceive

danger and violence to be synonymous with their cause. Although perhaps

contrary to popular belief, the potential danger between "integrationists"

and "separatists” may indeed reside in the attitudes (and consequent

behaviors) of the former toward the latter group.

This caution can be applied beyond the school to members of various

communities (which still reside within the "domain" of school officials).

Because the public has always had "easy access" to our schools and schools

have historically been a vehicle for or target of social protests, com­ munity and school separatists (and integrationists) are often inseparable.

As indicated earlier, the second implication should be of concern

to school personnel. Whether Black separatism is on the way out or is, in

fact, on the increase, there are preliminary indications from this study

that the dichotomy between "pro” and "anti" separatists is by no means

as clear as we might have thought it to be. Many Black students who "hang

out together" in school may be expressing their need for unity/collective­

ness in order to better function in a predominantly white environment.

Thus, in striving for peaceful coexistense their behavior may be misin­

terpreted to mean "anti-white" as opposed to "pro-Black". If indeed, the

rejection of an absolute state of separation between Blacks and whites, as

suggested by so many of the subjects, is an indication of a future trend

in Black-white relationships, then the peaceful coexistense theory may

yet be realized. -167-

Hopeful ly, for most educators, the rise in self concept among Black students will be welcomed. Although the precise nature of the relation­ ship between feelings toward self and behavior (which includes academic performance) is yet to be established, there is enough evidence to indi­ cate the benefits of positive self concept. One such benefit is that one who feels good about himself/herself will more likely than not be better able to communicate and interact with others. The latter not only has implications for student-student, but also student-teacher and student- administration communication. In regard to Black-white interactions, the benefits of increased Black self concept should also be evident.

There are dangers relating to the above, however, which must be kept in mind. One such danger can manifest itself in reactions to Black students who, as a result of feeling better about themselves, tend to interact/com­ municate more "aggressively". If these reactions are based solely on feelings of being threatened, for example, the ensuing interaction/communi- cation still leaves much to be desired.

Closely related to increased self concepts among Black students is the fourth implication of relatively positive feelings toward school among many of the subjects. It would seem that for whatever reasons students are expressing positive feelings toward school, educators should not only derive a sense of satisfaction but perhaps more importantly continue to strive towards making educational institutions relevant to the needs of as many students as possible. The latter is especially crucial when one realizes that most adults probably support the notion of mandatory school attendance for all children. -168-

The final implication of this exploratory study is the need for

further research in the area of attitudes toward Black separatism.

Suggestions for said research are as follows:

1. Further refinement (through rewording, deletion and/or

addition of items) and field testing of the instruments. The scale

ranges should be made consistent in order to provide a better means

of comparing results.

2. Administration of the questionnaire to a larger sample of

Black high school students. If possible, two schools of each type of

racial composition in a particular school system should be utilized.

In any event, students from a variety of geographical areas in the

country should be included.

3. A random selection of subjects should be interviewed in order

to gain additional insight into the rationale for responses and to in­

vestigate the possible influence of extraneous variables. A random

selection of teachers may also be interviewed for the latter reason.

4. Administration of the instruments to subjects from different

ethnic/racial and/or religious groups would also supply important data.

5. Recognizing that the subjects used in this study were limited

to Black high school students, further data are needed which would assess

attitudes toward separatism on the part of Blacks of similar age who are

not presently enrolled in any full time educational programs. -169-

6 . Examination of additional variables on the basis of racial composition— feelings toward school, self concept, etc.— would provide further insight to this aspect of the study.

7. Examination of variables in a more detailed manner is also deemed necessary. For example, for those who admitted membership in all or mostly Black organizations, it would be helpful to know what organizations were involved and the frequency of participation among its members.

In summary, this chapter has provided the limitations, conclusions and implications of this study. Along with the growing body of research relating to the lives of Black people, this study, though exploratory in nature, should add to the knowledge base of the largest, but perhaps

least known, minority group population in America. APPENDIX A

HISTORY OF BLACK SEPARATISM

-170- -171-

HISTORY OF BLACK SEPARATISM

It would not be surprising to learn that many Americans (both

Black and white) equate the inception of Black separatism with the

"rise" of Malcolm X, former spokesman for the Black Muslims, in the early 1960's. A less than thorough examination of recorded history would quickly expose this misconception.

The following series of events are not intended to represent a complete resume of activities but rather attempts to clearly demon­ strate the long and persistent history of Black separatism in America.'*'

1786 - Richard Allen founded the African Methodist Episcopal Church in Philadelphia.

1787 - "The first Negro Lodge, the Masons, received its charter from England. Led by Prince Hall, the spirit of the lodge members was similar to some practices of nationalist and separatist movements in the present century."2

1815 - Negro emigration from the United States was first sponsored by Paul Cuffee. "He sent thirty eight Negro colonists to Africa.

1816 - The America Colonization Society was formed to transport free Negroes to Africa.

1817 - The first meeting of the Negro Convention Movement was held in Philadelphia. This movement favored Negro emigration to Canada.

1830 - Second meeting of the Negro Convention Movement. Recommenda­ tions were made to purchase a colony in Canada.

1840 - "If we act with our white friends the words we utter will be considered theirs." These sentiments were expressed by Phillip A. Bell and other advocates of Blacks acting inde­ pendently of whites and appeared in the National Anti-Slavery newspaper.

1851 - Henry Bibb, in the newspaper Voice of the Fugitive, urged slaves to flee to Canada. -172-

-1854 The Negro Convention met once again to decide on the emi­ gration issue. Martin R. Delany advocated emigration to the Niger Valley in West Africa; James M. Whitfeld saw colonization in Central America as the best alternative and James Theodore Holly advocated emigration to Haiti.

1885 An attorney in Fort Smith, Arkansas, S. H. Scott, attempted to encourage support for an all Black State venture.

1889 Edwin P. McCable, a one time state auditor, undertook a similar attempt of seeking an all Black State.

1890’s Martin R. Delany and Henry Highland Garnett attempted "back to Africa" and "back to Haiti" movements.

1904 The all-Negro National Liberty party was formed.

1914 1915 W.E.B. DuBois suggested Black and white divisions in the NAACP organization.

1914 Marcus Garvey established the Universal Negro Movement Association and African Communities League. He urged Negroes to return to Africa.

1919 W.E.B. DuBois organized the Pan African Congress - a movement seeking political unification with Africa.

1920 Marcus Garvey’s Black nationalist movement held a national convention in Liberty Hall (Harlem, New York).

1930 The Black Muslims were founded. This organization urged the separation between Black and whites.

1932 The Peace Movement of Ethiopia was founded. It followed the Garvey tradition.

1936 Oscar Brown, Jr. headed a group in Chicago which initiated the National Movement for a 49th state (for Blacks).

1958 The United African Federation Council was formed.

1964 Malcolm X announced the aims and objectives of his newly formed secular organization - The Organization of Afro- American Unity (OAAU).

1968 - The Republic of New Africa was formed. -173-

1969 - Solomon Gethers in the Negro Digest called for the build­ ing of a Black society, separate and apart from that of white America.

1971 - The first African capitol in the Northern Hemisphere was consecrated in Hinds County, Mississippi.

For an indepth study of Black nationalism with emphasis on the Nation of Islam, see E.U. Essien-Udom, Black Nationalism, New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1962. Also Bradford Chambers, Chronicles of Black Protest, New York: A Mentor Book from New American Library, 1968.

2 Ibid.

3Ibid.

4 Ibid. APPENDIX B

DISSERTATION PROSPECTUS

-174- -175-

DISSERTATION

PROSPECTUS

TITLE : An exploratory investigation of attitudes toward separatism among Black high school seniors as related to selected variables

STUDENT: Michael P . Ouckama Ohio State University 773 Riverview Drive, Apt. 0 210 Oxley Hall Columbus, Ohio 43202 1712 Neil Avenue (614) 262-0881 Columbus, Ohio 43210 (614) 422-9701

AREA OF CONCENTRATION: Educational Administration

COMMITTEE: Dr. Raphael 0. Nystrand, Chairman Dr. William E. Nelson Jr. Dr. William Wayson Dr. Rodney Muth -176-

I. PROBLEM STATEMENT

An exploratory investigation of attitudes toward separatism among Black high school students as related to selected variables.

II. RATIONALE FOR AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

a) the current void of empirical data dealing with the issue of Black separatism. b) the need for increased research by Blacks, particularly in regard to phenomenon relevant to Black communities. c) the importance of attitudes as a barometer of future social and political behaviors. d) the social, political and psychological significance of this critical age group. e) the implications of Black separatism for all of America and particularly urban administrators.

III. SELECTED VARIABLES

The following variables have been selected, on the basis of a review of the literature, and will be examined in terms of their relationships to the concept of separatism: a) perceived success or failure of school integration; b) racial composition of the school/classroom; c) social contact with whites; d) self concept; and e) feelings toward school.

IV. HYPOTHESES

a) There will be an inverse relationship between perceptions of school integration and attitudes toward Black separa­ tism among Black high school students. b) There will be no significant relationship in the attitudes of Black high school students toward Black separatism when grouped according to the racial composition of the school. c) There will be an inverse relationship between Black high school students’ social contact with white people and their attitudes toward Black separatism. d) There will be no significant relationship between Black high school students' self concept and their attitudes toward Black separatism. e) There will be an inverse relationship between Black high school students' feelings toward school and their attitudes toward Black separatism. -177-

V. PROCEDURES

a) Population and Sample Black high school students who have been in attendance at their present schools at least two years prior to ad­ ministration of the instrument. A random sample of subjects will be drawn from at least two schools in each of the following categories:

1. Predominantly black high school 2. Racially balanced high school (approximately 60/40 - Black/white either way) 3. Predominantly white high school

Each principal, and possibly a few teachers, will be interviewed to gain background information on each school - percentage of bussed students, recent disorders, teacher turnover, etc.

b) Instrumentation A standardized self concept scale and a self designed questionnaire. The latter will be judged by a variety of "experts" and exposed to a pilot study.

c) Administration 1. Complete anonymity for subjects and their respective schools. 2. Self administration to groups (30-50 at a time). Total time spent at each school should be approxi­ mately 2 hours (this time does not include the initial visit/interview with the principal). 3. In regard to the sample size - it should not include every Black student but rather a random selection of seniors and juniors who have been in the school for at least two years. 4. Projected time schedule - Items judged (early Feb. 1973); pilot study (late Feb.-early March *73); interview with principals/actual study (middle-end of March '73).

VI. EXAMPLE OF ITEMS

The reader is cautioned that the following items have to be sub­ mitted to a panel of judges. A complete copy of items will follow shortly and the final version of the questionnaire will be avail­ able as soon as possible. The United States is likely to split into two nations, one black and one white.

Completely Completely disagree agree

I would feel comfortable working on a class project with a white student.

Completely Completely disagree agree

Black people should withdraw from the Democratic and Republican parties and form an independent black political party in the U.S.

Completely Completely disagree ______agree 1 2 3 4 5 6

Sometime in the future, if things keep going the way they are,blacks and whites will get along peacefully in the U.S.

Completely Completely d i s a g r e e ______agree APPENDIX C

SELF-ESTEEM SCALE

-179- -180-

SELF-ESTEEM SCALE1

Scale Stem I was contrived from the combined responses to the three questions listed below. If a respondent answered 2 out of 3 or 3 out of 3 positively, he received a positive score for Scale Stem I. If he answered 1 out of 3 or 0 out of 3 positively, he received a negative score for Scale Stem I.

I feel that I’m a person of worth, at least on an equal plane with others.

1______;______Strongly agree 2______Agree *3______Disagree *4______Strongly disagree

I feel that I have a number of good qualities.

1______Strongly agree 2______Agree *3______Disagree *4______Strongly disagree

All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure.

* 1_ Strongly agree * 2~ Agree Disagree Strongly disagree

Scale Stem II was contrived from the combined responses to two self­ esteem questions. 1 out of 2 or 2 out of 2 positive responses were considered positive for Scale Stem II.

I am able to do things as well as most other people.

1______Strongly agree 2______Agree *3______Disagree *4______Strongly disagree -181-

I feel I do not have much to be proud of.

*1______Strongly agree *2______Agree 3 ______Disagree 4______Strongly disagree

Scale Stem III

I take a positive attitude toward myself.

1______Strongly agree 2______Agree *3______Disagree *4______Strongly disagree

Scale Stem IV

On the whole, I am satisfied with myself.

_Strongly agree Agree *3______Disagree *4______Strongly disagree

Scale Stem V

I wish I could have more respect for myself.

*1______Strongly agree *2______Agree 3 ______Disagree 4______Strongly disagree

Scale Stem VI was contrived from the combined responses to two self­ esteem questions. 1 out of 2 or 2 out of 2 positive responses were considered positive. -182-

I certainly feel useless at times.

*1______|_____ Strongly agree *2______Agree 3______Disagree 4______Strongly disagree

At times I think I am no good at all.

*1______Strongly agree *2______Agree 3 Disagree 4 Strongly disagree

*Positive responses indicate low self-esteem.

This scale was designed by M. Rosenberg in 1965 and appeared in John P. Robinson and Phillip R. Shaver, Measures of Social Psycholo­ gical Attitudes, University of Michigan: Institute for Social Research, 1969, pp. 97-101. APPENDIX D

INSTRUCTIONS TO JUDGES

ANALYSIS OF JUDGES' RESPONSES

i

-183- -184-

INSTRUCTIONS TO JUDGES

I. PROBLEM STATEMENT

An exploratory investigation of attitudes toward separatism among Black high school students as related to selected variables.

II. VARIABLES

a) Self concept - to be measured by a standardized scale.

b) Feelings Toward School - to be measured by a scale presently being used in a major school system.

c) Racial Composition of the School - defined by the selection of subjects in three different racially composed schools.

d) Social Distance To be measured e) Perceptions of School Integration by a set of enclosed items. f) Black Separatism

III. CRITERIA

The following criteria should be taken into account when judging the enclosed items: validity, appropriateness for the age group, clarity, potential for response-set contamination.

IV. JUDGING INSTRUCTIONS

a) Read each item carefully.

b) For each item, circle the appropriate response according to the definition you feel it represents.

1 = Separatism (S) 2 = Social Distance (SD) 3 = Perceptions of School Integration (SI) 4 = None of these (N)

Definitions:

Separatism - the condition which occurs when Blacks decide for themselves to be apart 'from whites. -185-

Social Distance - The "distance" the respondent per­ ceives between himself and white people by reference to the type of interaction with whites he/she is willing to engage.

Perceptions of School Integration - The picture a respondent has of a school attended by both Black and white students by reference to specific dynamics of that school.

c) Next, circle the response which best indicates the ease/ difficulty you encountered in discerning your choice.

d) Below each item a space has been provided to explain (when/if appropriate) the reason for your having difficulty discerning your choice. This space may also be used to make any other comments (e.g. revising the item, adding new items, etc.).

e) The last page provides space for additional comments (e.g. reaction to total item pool).

f) Please respond to all items.

Example of Item Pool Format:

Items S SD SI N Easy-Diff.

1. The United States should split into two nations, one black and one white. 1 2 3 4 12345 -186-

ANALYSIS OF JUDGES1 RESPONSES

VARIABLE ~ SEPARATISM

% of Score on l(easy) Item judges cl ass i- to 5 (difficult) Number Item Description______fying item scale______

1 The United States should split into two nations, one black and one white. 93.10 1.519

7 Black students should only attend school with other black students. 86.21 1.793

13 Black people should live in and control one or more states in the U.S. 100.00 1.241

19 Black teachers should only teach black students. 79.31 1.655

27 At predominantly white colleges, blacks should live together. 82.76 1.483

36 Blacks should only shop in black owned stores. 89.66 1.552

42 Black people should vote only for black political candidates. 86.21 1.345

55 Black people should leave the U.S. and live in Africa. 96.55 1.207

57 All black people should join the Black Muslims. 89.66 1.621

62 Black people should take control of all U.S. cities in which they are the majority. 79.31 1.483

71 After graduation from high school, black students should attend black colleges. 79.31 1.690 -187-

73 Black athletes should get together and form leagues (e.g. football) of their own. 93.10 1.379

77 Black people should have nothing to do with white people. 86.21 1.448

83 All businesses located in the black communities should be owned by blacks. 86.21 1.414

95 Black people should form an independent black political party in the U.S. 93.10 1.414

99 Unless a black candidate is running for the office of U.S. President in 1976, black people should not vote for President. 79.31 1.621

106 Black employers should hire only blacks. 89.66 1.586

123 Black people should join together and buy land in the U.S. 79.31 1.345

124 Blacks with money should create black suburbs. 89.66 1.690

129 Blacks should not attend performances by white artists. 75.86 1.828

134 Black people should refuse to join the military 79.31 1.519

21 Total number of items selected to measure Separatism. -188-

VARIABLE - SOCIAL DISTANCE

% of Score on l(easy) Item judges classi- to 5 (difficult) Number Item Description fylng item scale

2 I feel uncomfortable shop­ ping in a store when most of the shoppers are white 93.10 1.483

12 I would feel uncomfortable dating a white person. 89.66 1.655

41 I would want a white room­ mate (in college). 79.31 1.448

44 As long as white people don't bother me, we'll get along fine. 75.86 1.621

47 I could have a good time at a party where half of the people are black and half are white. 79.31 1.414

53 It really bothers me to see a white and a black person kissing each other. 79.31 2.103

58 I could never become close friends with a black person who is married to a white person. 75.86 1.821

68 I could never discuss my personal problems with a white person. 79.31 1.714

75 It would bother me to take part in a discussion with a group that is half black and half white. 86.21 1.448

79 I would like a few of my best friends to be white. 89.66 1.793

85 I feel comfortable eating in a restaurant where most of the people are white. 93.10 1.276

87 I could become friends with an interracial (black/white) couple. 86.21 1.310 -189-

93 I would like a few of my friends to be white. 75.86 1.379

110 When at the movies, it bothers me if most of the audience is white. 89.66 1.414

14 Total number of items selected to measure Social Distance.

VARIABLE - SCHOOL INTEGRATION

% of Score on l(easy) :tem judges classi- to 5(difficult) lumbi Item Description______fying item scale

In a school where about half the students are black and half are white...(Read this statement before answering each item below).

3 ...some black and white students will become close friends. 79.31 1.621

25 ...more black (than white students) will be found in special education classes. 79.31 1.931

43 ...black students will be punished more often than white students. 79.31 1.759

45 ...black students will be treated fairly by white students. 89.66 1.552

56 ...there will be all-black organizations. 75.86 2.103

59 ...white students will be treated fairly by black students. 86.21 1.793 -190-

61 ... some black males will date white females. 86.21 1.862

63 ...some white males will date black females. 86.21 1.759

64 ...black students will get a good education. 93.10 1.690

67 ...most of the black students will be bused in. 75.86 1.759

78 ...white students will get a good education. 86.21 1.655

96 ...there will be all-white organizations. 79.31 1.966

109 ...black history will be taught. 75.86 2.000

122 ...more white (than black) students will drop out of school. 79.31 1.793

14 Total number of items selected to measure School Integration. APPENDIX E

QUESTIONNAIRE

-191- -192-

QUESTIONNAIRE

EXPLORATORY STUDY OF THE ATTITUDES OF BLACK HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS

Before beginning each part please read the instructions very carefully.

PART I

Instructions: Read each statement carefully and indicate your response in the appropriate place.

1. Sex: (Check one) (1) Female______(2) Male____

2. Age: I a m ______years old.

3. My birthday is ______(Month) (Day) (Year)

4. Circle the number of years you have been in this school.

0 1 2 3 4

5. I have lived in this area for ______years.

6. Generally, I get to school by: (Circle one number) 1. school bus 2. car, motorcycle or bicycle 3. city bus 4. walking

7. Do you belong to any group in school that has only or mostly black members? Yes No______

8. Do you belong to any group in your community that has only or mostly black members? Yes______No_____

9. I consider myself: (Circle one number) 1. a below average student (I get mostly "D's"). 2. an average student (I get mostly "C's"). 3. a better than average student (I get mostly "B's"). 4. one of the best students (I get mostly "A’s"). -193-

10. Please list any of the black oriented magazines that you generally read.

1.

2 . ______

3.

Answer the following by using this code: (1) means all black. (2) means mostly black. (3) means about half black and half white. (4) means mostly white.

Circle one number for each statement.

11. I grew up in a neighborhood that was: 1 2 3 4

12. I now live in a neighborhood that is: 1 2 3 4

13. The students in my elementary school were: 1 2 3 4

14. The teachers in my elementary school were: 1 2 3 4

15. The students in my junior high school were: 1 2 3 4

16. The teachers in my junior high school were: 1 2 3 4

17. The students in this school are: 1 2 3 4

18. The teachers in this school are: 1 2 3 4

PART II

Instructions: Please respond to the following statements by circling one of the four numbers next to each statement. Use this code: (1) means strongly agree. (2) means agree. (3) means disagree. (4) means strongly disagree. -194-

19. I feel that I am a person of worth, at least on an equal level with others. 4

20. I feel that I have a number of good qualities. 4

21. All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure.

22. I am able to do things as well as most other people.

23. I feel that I do not have much to be proud of. 2 3 4

24. I take a positive attitude toward myself. 2 3 4

25. On the whole, I am satisfied with myself. 2 3 4

26. I wish I could have more respect for myself. 2 3 4

27. I certainly feel useless at times. 2 3 4

28. At times I think I am no good at all. 2 3 4

PART III

Instructions: Please respond to the following statements by circling one of the six numbers next to each statement. Use this code: (1) means completely agree. (2) means mostly agree. (3) means slightly agree. (4) means slightly disagree. (5) means mostly disagree. (6) means completely disagree.

29. Black people should take control of all U.S. cities in which they are the majority. 1 2 3 4 5 (

30. I would like a few of my friends to be white. 1 2 3 4 5 (

31. I feel uncomfortable shopping in a store when most of the shoppers are white. 1 2 3 4 5 ( -195-

Con tinue to use this code in responding to the following statements. (1) means completely agree. (2) means mostly agree. (3) means slightly agree. (4) means slightly disagree. (5) means mostly disagree. (6) means completely disagree.

32. If the attendance laws were changed tomorrow, I would quit school. 1 2 3 4 5 6

33. I could never discuss my personal problems with a white person. 1 2 3 4 5 6

34. Black employers should hire only blacks. 1 2 3 4 5 6

35. Blacks with money should create black suburbs. 6 5 4 3 2 1

36. Blacks should only shop in black owned stores. 1 2 3 4 5 6

37. I feel that I am treated fairly by the counselors in this school. 1 2 3 4 5 6

38. All black people should join the Black Muslims. 12 3 4 5 6

39. Black people should live in and control one or more states in the U.S. 123456

40. It really bothers me to see a white and a black person kissing each other. 1 2 3 4 5 6

41. I feel that I could benefit going to a school attended by students of different races and cultures. 6 5 4 3 2 1

42. Black athletes should get together and form leagues (e.g. football) of their own. 1 2 3 4 5 6

43. Black people should leave the U.S. and live in Africa. 1 2 3 4 5 6

44. Black teachers should only teach black students. 1 2 3 4 5 6 -196-

Continue to use this code in responding to the following statements. (1) means completely agree. (2) means mostly agree. (3) means slightly agree. (4) means slightly disagree. (5) means mostly disagree. (6) means completely disagree.

45. I would want a white roommate (in college). 12 3 4 5 6

46. When at the movies, it bothers me if most of the audience is white. 1 2 3 4 5 6

47. Black people should form an independent black political party in the U.S. 123456

48. I would feel uncomfortable dating a white person. 12 3 4 5 6

49. The United States should split into two nations, one black and one white. 1 2 3 4 5 6

50. I could have a good time at a party where half of the people are black and half are white. 12 3 4 5 6

51. I feel that I am treated fairly by the administrators in this school. 1 2 3 4 5 6

52. I could become friends with an inter­ racial (black/white) couple. 1 2 3 4 5 6

53. I feel that measures should be taken to provide racial balance in each school in this system. 123456

54. Black people should refuse to join the military. 12 3 4 5 6

55. Black people should join together and buy land in the U.S. 123456

56. I feel that there are too many rules in this school. 6 5 4 3 2 1 -197-

Continue to use this code in responding to the following statements. (1) means completely agree. (2) means mostly agree. (3) means slightly agree. (4) means slightly disagree. (5) means mostly disagree. (6) means completely disagree.

57. At predominantly white colleges, blacks should live together. 12 3 4 5 6

58. I think it is important to earn good grades in school. 1 2 3 4 5 6

59. I think it is more important to work hard and learn in school rather than just put in my time. 1 2 3 4 5 6

60. I could never become close friends with a black person who is married to a white person. 12 3 4 5 6

61. Black people should vote only for black political candidates. 12 3 4 5 6

62. I think it is necessary for me to have at least a high school education. 1 2 3 4 5 6

63. Blacks should not attend performances by white artists. 6 5 4 3 2 1

64. I feel comfortable eating in a restaurant where most of the people are white. 1 2 3 4 5 6

65. I feel that I am treated fairly by the teachers in this school. 1 2 3 4 5 6

66. As long as white people don’t bother me, we'll get along fine. 1 2 3 4 5 6

67. Unless a black candidate is running for the office of the U.S. President in 1976, black people should not vote for President. 1 2 3 4 5 6

68. Black people should have nothing to do with white people. 12 3 4 5 6 -198-

Continue to use this code in responding to the following statements. (1) means completely agree. (2) means mostly agree. (3) means slightly agree. (4) means slightly disagree. (5) means mostly disagree. (6) means completely disagree.

69. Black students should only attend school with other black students. 1 2 3 4 5 6

70. I think students should take more responsibility in helping to keep the school building clean. 1 2 3 4 5 6

71. It would bother me to take part in a discussion with a group that is half black and half white. 1 2 3 4 5 6

72. All businesses located in the black communities should be owned by blacks. 6 5 4 3 2 1

73. In general, I think I am getting a good education at my school. 1 2 3 4 5 6

74. After graduation from high school, black students should attend black colleges. 1 2 3 4 5 6

75. I am satisfied with the courses offered in this school. 1 2 3 4 5 6

76. I would like a few of my best friends to be white. 1 2 3 4 5 6

PART IV

Instructions; Please respond to the following statements by circling one of the six numbers next to each statement. Use this code: (1) means completely agree. (2) means mostly agree. (3) means slightly agree. (4) means slightly disagree. (5) means mostly disagree. (6) means completely disagree. -199-

Think about the following statement before circling the number.

IN A SCHOOL WHERE ABOUT HALF OF THE STUDENTS AND TEACHERS ARE BLACK AND HALF ARE WHITE...

77. ...most of the black students will be bused in. 1 2 4 5 6

78. ...some black and white students will become close friends. 1 2 4 5 6

79. ...white students will get a good education. 1 2 4 5 6

80. ...black students will be treated fairly by white students. 6 5 4 3 2 1

81. ...there will be all-white organizations. 1 2 3 4 5 6

82. ...black students will get a good education. 5 6

83. ...black students will be punished more often than white students. 5 6

84. ...more white (than black) students will drop out of school. 1 5 6

85. ...more black (than white) students will be found in special education classes. 1 5 6

86. ...white students will be treated fairly by black students. 5 6

87. ...some white males will date black females. 1 2 3 4 5 6

88. ...there will be all-black organizations. 6 5 4 3 2 1

89. ...some black males will date white females. 1 2 3 4 5 ,6

90. ...black history will be taught. 1 2 3 4 5 6

i -200-

PART V

Instructions: Please respond to the following questions.

91. What three things do you like best about this school?

1.______

2.______

3.______

92. What three things do you like least about this school?

1.______

2.______

3.______

93. Which one of the following best describes your plans right after graduation from high school? (Circle one number).

1. Full-time employment. 2. Four-year college. 3. Training beyond high school (two-year college, trade school, etc.). 4. I don't know yet. 5. Other (describe briefly).______

PART VI

Instructions: On the next three pages you will find five concepts (BLACK SEPARATISM, MYSELF, WHITE PEOPLE, SCHOOL INTEGRATION and MY SCHOOL) to be judged. Under each concept you will find a set of 10 scales (Scale 1 = Good...Bad; Scale 2 = Fair...Unfair, etc.). Think of what each concept means to you and rate that concept on each of the 10 scales. There is no correct or incorrect answer. It is your first impression that I want. -201-

HERE IS AN EXAMPLE OF HOW YOU ARE TO USE THESE SCALES:

PRISON

Good „ , : : : : : : : Bad 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Completely Mostly Slightly Neutral Slightly Mostly Completely

If you feel that the concept shown above (PRISON) is completely related to one end of the rating scale (Good or Bad), you should put an "X" in one of the blanks as follows:

(Completely) Good X : : : : : : : Bad

or

Good

(Completely)

If you feel that the concept is mostly related to one or the other end of the scale (but not completely)j you should fill in the blank as follows: (Mostly) Good : X : : : : : : Bad 2 or

Good : : : : ______: *~»X : : Bad 2 3 4 5 6 7 (Mostly)

If you feel that the concept is only slightly related to one side as opposed to the other side (but is really not neutral), then you should fill in the blank as follows:

(Slightly) Good : : X : : : : : Bad 3 or

Good : : : : ^ X : : : Bad 3 4 5 6 7 (Slightly) -202-

If you feel that the concept is neutral on the scale, both sides of the scale equally associated with the concept, or if the scale is completely irrelevant and unrelated to the concept, then you should mark the middle blank with an "X".

(Neutral) Good X : Bad

IMPORTANT: 1. Be sure you mark every scale for every concept. DO NOT OMIT ANY. 2. Never fill in more than one "X" on a single line.

BLACK SEPARATISM

Good : Bad

Fair Unfair 4

Relevant : Not relevant T 6

Near : Far T T

Safe : Dangerous

Kind : Cruel 4

Necessary : Useless T

Fast Slow

Non-violent : Violent 4

Beautiful Ugly T -203-

MYSELF

Good • • * • • • • 1 ~ ___ • Bad 3 4 5 Fair 6 7 ~ 2 ~ 3 /. _ * ___ ’ Unfair ~T~ J H 5 Relevant 6 7 T ~ — • ~ 2 ~ 3 *TL c ___ .* Not relevant Near 0 6 7 : Far T ~ ~ 2 ~ ~ ~4~* Safe ~5~ ~ 6 ~ 7 ~ ~ 2 ~ ~ ~ ___ : Dangerous Kind ~ 7 - ~T 2 3 7 ’ -- * * ___ : Cruel Necessary H 5 6 7 ~ ___ : Useless ~T~ ~ ~5~ Fast ~ 7 ~T~ 2 3 ~ 7 --- * : Slow Non-violent 5 6 7 ~ ~ ___ : Violent ~ T " ’ ~ 6 ~ Beautiful • • 7 • • • ~T~ ~ 3 ___ : Ugly 4 ~~5~ 6 7

WHITE PEOPLE

Good • • • • • 0 • ~T~ • • Bad ~ 3 4 5 Fair 6 7 • ~T ~ • Unfair ~2~ ~ ~ 4~ ~ Relevant ~ ~ • ~ • Not relevant ~ 3 ~ *TA J S' Near 6 7 • "T~ ~2~ ~ T " ’ Far Safe ~ ~6~ 7 • ~T~ ~2~ 3 A C S’ • Dangerous Kind 6 7 m• ~ ~2~ ~4~" Cruel Necessary “T " 7 ~ r~ ~2~ •0 Useless Fast ~5~ 7 ~T~ Slow ~2~ ~3~ ~5~ Non-violent ~ ~ • * — _ ~T~ 2 3 >r --- * • Violent • 5 6 Beautiful • 7 • • • * 0 ♦ • l ~2~ 3 * Ugly 4 5 6 7 -204-

SCHOOL INTEGRATION

• 9 9• • 9 Bad Good ___ : : : : T ~ ~6 ~ ~ T 1 2 3 4 Unfair ~ Not relevant Relevant : • — 5 6 ~ T ~ 1 2 3 Far ~ T ~ IP ~ 7 ~ Dangerous _ Safe s _ 1 2 3 ~~5~ IP Cruel Kind ___ : : ~ 5 ~ "IP 7 12 3 Useless Necessary —- IT ~ T ~ Slow _ Fast ___• : — — "IP ~ T — 2 3 Violent Non-violent __—- ~ 5 ~ "IP ~ T I 2 J 9 Ugly Beautifnl ___ '• — - 1 2 3 6 ~ T

m SCHOOL

a Bad • • Good • — 5 IT ~T~ ~T~ ~T~ Unfair Fair ~5~~ "IP ~ T ~ ~T~ ~~2~ T" Not relevan Relevant T“ ~ T ~ p p ~ ~ T ~T~ ~T~ Far Near 4 ~ i r ~ e ~ ~ T ~ ~ 2 ~ ~T~ Dangerous Safe ~4~ ~ T ~ PP ~ T ~ T ~ ~ 2 ~ ~T~ Cruel Kind T" PP ~T" 2 ~y ~T~ Useless Necessary T ~ PP ~ 7 ~ ~T~ 2 Slow Fast ~ ~ T ~ PP ~~T~ ~T~ ~~2~ Violent Non-violent ~ ~ T “ 3“ ~4~ IT PP ~T~ ~ T • : Ugly • « • Beautiful • PP ~T~ “T* 2 "T“ ~c 5 -205-

PART VII

Instructions; If you feel like doing so, you may use this page to make any additional comments. For example, what you think about the questionnaire; how you felt while you were responding to the items, etc.

Thank you very much for the help

QLikotji GuJLowA— ^ ^ ichagX-Ouckama BIBLIOGRAPHY -207-

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Clark, K.B. and Clark, M.P., "Racial Identification and Preference in Negro Children," in Swanson, G.E., Newcomb, T.M. and Hartley, E.L*, (Eds.), Readings in Social Psychology, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1952.

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Dyer, Henry, S., "Some Thoughts About Future Studies," in Mosteller, F. and Moynihan, D., (Eds.), On Equality of Educational Opportunity, New York: Vintage Books, 1972. -208-

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Morris, D. and Caplin, J., "Self Concept, Level of Aspiration and Academic Achievement," Journal of Negro Education, 37, 1968.

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Cases

Adkins v. School Board of the City of Newport News, 148 F. Supp. 430, (Va., 1957).

Avery v. Wichita Falls Independent School District, 241 F. 2d. 230, (5 th Circuit, 1957).

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483, 74 S. Ct. 686, 97 L. Ed. 873, (1954).

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 349 U.S. 294, 75 S. Ct. 753, 99 L. Ed. 1083, (1955).

Green v. County School Board of New Kent Co., Va., 391 U.S. 430, 88 S. Ct. 1689, 20 L. Ed. 2d. 716, (1968).

Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County, 377 U.S. 218, (Va., 1965).

Kemp v. Beasley, 389 F. 2d. 178 (8th Circuit, 1968).

Orleans Parish School Board v. Bush, 242 F. 2d. 156, (5th Circuit, 1957).

Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education, 311 F. Supp. 265, (N.C., 1970).