Roskilde University

The Slavery Museum as community anchor, eye-opener, and thought-provoker

Kaarsholm, Preben

Published in: Slavery Museums Workshop/ Atelier sur les musées de L'esclavage

Publication date: 2020

Document Version Publisher's PDF, also known as Version of record

Citation for published version (APA): Kaarsholm, P. (2020). The Slavery Museum as community anchor, eye-opener, and thought-provoker. In G. Abungu, V. Ballgobin, R. Boswell, V. Teelock, & S. W. Luong (Eds.), Slavery Museums Workshop/ Atelier sur les musées de L'esclavage: Issues and challenges concerning representations of slavery in museums / Les enjeux et les défis de la représentation de l’esclavage dans les musées (pp. 67-72). University of Mauritius.

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Download date: 08. Oct. 2021 SLAVERY MUSEUMS WORKSHOP

ABOUT THE CRSI Issues and challenges concerning The Centre for Research on Slavery and Indenture CRSI is a multidisciplinary Research Centre based at the University of Mauritius. It is part of the University’s commitment to the scientific representations of slavery in museums study of Mauritian history and in particular the history of slavery and indenture, these two being the most important migratory movements into Mauritius. CRSI is also committed to playing a regional role, in supporting collaborative, interdisciplinary research. We are represented on the International Scientific Committee of the Slave Route Project and since 2015, CRSI activities fall under UNESCO’s Slave Route Project. An International Advisory Board also exists. The members regularly provide expert opinions on various issues, research projects and activities of CRSI. The current Head of the Centre is Vijayalakshmi Teelock.

CRSI PUBLICATIONS Ratsitatanina’s Gift - Pier Larson Inventaire Sélectif de la série Col C 4 Volume 1 - S. Philips, S.Tamby, Y.Argot, T. Vernet, V.Teelock Inventaire Sélectif de la série Col C 4 Volume 2 - R. Thiebaut, T. Vernet & V. Teelock Maritime Maroonage in Isle de France (Monograph) - A L. Levasseur Elizabeth History and Archaeology of the Moulin à Poudre Cultural Landscape - A.Benard, H.Maurel, J.Mungur-Medhi, D.Ramasawmy, V.Teelock Maroonage and the maroon heritage in Mauritius - J. Cornet, A. Nagapen, V.Teelock etc History Memory Identity Volume 1 - E. Alpers & V. Teelock (eds) Traites, Esclavage et Transition vers l’engagisme - Multiple authors Evading enslavement in the Seychelles (Monograph) - P. Nicholls Issues and challenges concerning representations of slavery in museums - Multiple authors Bonded Self, National Disgrace and Human Misery: Indian Nationalists and Campaign for Abolition of Indentured Labour Emigration - Amit Mishra Select Documents: The End of Indentured Immigration including 1895 Report on the Condition of Indian Immigrants in Mauritius & Distribution List of the SS Surada, the last ship carrying labourers in 1921 - S. Ramchurn ATELIER SUR LES FORTHCOMING Esclavage, dépendance et hiérarchie sociale à Madagascar: Réflexion sur quelques faits dans les MUSÉES DE L’ESCLAVAGE représentations contemporaines - Chaplain Toto, University of Toamasina Parcours d’un Musicien, Marclaine Antoine - Vina Ballgobin, University of Mauritius Les enjeux et les défis de la représentation Compiled and Edited by de l’esclavage dans les musées G����� A����� V��� B�������� R�������� B������ V������������ T������ S����� W��� L���� 2020 Issuesandchallengesconcerning representationsofslaveryinmuseums Lesenjeuxetlesdéfisdela représentationdel’esclavagedansles musées

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ii Acknowledgements



TheCRSIwouldliketothank

UNESCOSlaveRouteProjectforthinkingofthetheme

ThethenMinistryofArtsAndCultureforfundingtheworkshop

Theparticipantsoftheworkshopforallowingustopublishtheirthoughts,views andsuggestions

TheEditorsfortheirtimeandpatience

UoMPress

MauritiusFilmDevelopmentCorporation

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iii  

iv Contents Acknowledgements...... III Contents...... V TableofFigures...... VI PréfaceparAliMoussaIye...... VII  IntroductionVijayaTeelock...... 1 FAQSͲMauritiusTruthandJusticeCommissionJimmyHarmon...... 7  PartOne TheRoleofaSlaveryMuseum/Lerôled’unMuséedel’esclavage 1MozambiqueAndTheConceptOfSatelliteMuseumBenignaZimba...... 11 2History&MemoryͲTheAdvocacyCampaignForTheSlaveryMuseumJimmyHarmon.15 3LeMuséeFaceàL’esclavageNellySchmidt...... 27 4HowDoWeEmbedHolisticRestorativeJusticeProcessesInTheDesignoftheISM? JohnStanfield37 5TheIntercontinentalSlaveryMuseum:ImaginingADecolonizedMuseumProcess GeorgeAbungu...... 41 6EngagingTraumaInTheIntercontinentalSlaveryMuseumRosabelleBoswell...... 47 7«QuellesHistoire,MémoireͲSEtIdentitéͲSDansUnMuséeDeL’esclavage?»...... 61 KlaraBoyerͲRossol 8TheSlaveryMuseumAsCommunityAnchor,EyeͲOpener,AndThoughtͲProvoker...... 67 PrebenKarsholm 9MetLiDanMize!DaniellaBastien...... 73  PartTwo TheWayForwardͲPresentingandRepresentingSlaveryinMuseums LamarcheàsuivreͲPrésenteretreprésenterl'esclavagedanslesmusées 10LesMotsDeL’esclavageMyriamCottias...... 77 11LesMuséesÀTamatave:QuellePlacePourLaTraiteEtL’esclavage?ChaplainToto...85 12TheImageryOfSlaveryAudreyEmile...... 99 13RepresentationOfSlaveryAmongstPrimarySchoolChildrenInMauritius StephanieTamby&JimmyHarmon...... 113 14LeQuartierDeRivièreNoire,LieuDeRéminiscenceDeL’esclavageEtDuMarronnage BenjaminMoutou...... 123 15ArtefactsRelatingToSlaveryInTheMauritiusMuseumsCouncilDeoraz Ramracheya...... 129 16DesigningATrailOfMemorialSitesOfSlaveryInPamplemousses,Mauritius MaurinaSoodinͲRunghen...... 137 17LivingLegacyOr“Museumification”:ChagossianMusicalHeritagePatrickAllen...... 145 18MuséeEnMode2.0StephanRezanna...... 151 19SMW2016SomePreliminaryFindingsOfTheSurveyOnSlaveryMuseums SophieLechartier...... 155 20SMW2019:Issues,Suggestions,Opinions,RecommendationsAndEmotions VijayaTeelock...... 161 21UnMuséePourDesHumainsConscientsDeLeurLibertéDominiqueBellier...... 173 

v  Tableoffigures  Figure1BustofexͲslaveinMauritiusmadebyEugenedeFrobervilleinthe1840s...... 10 Figure2PhotosoftheactivitiesundertakenbytheKDPF...... 14 Figure3Tandrokoaodyouuntalismanencornedezébu...... 87 Figure4VuededevantduMuséeduPortdeToamasina(2013)...... 88 Figure5Représentationdesmatériauxutilisésparlesguérisseurstraditionnelslocaux...91 Figure6MuséeRégionaldeFeneriveͲEstLAMP...... 92 Figure7CharlotetSabinereprésentantleRoiRatsimilahoetsonépouseMatavy...... 94 Figure8Scarsofawhippedslave,1863...... 105 Figure9CompilationofafewprintsusedinMauritiustodepict‘Mauritian’slavery...... 106 Figure10ViewoftheMontagnedesCalebasses...... 107 Figure11CloseͲupofoneslavebringingbackhiscatchandaccompaniedbyhisdog.....108 Figure12ANativefromtheMozambiqueCoast...... 109 Figure13DisplayoftheIllustrationsofslaverybyMauritianartists...... 109 Figure14StephanKarghoodiscussingapainting...... 112 Figure15DrawingbyMatthias...... 116 Figure16DrawingbyEmilia...... 116 Figure17DrawingbyFarell...... 117 Figure18DrawingbySerena...... 117 Figure19DrawingbySeverine...... 118 Figure20CollectionoftradingbeadsoftheshipSpeaker...... 130 Figure21Glassbeadsusedascurrencyforslavetrade...... 130 Figure22RectangularshapedBadges...... 131 Figure23OctagonalshapedBadges...... 131 Figure24CircularshapedBadges...... 132 Figure25Leadtags...... 132 Figure26Early19thcenturytradingbeadsfromtheshipwreckGustaveEdouard...... 132 Figure27ManillaTokenorSlavetradeBracelets...... 133 Figure28AnkleFetters...... 134 Figure29AnkleFetters,Bartype...... 134 Figure30AnkleFetters,Chaintype...... 135 Figure31UnderwaterArchaeologicalcampaignatPointeauxFeuillesin2005...... 135 Figure32Ironringoffetter...... 136 Figure33Leadtagpotentiallybeingusedasidentificationmarkerfortheslaves...... 136 Figure34SlaveMemorySitesinPamplemousses...... 137 Figure35SitesalongtheTrail...... 138 Figure36.Infrastructureandotherconsiderationsthatinfluenceddesignofthetrail....142 Figure37ChagossianJeanͲNoelNarainensingsanoriginalcomposition...... 148 Figure38ChagossianteenagersfuseAfricanandSegarhythmsinfront...... 149 Figure39NativebornChagossianssharetraditionaldanceswithyoungermembers.....149 

vi Préface AliMoussaIye AncienDirecteurdesprojetslaRoutedel’esclaveetl’Histoiregénéralede l’Afrique 

Les actes que vous avez sous les yeux sont le produit d’une réunion d’experts organisée à Maurice en septembre 2019 qui fut elleͲmême le résultat d’une série d’échangescoordonnésparleprojetLaRoutedel’Esclavedel’UNESCOpourréfléchir aux nouvelles approches à développer pour représenter la mémoire et l’histoire de l’esclavagedanslesmusées.

LeprojetLaRoutedel’Esclaveaentrepriscettedémarchepourappuyeretorienter lesinitiativeslancéesparcertainspays,notammentl’ileMaurice,poursedoterd’un muséedédiéàunetragédiesilongtempstueetgénéralementsimalreprésentée.En octobre2018,leprojetaréuniàCharlottesville,auxEtatsunis,unevillequiamontré la virulence des conflits de mémoire autour de ‘esclavage, certains des plus grands spécialistesdecettequestion.L’objectifprincipaldeceséminaireinternationalétaitde définirdesorientationsclairesetconcrètespouraiderlespayssouhaitantmettreen placedesmuséesdédiéàl‘esclavagedignesdecenom.

Auvudeladiversitédespratiquesobservéesàtraverslemondeetlesdifficultés rencontréespourraconterdemanièreappropriéelamémoiredouloureusedelatraite et l’histoire de l’esclavage les experts du séminaire avaient demandé à l’UNESCO d’effectuer une véritable recherche pour comparer ces expériences, identifier les bonnesméthodesetpromouvoirlesinnovationsquipourraientguidertousceuxqui s’engageaientdanscetteaventure.

Uneétudeapprofondiesurlamanièredontlesmuséesinterprètent,illustrentet mettentenscènelesconnaissancessurl’histoireetlamémoiredel’esclavagedansles muséesfutdoncréaliséeetsesrésultatsontaboutiàl’élaborationd’unguidepour aiderlesprofessionnelsdesmuséesdanscettetâchedifficile.

En effet comment illustrer dans les espaces publics que sont les musées un patrimoine immatériel, souvent sans artefacts et sur lequel pèse encore un lourd silence?Commentaborderdemanièreconsensuelleunhéritagequicontinueàdiviser?

La nécessité de parler de cette histoire dans les musées des pays qui ont été marquésparl’esclavageestsoulevéeàunmomentoùundébattrèscritiqueestengagé surlesrôles,lesfonctionsetlesapprochesdesmuséesengénéraletdesmuséesde l’esclavageenparticulier.Onobserveaujourd’huiuneremiseenquestiondecertaines notionsetprésupposésdesdémarchesmuséologiques. vii Lemuséen’estplusseulementunespaceoùl’onconserve,expose,acquiert,étudie ettransmetdesœuvresetdiversobjetsliesal’histoireetàl’art.Ilestunlieuoùles différentescomposantesdelasociétédialoguentetconstruisentdesconsensussurles récitsnationaux.

LeConseilInternationaldesmusées(ICOM)quiréunitplusde45,000professionnels issusde20,000muséesdans141paysaessayédeproposerenjuillet2019unenouvelle définitiondumuséepourrépondreàcesinterrogations.

Les musées sont considérés comme « des lieux de démocratisation inclusifs et polyphoniques,dédiésaudialoguecritiquesurlespassésetlesfuturs.Reconnaissantet abordantlesconflitsetlesdéfisduprésent,ilssontlesdépositairesd’artefactsetde spécimenspourlasociété.Ilssauvegardentdesmémoiresdiversespourlesgénérations futuresetgarantissentl’égalitédesdroitsetl’égalitéd’accèsaupatrimoinepourtous lespeuples.Lesmuséesn’ontpasdebutlucratif.Ilssontparticipatifsettransparents,et travaillentencollaborationactiveavecetpourdiversescommunautésafindecollecter, préserver, étudier, interpréter, exposer, et améliorer les compréhensions du monde, danslebutdecontribueràladignitéhumaineetàlajusticesociale,àl’égalitémondiale etaubienͲêtreplanétaire».

Cettenouvelledéfinitionn’apasfaitl’unanimitédesmembresdel’ICOMetson adoption a été reportée à une date ultérieure. Mais pour les musées consacrés à l’esclavage, cette redéfinition des fonctions fondamentales des musées, ouvre des pistes pour renouveler la réflexion sur la manière dont les sociétés ayant bénéficié et/ousouffertdecrimescontrel’humanitépeuventracontercepasséetéduquerles nouvellesgénérationsàportercettemémoireaveccourageetdignité.

LesévènementsdéclenchésauxEtatsUnisetdanslerestedumondeparlemeurtre horrible de George Floyd perpétué par un policier nous ont rappelé l’actualité des séquellesdel’esclavage.Ellestouchentauchoixdesfiguresetmomentshistoriquesà honorer,àlaplaceàaccorderàceuxquiontluttécontrelesinjusticesdupassédans lesespacespublicsetauxréparationsàeffectuerpourréconcilieretapaiserlessociétés postesclavagistes.Loind’êtreconfinédanslemilieuacadémique,cesquestionnements interpellentlesdécideurspolitiquesàtouslesniveaux,lescommunautésettousceux quisepréoccupentdelacitoyennetéetdelajusticesociale.

LeprésentouvragesurlesactesdelaréuniondeMauriceillustreladiversitédes pointsdevuesurcesquestionsmaisaussilaconvergencedesidéessurl’utilitédecréer desespacesdédiésàcettehistoireetlesprécautionsàprendre.

L’ileMauriceaétélepremierpaysoùlesrésultats del’étudeentrepriseparLa Route de l’Esclave ont été présentés et discutés en vue d’enrichir le guide sur les

viii nouvellesapprochespourinterpréteretreprésenterl’esclavagedanslesmuséesqui serapubliédébut2021.

LeprésentouvragesurlesactesdelaréuniondeMauricepourra,commesepropose delefaireceguide,servirceuxquiaurontlalourderesponsabilitédemettreenplace desmuséesdel’esclavagedansleurpays.









ix 

x Introduction VijayalakshmiTeelock, Head,CentreforResearchonSlaveryandIndenture 

Thispublicationreunitestheresultsofseveraldiscussionsheldoverthepastfew yearsthattookplaceinMauritiusinthecontextoftheimplementationoftheTruthand Justice Commission recommendation to set up a Slavery Museum in Mauritius and culminatingintheSlaveryMuseumWorkshopof2019.Duringthattime,oneother majordevelopmenttookplaceintheformofthesettingupofaConceptCommittee thatwouldfinalisetheConceptofthefutureMuseum.AsAliMoussaIyehaswished, theCRSIalsohopesthatthispublicationwillserveasaguidetothosewhohavethe veryheavydutyofsettingupthismuseum.Itwouldbeanunderstatementtosaythat thisprojecthasbeenoneofthemostkeenly‘followed’project,notonlyinMauritius but overseas and especially in the countries where even speaking or writing about slaveryandthesituationofdescendants(oftheenslavedandtheirformerowners)is stillataboosubject.

The first Consultative Workshop held on the 12th of April 2016, on the theme: “SlaveryMuseums:MemorialisationPerspectives/MizeEsklav:MemwarnouZanset” was organised by the Ministry of Arts and Culture, the Nelson Mandela Centre for African Culture Trust Fund, the University of Mauritius, the Centre for Research on SlaveryandIndenture,theLeMorneHeritageTrustFundandtheMauritiusMuseums Council.ThisworkshopwasorganisedinlinewiththeUnitedNationsDecadeforPeople ofAfricanDescent[2015Ͳ2024]andtheTruth&JusticeCommissionRecommendation forthesettingupofa‘MuseumofSlaveryinthecapitalcityofPortLouisforgreater visibility along the lines outlined in following Museum proposal. Although one ‘Interpretation Centre’ is projected at Le Morne. This should reflect the Maroonage aspectratherslaverywhichwasanationalphenomenon’(TJCReport,2011,Vol.1,p.19 &para.17.p.395).

Onthe7thofApril2016theCabinetagreedtothesettingupofanIntercontinental SlaveryMuseum,asrecommendedbytheTruthandJusticeCommissionattheformer MilitaryHospitalinPortLouis.Itwasexpectedthat:“TheMuseumwouldgivemore visibilitytoslaveryandtheslavetradeintheIndianOcean,promoteslavehistory, andemphasizethecontributionoftheAfricanDiasporaintheworlddevelopment. ThefunctionsoftheMuseumwouldbe,interalia,to(a)Studyslaveryandslavetrade intheIndianOcean;(b)Gather,collectandpreservedocumentsandoralhistoryon slavery;(c)Createandpreserveacatalogueofartifactsrelatedtoslavery;(d)Hosta permanent exhibition and organize regular roving exhibitions; and (e) Promote

1 curriculardevelopment,scientificresearch,aswellastheproductionofeducationaland pedagogicalmaterials.

Assoc Professor Benigna Zimba from the Department of History at the Eduardo Mondlane University, Mozambique and Dr. Chaplain Toto from the Department of HistoryattheUniversityofToamasina,Madagascarwereinvitedasguestspeakersfor this first Workshop. Scholars, researchers and academics from Mauritius were also invitedtospeakontheirvisionforthefutureMuseum.

PresentationsincludedthatofDr.JimmyHarmon,thenDirector,NelsonMandela Centre for African Culture Trust Fund on the Truth and Justice Commission Report publishedin2011.ThispaperwasaretrospectiveoftheTJCplacingtheIntercontinental SlaveryMuseuminlightoftheTJCReport.Healsobrieflyintroducedtheconceptof ‘memorialisingslavery’.Mr.VikashRupear,DirectoroftheMauritiusMuseumCouncil presentedthemandateoftheMuseumCouncil,anonͲprofitmakingorganisationthat communicates,researches,promotes,andeducatespeopleabouttheculturalhistory oftheisland.Hispresentationalsoincludedanoverviewoftheartefacts,remainsand exhibitsrelatedtoslaverythatcouldbepartofthefutureslaverymuseum.Fr.Alain Romaine,AnthropologistandRectorof“SéminaireInterIles”presentedtheproject“Le Saturne:Surlestracesenfouiesd’unnégrier”.TheSaturneisa‘memorialisation’project andaimedattheconstructionofasmallͲscalemodelofLeSaturne.LeSaturnewasa slavingshipwhichdepartedfromthecityofNantesandtradedandshipped978slaves fromMozambiquetoPortLouisinIsleofFranceintwoexpeditionsbetween1791and 1793.Hisprojectaimedatsheddinglightonthetraumatisingconditionsoftheslave tradetotheMascareneIslands.

ChaplainTotopresentedapaperentitled“Quelquestracesmémoriellesdelatraite d’esclaves du XVII et XIXème siècle: Baie d’Antongil Madagascar”, stressing the historicallinkbetweenMadagascarandMauritius.Antongilwasdiscoveredin1503by the Portuguese and since then, successive colonial powers have left permanent historical traces. His research is a Malagasy perspective on slavery and focuses on AntongilBaysituatedinnorthwestMadagascarwhichwasagateway(‘portedesortie etd’entrée’)totheotherislandsofIndianOcean.Itwasoneofthemainportsforthe slaverouteandofembarkationofslavestoIleͲdeͲFranceandAmericaviaSouthAfrica. Archaeologist,JayshreeMungurͲMedhi,inherpresentation,introducedtheconceptof Open Air and Living Museum in the Le Morne Cultural Landscape. She highlighted, firstly,therichnessoftheLeMorneCulturalLandscapeanditsbufferzoneintermsof archaeologicalsites,tangibleandintangibleheritageand,secondly,thepossibilitiesof preservingthisrichnesswhileusingitforsustainablesocialdevelopmentthroughthe conceptsofopenairandlivingmuseums.

2 ThepresentationofthelateBenjaminMoutou,HeadofResearchCommitteeatLe MorneHeritageFund,focusedonthedistrictofBlackRiverasaplaceofmemoryof slaveryandmaroonage.Hestated:«Grandcommedeuxfoisetdemiel’îleRodrigues,le quartierdeRivièreͲNoireestlaseulerégiondupaysquiagardéuncachetparticulier, lié à son passé servile. Aujourd’hui encore, peu de 180 ans après l’abolition de l’esclavage,cequartierresteunlivreouvert.»Hispaperisincludedinthisvolumeasa posthumoustokenofrecognitionforhisenormouscontributiontokeepingalivethe historyofAfroͲMalagasyMauritians.

ThelastpresentationwasthatofGuestspeakerProfessorBenignaZimba,onIlha deMoçambique,Inhambane,andQuelimaneinMozambique.Slaveswereexported fromportsofMozambiquetoMauritius.‘Mozambiques’isatermthatappliestomore than180,000slavescomingfromseverallocationsofeasternAfrica,butexportedfrom Mozambican ports. Apart from the ethnographic and topographic significance, the terminology “Mozambiques”, she stated, must be applied to culture, language, ideology,andawholerangeofothermeaningsembodiedintheword“Mozambiques.”

Thisfirstworkshopalsoincludedthepresentationofthefindingsofaminipublic surveyconductedbySophieLeChartierincollaborationwithstudentsoftheUniversity andotherresearchersinthreeMauritianvillages.Theyinterviewedinhabitants,mainly composedofpeopleofAfricanandMalagasydescent.ItallowedtheCRSItocollect duringtwodaystheviewsofMauritiansfromallwalksoflifeandtorefinethedraft concept for the ISM Project. From 2016, further refinement of the Concept was undertakenattheCentreforResearchonSlaveryandIndentureanditwasfeltthatthe conceptofISMasaSiteofConsciencewasmoreapproproiateforaSlaveryMuseumin Mauritius.

Thesecondworkshopin2019wasproposedbytheUNESCOSlaveRouteProjectand followedasimilarworkshopheldinCharlottesville,Virginia,USAandduringwhicha numberofrecommendationsweremadeconcerningmuseumsdevotedtoslaveryand torepresentatiosrelatedtoslaveryinpublicspaces.ItwasfeltthatasMauritiuswas about to embark on a Slavery Museum project, the recommendations would be discussedtoseetowhatextenttheycouldcontributetotheMuseumproposedfor Mauritius. The theme recommended by UNESCO was ‘Issues and challenges concerningrepresentationsofslaveryinmuseums’.Thisthemefittedperfectlywith what the CRSI had been working on for the past two years, and indeed namely to conceptualiseanewiconographyofslavery.Manyofthepapersinthisvolume,have addressed the problematical issue of the visual imagery of slavery in public spaces. JimmyHarmon,AudreyEmileandStephanieTambydiscusshowthehistoryofslavery iscurrentlypresentedandrepresentedinMauritius.

3 AsecondthemetobeaddressedinPart1ofthisvolumeistheroletobeplayedby SlaveryMuseumsinsocietiesstillenduringthemultiplelegaciesofslavery.Whowill ‘own’thismuseum?NellySchmidt,longtimememberoftheSlaveRouteProjectand editoroftheCharlottesvillepublicationprovidesaninͲdepthoverviewofthemultiple questionsarisingfromestablishmentofSlaverymuseumsintheAtlanticregion.From thescholarͲpublicinteractionthesepastfewyearsinMauritiusduringconferencesand workshops,itisclearthatthereareverymanyexpectationsforthisMuseum.Thereis acommondesireexpressedbyallauthorsthattheMuseumbedrivenbycontemporary concerns:howwillthemuseumaddressthetraumainherentinanydepictionofthe historyofslavery?RosabelleBoswellwhohaswrittenextensivelyonthecontemporary historyofAfroͲdescendantsintheIndianOceanregionoffersherviews.Howwillthe museumengagethecommunityanditsconcernsatalllevels?Howwillthemuseum implement the principle of restorative justice, asks John Stanfield, Chair of African StudiesattheUniversityofMauritius?PapersbyhistoriansofslaveryPrebenKarsholm andKlaraBoyerͲRossoldiscussissuesofidentityandroleoftheMuseuminengaging inandprovokingdiscussionwhileGeorgeAbungu,withhisvastexperienceofmuseums andheritageinAfricapleadsforan‘indigenous’approachtothecreationoftheSlavery museum.

InPart2ofthevolume,thediscussionscentreonrepresentationsaswellasthe contentsofafutureMuseum.MyriamCottiasaddressestheissueoftheuseofterms andtheneedtochangecertainterms.Howsocieties‘manage’andrepresentenslaved historiesinmuseumsinoracticeandthechallengestheyfacearediscussedbyChaplain TotoforMadagascar.ThelateBenjamInMoutoupleadsforthedistrictofBlackRiver toberecognisedasaplaceofmemorygiventhelargepopulationofAfroͲdescendants who inhabit it. Deoraz Ramracheya reveals the contents of the collections of the MuseumCouncilrelatingtoslavery,apaperwhichwillndoubtinteresttheISM.Apart fromartefacts,thenumeroussitesrelatedtoslaveryinMauritiusaredestimedtoform partofthelocalSlaveRoutetrail.MaurinaSoodinͲRunghendiscussesonepossibletrail thatofPamplemoussesvillage,wherethehotlycontested‘BassindesEsclaves’was given the Slave Route label during the Workshop of 2019. It is to our knowledge, however,notyetaNationalHeritage.

Aretherethemesorissuesthatcannotbe‘museumified’?Howdoesonerepresent theextremelyrich,vibrantculturallegacythatistheSegawithinthefourwallsofa buildingdevoidofitsoriginalcontext,withoutitbecoming‘mummified’?Theseissues areraisedbyapoembyDaniellaBastien,anopinionpaperbyStephanRezannaanda discussionofChagossianmusicalheritagebyPatrickAllen.

This issue will indeed be one of the major challenges to be faced by the future curators of the Slavery Museum. Some answers on the way forward were received duringtheintensediscussionsthatwentonlongafterpresentationshadendedandin 4 theeveningsessionontheIconographyofSlaveryheldattheNelsonMandelaCentre forAfricanCulture.Wewerefortunatetohaveamongusseveralcuratorswhohave been involved in the establishment of slavery museums or have curated important permanentexhibitionsonthehistoryofslavery.TheCRSIwashonouredtowelcome Dr.MaryElliottfromtheAfricanAmericanMuseumofHistoryandCulture,Shanaaz GalantfromIzikoMuseumsSouthAfricaandNellySchmidtwhopresentedUNESCO publicationofproceedingsoftheCharlottesvilleWorkshop.Wewerealso,asalways, happy to welcome our compatriot, Rosabelle Boswell, now Dean of the Faculty of OceanStudiesatNelsonMandelaUniversityandMyriamCottias,HeadCIRSCatthe CNRS.

Theworkshopwasanextremelyenrichinglearningexperienceforthoseofusin MauritiuswhohadbeencampaigningforsolongforthisMuseumandhadbeenactively discussingandrefiningtheconceptanddebatingthepossiblethemesandapproaches thatcouldbeincludedinafuturemuseum.Indeedtheriseinscholarlyworksincethe 1980sonthehistoryofMauritianslaveryhasbeenexponentialandthereistodaymore than sufficient historical and other material to document the history of Mauritian slaveryanditsmultiplelegaciestofeedthefutureIntercontinentalSlaveryMuseum,as itisnowofficiallyknown.JimmyHarmonhasgivenanoverviewofthislongstrugglefor this Museum. It was interesting to note that although we had been working in an isolatedmannerintheregion,withourcolleaguesfromMadagascarandMozambique, ourideaswerenotfarofffromthoseofouroverseascolleaguesinhowwehave,inthe Southwest Indian Ocean, conceived this museum and the direction we hoped this museumcouldtake.

The‘newmuseology’or‘indigenousmuseology’,issuesofidentityrepresentations, history and memory, the balance to be allocated to history and to legacies and contemporaryissueswerediscussedasweretheconcernsofthosepresent:whowill orshouldfundthemuseum?TowhatextentwilltheMauritianpublicandespecially communitiesdescendedfromslaverybeinvolved?Howdowepalliatefortheapparent lackofartefactsandobjectsemanatingfromslaves?Howfarcandigitaltechnologygo inrepresentingasaccuratelyaspossiblethehorrorsofslavery?Thesequestionswere bynomeansfullyanswered,butitwasimportantthattheywereraisedandwehope theissueswillbeconsideredbythosesettingupthefuturemuseum.

It was also extremely refreshing to see so many young scholars and students interestedinthisproject:Dr.StephanieTamby,SophieLechartier,JayshreeMungurͲ Medhi, Stephan Karghoo and Audrey Emile stand out amongst others in having stoicallysupportedthisprojectandhelpedtomoveitforward.Theirsurveysofthe viewsandopinionstakenfromtheMauritianpopulationbetween2016and2019have helpedtoframemanyofthediscussionsheldduringtheWorkshop.Theresultsofthese initial surveys are presented at the end of the volume in forms of summaries and 5 opinionpapers.Alsoincludedareopinions,suggestions,thoughtscollectedattheend oftheworkshop,wheneachpersonsittingintheroomandwhohadnotintervened, wasaskedtosayafewwordsonhowtheysawthefutureofthemuseum(chapter20). Wehavetriedourverybesttobeinclusiveandincludeasmanyviewsasitwaspossible. ThefullproceedingsofDayOneoftheworkshop,filmedbytheMFDCandeditedby OnetakeLtdcanbeviewedontheCRSIwebsiteandonYoutube.Asecondfilmwhich willretracethehistoryoftheISMprojectisbeingprepared.

Wehopethispublicationwillserveasanintroductoryreaderforthoseinterestedin theviewsofpeopleassociatedwiththeprojectinonewayoranother.AsIwrite,a public consultation process is under way at the site of the future Museum and conductedbyISMMauritiusLtd,acorporatebodysetuptoimplementtheMuseum Project.IjoinwithfellowCRSImembersinwishingitwell.Ihavenodoubtthatthatpart oftheMauritianpublicwhichhas,overtheyears,followedthisprojectveryclosely,will ensuretheauthoritiesstayontherighttrack!Ihaveconcludedthisvolumewithan opinion paper by Dominique Bellier, French journalist who has lived for decades in Mauritiusandhasaccuratelysummarisedtheexpectationsthatmanyofushaveabout thefuturemuseum…tohaveaspacetobreathe.

Finally, I wish to thank the editors, Professor Rosabelle Boswell, Associate Professors George Okello Abungu and Sheila Wong, Dehoutee Ballgobin for their moralsupportanddevotiontothiscause;NaliniTreebhoobunforallowinguseofher artworktobereproducedoverandoveragainformultiplepublications,includingthe coverofthispublication.Lastlybutnotleast,averybigthankyoutoUoMPressand DoorgaUjodhawhohavemorallybeenverysupportiveofthisprojectandproduced highqualitypublicationsforthevariouspublicationsfortheSlaveryMuseumproject.

 

6 FAQSͲMauritiusTruthandJustice Commission JimmyHarmon Member,CRSI  When? TheTruthandJusticeCommissionActwasconstitutedinMarch2009,asaresultof theenactmentoftheTruthandJusticeAct,No.28.of2008. Objectives (a) Makeanassessmentoftheconsequencesofslaveryandindenturedlabourfrom thecolonialperioduptothepresent;

(b) Conduct inquiries into slavery and indentured labour in Mauritius during the colonialperiodand,forthatpurpose,gatherinformationandreceiveevidence fromanyperson;

(c) Determine appropriate reparative measures to be extended to descendants of slavesandindenturedlabourers;

(d) Enquireintocomplaints,otherthanfrivolousandvexatiouscomplaints,madeby any person aggrieved by a dispossession or prescription of any land in which he/sheclaimedtohaveaninterest;and

(e) Prepareacomprehensivereportofitsactivities,researchandfindings,basedon factual and objective information and evidence received by it and submit the reporttothePresident. Composition Chairperson (Dr Alex Boraine), ViceͲChairperson (Dr Vijaya Teelock) and 5 Commissioners,namelyJacquesDavid,BenjaminMoutou,ParamaseevenVeerapen.

ResearchUnit:25consultants,45researchers.

BudgettothetuneofMUR60million(€1,277,699.90;$1,512,294.60).

Modeofinvestigation(Duration:2009Ͳ2011)

Enquiries into the History of slavery and indenture and study; hearings; public consultations.

7 TheReport(2011) Sixvolumesof2700A4pages,2CDsofdeponents’hearings,presscuttings,photos andfilmsofhearings.

Volume1:coversalltopicsfallingunderthemandateoftheCommission,namely the history of the slave trade, slavery and indenture; the economics of slavery and indenture; legacies, consequences and continuities; racism and casteism; education and health; land reform; social justice; ending with main findings and recommendations.

Volume2:consistsofpaperspreparedbytheLandTeamonLandissuesinMauritius aswellastheresultsoftheanalysisbythesameTeamonthe340claimsconcerning landdispossession.

Volume3:consistsmainlyofstudiesofcontemporaryMauritiusandsurveyswhich Mauritianshadparticipatedin.

Volume 4: consists mainly of studies by specialists in History, Economics, Anthropology,Psychology,usinganimmenseamountofarchivalmaterial.

Volume5:indigitalformat,isthecollectionofallaudioandfilmmaterialscollected by the Commission and is divided into Hearings Section, where the audio and the transcriptionsareincluded.

Volume6:consistsofthedatabasescreatedbytheCommissionfortheinstitutions thatwillbesetupuponitsrecommendations,suchastheGenealogyCentre;theLand ResearchUnit;theConservationInstitute;theSlaveTradeandIndenturedImmigration Database.

Volume 7 (not open to public): consists of the administrative papers of the Commission. Summaryofthe290Recommendations Memorialisation of slavery and indentured labour to protect the historical and culturalheritageofMauritius;archivingofdocumentsrelatedtoslaveryandindentured labour; empowerment of Mauritians of African and Malagasy origins while fighting againstracialdiscrimination;andamorepublicdemocraticlife.



8 

PARTI THEROLEOFASLAVERY MUSEUM/ LEROLED’UNMUSEEDE L’ESCLAVAGE 

9 





Figure1BustofexͲslaveinMauritiusmadebyEugenedeFrobervilleinthe1840s  



 

10 1 MozambiqueandtheConceptofSatellite Museum BenignaZimba Conceptor,ISMProject& FounderandAdministratorofEditoraKhanysa,Maputo,Mozambique 

Asthenameclearlysays,the“SlaveryMuseum”isIntercontinental.Thenatureof this enterprise requires connections and interdependence with related institutions and/or organizations, which are not necessarily housed in Mauritius.A number of countriesacrosscontinentsarealreadycontributingindevelopingthisProject.Because of their privileged geographic location alongside the Western Indian Ocean coast, Madagascar,IledeReunion,Kenya,TanzaniaandSouthAfricaareamongthecountries thatplayacrucialroleinshapingtheconcept“IntercontinentalSlaveryMuseum”(ISM) aswellasitssatellites.

Theconcept“SatelliteMuseum”anchorsinthemissionandthesomeoftheaimsof the ISM, namely: “(i) the promotion of scientific research, and the production of educationalandpedagogicalmaterials;(ii)thecreationofslaveheritagetrailsacross theSouthWestIndianOcean;(iii)andthecollection,inventoryingandpreservationof oraltraditionsrelatedtoslavery”(ISMConceptPaper,FinalVersion,August2019).

Briefly,andastheexpressionalsosuggests,“SatelliteMuseums”areplacesclosely interrelatedtotheISM.Threefunctionsareindispensabletofurtherourknowledgeof “SatelliteMuseums:”(i)toserveasapointofreferencetoidentifyandselectartifacts fortheISMinMauritius;(ii)tohouseartifacts,andallkindsofrepresentationsofslavery that might not necessarily be established in Mauritius; (iii) to promote temporary exhibition on topics related to slavery, thus developing cultural tourism across continents.

“SatelliteMuseums”willthereforebetheplaceswherescreeninginformationas well as selection of artifacts and educational will occur.Viewed in this way the connectionbetweentheISMinMauritiusanditssatellitesrequiressolidorganization andfollowupoftheoverallgoalsofthisProject.

It is in this context that Mozambique will be the first “Satellite” of the “IntercontinentalSlaveryMuseum.”Forthehistory,Mozambiquecontributedinfirst placetoconceptualizethisProject.Indeed,fromtheverybeginningofthisendeavor, whichgoesbackatleasttotheyears2008Ͳ2009,“SatelliteMuseums”wereconceived 11 to be an integral part of an entire complex, which is the “Intercontinental Slavery Museum.”

Withthisbackground,Mozambiqueisintheuniquepositiontoestablishthefirst “Satellite”oftothe“IntercontinentalSlaveryMuseum”.Morespecifically,thereisa privatePublisher’sHouse,theEditoraKhanysa,locatedintheneighborhoodofMaputo, thecapitalcityofMozambique.

Intermsofthephysicalspace,althoughitisstillintheprocessofconstruction,the infrastructure of Editora Khanysa is part of a large and versatile complex veryͲwell suitedtoaccommodateaSatelliteMuseum.ThefacilitiesofthefutureMozambique’ SatelliteMuseumarelocatedwithinconvenientdrivingdistancefromaverygoodhotel, andtheyinclude:

Twospaciousworkingofficesfortherepresentativeanditscollaborators.These officescanaccommodatemeetingsformaximaltwentypeople.

Alargeroomforeventssuchastemporaryand/orpermanentexhibitions,meetings andconferencesuptoeightyoronehundredpeople.

Inadditiontothepublicationofseveraltypesofeducationalmaterials,

EditoraKhanysaaimsatbeingaPublisherofnational,regionalandinternational referenceinpromoting,producinganddisseminatingculture,scientificknowledgeas wellasthedynamicsofAfricansocioeconomicdevelopment.Moreimportantly,Editora Khanysa aims to specialize in the following areas that are indispensable to the developmentofISM:

x Creationandsystematizationofdatabaseconcerningslavetrade,slavery andindenturedlabor.ThisprocesswillfocusnotonlyonMozambiquebut alsotheinteriorregionsandcountriesoftheAfricancontinent.

x Translationofdocumentsandinterviews;thesetranslationswillgradually includeEnglish,PortugueseandAfricanlanguages.

x Transcriptionofinterviews.

x Linguisticrevision.

Withallthesefeatures,Mozambique’sSatelliteSlaveryMuseum,locatedwithinthe ComplexofEditoraKhanysa,willbeaverydynamicpartoftheISMproject.Aboveall, wewillbehappytoengageindiscussionsforfuturecollaborationandparticipationin ISMMauritius.

Towardstheendofthisshortnoteitisnecessarytomentiontheissueoffinancial andmaterialcostsinvolvedinthisandanyothersatellitemuseum.Ontheonehand, 12 the Mauritian government must interact with its counterparts, to assure necessary mobilityandfluidityofthewholeprocessthatinvolvestherelationshipbetweenthe satellitesandISM.Ontheotherhand,apartfromthenatureanddimensionofthe satellite museum clarity, is needed in regard to costs for: (i) activities as they are mentionedabove;(ii)costshareofmaintenanceandsecurityofinfrastructure;and(iii) paymentsofsalariesand/orincentivesforemployees.

Finallyandbecausethepublicationoftheseproceedingsisoccurringaboutayear aftertheConferenceontheestablishmentofthe“IntercontinentalSlaveryMuseum” inMauritius,itisamusttoemphasizethefollowingaspects.Consideringtheactual worldsocioeconomicandpoliticalcrisescreatedbytheCovidͲ19pandemic,inshort andlongtimeperiod,Mozambique’sinfrastructureisdefinitelyveryͲwellfeaturedto strictlyaccommodaterequirementsoftheWorldHealthOrganizationconcerningthe realizationofallactivitiesofthisSatelliteMuseum.

From January 2021 onwards, undoubtedly, the Mozambican Complex of Editora Khanysa will be ready to house the First Satellite Museum of the Intercontinental SlaveryMuseum. 

13 

   

   

 Figure2PhotosoftheactivitiesundertakenbytheKDPFinfavouroftheSlaveryMuseum. (Source:JimmyHarmon)  

14 2 History&Memory TheAdvocacyCampaignfortheSlavery Museum JimmyHarmon1 Member,CRSI  Introduction Mauritius,officiallyknownastheRepublicofMauritius,isaSmallIslandDeveloping StatesituatedintheIndianOceanabout2000kilometresoffthesouthͲeastcoastofthe Africancontinentandhasanareaof2,040km2.TheRepublicofMauritiuscomprises mainlandMauritius,RodriguesandAgalegaislands.Thepopulation,estimatedat1.3 millioninhabitants(StatisticsMauritius,2019),comprisesfourethnicgroups,namely IndoͲMauritians(51%),Creoles(27%),Muslims(17%),SinoͲMauritians(3%)andWhites (2%).Paragraph3(4)oftheFirstScheduletotheConstitution(1968)readsasfollows:

ForthepurposesofthisSchedule,thepopulationofMauritiusshallberegardedas includingaHinducommunity,aMuslimcommunityandSinoͲMauritiancommunity; andeverypersonwhodoesnotappear,fromhiswayoflife,tobelongtooneorother ofthose3communitiesshallberegardedasbelongingtotheGeneralPopulation,which shall itself be regarded as a fourth community.(Constitution of the Republic of Mauritius,1968)

Therefore,theGeneralPopulationisaresidualcategorywithinwhichislumpedthe Creoles who may be of African origin or mixed blood and the Whites or FrancoͲ Mauritians. The appellation ‘General Population’ is vehemently opposed by Creole organisationsandCreoleopinionleadersbecauseitisconsideredasadenialoftheir identity.Althoughthemainstreampartiestendtoshowthattheylendacompassionate eartotheseclaims,yetnogovernmenthasventureduntilnowtoamendthisSchedule asitmighthavefarreachingconsequencesonethnicpolitics.

Boswell(2006)developedataxonomyoftheCreoleethnicgrouptoillustrateits diversityintermsofclass,phenotypesandcommonderogatoryanddivisivetermsused 



1JimmyHarmoniscurrentlyDeputyDirectoroftheServiceDiocésaindel’EducationCatholique (SeDEC).HeisaMemberoftheBoardofDirectorsofISMMauritiusLtd. 15 toclassifythedifferentCreolesubgroups.Examplesofsuchtermsare‘Creoletiburzwa’ (Creoleofsmallbourgeoisie),‘Creolemilat’(mulattoCreole),‘Creolemadras’(Tamil Creole), ‘Creole sinwa’ (Chinese creole) and ‘Creole mazanbik’ (Black Afro Creoles whoseancestorscameasslavesfromMozambique).Iwouldsaythatthedistinctions made by Boswell (2006) phased out with the emergence of the Creole identity affirmation movement as from the 1990s onward. Today, the existence of a Creole identityconsciousnessinthepublicspacehastranscendedtheseinternecinecleavages amongst Creoles. The plurality of the Mauritian society has contributed towards creating an interface between state, society, economy andpolitics. This interface is markedbyethnicpoliticswhichcallsfortheconstantnecessitytonegotiateandbroker agreementswiththedifferentethniclobbyists.

The first common denominator of the Creoles is consequential of their Christianisation over different periods until independence. In the 2011 Population Census,seventyͲeightpercentclaimtobeRomanCatholicsoutof414,553Christians. For Romaine (2003), Creoles of the ‘milieu populaire’ (economically disadvantaged class)representthebulkofCatholicsintheChurch.InFebruary1993,inthecontextof thecommemorationoftheAbolitionofSlavery,acatholicCreolepriestFatherRoger Cerveauxstatedthattherewasa‘malaisecreole’intheCatholicChurch.By‘malaise creole’,thepriestwasreferringtothesituationofsocialexclusionandsubjugationof thevastmajorityofCreoles.ItbecamesomethingofacatchͲcryforCreoleswhowere dissatisfiedwiththewayinwhichdemocracywasoperatinginMauritius.ForBoswell (2006),thismalaiseissymptomaticoftheexperienceofsocialandculturaloppression whileMiles(1999)definesitasasocialdiseasewhichresultspartlyfromtheinabilityof the Creoles to assert themselves as a group. The ‘malaise creole’ statement led to profoundreflectionsoftheChurchontheCreoleswhileatthesametimetheclergywas graduallyhavingCreolepriestsinitsranks.Thisstatementcamejusttwoyearsafter CardinalMauricePiatwasappointedasthenewBishop.Bytheendofthe20thcentury, theCreoleissuebecamecentralinthechurch.Itledtoanannualcommemorationof theAbolitionofSlaverybyacloseͲknitgroupcalledtheKomiteDiosezinPremieFevriye (1stFebruaryDiocesanCommittee).

16 TheologyinAction:KomiteDiosezinPremieFevriye(KDPF) TheKomiteDiosezinPremieFevriye(KDPF)isacommitteeoftheCatholicChurchof MauritiuswhichisresponsibleformarkingtheannualcommemorationoftheAbolition ofSlaveryon1stFebruarybyholdingaspecialCatholicmass.Itwassetupin1995asa resultofseveralrequestsmadebyKreolorganisationsforholdingaspecialmassin differentparishes.Insteadofholdingseveralmasses,itwasdecidedthatitwouldbe bettertosetupacommitteewithkeystakeholdersandtoholdonlyonemasseachyear inaparish.ThelateMgrAmedéeNapapen,arenownedhistorianoftheCatholicChurch andmaroonagewasthefirsttobeinchargeofthiscommittee.Asfrom2000,KDPF becamemorestructuredwithFatherJeanMauriceLabour,VicarGeneraloftheDiocese of Port Louis as Coordinator, Sheila BreluͲBrelu as Secretary and five members comprisingonepriestandfourlaypersons,namelyFatherAlainRomaine(historianof slavery),DaniellePalmyre(anthropologist/theologian),MarjorieDesvaux(secondary school teacher), Lindsay Morvan (social worker), Mary Jolicoeur (social worker) and JeanClaudeJance(entrepreneurandKreolGospelsongscomposer).

Inthewakeofthevariousdebatessparkedbythe“malaisecreole”statement,the KDPF evolved gradually and intensively into a group of reflection and sensitization engagedwiththeCreolecommunity.Historyandmemoryofresistanceandresilience ofslaveryandthemaroonsandcontemporarysocietalissuesrelatedtotheCreoles becamethefocusofKDPF.Themassheldon1stFebruaryforthecommemorationof theabolitionofslaverybecameknownas‘lamesPremieFevriye’(1stFebruarymass). Themasshassincethenbecomearallyingpointprecededbypreparatorymeetings withcommunityleadersandcommunitymobilisation.

Eachyearathemeischosenforthemass.Thechoiceofthethemeisdiscussedand madeattheleveloftheKDPF.Thethemeisthenmadeknowntotheparishcommunity inNovemberwherethemasswillbeheldon1stFebruary.Preparatorymeetingsare heldtillmidͲJanuary.Deepreflectionistheninitiatedatgrassrootslevelontheselected themewhichissystematicallylocatedinhistoryandmemory.Ateveninggatherings afteraworkingday,thecommunityisinvitedtoparticipateinstorytelling,narratives, sharedexperiencesandtalksonslaveryandmaroonagerevolvingaroundthethemeof themass.Itistheologyinaction.Theactivitiesarelocatedinanewreadingofthe Christianfaithwithemphasisonprideinone’sculture,knowingone’shistoryandbeing reconciledwiththepastsothatonecanmoveforward.ThePrimeMinister,theLeader of Opposition, the President of the Republic, Members of Parilament and other personalitiesareinvitedtothemass.ThismasshasbecometheannualrendezͲvousfor thepoliticianswiththeCreolesinthechurch.

In2007themilitancyofKDPFforculturalempowermentwasstrengthenedwhen thethemeof‘maroonstruggle’(Lalitmaron)waschosenforthe1stFebruarymassat SaintMathewChurchsituatedatLaTourKoenigwhichisasuburbofPortLouis.Names 17 offamousmaroonsweredisplayedintheaislesofthechurchsothatpeopleseatedin thepewscouldfeeltheirsymbolicpresence.LisetteTalate,awomanfromoneisland oftheChagosarchipelago,wasaskedtonarrateherlifestoryduringthemass.The Chagossians,knownasZilwainKreollanguage,areaCreoleethnicgroupnativetothe ChagosIslands,specificallyDiegoGarcia,PerosBanhosandtheSalomonIslandaswell asotherpartsoftheChagosArchipelagowhichformpartoftheExclusiveEconomic Zone (EEZ) of Mauritius. Chagos islands are located about 1000 miles south of the southerntipoftheIndianOceansubcontinent.InherpoignantstoryLisetteTalatetold thepeopleatthemasshowtheinhabitantsofDiegoGarciaandotherislandsofthe Chagosarchipelago2wereexpelledbyBritain.Packedonboardofashipdeck,they madethevoyagetoMauritius,otherstoSeychelles,inverybadconditions.Inhercase, sheexperiencedtwoexpulsions.In1973,shewasmovedtoPerosBanhoswhereshe livedforoneyearandthenshewasexpelledtoMauritius.Talatebecameoneofthe keywomenfiguresofthestruggleoftheChagossiansfortheirreturnhomeontheir island.InherbiographywrittenbyLabelle&Cangy(2017),Talatedescribesherselfas “atthesametimeChagossian,Mauritian,CreoleandevenabitBritish’’(p.11).Talate passedawayon4thJanuary2012attheageof71.Incidentally,onemonthafterher demise, KDPF started its campaign for the dissemination of the Truth and Justice CommissionReporton1stFebruary2012. SpecialsupplementofLaVieCatholiquefortheTJCReport(2011) TwomembersfortheKDPF,namelyDanielPalmyreandmyselfworkedaspartͲtime researcherswiththeTruthandJusticeCommission(TJC)from2009to2011.Bothofus andFatherJeanMauriceLabourdeponedbeforetheCommissionin2010.Giventhe historicallinkoftheCatholicChurchwithslaveryandthehateandloverelationship betweenCreolesofAfricandescentandtheirownchurch,ourdeponinggotsignificant mediacoverageatthattime.Thereportcameoutin2011.Itcomprises6volumes, namely4volumesof2700A4pagesand2CDsofverbatimbydeponents.KDPFdevised a communication strategy to disseminate its content and findings to the wider community.Afterdiscussion,thecirculationofpamphletswasidentifiedasthemost effectiveinstrumentforthesensitizationofpublicopinionandgrassrootsmobilisation





2WhenMauritiusobtaineditsindependencein1968,BritainkepttheChagosarchipelagoand leased one of its islands, Diego Garcia, to USA as a military base. The inhabitants were forcibly evicted.Inthe1990sagroupofinhabitantssuedBritainfortheirreturnhome.In2019,Mauritius’ longstandingclaimsontheChagosarchipelagowererecognisedbytheInternationalCourtofJustice andtheUnitedNationsGeneralAssembly. 18 in a collective effort to pressurize the state of Mauritius to implement the recommendationsoftheTJCreport.

Thepamphletwaspublishedasasupplementof‘LaVieCatholique’on1stFebruary 2012.Foundedin1930byBishopMgrLeenandmembersofL’UnionCatholique,an influentialgroupoflaycatholicsinthosedays,thenewspaperisnottheofficialmedia ofthechurchanditoperatesasanindependentbody.However,thenewspaperisa specialforumfortheCatholicChurchtoputforwarditspositiononsomemajorissues. ItalsogivesvoicetodifferentstakeholdersliketheKDPF.Ithasaregularreadershipof 9,000readersandattimes12,000onspecialoccasionslikeChristianfestivities.

This special supplement of La Vie Catholique of 1st February 2012 has some particularcharacteristics.Itstitleis‘Lavéritevousrendralibres’(Truthwillsetyoufree) whichisasentencefromchapter8andverse32oftheGospelofJohn.Throughthis title,KDPFwantedtosensitizepublicopinionabouttheneedforeachMauritianto knowthetruthaboutoursharedhistoryandonlybyseekingtruthcanonebetrueto oneself.Itisa12pagedocumentprintedonglossypaper,withabrownbackground colourandbordersinred.Itcontains13articlesinFrenchandwithexcerptsfromthe reporttranslatedinFrench,1inKreolMorisienandreproductionof4excerptsinEnglish from the TJC report.The pamphlet is illustrated with a total of 14 pictures. The supplementcontainsaneditorialnotebyJeanMauriceLabour,coordinatorofKDPF.It bearsthetitle‘Noussommestousconvoqués’(‘weareallconvened’,mytranslation). Intheeditorialnote,theauthorgivesthegistoftheworksoftheTruthandJustice Commissionandtheimportanceofthereportbystating:

Nous sommes tous convoqués à faire la vérité. Ça va nous remuer. DisonsͲle d’emblée: il ne s’agit pas de prendre ce rapport comme LA vérité sur l’esclavage, l’engagismeetleursconséquences...Ils’agitplutôtdel’accueillircommeuneanalyse sérieusepardesprofessionnelsetdenousenservirpouravancerversplusdevérité, de lucidité sur nousͲmêmes, sur nos compatriotes. Désormais, ce rapport nous appartientàtousMauriciens,etnousdevronsnous enservirpourconstruirenotre citoyennetésurdesbasesplusvraies,plussolides.

Theeditorialnotepointsoutthefundamentalimportanceofseekingtruthandthe feelingsofuneasinessthatitwillcreateinus.ItsaysthattheTJCreportisnotthe absoluteTRUTHbutconsideredassignificantresearchconductedbyexpertswhichcan helpuslearnmoreaboutourselvesandothersinourpursuitoftruth.Theeditorial underlinesthatthisreportisforallMauritians.Weshouldthereforeuseittostrengthen oursenseofbelongingtothenation.Thearticlesofthesupplementarewrittenby members of KDPF. They highlight the major issues dealt with by the Commission. Finally,the14bulletsrefertothe290recommendationsoftheTJC.Thefirstthree bullets refer to the need for memorialisation of slavery and indentured labour to

19 protectthehistoricalandculturalheritageofMauritius;archivingofdocumentsrelated toslaveryandindenturedlabour;empowermentofMauritiansofAfricanandMalagasy originswhilefightingagainstracialdiscrimination;andamorepublicdemocraticlife. Thesupplementwaslaunchedon1stFebruaryforthecommemorationofAbolitionof slaveryduringthespecialmassheldatthechurchofLaGaulette,aneighbouringvillage toLeMorneregion(seephotos,.MrKailashPurryag,PresidentoftheRepublicatthat time,severalpersonalitiesandofficialsofthegovernmentandoppositionpartieswere present.TheCommissionersoftheTruthandJusticeCommissionwerealsopresent. Eachofthemreceivedacopyofthesupplement.Copiesofthesupplementwerealso distributedtoschoolsandNGOs.TherecommendationforthesettingupofaSlavery MuseumbecamethefocusoftheacademiaandespeciallymembersoftheCentrefor ResearchonSlaveryandIndenturebasedattheUniversityofMauritius. Abig‘whatif’?AbouttheCentreforResearchonSlavery&Indenture(CRSI) WhatifAlexanderFleminghadnotdiscoveredpenicillinin1928afterreturningfrom hisvacation?ThedeathtollduringtheSecondWorldWarwouldhavebeenhigherand wewouldhavebeenunabletocurebacteriologicalinfectionsuntiltoday.Inasimilar veinwewouldsaywhatifwedidnothavethelocalscientificcontributionmobilised andengagedattheleveloftheCentreforResearchonSlaveryandIndenture(CRSI), theslaverymuseumprojectwouldcertainlynothavematerialised.TheCRSI,founded in2006,specialisesinscientificresearchonthehistoryofslaveryandindenturefrom multipleperspectivesandgroupsresearchersfromvariousfields.FatherAlainRomaine andIaremembersofKDPFbutwearealsomembersoftheCRSI.Infact,CRSIresearch activitieshavereceivedinternationalrecognition.CRSIbecameamemberofSLAFNET (SlaveryinAfricaNetwork)anditscoordinator(VijayaTeelock)waselectedPresident oftheInternationalScientificCommitteeontheSlaveRouteProjectandhosteditsfirst timemeetingintheIndianOceaninNovember2017.WhileKDPFhasactivelysupported grassroots mobilisation, the CRSI has led the conceptualisation and design of the IntercontinentalSlaveryMuseum(ISM).AmongsttheactivitiesrelatedtoISM:from31st Januaryto4thFebruary2015,CRSIorganisedanInternationalSeminarattheUniversity ofMauritiusincollaborationwiththethenMinistryofArtsandCulture,NelsonMandela Centre, Creole Speaking Union, Le Morne Heritage Trust Fund and University of Mauritius.TheDeputyPrimeMinister,XavierLucDuvalandandtheMinisterofArts andCulture,S.Babooaddressedtheparticipantsattheopeningceremony.Thetheme was‘YerRezistans,ZordiRezilians’(YesterdayResistance,ResilienceToday).Twoofthe eightpanelswereon‘ImplementationofTJCreportͲthesituationofdescendantsof slaves’ and ‘Implementation of TJC report Land issues: The way forward’. Six TJC deponents made verbal presentations. Following the International seminar which attracted media coverage and my appointment as Director of the Nelson Mandela Centrefrom2014to2016,themuseumprojectgainedmomentum.TheCentrewas assignedbytheMinistrytoworkoutthedetailsoftheproject.Severalworkingsessions 20 wereheldatthecentrewhichprovidedthebasisfortheCabinetdecisionof7thApril 2016whichreadasfollow:

TheCabinetdecisionof7thApril2016whichreadsas“hasagreedtothesettingup of an Intercontinental Slavery Museum, as recommended by the Truth and Justice Commission, at the ExͲLabourdonnais Military Hospital in Port Louis. The Museum wouldgivemorevisibilitytoslaveryandtheslavetradeintheIndianOcean,promote slave history and emphasize the contribution of the African diaspora in the world development”.

MotivatedbytheCabinetdecision,theCRSIorganiseda‘ConsultativeWorkshop’on Slavery Museums: Memorialisation perspectives/ Mize Esklav: Memwar nou zanset’ from12to16thApril2016attheUniversityofMauritius.Consultationworkshopswere also held at Le Morne and Ville Noire of Mahebourg on 13th and 14th April 2016 respectivelytoexplaintheobjectivesoftheSlaveryMuseumandalsotocollectthe viewsoftheinhabitants.Threemonthslater,apressconference,chairedbytheVice ChancelloroftheUniversity,washeldintheUniversityCouncilroomtopresentthe reportontheconsultativeworkshopsandtheresultsofthesurveyon29thJune2016.

Theadvocacyfortheslaverymuseumintensifiedattheleveloftheacademia.Inthe contextoftheUNESCOInternationalDayfortheRemembranceoftheSlaveTradeand its Abolition on 23rd August 2016, CRSI published a booklet with the title ‘The Intercontinental Slavery Museum Project. Site: the exͲmilitary Hospital, republic of Mauritius. A historical site of conscience’. In her message for this publication, Prof. BenignaZimbaoftheUniversidaEduardoMondlane,conceptoroftheIntercontinental SlaveryMuseum(ISM)project,writes:

Wemustobligatorilyemphasizeoneparticularfeatureofthisproject:morethana widerangeofartefacts,documentsaswellasmodernwaysofrepresentingthisaspect ofAfricanheritage,theIntercontinentalSlaveryMuseumwillbeareflectionofAfrican cultural heritage. [...] the project moves beyond the tendency to “victimizing” the historyandhistoriographyofslaveryandslavetrade.(p.2).

ThepublicationgivessixreasonsforthechoiceoftheexͲLabourdonnaisMilitary Hospital,namelythehistoricimportanceandnatureofthebuilding;itisasitetohonour ourinterculturalityandpromoteremembranceandreconciliation;itisanopportunity torestoretheoldestbuildingintheRepublicofMauritius;itsecuresfinancialfeasibility asitislocatedinatouristhub;thechoiceofthishistoricalsiteisinlinewiththeUnited NationsDecadeforPeopleofAfricanDescent(2015Ͳ2024).Inaninterviewwithalocal newspaper,Ireinforcedthesereasonsbystatingthatthismuseumwillbe‘aplaceof memoryoffreedomandreconciliation’(Lemauricien,13January2018,pp.10Ͳ11).For thecommemorationof1stFebruary2018,VijayaTeelock,FatherRomaineandIgave

21 aneveningtalkonISMatthechurchinCassisknownas‘thecathedralofpoor’.Thetalk gaverisetogreaterawarenessandCassisgavebirthtoasupportgroupforISM. TrilingualDocumentaryonYoutube On31January2019,CRSIlaunchedashortvideodocumentaryof12.29minuteson ISMinEnglish,FrenchandKreolMorisien.Thesubtitleis‘Thedutyforremembrance’. The video in Kreol Morisien has received 1, 311 views to date. It gives a historical overviewofslaveryasforcedlabour,itsroleintheeconomy,itslegacyintermsof impact on our legislation, the structuration of the economy and shaping of social relations and the importance of a slavery museum. The documentary explains the choice of the Military Hospital and describes the collections that the museum will house.Thisvideohasbeenusedinseveraladvocacycampaignsduringmeetingsand gatheringsatgrassrootslevelandalsosharedwidelyonsocialmedialikefacebookand whatsapp.On23rdAugust2019,CRSIlaunchedtwopublicationsinFrenchandEnglish entitledAshorthistoryanddescriptionoftheMilitaryHospitalinthe18thand19th centuriesascontributionstotheISMproject.ThevideoandthepublicationsonISM becamesupplementarytoolsforKDPF. TheSilentProtestMarchforSlaveryMuseum AtthebeginningofYear2019,theKDPFsteppeduptheiradvocacycampaignby planning a March for the Slavery Museum.. It was preceded by meetings with grassroots, intensifying lobbying with politicians and the preparations for the 1st Februarymass.ThemobilisationgainedmomentumwhenthesupportgroupofCassis, someCatholicfaithbasedmovementslikeZeziVreZom(JesustheMan)andBethanie, whichfocusonmaleandfemalespiritualityrespectively,FranciscanFriarsandSisters, NGOs and prominent social workers of the Catholic Church joined the preparatory meetings.Iwaspersonally confrontedwiththeideaofaprotestmarchagainstthe governmentforitsinaction.Thepressurecamefromthemediawhowantedtopresent the march as a protest of the Catholic Church against government. As I was the spokespersonontheslaverymuseummatter,Ifoundmyselfinaverydelicateposition asIalsoholdapostofseniorresponsibilityinCatholiceducationwheremyinstitution hastodealregularlywiththegovernment.Itookthematterupwithmycolleaguesat KDPF and the idea mooted into a Silent Protest March rather than a mass demonstrationagainstthegovernment.ItwasmoreofamarchbytheCreolesforthe Creolesinmemoryoftheirancestorsandfortheirdignity.PostersinKreolMorisien, French and English invited the public at large on Facebook to commemorate the AbolitionofSlaveryon1stFebruary,inthecontextoftheUNInternationalDecadefor PeopleofAfricanDescent(2015Ͳ2024)atLaGaulette,avillagealongtheeasterncoast andnotfarfromLeMorne(seephotosp.25).TheprogrammecomprisedaSilentMarch forthesettingupofaSlaveryMuseum.Themarchwouldstartat7.30a.m.followedby amasstobecelebratedbyCardinalMauricePiatat8.30a.m.Thethemeofthemass

22 was: Rekonesans (Recognition), Zistis (Justice), Devlopman (Development). It is the themeoftheUNDecade.ParticipantswereaskedtodressinAfricanstyle.

Some200participantsturnedupforthemarch.Bannersbearingthethemeofthe UN Decade plus ‘Mize Esklav’ (Slavery Museum) were prepared by a group of inhabitantsofLaGauletteandweregiventotheparticipants.Themarchgotwidepress coverage.ItendedattheentranceofthechurchjustbeforethePrimeMinisterPravin Jugnauth and his wife and other personalities arrived. During the mass, Cardinal MauricePiatemphasizedtheneedfortheSlaveryMuseum.Apowerfulsong‘Getdivan nou avanse’ (Looking Ahead, Moving Forward), composed by Jean Claude Jance, memberofKDPF,wassungbytheassembly.Attheendofthemass,officialsandall thoseattendingthemassgotabookmarkassouvenirgift.Thebookmarkcontainedon itsrectosidethelogoandthemeoftheUNDecadeofPeopleofAfricanDescent(2015Ͳ 2024)withabaobabtreeinthebackgroundandacalendarYear2019withmonthsand daysinKreolMorisienonitsverso.In2019,thegovernmentdecidedtosetupaSpecial Purpose Vehicle by creating a State Company, ‘Intercontinental Slavery Museum MauritiusLtd’,asafastͲtrackmeasure. Discussion SomeInsights

ForSamuel(2007:615),‘publicadvocacyisasetofdeliberateactionsdesignedto influencepublicpoliciesorpublicattitudesinordertoempowerthemarginalised’and advocacy is unlikely to achieve much without mobilisation (618). In fact, a working definitionfor‘advocacy’inthispapercouldbetheeffortdeployedtopersuadeandwin publicsupportfortheISMprojectbygrassrootsmobilisationandtheresearchinputof theacademiccommunity.Theconjugationofthesetwofactorsrepresentedinthefield byKDPFandCRSIwasinstrumentalinshapingthegovernmentdecisionͲmakingand decisionͲtaking processes. For Samuel (2007), effective advocacy requires a combination of three perspectives, namely political, managerial and technical. The advocacyforISMwasunderpinnedbythesethreeperspectives.Theactivitiesrelated tothe1stFebruarymassandtheorganisationofworkshops,internationalseminars, publicationsandvideodocumentaryrequiredthemobilisationofdifferentskillsand competencies.

TheadvocacyforISMhasbeenacomplexprocessleadingattimestoconfrontation, negotiationandlobbyinginthecorridor.Onesuchexampleisaletterofprotestdated 29November2019andsignedbyVijayaTeelock,AlainRomaineandmyselfwhichwas senttotheDeputyPrimeMinisterXavierLucDuvalfollowingastatementwhichhe madeattheInternationalFestivalKreol.ItwasreportedthathedeclaredtheSlavery MuseumwouldnotbeattheMilitaryHospitalbutonanothersitegivenbytheUnited Docks(LeMauricien,17November2019).Inthatletterwearguedfortherestoration

23 oftheMilitaryHospital.Anotherexamplehasbeentopersuadegovernmenttoinsert ISMasanitemintheBudgetspeechof2016.AccordingtoKlugman(2011),advocacy involvestheprocessesofproblemidentification,agreementonsolutions,bringingnew dataandanalysisandstrengtheningthebaseofsupport.Wecanfindtheseprocesses intheactionsofKDPFandCRSI.Althoughtheywerenotconcertedactionsyetgiven both actors were working for the same goal, this developed into a sustained and organized action. However, it is clear thatmilestones and achievements like the Cabinetdecisionof7thApril2016,theBudgetSpeech2016Ͳ2017andthesettingup of ISM LTD were not ‘sequential but multiple streams that flow independently and simultaneously’ (Klugman, 2011: 143). The operation and results of the TJC have recentlybeenassessed. Foresight Croucheretal.(2017)criticallyexaminetheMauritianTruthandJusticeCommission (MTJC).In2013,theauthorsconductedastudyontheimpactofTJC.Theyconducted interviews with 15 members of the local political elite, intensive semiͲstructured interviews of six individuals who were highly involved in MTJC, interviews with 35 CreolesconsideredasdescendantsofenslavedpeoplelivinginPortLouis,LeMorne andCapMalheureux.ThefindingsshowedthelimitationsoftheTJC.First,theTJCitself was set up following negotiations between two political parties, namely Les Verts FraternelsoftheMichelbrothersandLabourPartyofNavinRamgoolamwhichwerein allianceinthegovernment.TJCwasnotthereforetheresultofgrassrootsmobilisation. Second,‘acertaindissonancebetweenthescholarlyandthepopular[…]undermined the MJTC report’ (Croucher et al., 2017: 345). According to the authors, the chasm betweenresearchersandtheCreolesisreflectedintheTJCreport(volume3)whereby ananthropologicalstudyconductedwiththepeopleofLeMornestatesinitsfindings thatthepeopledonotknowthehisstoryoftheirancestors.ForCroucheretal.(2017) thiscannotbeconsideredasafindingbutratherthebiasoftheresearcherswhocannot reachouttothepeopleandunderstandtheirlanguage.Also,theauthorsobservedthat whentheTJCreportwasmadepublic,therewaslittlemediacoverage.Accordingto them,thisexplainswhyfewoftheirrespondentsknewsomethingabouttheTJCandits report. Conclusion ThisoverviewhasshownthatthesettingupoftheIntercontinentalSlaveryMuseum wasunderpinnedbymobilisationatgrassrootslevelbytheKDPFandinitiativestaken by researchers at the level of CRSI. The mobilisation at grassroots level itself was informed by research on slavery and helped the people to move forward with an enlightened perspective. Given those concerned by this mobilisation defined themselves as descendants of their ancestors who were taken captive and then enslaved,thisformofadvocacywashighlyintrospective.Irememberhowoneofthe

24 participantsintheSilentProtestMarchtoldmethatwhenheputonhisAfricanshirtin the morning before coming to the march he felt strong connectedness with his ancestors.IthinkthiswillbethebiggestchallengeforISM,thatis,tofosterandnurture thelinkbetweenthepeopleandtheslaverymuseum.ForNyamgurisa(1998:300)‘part of capacityͲbuilding is to enable advocates to acquire the ability to disempower themselvesinordertoempowerothers:selfͲdisempowerment[…]theymustadopt attitude of accompaniers and as a sounding board of the marginalised; they are temporarybrokers’.AftertheopeningoftheISM,Iseemyselfnolongerintheroleof the‘temporarybroker’orinvolvedinpublicadvocacybutinthatofan‘accompanier’.

    

25 References Boswell, R. (2006). Defining Creoles. In: Le Malaise Créole (chp.3). New York : BerghahnBooks.

Croucher,R.,Houssart,MandMichel,D.(2017).TheMauritianTruthandJustice Commission:Legitimacy,Politicalnegotiationandtheconsequencesofslavery,‘’African JournalofInternationalandComparativeLaw’’,25.3:326Ͳ346.

Klugman,B.(2011).Effectivesocialjusticeadvocacy:atheoryͲofͲchangeframework forassessingprogress,‘’Reproductivehealthmatters’’,19(38):146Ͳ162.

LaVieCatholique,SupplémentGratuit(2012).‘Lavievéritévousrendralibres’.

Labelle,F.,andCangy,J,C.(2017).Chagosmonamour.QuandLisetteTalatenous racontaitDiego.PortLouis:Makanbo/Trilingue.

Miles,W.F.S.(1999).TheMauritiusenigma.‘’JournalofDemocracy’’,10:2,91Ͳ104.

Nyamugasira,W.(1998).NGOsandadvocacy:howwellarethepoorrepresented? ‘’DevelopmentinPractice’’,8:3,297Ͳ308.

Romaine, A. (2003). Religion populaire et pastorale créole à l’Ile Maurice. Paris: Karthala.

Samuel, J, (2007). Public advocacy and peopleͲcentred advocacy: mobilising for socialchange,‘’DevelopmentinPractice’’,17:4Ͳ5,615Ͳ621.

StatisticsMauritius(2019).Mauritiusinfigures.Retrieved[23August2020]from www.http//statisticsmauritius.

Truth and Justice Commission Report (2011). Government Printing: Republic of Mauritius.

26 3 LeMuséefaceàl’esclavage NellySchmidt3 Historienne,DirectricederechercheémériteauCNRS–SorbonneUniversité 

L’initiative que prit l’UNESCO de publier un ouvrage consacré au thème « New ApproachesinInterpretingandRepresentingSlaveryinMuseums»4futpriseàl’issue duColloqueinternationaltenuàl’UniversitédeVirginieàCharlottesvilleenmars2018 intituléNewApproachesinInterpretingandRepresentingSlaveryinMuseumsandSites, organisé par l’UNESCO en collaboration avec cette université, l’US.ICOMOS et la FondationJefferson’sMonticello.Cefutl’occasiondedresserunbilansurlesujet«le muséeetl’esclavage»,plusprécisémentsurlemuséefaceauxtraficsd’êtreshumains, àl’esclavage,auxabolitions,auxpolitiquessocialesmisesenœuvredèscesabolitions, aux discriminations qui furent instaurées et aux séquelles de ces événements et phénomènes.

En septembre 2019, le ministère des Arts et de la Culture de la République de Mauriceorganisaitunatelier(workshop)relatifauprojetdeMuséeintercontinentalde l’esclavageprévudansl’île.Àlalumièredutravailentreprisdanslecadredel’UNESCO etduColloqueinternationaltenuàCharlottesvilleen2018,uneréflexioncommuneeut lieuàlalumièredel’expérienceacquisesurlerapportentreHistoireetMuséologie5.





3Expertconsultantpourl’UNESCO,Projet«LaRoutedel’esclave:résistance,liberté,héritage». AncienneprésidenteduComitéScientifiqueInternationalduProjet. 4Cf.NellySCHMIDT,Nouvellesapprochespourl’interprétationetlareprésentationdel’esclavage danslesmuséesͲNewApproachesinInterpretingandRepresentingSlaveryinMuseums,àparaître en2020,Paris,UNESCO,Secteurdessciencessocialesethumaines,unedécisionpriseparl’UNESCO, dans le cadre du Projet « La Route de l’esclave : résistance, liberté, héritage », sur la recommandationdesparticipantsaucolloquedeCharlottesville. 5 Cf. Nelly SCHMIDT, « Présentation des résultats du travail sur le Guide pour les nouvelles approchesdel’interprétationetdelareprésentationdel’esclavagedanslesmusées»,«Findingsof theGuidetoNewApproachestowardsInterpretingandRepresentingSlaveryinMuseums»,Slavery MuseumsWorkshop,MinistryofArtsandCulture,UniversityofMauritius,13Ͳ15September2019.  27 Repèreshistoriques Il importe tout d’abord de tracer quelquesͲunes des étapes de toute démarche préalabledansl’analysedestraitesd’êtreshumains,del’esclavageetdesprocessus d’abolition,nonpaspourretracercettehistoireͲteln’estpaslebutdecettecourte contributionͲmaisafindesignalerquelquesrepères,bornesessentiellesetpourtant sousͲestiméesdansl’historiographiedusujet.

Les colonies des CaraïbesͲAmériques, comme celles de l’océan Indien, furent les lieux de phénomènes qui débutèrent dès les débuts du processus colonial et esclavagiste : une longue tradition de résistance de la part des captifs et esclaves, premiersconcernésparcettehistoire,unerésistancedontlestracessubsistentdansla culture de ces pays, dans la survivance des grands camps d’esclaves fugitifs, les cimarrons,danslalangue,dansdemultiplestraditions,danslescontesetlalittérature, maisdontonneconservequetrèspeudetracesécrites,hormislesrapportsofficiels d’administrateurs ou ceux que laissèrent certains religieux et voyageurs. Les phénomènesderésistancedesesclaves,qu’ilsaientétéindividuelsoucollectifs,furent négligés, voire occultés par les abolitionnistes euxͲmêmes ainsi que par une historiographie coloniale peu critique, cultivant les mythes et autres interprétations édulcoréeseterronéesdecettehistoire.

Un autre phénomène historique est essentiel pour la compréhension de la manipulationdel’histoireetdelaconstructiondanslelongtermed’unrécithistorique faussé:lespolitiquescolonialespostͲabolitionnistespréconisèrenttoutesl’«oublidu passé»,desoccultationsdupasséesclavagistequi,avecleconcoursdelapresse,du clergéetdesautoritéslocales,atteignirentremarquablementleursbuts,etcecidansla trèslongueduréeͲdessilencessurunpassécolonialdontlesséquellessontaujourd’hui encoretrèssensibles.Cen’estquedepuislafindesannées1960;puisàpartirde1998, avec,enFrance,lacélébrationducentcinquantenairedelasuppressiondel’esclavage danslescolonies,quel’écrituredecettehistoires’estpeuàpeudégagéedesagangue colonialiste. De nouvelles sources furent consultées, des interprétations et des confrontationsnouvellesdedocumentsfurentpratiquées. Le«siècledesabolitions»:aucœurduprocessusdel’oubli. x Àl’originedeceprocessusd’oublidupassé,demanipulationdel’Histoireetdeleurs répercussionsdanslelongtermeauniveaudelarecherche,del’enseignementet dansledomainemuséographique,lescontextesetlesconditionsd’abolitionfurent déterminants. C’est dès le XIXe siècle, en effet, conjointement aux expansions colonialesenAfrique,enAsieetdansl’océanPacifiqueetaudéveloppementde l’idéologieduracismedit«scientifique»enEuropequelerécithistoriqueetles politiquespatrimoniales,puismuséales,relatifsàl’esclavage,accumulèrentlacunes etretards.

28 x Unautrecaractèrecommunàl’ensembledescoloniesconcernéesparcettehistoire estlarareté,voirel’absencedetémoignagesd’esclavesauthentiques.Sidesrécits d’esclavesfurentpubliésdanslescoloniesangloͲsaxonnes,leplussouventavecle louable concours de sociétés antiesclavagistes, plus rares furent les récits authentiquestelsqueceuxd’OlaudahEquianooudeFrederickDouglass.Lecasdes colonies françaises est spécifique : on ne dispose à ce jour d’aucun témoignage d’esclaveoude«nouveaulibre»,aucunrécitdatantdelapériodedel’esclavage, oudelapérioded’abolition. x Enfin, l’analyse comparative des processus de destruction du système esclavagiste6 dans une perspective internationale fait apparaître de nombreux pointscommuns:

x ils firent tous partie d’un long siècle d’abolition, à partir de la rébellion des esclaves de SaintͲDomingue en 1791 qui lança en quelque sorte le mouvement;

x ilssedéroulèrentdansdescontextesconflictuelscommeenHaïti,auxÉtatsͲ Unis ou en Amérique du Sud ou dans des contextes de rébellion interne, commeenJamaïque,danslescoloniesfrançaises,danoises,néerlandaisesou auBrésil,àl’issuedeplusieurssériesderébellionsaufilduXIXesiècle. x Coloniesanglaises,françaisesoudesÉtatsͲUnis,parmid’autres,promulguèrentdes décretsd’abolitionquiétaienteuxͲmêmesporteursdelanégationdelalibertéet des droits qu’ils annonçaient. On assista en effet à la négation et au refus d’applicationdesdroitsdesnouveauxlibrespard’ancienspropriétairesd’esclaves, voire par les autorités ellesͲmêmes et les assemblées locales où siégeait une majorité de planteurs. Partout également, la proclamation de la liberté fut immédiatementsuivied’unepériodedecontrôlesocial,dediscrimination,enfaitde marginalisationdesanciensesclavesetderenforcementdel’encadrementcolonial





6Cf.lestravauxd’OrunoD.LARAsurcequ’ildésignadèslesannées1970entantque«processus dedestructiondusystèmeesclavagiste»,notamment:LesCaraïbes,Paris,Pressesuniversitairesde France,1997;id.,Del’Oubliàl’Histoire.Espaceetidentitécaraïbes.Guadeloupe,Guyane,Haïti, Martinique, Paris, Éditions Maisonneuve et Larose, 1998, rééd. L’Harmattan en 2015 ; id., La NaissanceduPanafricanisme.Lesracinescaraïbes,américainesetafricainesdumouvementauXIXe siècle,Paris,ÉditionsMaisonneuveetLarose,1999,rééd.L’Harmattan,2015;id.,SpaceandHistory intheCaribbean,Princeton,USA,MarkusWienerPubl.,2005. 29 destinéàremédieràladisparitiondelaréglementationesclavagiste.Ils’estagid’un systèmederéductionetderépressiondelaliberté,enfaitpassésoussilence7.





7 Je renvoie pour information, au sujet de cette évocation des abolitions de l’esclavage dans l’histoire,auxquelquespublicationssuivantes,nonexhaustivesbiensûr.Concernantlescolonies françaises : Nelly SCHMIDT, Abolitionnistes de l’esclavage et réformateurs des colonies, Paris, ÉditionsKarthala,2000;id.,Lesabolitionsdel’esclavage.Cinqsièclesdecombats,XVIeͲXXesiècles, Paris,ÉditionsFayard,2005,etid.,«Abolitionetabolitionnistesdel’esclavage.Analysecritiqueet perspective patrimoniale » in « Route de l’esclave » : des itinéraires pour réconcilier histoire et mémoire, Actes du Colloque international, Guadeloupe, décembre 2014, Paris, Éditions L’Harmattan,2015,p.204Ͳ226;OrunoD.LARA,Caraïbesenconstruction:esclavage,colonisation, résistance,2vol.,ÉditionsduCERCAM,CentrederecherchesCaraïbesͲAmériques,1992;id.,La libertéassassinée.Guadeloupe,Guyane,MartiniqueetLaRéunion,1848Ͳ1856,Paris,L’Harmattan, 2005;ClaudeWANQUET,LaFranceetlapremièreabolitiondel’esclavage,1794Ͳ1802,lecasdes coloniesorientales,IledeFrance(Maurice)etLaRéunion,Paris,ÉditionsKarthala,1998;Prosper EVE,Lecorpsdesesclavesdel’îleBourbon.Histoired’unereconquête,Pressesdel’UniversitéParisͲ Sorbonne,2013;id.,Le20décembre1848etsacélébrationàLaRéunion:dudéniàlaréhabilitation (1848Ͳ1980),Paris,L’Harmattan,2003;HubertGERBEAU,Lesesclavesnoirs,pourunehistoiredu silence,OcéanÉditions,StͲAndré,LaRéunion,1998.Ausujetdespolitiquesd’abolitionhorsdes coloniesfrançaises,voirnotamment:AliMoussaIye,NellySchmidt,PaulE.Lovejoy,Ed.,Slavery, Resistance and Abolitions. A pluralist Perspective, Africa World Press Inc., 2019 ; Vijayalakshmi TEELOCK, Histoire de l’île MauriceͲMauritian History : from its Beginnings to Modern Times, MahatmaGandhiInstitute,Maurice,2001;id.,«Lestravailleursmauriciensengagés:unaperçude l’historiographie»,inRevued’HistoireduXIXesiècle,2018/1,n°56;id.,coͲéditrice,History,Memory and Identity. Comparative Perspectives, Nelson Mandela Centre for African Culture Trust Fund, Mauritius,UniversityofMauritiusPress,vol.2,2019;id.,coͲéditrice,TheMoulinàPoudreCultural Landscape. History and Archaeology, Centre for Research on Slavery and Indenture, Mautirius, 2018;OrunoD.LARA,Del’Oubliàl’Histoire,op.cit.;Lesabolitionsdel’esclavage.DeL.F.Sonthonax àV.Schœlcher,1793,1794,1848,ActesduColloquede1994,UniversitéParisVIII,publiésparM. DORIGNY, Presses universitaires de Vincennes, Éditions de l’UNESCO, 1995 ; Paul LOVEJOY, TransformationsinSlavery.AHistoryofSlaveryinAfrica,3rdedition,CambridgeUniversityPress, 2011;RobinBLACKBURN,TheOverthrowofColonialSlavery,1776Ͳ1848,Londres,Verso,1988; MichaelCRATON,TestingtheChains:ResistancetoSlaveryintheBritishWestIndies,Ithaca,Cornell UniversityPress,1982;DavidRICHARDSON,Ed.,AbolitionandItsAftermath.TheHistoricalContext, 1790Ͳ1916,Londres,FrankCass&Co,1985,eBook,Routledge,2013;SudelFUMA,L’Esclavagisme àLaRéunion,1794Ͳ1848,Paris,L’Harmattan,1992;ChanLow,Jocelyn,Esclaves,ExclusetCitoyens, Colloque sur L’Esclavage, University of Mauritius, 1998 ; William A. GREEN, British Slave Emancipation:TheSugarColoniesandtheGreatExperiment,1830Ͳ1865,Oxford,Clarendon,1976; 30 x Ceciexpliquel’absence,danslaplupartdesmuséesconsacrésàcesquestions,d’un récitprécisdesréalitésdesconditionsdevieetdutravaildesesclavescommedes circonstancesdesabolitions.Lesdécenniesdediscriminationquisuivirentfirent égalementl’objetdenonͲdits,auprofitdesdiscoursetdesproclamationsofficiels. L’ensembledecesconditionsfutàl’originedelarelativepauvreté,jusqu’àune périodetrèsrécente,dutraitementmuséologiqueetmuséographiquedecespans del’histoirehumaine. Uneperspectivemondialeetcomparatiste x L’interprétationcommelareprésentationdel’esclavagesontencoredesthèmes derechercheencours,objetsdedébats,voiredepolémiques.L’évocationdece passé est lourde de séquelles non dites, souvent mal identifiées. Elle exige, au niveaudelareprésentation,desconnaissancesscientifiquesconstammentmisesà jour, voire remises en question, et une collaboration approfondie avec les populationsconcernées.Commentétablirceséchanges,cedialogue?Etjusqu’à quellesextensionslemuséevoitͲilsonrôles’élargir? x Autreaspectdecettehistoire:soncaractèremondial.Eneffet,touteslesparties dumondefurentimpliquées,demanièreplusoumoinsdirecte,cequisuppose l’établissement indispensable de liaisons internationales entre musées et organismes de recherche, universitaires notamment. Ceci justifie par ailleurs amplement l’initiative prise à l’Ile Maurice de fondation d’un musée intercontinentaldel’esclavage. x Enfin,ilsemblenécessaired’établirlelien–enévitantassimilationsabusiveset anachronismes–entreesclavagecolonialmassifetcequ’ondésigneaujourd’hui parletermed’esclavagemoderne. x Unautreélémentàintroduiredansl’échangeentrehistoireetmuséographieestla notiondeséquellesdel’esclavage,detraumasphysiquesetmoraux,individuelset collectifs,entraînésparl’esclavageetlestraficsd’êtreshumains,cequiimplique





Richard HART, Slaves who Abolished Slavery, 2 vol., I – Blacks in Bondage, 1980 ; II – Blacks in Rebellion,1985,Mona,Jamaïque,InstituteofSocialandEconomicResearch,UniversityoftheWest Indies ; L’Esclavage à Madagascar. Aspects historiques et résurgences contemporaines, Antananarivo,InstitutdeCivilisations,muséesd’Artsetd’Archéologie,1997;RebeccaSCOTT,Slave EmancipationinCuba:theTransitiontoFreeLabour,1860Ͳ1899,PrincetonUniversityPress,1985; TheHistoricalEncyclopediaofWorldSlavery,J.P.RodriguezEd.,ABSͲCLIO,1997.  31 égalementlanotiondecontactetderelationsspécifiquesàétabliraveclepublic concernéetintéressé. Desobjectifs x Unconstatputêtredressé,mettantenévidencelesgrandeslacunesdontsouffre cettethématique,lesbesoinsexprimésentermesderecherchetanthistoriqueque muséologique, la rareté des partenariats entre musées, universités, centres de recherchearchéologiqueetcommunautéshéritièresdecettehistoire. x L’analysedurôledéterminantd’unoublidupassé,savammentorchestréparles autoritéscoloniales,dèslaproclamationdesabolitionsdel’esclavageaufild’un long XIXe siècle, des politiques sociales et des discriminations qui suivirent les abolitionsest,enfait,aucœurdurapportentrehistoireetmuséologie.Parailleurs, l’évolutionmajeuredelamuséographiedanslestrentedernièresannéespermitla conception de nouvelles questions, l’apparition de nouveaux progrès dans la réflexionausujetduthème«lemuséefaceàl’esclavage». x Denouveauxmodesd’approched’unehistoireaussidouloureusequecelledontil esticiquestionimpliquentlerecoursàunerecherchehistoriquefondamentale, ouverteauxdébatsainsiqu’auxliaisonsentrepatrimoinematérieletimmatériel.Il importeeneffet,danscetteperspective,deprocéderàuneanalysecritiquedes interprétations aujourd’hui datées d’une histoire qui a si longtemps tu, occulté certaines réalités des processus coloniaux, des traites d’êtres humains, de l’esclavageetdesrésistancesqu’ilsontsuscitées,deréfléchir,danschaquecas,à la prise en compte de l’ensemble des éléments permettant de fonder et de construirecettehistoireetdelatransmettreauniveaumuséographique:archives écrites,archivesorales(enregistrementsdetémoignages,récitsdivers),archives musicales,documentslittéraires(romans,nouvelles,mythes,contes),résultatsde fouillesarchéologiques,objets,œuvresd’art. x Parmilesobjectifsfigurèrentlesmissionssuivantes:

i. présenter, avec quelques références indispensables, les grandes expériences en matière de muséographie sur les sujets dits sensibles et douloureuxͲceluidel’esclavageétantmajeurenlamatièreͲtelsqueles travauxdel’UNESCOengénéral,duProjet«LaRoutedel’esclave»plus particulièrement, de l’ICOM, de la Coalition Internationale des Sites de Conscience (CISC), du Mouvement International pour une Nouvelle Muséologie(MINOM)oudelaFédérationInternationaledesMuséesdes Droits de l’Homme (FIHRM), enfin les déterminations de la Décennie internationaledespersonnesd’ascendanceafricaine,2014Ͳ2025;

32 ii. dresser un bilan de l’état des connaissances et des contextes historiographiquesdusujet;

iii. envisagerunerévisiondesconceptsemployésausujetdecettehistoireet procéder à une réécriture du discours historique et muséographique si nécessaire;

iv. procéder à un inventaire et à un examen des contextes patrimoniaux : archivesécritesetorales,iconographie,ensembledesartéfactsdisponibles, donnéesarchéologiques,récitsdecontemporainsausujetdesévénements évoqués, engagements de certains artistes, collections des organismes muséaux,progressiondesengagementsdel’UNESCOsurlesujet8;

v. identifier les conflits de mémoire entre héritiers des différents protagonistesdel’histoireévoquée;

vi. identifierlesbesoinsnécessitésparlestraumashéritésdel’esclavageetle rôledumuséeàcesujet;

vii. formulerdessuggestionsd’ordrescientifique,méthodologiqueetéthique à l’intention des personnes travaillant dans des musées consacrés à l’esclavageoucomportantuneouquelquessallesrelativesausujetainsi qu’auxpersonnesparticipantàquelquetitrequecesoitàlacréationd’un telmusée;

viii. recommanderl’établissementdepartenariatsentremusées,entremusées etorganismesuniversitairesderecherche,entremuséesetopérateursde nouvelles technologies ; à cet effet, entreprendre un inventaire des différentsorganismes–musée,mémorial,sited’histoireetdemémoireͲ, detoutesdimensions,identifierleursréalisationscommeleursbesoins;

ix. recommanderuneouverturerigoureusedumusée,desescollectionsetde sesactivitésdiversesauxpopulationslocalesetconcernéesparl’histoire évoquée.

Cettedémarcheprendtoutesonimportancesil’ongardeàl’espritqu’ils’agitd’un vastecrimecontrel’humanitéetquedeuxquestionstrèssensiblessont,aujourd’hui,à





8Leprojetdel’UNESCO«LaRoutedel’esclave:résistance,liberté,héritage»apubliéen2018 l’ouvrage intitulé Legacies of Slavery. A Resource Book for Managers of Sites and Itineraries of Memory – Héritages de l’esclavage. Un guide pour les gestionnaires de sites et itinéraires de mémoire,Paris,UNESCO,Secteurdessciencessocialesethumaines. 33 l’ordredujourdemanièreinternationale:celledel’identificationdestraumashérités del’esclavageetlaquestiondesréparations.

Suggestions/recommandations Il ne peut s’agir de dresser ici une liste d’obligations de l’institution muséale en fonction d’un thème spécifique qui serait celui des trafics d’êtres humains, des esclavagesetdesabolitions.Pourtant,toutmuséeprétendantàcettespécificitédeson objet assume, certes, des fonctions de pôle de conservation et de recherche pluridisciplinaire,maisilfaitaussiappelàl’ensembledesscienceshumainesetsociales. Histoire, muséologie, archéologie, sociologie, ethnologie, sciences juridiques, disciplines artistiques, littéraires (écrites et orales), scénographie, nouvelles technologies de communication peuvent être sollicitées avec pour fonctions prioritaires:

x de permettre une réflexion et une analyse critique pluridisciplinaire et internationale;

x de mener une réflexion sur les mots et concepts utilisés, tels que sites de mémoire, sites historiques, sites de conscience, histoire et mémoire, mémorialisation,muséification,restauration,commémoration,etc;

x d’adopterdesconceptsetunvocabulairenouveauxetappropriés;

x d’établirlesrelationsnécessairesentrepasséetprésent,parexempledansles domaines des trafics d’êtres humains et des servitudes passés et contemporains;

x de constituer des équipes pluridisciplinaires d’experts en vue de l’analyse précise des pièces montrées et de la présentation des différentes interprétationséventuelles;

x dedistingueretdepromouvoirdesprojetsmuséographiquespilotes;

x deprévoirdescyclesdeformationdupersonnel;

x deprévoirdessessionsd’aideauxprojetsdecréationdemuséesainsiqu’aux petitesstructuresexistantes.

Toutceciimpliquantbienévidemmentlaconstitution,àunniveauinternational,de réseauxavecdesuniversitésmaisaussiavecdesorganismesspécialistesdenouvelles technologies.Levisiteurdoitêtreamenéàcomprendrequ’ils’agitd’unehistoireetde sareprésentationmuséographiquequisontencoreenconstruction,souffrantencore destéréotypes,deraccourcis,d’occultationsetd’oublis...Parailleurs,denombreux visiteurss’interrogentausujetdesmodalitésselonlesquellesleurhistoirefamilialeet personnellepeutêtreintégréeàcepassé.Desliensspécifiquespeuventpermettrede 34 satisfairecettequêtelégitime,notammentparl’aide,auseindecertainsmusées,àdes recherchesarchivistiquesadaptées.

Lerespectdeprincipesdéontologiquesest,parailleurs,uneprioritédel’approche touristique.Enaucuncasilnepeutêtrequestiondetendreversuneperceptiondu muséeentantqueproduittouristique,comportantlesnombreusesdérivespotentielles que cela peut entraîner quant àǰ des interprétations simplistes, réductrices, voire folklorisantes–ausenspéjoratifdecetermeͲeterronées.Letourismemémorielne peutdoncêtredéveloppéetpromuqu’enallianceavecdesprofessionnelsavertisde cesrisquesetcapablesdefixeruncadrerigoureuxetefficaceauxinitiativesdecet ordre.

Dans cette même perspective, il est recommandéǵ d’identifier dans les différents pays,lesstructureset/oulesorganisationsrelais(fondations,universités,ministères, servicesetcommissionsgouvernementaux),ycomprislesCommissionsnationalespour l’UNESCOetlesbureauxhorsͲsiègedel’UNESCOafind’obtenirlesaidesnécessaires.La mise en place d’un système organisationnel pilote (comité scientifique, comité de pilotage,bureau,etc)estfortementsuggérée. Unvœu Le musée seraitͲil la panacée aux insuffisances de l’Histoire et aux souffrances transgénérationnellesliéesauxblessurespluriséculairesdel’esclavage?Certesnon!Il demeure,danslemeilleurdescas,unlieudeconnaissancehistorique,patrimoniale,de prisedeconsciencemémorielle,toutceladansundélicatprocessusd’émergencedans l’espacepublic.Processusdélicat,parcequesouventparasitépardesactesmémoriels etcommémoratifsparfoisinadaptés,voireerronés.AinsilemuséeapparaîtͲilcomme unorganismeàlafoispuissantetfragile,voiremanipulable,laneutralitén’existantpas. Quelques cartels peuvent suffire à falsifier la signification et le message d’objetsͲ témoignages. La mythification d’un site – voire d’un objetͲpeut générer l’enthousiasme,alorsqu’elledoitfairel’objetdesanalyseslesplusfinesauprofitd’un accèsauxréalitéslemoinsbrouillépossible.

Lanécessitéd’unecoopérationnationaleetinternationaleestunleitmotivdece texteconsacréauxapprochesmuséalesdestraitesd’êtreshumains,del’esclavageet desabolitions.Cepandel’histoiredel’humanitéͲquireliaquasiment,etdanslalongue durée,touslescontinentsͲimpliquequetoutmusée,touteexpositiontemporaireou virtuellesurcesthèmessesituedansuncadrederéférencesinternationales.

LaRecommandationde2015del’UNESCOsurlesmuséespuisleForumUNESCOde hautniveausurlesmusées,en2016,ontsoulignélesopportunitéscommelesdéfisque représentelamondialisationdanscedomaine.Lestravauxainsimenésontaboutià l’encouragement en faveur d’une « plus grande mobilité des collections, des professionnels,desvisiteursetdesidées».Lesconceptsde«diplomatieculturelle»et 35 de«pouvoird’influencedelaculture»sontaujourd’huiutilisésausujetdesfonctions essentielles des musées. Le Forum de haut niveau de l’UNESCO sur les musées a souligné leur rôle en tant qu’« accélérateurs culturels » par le biais d’expositions temporaires, d’échanges et de prêts d’artéfacts qui devraient bénéficier d’aides financièresaccrues.

Lemuséepossèdeenfaitunepuissanceconsidérables’ilalliesescollections,les interprétations et les initiatives culturelles qui les accompagnent à la connaissance historiquelaplusavertieets’iléchangesesdonnéesetlanatureducontenudeses collections.Lesobjetsetlesœuvresconservés,etlecontactavecl’artéfactinterpellent les historiens euxͲmêmes, sollicitent bien souvent de leur part une mise à jour historiographique, ouvrent la voie aux révisions inédites auxquelles se livre chaque génération.C’estaumuséequelepublic,quinefréquenterapaslescentresd’archives maischercheraàcomprendresonhistoire,pourraaccéderàunepartdecepassé.





36 4 HowDoWeEmbedHolisticRestorative JusticeProcessesintheDesignofthe InterͲContinentalMuseum? ProfessorJohnH.Stanfield,II SSRChairofAfricanStudies,UniversityofMauritius 

Inoticedinthecourseofthesuperbintercontinentalslaverymuseumconference thatitwasoftenmentionedthatslaverymuseumsshouldbesitesforneededsocietal healinginAfricanSlaveryLegacySocieties.

The phrase “restorative justice” was said in passing several times without clear definition. I would argue that the most crucial kind of societal healing in a society dehumanizedthroughAfricanslaveryandlikeexperiencessuchasIndianIndentureship and genocide is through a holistic restorative justice process as an authentic transparencyrehumanizingprocessinwhichallmembersofsocietyfindandsustain theirhumanityandthatofeachotherorwhatIcallinterculturalopeningasalifelong value based way of becoming and being. I did not want to distract duringthe remarkableInterͲcontinentalslaverymuseumconferencebyinjectingmyconcernfor acleareroperationaldefinitionofrestorativejusticesuchasoneembeddedinshall we say the 6 Holistic Restorative JusticePhasesmodel I have been testing and modifyingovertheyearsandamnowwritingupasabook.

The Holistic Restorative Justice Model is hinted at in the following WhatsApp conversationIhadthemorningafterourconferencewithaSenegaleseAmericanfriend abouttheconference.Isenther(Aida)acopyofmyL'Expressinterviewpublishedafew days before in which the journalist emphasized me observing that most Americans don'tevenknowslaveryexistedthoughIshouldaddleavingoutthefactthateven AmericanswhodoknowAfricanslaverydidhappenpresumeitwasapastexperience AfricanAmericansexperiencedwithnoongoingimpacts(apointseveralofusmadeat theconference):

[09/16,08:21]Aida:WeneedtotaketheseAmericanstoGhanaorSenegal[…]

[09/16,08:23]ProfJohn:[…]lastweekatUoMtheyhadaremarkableconference focused on building a government funded interͲcontinental slavery museum with scholarsandcuratorsfromMauritiusandseveralothercountries.Sendmeyouremail andIwillsendyoutheprogram[…]

37 [09/16,08:34]ProfJohn:IamafraidAmericanslikethoseothersresidinginslaveͲ basedsocietiesaretaughttobeignorantaboutslaveryortoassumeitwasjustapast eventwithnocontemporaryimpacts.So,takingthemtoGhanaandtoSenegalalone willhaveanunevenoutcome.Whatneedstobedoneisforheadsofstateandofother nationalpoliticalbranchestoacknowledgethehistoryofslaveryintheircountriesand make systemic amends from confessing to repentance to asking for forgiveness to reparationstoreconciliation.OnlytheMauritianpoliticaleliteintheworldmadebythe historicalAfricanslavetradehavedonethisthoughquitepartiallyandthusmustdoa morethroughandtransparentjob.

[09/16, 08:42] Aida: I agree but don't think these words you just put forth "forgivenesstoreparationstoreconciliation"arewellunderstoodbytheAmericansor betteryetAfricanAmericans,ifImaysay.

[09/16, 08:44] Aida: Indeed, the work is much greater acknowledging or understanding,butitmuststartsomewhere.

[09/16,08:55]Aida:'Your'islandnation'spoliticalleadersmustshowtherestofthe world, specifically areas where slavery had been a hindrance to advancement and development of all sorts, how to lead the way and show how to meaningfully incorporate such into the educational (and other) system (s) and through open dialogues.

[09/16, 09:03] Prof John: I appreciate your observations though I must say the words,thatis,thestepsofrestorativejusticearenotunderstoodbymostcitizensof African Slavery Legacy Societies, especially those belonging to exͲslave owner populations.

The different phases involving both members of perpetrating (slave owner) and (victim)enslavedpopulationswhichhavebeenwrittenupinthreepublicationswitha bookonthewayareprocessesthroughwhichmembersofbothpopulationsprovide theirinterpretationswithout“crossͲtalking:

1) Historical interpretations of “what happened”, “how it happened”, “to whom,”and“livinglegacies”;

2) Mutualconfessions,thatisaccountabilities;

3) Mutualrepentance,thatis,acovenantbetweenhistoricperpetratorand victimpopulationsthatslaveryanditslivinglegacywillneverhappenagain Ͳthe roots of abolitionist and slave revolt movements; State antiͲslavery policies;andpostͲslaverycivilrightsmovements;

38 4) Mutual forgiveness, meaning understanding each other’s histories and motives;notnecessarilyagreeing;sometimescoͲexisting;

5) Mutualreconciliation,meaninggivingbackwhatwastakensuchasdignity, identities,land,remainsoflovedones,language,arts,religions,freedomof expression;communitywellbeing;and

6) Unity, meaning value centered togetherness, meaning authentic interculturalopennessastheultimateoutcomeofthefirstfivephasesasa processofauthenticrehumanizationofallconcerned.

Inconclusion,thisisalltosayslaveryisahorriblesocietalblightwhichimpactsall livinginasocietywhichcanonlyberootedoutthroughthebrieflydescribedholistic restorativejusticeprocess.

TheproblemisinAfricanSlaveryLegacySocieties,theholisticrestorativejustice processwhenappliedasgovernmentorinstitutionalproclamationsorpoliciestends to be fractured such as stressing history sharing or confession or apologies or reconciliation without realizing all steps are necessary to bring about the authentic healing a society needs to go through after such a societal horror such as slavery, genocide,pogroms,andmassrapes.

Thedifferentrolesinslaveryperpetratingpopulationsinclude:slavecatchers,slave owners,slavemanagers,nonͲslaveryinvolvers,abolitionists,,postͲslaveryproponents, opponents,andsilent;inenslavedpopulations:fieldslaves,houseslaves,conforming slaves,rebellingslaves,exͲslaves,nonͲslaveryinvolvers,abolitionists,andpostͲslavery proponents,opponents,andsilent.

The question I have is how do we develop an interͲcontinental slavery museum modelwhichexhibitsthecomplexitiesandparadoxesofarestorativejusticeprocess holisticindisplayingthedifferentphasesandthedifferentrolesandperspectivesof membersofperpetratorandvictimpopulations?

39 

40 5 TheIntercontinentalSlaveryMuseum Mauritius:ImaginingaDecolonized MuseumProcess,NarrativesandSpace GeorgeOkelloAbungu WorldHeritageConsultant,EmeritusDirectorGeneralNationalMuseumsof Kenya&formerVicePresidentofICOM(InternationalCouncilofMuseums)  Introduction TheRepublicofMauritiusisputtingupanintercontinentalSlaveryMuseuminits capitalcity,PortLouis.ThisisasignificantdevelopmentnotonlybecauseMauritiusas acountryhadalonghistoryofslaverythathasbeenwelldocumentedbutalsobecause itisoneofthefewcountriesthathavecarriedoutaTruthandReconciliationexercise whoserecommendationsincludethesettingupofsuchamuseumaspartofahealing andcorrectionprocessandwhoseimplementationisbeingrealized.

The issue of slave trade and slavery is a difficult historical fact that marks an unfortunateperiodintherelationsofhumanityacrosscontinentsandages.Whilethe act of slavery appears to have been a human phenomenon almost everywhere for centuries,includinginEuropeduringtheGreek,RomanandMedievalperiods,themost profound,withthegreatestandlongestlastingeffects,wastheslavetradeandslavery inflictedontheAfricancontinent.

TheArabͲledslavetradeontheEastAfricancoastandinthetransͲSaharanregion as well as the EuropeanͲled one on the Atlantic Sea have had lasting effects that continue to not only influence Africa’s performance on many levels, but to impact deeply the geopolitical relations between the African continent and the rest of the world(Kake1978;Ogot1978;Alpers2007;Abungu2019).

Some of thesufferings, nonͲperformance and embedded discrimination that the Africancontinentanditspeoplecontinuetoendurearerootedinthedeephistorical occurrencessuchasslaveryandslavetradethatreducedtheblackmantoasaleable commodity.Thecontinentbecameaspaceandsourceofexploitation,oftenbyforce, of raw materials and labour, including human labour, within as well as outside the continent, and this has remained a fact to the present (Diene 1998; Teelock 1998; Abungu2019).

While slave trade took away some of the best of the African population, transplantingtheminotherlandsanddenyingthecontinentahugepercentageofthe 41 workforce,colonialismcementedtheexploitationofthecontinentfromwithin.Thus Africawasavictimofmassiveextractionofitspopulationandotherresources.However all these could not have taken place without the cooperation of other Africans, especiallythoseinauthorityinthevariouspolitiesthatdottedthecontinentbefore Europeancolonization.Thestoryofslaveryandslavetradethereforeneedstobetold initsentiretyandtruthfullyforanymeaningfulfuturereconciliationandhealingtotake place.TheIntercontinentalSlaveryMuseuminMauritiuscomesattherighttimeinthe rightplacetotellthestories. Museums:ahistoricalperspective MuseumsasweknowthemtodaywereWestern,introducedduringthecolonial times.ThusdespitetheantiquityofthemuseumsthatarefoundasearlyastheRoman andGreekperiods,themuseumsasweknowthemtodayhavetheirmostrecentorigins inthecabinetofcuriosity.

TheMuseums,especiallytheWesternmuseumswerebeneficiariesofthecolonial enterprise, the successor to slave trade. They were involved in the expeditions and plunder that accompanied colonization of the different parts of the world, Africa included.Todayalargepartoftheircollectionsisderivedfromplunderthroughwar, unethical collections and illicit trafficking that has now evolved into the debate on restitutionaspartofadecolonizationprocess.Thusasopposedtothecollectionand transferofpeoplefromAfricaduringtheslavetrade,colonialismintroducedamong othersthecollectionofheritageandnaturalresourcestothenorth.Howeverthetwo exploitativemechanismsweresimilar.Museum’scomplicityintheextractiveagenda, especially of the heritage of the others makes it a place of contestations and controversies.

Despiteitscheckeredpast,museumsandtheiroriginsintheWestasconceptsand institutionshavefoundtheirwayinallpartsoftheglobe.Todaytheyarenotonlyseen ascreationsoftheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturyEuropeancollectionmania,but have,overtheyears,growntotranscendtheiroriginal‘cabinetofcuriosity’or‘war chest’images,andarepartofthehumanlandscapesthatshapeandareshapedby currentandongoingrealitiesanddebates.

In many places museums have become critical and important spaces of representation, history telling and dialogue apart from their traditional roles of exhibition,educationandresearch.Althoughattimestheyprovidespacesofnarratives thatareloadedwithinterestsandpowerimbalance,theyaregenerallyacceptedacross thesocietyascustodiansofsocietalhistoryandhumandevelopment.This,however, makes them into powerful tools/instruments of influence through dominant and selectednarrativesthatoftentendtofavourthoseonandwithpowerorinauthority. Museumsarethereforeneitherpoliticalnorneutral.

42 TheMuseumtoday TheMuseumoftodayshouldbeadecolonizedspaceoftruerepresentation,debate anddialoguethattranscendsthetraditionalpracticewhereattimestheyareusedfor themarginalizationofothersandthepromotionofdominantvoices.Ithastobeaspace thatcapturesandemitsdiversifiedmessagesfromdiversifiedvoices.Ithastoproject theharshrealitiesofhumaninteractionandpolitical,socialandeconomicpositioning ofthepresentworldwithallitsskewednatureasapointofreferenceforcalltoaction. Museums must also engage on issues that concern humanity such as sustainable development, climate change, gender imbalance, contemporary slavery and slave trade,youthempowerment,migration,globalizationanddecolonizationamongothers. Museums of today must cease their inaction in apolitical dialogue and be ready to forfeittheircomfortzoneswheretheirexistenceisexplainedmerelyonexhibitionof thepastlifeways.

TheIntercontinentalSlaveryMuseuminMauritiuswillhavetofocusondifficultand painfulepisodesasitrelatestotheAfricanpeoplesandpeoplesofAfricanorigins.To playacredibleroleofthemuseumoftoday,theIntercontinentalSlaveryMuseumin Mauritiusmustbereadytointerrogatetruthfullyandwithoutbiasfactorsbasedonthe realities of history that have subsequently shaped power relations and privilege apportioningbetweenpeoplesaswellasbetweenregions.Thesepowerrelationshave left some visible social, political and economic scars in the South, with unfinished agendasofthepast.Thesescarsarealsoexperiencedinternallywithinthecountriesof the South as people of different origins; persuasions and even class compete for resources resulting in permanent underclass/under privileged and permanent super rich.Thepresentsituationarisesfrom,butisnotlimitedto,pastinjusticessuchas slavery,indentureandcolonization,theimpactsofwhichreverberateuptothepresent inmanysocietiesanddefinethepresentgeopoliticalrelationsglobally. Museumfor,byandofthepeople:aparadigmshift? Thequestionthatneedstobeaskediswhethermuseumscanmakeachange.Are they as institutions capable of decolonizing their working methods, processes, and narrativesofdominantvoicestobeinclusiveanddemocraticenough?Inadecolonized anddemocratizedmuseum“everybodyisacurator”.Howevermuseumshavealways beenmadetothrillthroughthevoicesofonemanorwoman,thecurator.

Thetraditionalmuseumsgiveallthepowertothecuratortocurateandexhibit providing all the narratives without need for consultations. However a decolonized museummustaskhowthegeneralpublicincludingtheconsumerofthenarrativesas wellasthoserepresentedinthenarrativescontributetothemakingofthemuseum andintheirrepresentation.Hereiswheretheexpressions“notformewithoutme”,“if youdoitformewithoutmeyouareagainstme”comeintoplay.

43 InthiscontextcanitbesaidthattheproposedIntercontinentalSlaveryMuseumin Mauritius will be equipped with the necessary resources and have the capacity of inclusivenessby,amongothers,bringingthevoicelesstothecentreofthemuseum dialoguewithouthavingtogazeoveritsshoulders?Willitbeabletoincludethevoices ofthediscriminatedandstereotypedinthedominantnarrative?

Ifthatweretobethecase,thenathoroughmindsetchangewouldneedtooccur withaparadigmshiftthatwouldseetheintroductionofcoͲCreation,coͲCurationand coͲProduction of museum exhibits and narratives, something alien to museum operationsandtraditions.Itisproposedthatsuchradicalchangethatbringsinatotal paradigmshiftcannotbeachievedwithoutaserioustransformationincludingatotal mindsetchange.Theoppositeunfortunatelywilljustbebusinessasusual.

Itisconsideredthattrulydecolonizedmuseumshavetotackletoughquestionson any subject but particularly on those that relate to discrimination, marginalization, stereotypingandmattersofwellnessandsubsequentlyproposesolution.Heritageis politicsandmuseumsmustbereadytopartakewithoutbiasintothepoliticsoftheday throughtheirexhibitionsandpublicprogrammingifsuchactionsaredeemedtopossess the power to correct existing mistakes and contribute to human good, common understandingandharmony.Museumsofthepeople,forthepeopleandbythepeople mustbeabletotellcollectiveaswellasindividualstoriesalthoughtheymayappear unimportant,unpleasantorminute.

FortheIntercontinentalSlaveryMuseuminMauritius,itisimperativethatthestory ofslaveryandslavetradedoesnotbecomefrozeninthemuseumcasesbutbecomesa catalyst to revisiting and correcting/repairing past mistakes. Unlike many other museumsthatareoftenplacesofnarrationofpasthistorieswhetherpainfulorglorious butwithlittleroomfordiscussingremedies,theIntercontinentalSlaveryMuseummust upitsactionbyprovidingwayforward.Itisimportantfromthebeginningtounderstand thatasimportantasthemuseumscanbe,theycanalsobespacesoffossilizationof humanhistories.Inthisregardtheytendtostartandendatparticulartimes,leaving littleroomfordebateonwhatisnext.ItishopedthattheIntercontinentalSlavery MuseuminMauritiuswillbedifferentandagamechanger.Thatitwillbeaforward lookingandadecolonizedmuseumthatinadditiontothenarrativeofthepasthistories willprovideavenuesforactionandafuturisticapproachtoitsworkings.Itmustbea placeofinspirationandfulfillment,especiallythosewhoselivesarescarredwithpain throughpastactionsofoppressionanddiscrimination.

Whileitisimperativeandexpectedofsuchamuseumtotellwhathappenedinthe pastincludingtheverypainfulpast,thatisnotisenough.Whatisevenmoreimportant istoshowhowthatpastinfluencesthepresenteithernegativelyorpositivelyandto providespacefordialoguingpositivechangeforabettertodayandtomorrow.Ifthe

44 IntercontinentalSlaveryMuseumsucceedsinthis,thentheprocessofhealingforthe descendantsofthosewhowereenslavedandallpeoplesoftheworldwhosufferinone way or another from discrimination, oppression, want and denial would have commencedthroughamuseumspace.

TheIntercontinentalSlaveryMuseuminthepresentdayshouldalsoplayanactive role in the lives of people from different backgrounds and understandings. While remembrances and commemorations are good in reminding us of the past human relations,includingtheverydifficultpasttheyarenotinthemselvesenoughoranend. TheIntercontinentalSlaveryMuseumshouldnothavethecommemorationofthepast sufferingandhumiliationofcommunitiesastheirmaingoalbutgobeyondthistobea platformforrecognition,reform,reconciliationandrepairing.

Further sucha museum could serve asan advocate for the memory of the long suffering enslaved peoples and their descendants in attaining justice through recognition,compensationandcorrectingofthepastinjustices.Itmustbealivelyspace ofdebateanddialoguewheretheinherentandinheritedinjusticesanddiscrimination ofthepresentsocietycanbearticulated,debatedandcorrected.

Itisnotasecretthatstereotypingofthedescendantsofthosewhowereenslaved continuestonegativelyimpactonthempolitically,sociallyandeconomicallywherever theyare.Itadverselyaffectsthemintermsofeducation,jobs,health,andsocialstatus withoftenseriousconsequencesintheformsofdrugaddiction,lowerhealthstandards, poornutrition,marginalization,lowerselfͲesteem,fandͲ lesssel confidence.

While it will be a fallacy to generalize on the above as affecting all peoples descendedfromthosewhosufferedfromslavery,itisnotuncommonorasecretthat manyoftheaboveinflictionsdotakeplaceamongthemasaresultofbothhistorical and contemporary inequalities. These are some of the issues the Intercontinental MuseumofSlaverycoulddealwiththroughhighlightingthecausesandeffectsand going beyond the common. Otherwise these museums would become just another complaintandgrumblingwithnoforeseeablesolutions.

TheIntercontinentalSlaveryMuseuminMauritiusshouldthereforeaspiretobea space of debate on all and different subjects including human rights, economic, political,gender,andsocialjusticeamongothers.Onlythenwillanewsetofatruly decolonizedmuseumcomeofage.  

45 Conclusion As Museums are societyͲmade and societyͲdriven, they, by necessity, should be cognizantofsocietalchallenges,needsandexpectations.Theymustfaceheadonand discuss the fallacies of the inherited inequalities and discriminations based on past histories.Confrontingthepainfulpastandcraftingabetterpresentandfutureisnot outside the domain of museum practice. It is a responsibility that the new IntercontinentalSlaveryMuseuminMauritiuswouldbeexpectedtopartakein.





46 6 EngagingTraumaintheIntercontinental SlaveryMuseum RosabelleBoswell9 Anthropologist,ProfessorandDSIͲNRFSouthAfricanResearchChairinOcean CulturesandHeritage,NelsonMandelaUniversity,SouthAfrica 

HowmightweengagehistoricaltraumaintheIntercontinentalSlaveryMuseum? Whatchallengesmayariseinengagingtraumaandwhyistheengagementwithtrauma necessary for a democratic society? This chapter considers museums as sites and facilitatorsoftrauma,aswellastherolethattheISMcanplayindeͲcentering,deͲ institutionalising, acknowledging and engaging trauma in the construction of a democraticnation. Introduction In2002,IhadtheopportunitytovisittheAfricaMuseumatTervuren,inBrussels Belgium.SetinthegrandgardensofthehistoricalpalaceofKingLeopoldII,theAfrica Museum betrayed little of Belgium’s colonial past and said little about the deeper historyoftheartefactstobefoundinthemuseumorinitsgrounds.Thecuratorshad arranged the artefacts in a manner expected in the nineteenth century. They had collated all artefacts according to geographical origin and ultimately botanical genealogy,creatinganimpressionofpreciseevolutionaryorder.AsIenteredthegrand foyer of the Africa Museum, I noted a statue of mother and child. This depicted a Romanesquewomandrapedinaflowinggown,handoutstretchedtowardsanAfrican child.Oncloserinspection,IlearnedthattheimagesymbolisedEurope’srelationship withAfricaandthatitexpressedascientificracismcommontotheera.InthemidͲ nineteenthcenturyandviathetheoryofrecapitulation,scientificracistsproposedthat lowerorderracesneverfullymature,ineithercognitiveormoralsenses.Becauseof





9Rosabelle(Rose)BoswellwasbornontheislandofMauritius.SheisaSouthAfricanNational Research Foundation (NRF) Rated Researcher and Professor of Ocean Cultures and Heritage at NelsonMandelaUniversity.SheisauthorofLeMalaiseCreole:EthnicIdentityinMauritius(Oxford: Berghahn2006),RepresentingHeritageinZanzibarandMadagascar(AddisAbaba:Eclipse2008); Challenges to Identifying and Managing Intangible Cultural Heritage in Mauritius, Zanzibar and Seychelles (Dakar: CODESRIA 2011) and Postcolonial African Anthropologies (coͲedited with F. NyamnjohPretoria:HSRCPress2016).  47 thisinherentinabilitytomature,itwasimperativefor‘superior’racestotakechargein ordertosecurebothamoralandcognitivelysounddestiny.AftervisitingtheAfrica Museum, I visited many other museums across Europe. A year later, for example, I visited a museum in Copenhagen, Denmark that commemorated the resilience and sufferingofDanesduringtheSecondWorldWar.Themuseumwasasinteractiveasit couldbeofferingimagesoftheWar,soundclipsandfilminordertocreateaholistic accountofwhathappenedandhowpeoplehadrespondedtoNazioppression.From the exhibitions, one could somewhat gather the extent to which the people had suffered and even if for a brief moment, visitors to the museum were given the opportunitytoempathisewithwhattheDaneshadexperiencedduringthewar.Each visittoamuseuminEuroperevealed,however,afocusontriumphalistnationalidentity andeffortstodistinguishthisidentityfromother(oftenexotic)identities.Narrativesof transnational oppression and trauma were missing from these museums. This was especiallyapparentinethnographicmuseumsthatcuratedartefactsfromAfricaand elsewhereintheworld.Itwasasiftheitemshadvoluntarilyfloatedovertheseaand settledindisplaycases,thehistoryofslaverywaseverywhere,hardlyacknowledged.

BycommencingthischapterwiththeabovestoriesofwhatIsawinsomeEuropean museums,Ihopetohighlightthecomplexityofmuseums.Theycanliberatebutalso serveassitesofoppression.Inwritingthischapter,Ialsohopetoemphasisewaysin whichtheIntercontinentalSlaveryMuseum(ISM)andotherrelatedeffortstoreveal historicaloppressionmightavoidentrenchingthetraumatheyseektoalleviate.Fortoo long, museums have served as nationalist projects detached from historical and globalised processes of oppression, especially oppression caused by slavery. The detachmentandinstitutionalisationofmemorytakingplaceinmuseumshassilenced Africansandtheirdescendants,perpetuatinghiddenviolence.Toframethediscussion, thechapterengageswithtraumaandheritagetheory,aswellasliteratureonmemory making. The conclusion is that to strike the right social note, the ISM will have to consider various ways in which to address trauma and consider the potential ramificationsofdoingsoforbothanationalandglobalaudience.Thediscussionbegins with the identification of theories relevant to the discussion. An account of the traumaticexperienceresultingfromslaveryandanoverviewofthepurposeandroleof museums follows. The final section of the chapter offers questions and recommendations to the ISM as it seeks to advance restitution centuries after the abolitionofslavery.

48 TheorisingTrauma ToengagetheissueoftraumainrelationtotheendeavouroftheISM,onemustbe prepared to thread together disparate theories. These include theories of trauma, heritage,placeandmemorymaking.Briefly,memorymakingwasandiskeytonation building.Museumcuratorshaveusedthemuseologicalspacetonarratenewnation states(Ashworth,GrahamandTunbridge2007,Abungu2019).Thememoriessurfaced wereintegraltoforgingaunifiednation.AsWerbner(1998)remarkedsometimeago, memorymakinghelpedleaderstoreimagine‘post’independencesociety.Citizenswere encouraged to focus on liberation leadership, to forget the violence of slavery and colonisationandfindbelongingandidentityinthenewnation.Nationalleadersalso encouragednationalidentityasawayofbuildingthefictionalfamilyofthenationͲͲ hencethereferencetoliberationleadersasthe‘fatherofthenation’.Theaimwasalso to address the divisive potential of ethnic and other particularisms and to cement allegiancetothestate.

Inthelast20years,nationalleadershavebeenconcernedaboutthedestabilising effects of western globalisation. International heritage regimes have provided a discourseofdiversitythatsomenationalleadershaveaccepted.Thediscourseevokes rootednessandbelongingviaculturalheritage.Giventhepoliticallychargednatureof theprocess,someheritageswerenotincludedorexpressed.Long(1999)hasargued thattheheritagesofthepoorandmarginalisedrarelyfeatureinofficialnarrativesof the nation. Those in power foreground their own heritages (KirshenblattͲGimblett 2004)topromotethesymbolicandactualpowerofthoseinpower.Evenso,daily, commonplaceheritagespersistandtheculturalexpressionsofthepoorandmarginal continue (Chambers 2009). These expressions provide both a symbolic and visceral meanstodealingwithsocialsuffering.

Thus,thoseengagedwiththeISMalsoneedtoconsidersocialsuffering.Kleinman, Das and Lock (1997) say that social suffering encompasses the entire complex of sufferingwroughtbyoppressionsenduredinmoderntimes.Theseoppressionsdidnot justsuddenlymanifest,theyaretheresultofcomplexprocessesofincreasingracial inequalityandhierarchy.Withinthiscomplexareothersocialitiesandthoseidentified as slave descendants today are embedded in multiple socialities. They may be marginalisedcitizensubjectsinneoliberalstatesthatvisituponthemvaryingdegrees ofsufferingbuttheyarealsotransnationalsubjects,participatinginothersocialloops bothvirtualandactual,realisingadiversityofselfhoodsthatbuffertheircastingasslave descendants.Moreover,familyandcommunalexperiencesdifferentlysituateidentity. Intermarriage,socialnetworksandfriendships,forinstance,maycomplicatelineages oftrauma,producingnewresilienceandopportunitytoremakeone’sworld.Kleinman, Das,Lock,RampheleandReynolds(2001)emphasisethelatter,proposingthathuman

49 beingswhohaveexperiencedsignificanttraumahavemadestrongefforttoremake theirworldsandthatthishastobeacknowledgedanddocumented.

Considerationsoftraumashould,therefore,takenoteofsocialsufferingandmake clear the distinction between the immediate impact of a socially and physically disruptiveeventandtheircumulative,longͲtermeffects.Definingtrauma,Fassinand Rechtman (2009) state that ‘trauma has become a major signifier of our age [21st Century].Itisournormalmeansofrelatingpresentsufferingtopastviolence’.[Trauma] isunderstoodasthe‘traces’leftontheindividualpsycheafteraviolentevent,itisalso understoodas‘thecollectiveimprintonagroupofahistoricalexperiencethatmay haveoccurreddecades,generations,orevencenturiesago’(FassinandRechtman2009: foreword).In saying this, Fassin and Rechtman acknowledge that long term, intergenerational trauma exists but that trauma itself risks becoming commoditised andbioͲmedicalised.TheissuefortheISMisthattherearediversewaysofdealingwith bothimmediateandlongͲtermtrauma.Themuseumhasanimportantrole,asAbungu (2019) notes in addressing the long legacy of trauma, which includes the violence inflictedbydeliberateforgetting/amnesiaandexclusionofslavehistory.TheISMalso needs to guard against setting aside theissue of trauma for professional (Western) psychological intervention. Reflecting on longͲterm trauma in the US after slavery, Brewster(2018)cogentlyarguestraumaisanintergenerationalvisceralexperience.The body remembers and cognitive patterns and ways of dealing with violence are transmissible from one generation to the next. Presently, few accounts retell the visceralnatureofslavery,ofitsimpactsonpersonalmobility,thetactileexperienceof being in close confines for weeks on end, with strangers – of the pain endured by lashingsandotherphysicalformsofabusevisitedonslaves.Inaccountsofslavery,one obtainsonlyaminimalsenseofthatpainfulsensoryexperience.

Alastconceptofrelevancetotheconsiderationoftraumaisthatofspatiality.The work of Lovell (1998) makes the distinction between meaningless spaces and meaningful places. She argues that places are rendered meaningful by their accumulatedsocialvalueandnarration,thatis,whatpeoplesayandhowpeoplespeak about places. In thinking about the ISM, one must remain mindful of the fact that museumsareparticularkindsofplaces.Thereisarisk,becauseofthewayinwhich curatorshavecuratedmuseumsandtourismofficialsnarratedthemthattheybecome edificesofexclusion.Inthisregard,oneneedstoconsiderawiderspatialfieldforthe expression of the sentiments and imperatives of the ISM. An issue that is taken up furtheroninthediscussion. 

50 AHistoryofTraumatization ScholarshaveofferedcogenthistoricalaccountsofslaverybothintheIndianOcean regionandbeyond.Whatisperhapslessevidentisthenatureofcontemporarytrauma experiencedbyslavedescendedpopulations.Literaturesearchesrevealthattheissue surfacesinsociologicalandgenderanalysesofraceandinequality.Inthesouthwest IndianOceanregion,scholars(Sheriff1987,Campbell1988,Cole2001,Lambek2002, Fair2004,Evers2006,Boswell2006andGraeber2007)have,throughethnographyand historicalanalysis,documentedthepersistenceoftraumaamongslavedescendantsin theregion.InthecontextofMauritius,Iargued(Boswell2006)thatthoseenslavedin Mauritiusareassociatedwithexperiencesofasocialphenomenonknownaslemalaise Creole,aphenomenonthatisboth‘real’andideological.Creolesdidanddoindeed experiencemarginalisationinMauritius,howeverthoseinpowerideologicallydeploy the concept of ‘malaise’ as a primordial trait of Creoles, in order to explain their continued economic alienation and social exclusion.Before considering the contemporary,however,oneneedstogothepast.Whatwasthenatureoftrauma experiencedbyAfricandescendants?Briefly,thoseenslavedinMauritius,Zanzibaror Madagascar first experienced the traumatic event of capture. Capture was often violent,signifyingthefirstinstanceofpainandviolation.Slavetradersrippedfamilies apart,theystrippedpeopleoftheirculturalattireandbundledthemintogroupswith whomtheymayhavehadlittleincommon.Thefirstinstanceoftraumamighthavealso been that of betrayal, since in Africa local chiefs sold their subjects into slavery in exchangeforarmsandothergoods.InMadagascar,thefirsttraumamighthavebeen anticipated, one could become a bonded slave, someone who was passed on into slaverytopayofffamilydebt(Campbell1988).Evers(2006)notesthatslavesendured severe hardships in Madagascar, a notch above the ‘untouchables’, they had no establishedburialplotsandthereforefelloutsidetherealmofancestralprotectionand beneficence.

Slaveownersandtheirworkmenfurtherviolatedtheenslavedontheplantations. Fair(1994),notesthatslavesinZanzibarwereforcedtogobarefootandtowearblack Kanikiclothtosymbolizetheirslavestatus.Brewster’s(2018)accountofmotheringin theUnitedStatesmirrorswhattookplaceinthesouthwestIndianOceanRegion(IOR). BothintheIORandintheUS,slavemastersandothermenontheplantationsregularly rapedslavewomenandcompelledthemtoraisetheirillegitimatechildrenasslaves.At anypointintime,thosechildrencouldbesoldtoanotherslaveownersinceallslaves werepossessions.Thoseattemptingtoescapetheplantationswererecaptured,faced violent punishment. These punishments included the severing of ears and Achilles tendons,theforcedwearingofironmasksandpublicfloggings.Otherformsofsuffering continued on and off the plantations. Those in power publicly denigrated slave descendants, creating racist ideologies to justify their continued oppression. White slaveownersandthoseinpowerwithinthatsocietydenigratedthecolourofblackskin, 51 blackhair,noseshape,mouthandculture,promotinginmoderntimes,whatStuartHall (1992) calls a politics of blood, skin and bone. The above noted physiological traits becamewhatHallcallsfloatingracesignifiers.Thoseinpowerusedsuchphysiological signifierstodetermineanindividual’spotentialandeconomicfortune.

InthecontextofMauritiusandcertainlyinBrazil,thishasencouragedmanyslave descendantstodenytheirownblacknessandAfricanity.Ithasencouragedmanyto engage in a process of social whitening, a repositioning of the self and identity to maximiseaccesstoresourcesaffordedtothosedefinedaswhite.TheselfͲdenial,as FrantzFanon(1952)hasargued,producesaraceͲbasedpsychosisthatpromotesselfͲ loathing. The black self can never be white enough to achieve the desired level of recognitionandacceptance.Inthepresentcontext,theexclusionofslavedescendants hasresultedinhomelessness,poverty,drugaddiction,malnutrition,particulardisease profiles and high incarceration and mortality rates. Reflecting on contemporary circumstances,Brewster(2018)explainsthatfearsoriginatinginthetimeofslavery continueinthe21stCentury.Theracializednatureofthesocietymeansthattheblack motherstillfearsthathersonwillnotremembertheconstructionofhisracedidentity andfaceviolenceandmurderbyracistwhites.Theblackmotheralsostillfearsthat authoritieswilltakeherchildfromher.ShestillhasnoaestheticvalueinUSsocietyand mustcontinuously‘position’herselftobeculturallyandphysicallywhiteinorderto avoidscornorviolence.

PartoftheworkdonebyscholarsofslaveryalsoreflectsontheresilienceofslaveͲ descendedpopulations.Theworkshowsthatslavedescendedpeopleshaveproactively engagedwiththetraumasvisiteduponthemintheperiodofslaveryandcolonisation. In brief, and despite enslavement, human beings have used their circumstances to create music, art, language and dance. They have also used their circumstances to advancesocialjustice,newconceptsoffreedomandequality.Theircontributionsto the worlds in which they now live, include fashion, culinary traditions and beliefs. Africanbeliefsandsymbolism,forexample,havecrossedtheAtlantictoenlivenritual practicesintheAmericasandtheCaribbean.IntheSouthwestIndianOceanregion, similarflowsofritualandbeliefareapparent.Thereisnospacetoattendtothedetail ofthesehere.However,acommontiebindingallAfricandescendantsistheirbeliefin, ornotionof,theancestralworld.Thoseenslavedhavelongcalleduponthebeneficence ofancestorseventhoughphysicallyremovedfromthelandofthebirth.Equally,some AfricanartefactsnowresidinginEuropeanethnographicmuseums,althoughremoved from their original social context, still hold great value and cultural meaning.The lootingofsuchartefactscanproducelongͲtermtrauma.Thisincludesculturalamnesia andthelossofritualsassociatedwithculturallyandhistoricallymeaningfulobjects. Revivingthestoryofsuchartefactsmightbeusefulintherestitutionofidentityand

52 history.Inextconsidermuseumsandmuseumificationandtheirimpactsonidentity andtrauma. MuseumsassitesofTrauma Since the eighteenth century, museums in Europe have offered a means for humanitytoengagewithmaterialcultureandideasfromboththepastandthepresent. For18thcenturyEuropeansinparticular,thecollectionofartefactsbothbotanicaland culturalbecameanobsession.Theacquisitionofgoodsformedpartofacollectivist, masculinistthrustofconquest,awaytopubliclydemonstratehegemonicmasculine Europeanvaluesand,byimplication,Europeanracialandculturalsuperiority.Inthe samewaythattheirpredecessorshadviolentlyseizedgoodsfromthoseconquered, Europeancolonists‘collected’artefactsfromtheconqueredforbothprivateandpublic displays.Inpublicdisplays,meticulouslyassembledcurationsaimedtoimpressandto indicate the discerning taste of the emerging bourgeoisie. Scientists also displayed trophiesforpublicentertainmentand‘education’andeventuallyrecuperatedthesefor further scientific study. An extreme example of this was the public display and dismembermentofSaartjieBaartman,aKhoeͲKhoe(indigenousAfricanwoman)who livedinSouthAfricain1810.HercaptivesparadedherinfreakshowsinEnglandand Francesothatlocalscouldperuseher‘unique’anatomicalfeatures.Tothe‘experts’, shewaspresentedasanexampleofherrace,encouragingdiverseclassesofEuropeans tointernaliseraciststereotypesofAfricans.Whenshedied,thesurgeonGeorgeCuvier excisedhergenitaliaandpreservedthemforscienceattheMuséedel’HommeinParis. Baartman’sremainswereonlyreturnedtoSouthAfricain2002,nearly200yearsafter shewastakenfromAfrica.10

Asacolonialsubject,Baartman’scaptivesconsideredherproperty.Similarlyand untilnow,curatorsattheAfricaMuseumstillconsiderpropertyallitemslawfullygained duringconquest.AlonghistoryofefforttorepatriateCongoleseartefactsfromthe AfricaMuseumtotheDemocraticRepublicofCongocontinues.Itisnotclearifthe repatriation request includes the renowned pile of hands in the basement of the museum.HandsseveredfromdissentingCongoleseplantationworkersunderBelgian colonial rule. As the case of Saartjie Baartman and the story of the Africa Museum relate, museums are historically central to the perpetuation of trauma. As a black womanandslavedescendantvisitingsomeEuropeanmuseums,Iamtraumatisedby





10SouthAfricanHistoryOnline.(n.d.)Sara‘SaartjieBartman’ https://www.sahistory.org.za/people/saraͲsaartjieͲ baartman#:~:text=The%20process%20took%20eight%20years,Africa%20where%20she%20was%2 0buried.Accessed08/08/2020. 53 racist narratives of the exotic (black) other, triumphalist accounts of conquest and deliberatesilencingofslavery.Morechillingwasthepresentation,inmanymuseums, ofthe18thCenturyasthecommencementofEuropeanEnlightenment.WhileEurope flourishedinart,literatureandmusic,theparallelhorrorshowofAfricanslaveryand underdevelopmentwentunacknowledged.ThetraumatizationofmillionsofAfricans through capture and forced labour facilitated the artistic flourishing of Europe, as excesscapitalflowedtoenablethepurchaseofartanditsdisplayinornateedifices dedicatedto‘culture’.

The spread of capitalism ensured that museums became sites not only for representationbutalsoforconsumption.Culturalandartappreciationwasincreasingly tiedtobeingamemberofthebourgeoisieandeventually,theleisureclass(Veblen 1899).Museumsbecamestopoversitesfortouristsastheysoughttofillidletime.The narrativesofidentityapparentinmuseumsconfirmthatthosehistoricallyinpower created museums to salvage and represent a version of the past that favoured the victors. Curators presented artefacts derived from other cultural groups in a less favourable light. The location of museums across a city or country is also relevant, servingtoexpress,spatially,theformationandapogeeofnationalidentity,withthe most globally significant collections placed in the centre of capital cities. Such placements further delineated social and economic hierarchies, distinguishing urbanitesasculturedandeducated.

A brief note is required on the subject of museumification. For the powerless, museums may have become edifices of exclusion, for those in power they signify triumph.EntireEuropeancities(c.f.,Amsterdam)seemtobeundergoingaprocessof museumification,thatis,museumsarepoppingup,almostasiftheseplacesarenodes articulating authentic cultural identity in the face of growing diversification. As globalizationcontinuesapace,moresuchmuseumsareneededtoensurethatthe‘true’ localsdonotforgettheirhistoryandultimately,whotheyare.

When one considers existing museums in Mauritius, one finds that existing museumsontheislanddonotyetarticulatethehistoryofslaveryortheintegrated natureoftheisland’sethnichistory(Boswell2019).Existingmuseums(andultimately alsotheISM)arelocatedinthecapitaloritsmajorcities,farfromcommunitieswhere slavedescendantsliveorwheretheyoriginallycongregated.Existingmuseumsonthe island also tend to elevate the triumphs of colonial powers (Boswell 2019) and to encapsulatetheseinmuseums.Thecurrentmuseumsbarelymentiontheroleofslaves, orevenindenturedlabourers,insocietyandeconomy.Thesituationhassilencedthe viscerality,orfleshlinessofslaveryandcolonialrule(Ibid),numbing‘victims’,promoting collectiveamnesiaandpreventingasensory(potentiallytherapeutic)engagementwith thepast.Ofcourse,itisnotonly‘victims’whoareaffected;byerasingthehistoryand curationofslavehistory,theminorityelitenotonlysilencesAfricanhistory(Teelock 54 1998, Depelchin 2005, Vaughan 2015, Salverda 2015) it absolves itself of the intergenerationalpainandguiltarisingfromcenturiesofsocialandeconomicbenefit. InthecontextofMauritius,Eriksen(1998)arguedthatafragileethniccompromisehad been achieved since independence from colonial rule and that particularism might upsetthebalance.

Inthe21stcentury,however,museums,unlesssufficientlyengagedinrepresenting adiversityofpasts,arenottheonlyplaceswhereonecanrepresentthepast.Thepast is now public, virtual, rendered aesthetic (in public art) or sensory (in culinary expressionsofthepast).Articulationsofandconversationswiththepast,immediate, recent or ancient appear in art galleries, public spaces, fashion and film. Through a diversityofmedia,fineart,sculpture,mixedmedia,photographyandfood.Peopleare diverselyseekingtoaddresslegaciesofviolenceandoppression.Publicspaceshave become mobile repositories for a multiͲlayered and multiply articulated contemporaneouspast.Inthelatter,thereisacknowledgementthatthepasthasnot passed, that it continues in the present and that one can, with some imagination, differentlyengagewithit.Bycontrast,museumsseemtohavebecomeuninteresting, expensive stop points for engaging with and representing ‘the’ past. The situation shouldnotdetertheISM,inrecentyearsadvancementsinmuseologyandcuratorship have transformed museums into critical, postͲmodern spaces for reflection on identities, past, present and future. The difficulty comes when museums have to represent traumatised identities and groups in a context where such persecution continues. QuestionsandRecommendationsfortheISM InthecontextofMauritius,theISMisvitalbutanorientationtoanduncriticalfocus ontraumarisksseveralthings.OneoftheseistoforeverassociateCreoleswithslavery. Theotherrisksarecommodifyingslaveheritage,disͲplacingmeaningfulplacesinslave history and advancing trauma of various kinds. Visitors, for example, may be encouragedto‘consume’thetragichistoryandtobe‘donewithit’beforemovingon tootherrecreationalactivitiesthattheislandoffers.Thelocationofthemuseuminthe capitalcity,farfromthesitehistoricallyassociatedwithslavery(LeMornevillage),also risksgentrified(touristed)engagementwiththemuseumandthedeͲemphasisofLe MornevillageasasociallymeaningfulplaceinthestoryofslaveryintheIndianOcean region.HereIemphasisetheissueofsociallymeaningfulplacebecauseasLovell(1998) argued,thereissociallymeaningless‘space’andtherearedeeplymeaningfulplaces. PlacessuchasLeMornearethekindthathaveaccruedsocialandmoralvalueover time.

TheextenttowhichAfricandescendantshaveremadetheirworldsafterslaveryis animportantnarrativetoinclude.ThelatterisimportantbecausetheISMmusttake carenottoendorseanarrativeofunabatedtrauma.Itmustalsolooktowaysinwhich 55 thosewhosurvivedslaveryhaveresilientlyproducednewworlds.Anotherpointthat must be made is that in thinking about trauma, The ISM will have to consider the multifaceted and multicultural nature of trauma, its fleshliness (i.e. how bodies rememberandlockͲinviolence).Itmayneedtoaddressthisaspectbyfindingsimilarly embodiedexpressionsofliberationtoengagewiththisformoftrauma.

Earlier,Itouchedontherelevanceofplaceinmemorymakingandinrestitution.It isimportanttothereforenotethattheISMwillnotbeabletoofferaholisticaccounting ofslaveryanditsaftermathinoneplaceorbuilding.ThemembersoftheboardofISM mustbeinnovativeandconsidertheISMasbutthestartingpointforthinkingabout the intercontinental and interͲspatial nature of slavery. This is important because Mauritiusisthehostofthismuseumandaplaceinwhichslaveryoccurred.Itisnota neutralspaceforthearticulationofslavehistoryasithasitsownhierarchiesandits inhabitants hold their own ideological imperatives. These complexities have to be acknowledged.Mauritiusisaplacewherehegemonicheritagesruleanditisaplace whereslavedescendantsarestillmarginalisedintheeconomyandsociety.Todate, MauritiusisstillaplacewhereAfricandescendantscontinuetoexperiencebothhidden andpublicviolence.

Thusinconsideringtheissueoftraumaanditsrepresentationorarticulationina museumspace,onealsoneedstoaskwhatformsoftraumaweareaddressing.Arewe merelyconcernedwiththefirsttraumaticeventsofslavecaptureandsettlementorwill theISMcommenceadialogueontherange,formsandextentoftraumaexperienced afterabolitionbothinMauritiusandelsewhere?WilltheISMbeaplacewherethere mightbefocusgroupdiscussionsonthepresenceandrelevanceofintergenerational violence? Will it be educative to a broader public, nationally and internationally, offering seminars on the linkages between contemporary racial politics, heritage managementandsocialjustice?WilltheISMalsoserveasaguidetothevisitingpublic ofotherplacesofcommemorationontheislandandelsewhereintheworld?Willit encourage, support and advance social inclusion by joining contemporary social movementsthatintendtoimproveglobalracialequality?Willitseektointegratethose communitiespreviouslyandcurrentlyisolatedinsmallhamletsduetothegeographies ofslaveryontheislandandespecially,elsewhereintheregion?Willithighlight,through fundedandvoluntaryresearch,theworldviews,values,beliefsandepistemologiesof Africandescendantsintheglobalbidtoaddresstoissuesofknowledgejusticeand equality? Conclusion:AvoidingDehiscence InartistWilliamKentridge’sSleeper,weseetheperilsofignorantbliss.Thedrawing effectivelydepictsasleeper,awhitemanwhowillhavetowakeuptotherealityof millions of South Africans oppressed through the period of both slavery and colonization.IntheApartheidMuseum,onegetstoexperiencethehistoricaljourney 56 through the violent regime and to encounter in sound and sight, the struggles of ordinaryblackSouthAfricansagainstthewhiteminorityregime.Themuseumdisplays areveryevocativeandpowerful,butthemuseumitselfisfarfromtherealityofpoverty andexclusionexperiencedbyblackSouthAfricanslivinginthecity.

In2011,IledateamofresearchersfortheMauritiusTruthandJusticeCommission. OurtaskwastoinvestigatethelegacyofracisminMauritius,followingtheabolitionof slavery.Wenotedthenthattherootsofracismaredeepandarecomplexlyentangled with other forms of exclusion in the society. The national government is slowly addressingtherecommendationsmade.Itishearteningtoseetheemergenceofthe ISM.However,inaddressingtheissueoftrauma,oneshouldconsiderthefollowing points:

x Museums are nodes of remembrance not entire places offering a cohesive narrativeofcommemoration.

x Beyondthemuseumthereshouldbeinterlinkedspacesandplacesofreflection regardingslaverysothatvisitorsandcitizensunderstandthatslaveryisstill markingthelandscapeandformspartofourintimatejointhistory.

x The ISM should include not only static, historical artefacts and twoͲ dimensionalrepresentationsofthepastbutalsofluid,temporary,multimedia expressionsofourconnectionstoapastinfluencedbyslavery.

x Themuseumofferssensitiveandsensoryrichexperienceoftheinstitution.

x Theworkofthemuseumextendsbeyondthemuseumtoengageinascholarly waywithsocialcritiqueofinequalitiesinpubliclifesothatthemuseumisnot merely a place of salvaged memories but also a place of interlocution and interrogationofthepresent.

x Theartwork,artefactsandotherproductsexhibitedarewidelysourcedand circulatedsoastocreateatrulyintercontinentalmuseum,ratherthanonethat simplydepictsthestoryofslaveryinMauritiusand

x Themuseumrecognisesanddocumentsthewaysinwhichslavedescendants haveremadetheirworldafterslavery.

In the healing of wounds,one must avoid dehiscence. Dehiscence is the coming apartortearingofthewoundifoneappliestoomuchpressuretofleshthatisknitting togetherinthehealingprocess.Slaveryisalongstanding,festeringwound.Itisnow beingexcisedanditscontentsexamined.TheISMhasauniqueopportunitytoofferan inclusive,deͲinstitutionalisedanddynamicmuseumthatattendstoallthethingsthat couldrenderaprojectofthismagnitudefragile.Itwouldbeadvisabletopayattention

57 towhathasgonewrongelsewhere,whathascauseddehiscenceandtofullyengage with the concept of trauma in order to understand how it might be addressed for Mauritiusandforothersofslavedescent,elsewhereintheworld.

 References Abungu,G.O.2019.‘Museums:Geopolitics,Decolonisation,Globalisationand Migration’,MuseumInternational,71:1Ͳ2,62Ͳ71. DOI:10.1080/13500775.2019.1638030

Allen, R.2001. “Licentiousand Unbridled Proceedings: The Illegal Slave Tradeto MauritiusandtheSeychellesduringtheearlynineteenthcentury.”JournalofAfrican History42:91–116.

Ashworth,G.J.andGraham,B.,andJ.E.Tunbridge.2007.PluralisingPasts:Heritage, IdentityandPlaceinMulticulturalSocieties,London:PlutoPress.

Boswell,R.2006.LeMalaiseCreole:EthnicIdentityinMauritius.Oxford:Berghahn Books.

______ 2011. Representing Heritage in Zanzibar and Madagascar. Addis Ababa:AfricanBooksCollective.Eclipse.

______ 2019. ‘Desensitized pasts and sensational futures in Mauritius and Zanzibar’,JournaloftheIndianOceanRegion,15(1)SpecialEdition:SouthwestIndian OceanIslands:Identity,DevelopmentandCooperation.23:39.

Brewster,F.2018.ArchetypalGrief:Slavery’sLegacyofIntergenerationalChildLoss. London:Routledge.

Campbell,G.1988.‘SlaveryandFanompoana:TheStructureofForcedLabourin Imerina(Madagascar),1790Ͳ1861’,TheJournalofAfricanHistory,29(3):463Ͳ486.

Chambers,E.2009.‘HeritageinPractice’.PracticingAnthropology,Summer2009, 31(3):2Ͳ4.

Cole,J.2001.ForgetColonialism?SacrificeandtheArtofMemoryinMadagascar (Vol.1).UnivofCaliforniaPress.

Evers,S.2006.“ExpropriatedfromtheHereafter:TheFateoftheLandlessinthe SouthernHighlandsofMadagascar.”JournalofPeasantStudies33(3):413–444.

Fair, L. 2001. Pastimes and Politics: Culture, Community and Identity in PostͲ AbolitionZanzibar.Oxford:JamesCurrey.

Fanon,F.1952.BlackSkins,WhiteMasks,NewYork:GrovePress. 58 Fassin, D. and Rechtman, R. 2009. The Empire of Trauma: An Inquiry into the ConditionofVictimhood.N.J.PrincetonUniversityPress.

Graeber, D. 2007. Lost People: Magic and the Legacy of Slavery in Madagascar. Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress.

KirshenblattͲGimblett, B. 2004.‘Intangible Heritage and the Metacultural ProductionofHeritage.’MuseumInternational.561/2:52Ͳ66.

Kleinman,A.,Das,V.,Lock,M.1997.SocialSuffering.Berkeley,California:University ofCaliforniaPress.

Kleinman,A.,Das,V.,Lock,M.,Ramphele,M.,andReynolds,P.2001.Remakinga World: Violence, Social Suffering, and Recovery, Berkeley, California: University of CaliforniaPress.

Hall,S.1992.‘Race,theFloatingSignifier’, https://www.mediaed.org/transcripts/StuartͲHallͲRaceͲtheͲFloatingͲSignifierͲ Transcript.pdf.Accessed07/08/2020.

Lambek, M. 2002. The Weight of the Past: Living with History in Mahajanga, Madagascar.NewYork:PalgraveMacmillan.

Salverda, T. 2015. The FrancoͲMauritian Elite: Power and Anxiety in the Face of Change.Oxford:Berghahn.

Long,D.L.1999.‘CulturalheritagemanagementinpostͲcolonialpolities:notthe heritageoftheother’,InternationalJournalofHeritageStudies6(4).

Lovell,N.1998.LocalityandBelonging.NewYork:Routledge.

Sheriff,A.1987.Slaves,SpicesandIvoryinZanzibar.London:JamesCurrey.

Teelock,V.1998.BitterSugar,SugarandSlaveryin19thCenturyMauritius.Réduit: MahatmaGandhiInstitute.

Vaughan,M.2005.CreatingCreoleIsland:SlaveryinEighteenthCenturyMauritius. Durham:DukeUniversityPress.

Veblen,T.1899.TheTheoryoftheLeisureClass,NewYork:ModernLibrary.

59 

60 7 «QuellesHistoire,MémoireͲSetIdentiteͲS dansunMuséedel’esclavage?» Notesréflexives–Suggestions K.BoyerͲRossol Historienne,CIRESC,France 

PourabriterunMuséedel’EsclavageàlafoisInterocéaniqueetIntercontinental, l’îleMauriceoccupeunepositionstratégique,faisantlajonctionentrelesîlesduSudͲ Ouest de l’océan Indien et le continent africain.On se propose de prendre en considérationlesdifférenteséchellesderayonnementd’untelMuséeIntercontinental del’EsclavageàMaurice:unepremièreéchellesubͲrégionale(SudͲOuestdel’océanͲ Indien), une seconde régionale (Océan Indien) et une troisième globale (Océans indien/atlantique/pacifique).

Pourillustrerl’articulationdestraitesindoͲocéaniquesetpacifiquesauxXVIIIeet XIXesiècles,onpeutciterl’exempledecaptifsissusdesactuelsMalaisieetarchipel indonésien, qui furent déportés et asservis au Cap11 (en période esclavagiste), ou encore l’exemple de migrants forcés déportés des îles du Pacifique à l’île de la Réunion12(en\périodepostͲabolitionniste).

AlorsqueleprocessusabolitionnistetraversaittoutlelongXIXesiècle,cetteépoque futparadoxalementcaractériséeparl’augmentationetladiversificationdesmigrations forcées(traitedesesclaves,des«engagés»,des«Libérés»)dansleSudͲOuestde l’océanIndien.





11EricGermain,«LesMalaisduCapexistentͲils?»,inArchipel,année2002,63,pp.173Ͳ210. 12Ungroupede66engagés,capturésentrele12etle20août1857dansdepetitesîlesduSudde l’océan Pacifique, embarqués à bord du bateau anglais le Sutton et déportés jusqu’à l’île de la Réunion,oùilsontétéqualifiésd’engagésvolontairespourcinqans.IlsontétéappelésPolynésiens, AustraliensouCalédoniens,englobésàlaRéuniondanslegroupedes«Africains».Voirl’ouvrage de Gilles Gérard, Les nègres du Pacifique Sud : Histoire des Polynésiens engagésͲesclaves à la Réunion,Harmattan,Paris,2019,130p. 61 Lescaptifscatégoriséscomme«Mozambiques»ontforméunediasporaafricaine que l’on retrouvait aussi bien dans l’océan Indien (Madagascar, Mascareignes, Comores)quedansl’espaceatlantique(Brésil,Cuba,Louisiane)13.DelafinduXVIIIe siècle à la fin du XIXe siècle, les « Mozambiques » ou « Makua » ont été déportés massivement de l’Afrique du SudͲEst vers les îles de l’océan Indien occidental. Madagascar,quiétaitunpaysexportateurd’esclaves,semitauXIXesiècleàimporter massivementdesesclavesissusduMozambique.Onpeutestimeràunminimumde 350,000lenombredecaptifsimportésduMozambiqueàMadagascarseulementau coursduXIXesiècle14.LeXIXesièclefutmarquéparundéveloppementdestraiteset des esclavages en Afrique orientale et à Madagascar ; par une série d’abolitions juridiques de la traite des esclaves et de l’esclavage ; et par des mutations et des continuités des migrations forcées et des systèmes d’exploitation et de domination (engagisme,systèmed’apprentissage,etc)danslesdifférentessociétésduSudͲOuest del’océanIndien.

Esclaves,Affranchis,«Apprentis»,«Engagés»,ou«Libérés»africainsavaientfait l’expériencecollectivedelatraverséeforcéeducontinentverslesîlesdel’océanIndien occidental.Lesroutesdelatraiteillégaledesesclaves,lesroutesdes«engagés»etles routesdes«libérés»africainsontcoexistéets’articulaientmêmeensembledanscet espaceduSudͲOuestdel’océanIndien.Des«Libérés»AfricainsintroduitsàMaurice ontpuconnaîtreuneétapeaulargedelacôteOuestdeMadagascar,oùd’autrescaptifs estͲafricainsétaientembarquéscomme«engagés»verslaRéunion15.

Penseretconcevoirunemuséographiedel’esclavageàpartird’uneîleduSudͲOuest del’océanIndienpermetdedécentrerleregard(souvent«atlanticoͲcentré»)surcette importantequestionhistorique,mémorielleetpatrimonialedestraites,desesclavages etdeleursabolitions.





13E.Alpers,«Mozambiqueand“Mozambiques”:SlaveTradeandDiasporaonaGlobalScale»,in B.Zimba,E.Alpers,A.Isaacman,SlavesRoutesandoralTraditioninSoutheasternAfrica,2005,pp. 39Ͳ62. 14VoirK.BoyerͲRossol,EntrelesdeuxrivesducanaldeMozambique.HistoireetMémoiresdes Makoaàl’OuestdeMadagascar.XIXeͲXXesiècles,thèsededoctoratenHistoiredel’Afriquesousla direction de Faranirina Rajaonah (Université Paris 7 Diderot), soutenue le 20 novembre 2015 à l’UniversitéParis7Diderot,980p. 15DescaptifsissusduMozambiqueontainsipuapparaîtredanslacatégoriede«Malgaches»aux Mascareignes,lesrecruteursretenantnonpaslepaysd’originemaisceluiduderniertransfertdes migrantsforcés. 62 Penseretconcevoirunemuséographiedel’esclavageàpartird’uneîleduSudͲOuest del’océanIndienpermetdedécentrerleregard(souvent«atlanticoͲcentré»)surcette importantequestionhistorique,mémorielleetpatrimonialedestraites,desesclavages etdeleursabolitions.

L’esclavagedansl’océanIndiensecaractériseparunegrandediversité:diversité desacteursetdesréseauxdelatraiteservile;diversitédessystèmesetdesmodèles esclavagistes évoluant dans le temps long (du IXe au XXe siècle).Le processus de déportation, d’asservissement et d’émancipation y apparaît comme un phénomène millénaire.CeluiͲciprîtunrythmeetdesproportionsplusimportantsàpartirdesXVIIe siècleetXVIIIesiècles,avecl’essordelatraiteeuropéennedansl’océanIndienetde l’influence politique omanaise sur les côtes de l’Afrique orientale. On relevait une pluralité de modèles esclavagistes dans le SudͲOuest de l’océan Indien : esclavage colonial(Mascareignes,Cap),développementauXIXesiècledel’esclavageauseinde sociétésestͲafricainesetmalgaches,caractériséparunepluralitédesfonctionsserviles etdessourcesd’approvisionnementencaptifs(traitesinternesetexternesenAfrique orientaleetàlaGrandeIle).Ilparaîtimportantdemettreenévidencecettediversité, ainsi que la circulation des acteurs de la traite, des modèles et des pratiques esclavagistesdanscetespace,notammentàtraversladiffusiondumodèled’esclavage de plantation dans des sociétés parfois très différentes de l’océan Indien (Bourbon, Zanzibar,lesComoresetc).L’adoptiond’uneperspectivecomparativeparaîtégalement pertinentepouranalyserleprocessusd’émancipationetlesdéfisdupostͲesclavage dansdiversessociétésinsulairesdel’océanIndien16.

Ilfautenfinsoulignerladiversitédessourcesdontdisposel’historientravaillantsur latraitedesesclaves,lesesclavagesetleursabolitionsdansl’océanIndien.Lessources écrites paraissent à la fois diversifiées (sources françaises, anglaises, portugaises, malgachesouencoreswahili…)etabondantes,enparticulierpourleXIXesiècle(récits devieettémoignagesd’anciensesclavesafricainsetmalgaches,sourcesjuridiquesetc). Lessourcesoralesdelatraite,del’esclavageetdeleursabolitionsdansleSudͲOuest de l’océan Indien font le plus souvent référence au XIXe siècle. Dans le cadre d’un programme de recherche UNESCO lancé au début des années 2000, des mémoires oralesdelatraitedesesclavesetdel’esclavageontétérecueilliesdanslesîlesduSudͲ Ouestdel’océanIndien(îlesMaurice,Seychelles,RodriguesetComores)etenAfrique





16AbdulSheriff,VijayaTeelock,SaadaOmarWahab,SatyendraPeerthum,Transitionfromslavery inZanzibarandMauritius:acomparitivehistory,Dakar,Codesria,2016. 63 du SudͲEst (Mozambique)17. Toujours dans les années 2000, des mémoires orales makoaontétérecueilliesàl’OuestdeMadagascaretauxComores.Lecroisementdes sourcesoralesetécritespermetdereconstituerlesitinérairesdelatraverséeforcée descaptifsdel’AfriqueorientaleverslesîlesduSudͲOuestdel’océanIndien18.

Ondisposeégalementdesourcesarchéologiques.Plusieursprojetsderechercheen archéologie subaquatique ont été menés sur des navires utilisés pour la traite des esclaves aux XVIIIe et XIXe siècles dans le SudͲOuest de l’océan Indien. On peut mentionnerlecasdel’Utile,quitransportaitdescaptifsprovenantdeMadagascaren 1761etfitnaufragesurl’îledeTromelin.AulargedescôtesduCap,ontétéretrouvées lesépavesdunavirehollandaisleMeermin,quiacouléenfévrier1766àlasuited’une révolte à bord de captifs de Madagascar ; et du navire portugais Sao José, qui transportaitplusde400captifsduMozambiqueetquiavaitfaitnaufrageen1794.Les recherchesarchéologiquessurlesépavesduMeerminetduSaoJoséontétémenées, respectivement à partirde 2004 et 2012,dans le cadre de « l’African SlaveWrecks Project » (SWP), une recherche transͲcontinentale menée sur le long terme, en collaboration avec divers partenaires institutionnels tels que les « Iziko Museums » d’AfriqueduSud,le«SmithsonianNationalMuseumofAfricanAmericanHistoryand Culture»auxEtatsͲUnis.

Lecasdesrévoltesàborddesnaviresutiliséspourla traited’êtreshumainssoulève laquestiondesrésistancesdescaptifset/oudesesclavisés.Ilparaîtimportantd’inclure danslediscoursmuséalsurlatraiteetl’esclavagelesdifférentesformesderésistances («actives»,«passives»etc),ycomprislesrésistancesculturelles.Onpeutévoquer l’exemple de pratiques rituelles maintenues etͲou transformées en contexte d’esclavage,enparticulier,desritesfunérairesetdescultesauxancêtres.

Lefacteurlinguistiqueparaîtimportantpourcomprendrelemaintiendepratiques culturellesencontexted’esclavageetdepostͲesclavage.DescaptifsissusdelaGrande Ile,quiontétédéportésàMauriceouencoreauCap,ontmaintenul’usagedelalangue malgache19.AuXIXesiècle,onrelevaitégalementlaprésenced’unediasporaafricaine





17Voirl’ouvragedeBenignaZimba,EdwardA.Alpers,AllenF.Isaacman,Slaveroutesandoral traditioninsoutheasternAfrica,FilsomEntertainment,2005,335p. 18VoirKlaraBoyerͲRossol,EntrelesdeuxrivesducanalduMozambique:HistoireetMémoiresdes Makoadel’OuestdeMadagascar.XIXeͲXXesiècles,thèsededoctoratd’histoiredel’Afrique,sousla directiondeFaranirinaRajaonah(UniversitéParis7Diderot),980p. 19VoirlestravauxdePierLarsonsurladiasporadelanguemalgachedansleSudͲOuestdel’océan Indien. 64 delangueemakhuwadansleSudͲOuestdel’océanIndien20.D’ancienscaptifsontmis àl’écritleurslanguesd’origines,commelefirentdesMakoaàl’OuestdeMadagascar21.

On peut interroger la fabrication et la circulation d’objets de culture matérielle (instrumentsdemusique,métiersàtisser,mobilier,outilsetc)encontexted’esclavage etdepostͲesclavage.Detelsobjetsontsouventétéconstruitsàpartirdematériaux périssables(bois,matièresvégétales,etc)etn’ontpasnécessairementlaissédetraces matérielles. Toutefois, il est parfois possible d’en retrouver des reproductions iconographiques ou bien la mémoire de leurs fabrications etͲou de leurs usages. À travers la transmission de savoirs culturels, d’anciens captifs ont maintenu (parfois durant plusieurs générations) des liens (symboliques) avec leur pays d’origine. Ces dynamiquesdiasporiquessesontaussitraduitespardesstratégiesderetouraupays natal,commeàMadagascarouauMozambique.

On peut évoquer d’autres sources matérielles, comme des objets de collections anthropologiques.Àtitred’exemple,lacollectionFrobervillede62bustesmoulésen plâtred’hommesissusdel’Afriqueorientale,aétéreproduiteaucoursduXIXesiècle pourintégrerdesfondsmuséauxenFrance(MuséumNationald’HistoireNaturelleà Paris),sanséclairagesurlecontextedeproductionetdecollecte.Àlalumièredeses carnets manuscrits (inédits), on apprend qu’Eugène de Froberville a effectué ces moulagesen1846àl’îleMaurice,auprèsde60modèles,quiavaientétédéportésde forceducontinentafricain.Cesmodèlesétaientaussidesinformateursauprèsdequi Frobervillerecueillitunesommeconsidérabledesavoirs(géographiques,linguistiques, anthropologiques)surl’Afriqueorientale.Entre1845et1847,EugènedeFroberville menaunevasteenquêteethnographiqueauprèsdeplusde300ancienscaptifsafricains à la Réunion et à l’île Maurice. Tandis que l’esclavage avait été aboli une dizaine d’annéesplustôtàMaurice,àlaRéunion,lesAfricainsinterrogésparFrobervilleétaient encore maintenus en esclavage. Les archives Froberville (en France et à Maurice) apparaissaientcommedesarchivesprivéesdel’esclavageinfinimentprécieuses.





20Lalanguemakhuwaapparaissaitcommeunelanguevéhiculaireusitéeparlesmigrantsforcés estͲafricainspourcommuniquerentreeux,bienqu’ilsaientégalementmaintenulesavoiret/ou l’usage d’autres langues estͲafricaines (comme le maravi, yao, manganja etc). À l’Ouest de Madagascar,lalanguemakoas’estmaintenueaumoinsjusque danslesannées1970. 21J’aiainsirecueillien2008undescahiersdevocabulairesmalgacheͲmakoa,quiontétérecopiés durantdesdécenniesetquicirculaiententrelesvillagesmakoadelapériphériedeMorondava (Menabe,côteOuestdeMadagascar). 65 De nombreuses sources de l’esclavage (écrites, orales, iconographiques, archéologiques,etc)sontainsiàmettreenperspectiveetàvaloriser,notammentà traversunMuséeIntercontinentaldel’EsclavageàMaurice. 

66 8 TheSlaveryMuseumasCommunity Anchor,EyeͲOpener,andThoughtͲ Provoker PrebenKaarsholm Professor,GlobalandInternationalDevelopmentStudies RoskildeUniversity 

ThenewSlaveryMuseuminPortLouiswillhavemanyimportantfunctionstofulfil, anditisimportanttodiscusshowthesedifferentobjectivescancometogether.

First of all, the Museum should be a meeting place within the Mauritian public sphere,wheredifferentgroupswillvisittolearnaboutthecountry’spast.Atthesame time, it should be an anchor for Mauritians whose forebears were slaves and descendantsofslaves,aroundwhichtheycancometotermswith,explore,andseek recognitionfortheirhistoryasacommunityandasMauritians.Themostimportant functionfortheMuseumwillbetomakevisitorsaware,helpthemremember,and makethemthinkandaskquestions.

The Museum should be organised around two strands – one centering on the buildingofa‘permanent’collection,andanotherdedicatedtotemporaryexhibitions withamoretopicalfocus.Iput‘permanent’inquotationmarkssincethispartofthe Museum must of course also be dynamic and changing as collections and insights developandinterpretationsofthepastarereͲworked.

Attheoutset,Iimaginethe‘permanent’sideoftheMuseumwillbelimitedsincean important activity during the Museum’s first years will be to bring a collection of exhibitstogether.Thecurrentsituationisthatmaterialsthatshouldbecomeexhibits arescatteredinotherMuseumsandprivatecollectionswithinMauritiusandabroad, orhiddenwithinthefamilyheritageofdescendantsofslaves.TheSlaveryMuseum’s foundersmustexploreandmapthistreasure,andsecurefromittheelementsofafirst ‘permanent’collection.SomeingredientswithintheMuseum’s‘permanent’displaywill betextual,andmustbesourcedfromarchivesofdocumentsinMauritius,thewestern IndianOceanregion,andEurope.Atthesametimetextsfordisplaymightbebasedon popularmemorialisation,anditwouldbeanobviousideafortheSlaveryMuseumto get its own oral history project under way, through which the memories and interpretationsofhistorytransmittedwithinfamiliesandcommunitygroupingscanbe recorded and made available. An oral history project would also be an important 67 ingredientinlinkingtheMuseumprojecttoMauritiancivilsocietyandlocalcommunity forumsaswelltoeducationalinstitutions.Thusprojectscouldbelaunchedfromearly ontomakesecondaryͲschoolstudentsexploretheirfamilyhistoryhistoriesthrough interviewswithparentsandgrandparents,collectionoffamilyletters,etc.,andasimple commonlysharedmatrixforsuchcollectionoffamilymemoriescouldbepreparedby the Museum. Similarly, the Slavery Museum should engage with Mauritian artists, culturalgroups,andheritageassociations,andcollaboratewiththeminthepreparation ofdisplaysandrepresentationsreflectingdifferentviewsandperspectives. Permanentcollectionandtemporaryexhibitions Inpracticalterms,onecouldimaginethat–duringthefirstyearsoftheMuseum’s program – a possible model for displays could be to combine the developing of ‘permanent’collectionoftheMuseumwithexhibitionsonloanfromorpreparedin tandemwithalreadyexistingnationalandinternationalinstitutions.Thiswouldbean opportunitytoengagealsowithexhibitionpracticesfromwhichlessonsandinspiration could be drawn. E.g. the Mauritius Slavery Museum could learn from collaboration aroundtemporarydisplayswithlikeͲmindedinitiativesliketheIzikoMuseumsinCape Town(incl.theSlaveLodge,BoͲKaap,andDistrictSixMuseums)withahighdegreeof localcommunityinvolvement.Possibilitiesforcollaborationwithheritageprojectsin otherneighbouringcountriesinthewesternIndianOceanshouldalsobeexplored,and inparticularwitharchivesandmuseumsinMozambiqueandMadagascar.

Fruitful collaboration around temporary displays could also be tried out with resourcefulinternationalinstitutionsliketheSmithsonianinWashington,orwiththe Humboldt Forum and the Bode Museum in Berlin, whose recent ‘Beyond Compare’ exhibitionbrokenewgroundintherepresentationofAfricanculturalhistory.Other avenuesforinternationalcollaborationaroundtemporarydisplayswithslaveryhistory themes should be explored with the museums in India, Brazil, and the Caribbean. Dialoguearoundthepreparationoftemporaryexhbibitionscouldalsobeinitiatedwith criticalcommemorationinitiativesinformercolonialandslavetradingsocieties.Thusa numberofinterestingdisplaysweremountedandnewdigitalresourcesdevelopedin 2017byarchivesandMuseumsinDenmarktocommemorateslaveryandslavetrade intheDanishVirginIslands,which–inthefaceoflocalprotestationsͲweresoldtothe United States in 1917. An exhibition at the Workers’ Museum in Copenhagen was particularlysuccessfulinemphasisingcontinuitiesbetweenformsofunfreelabourfrom slavery through indenture to contemporary forms of globalised contract migrant labour.

TheSlaveryMuseumcouldexperimentwith‘dialogic’modesofexhibitionthrough suchcollaborationaroundtemporaryexhibitionsand‘travellingcircuses’,andshould encouragecriticalthinkingandnewmodesofseeingthroughthecounterͲposingof differentrepresentations.Apromisingbeginningforsuchapracticewasmadethrough 68 theartexhibitionpresentedbytheCentreforResearchonSlaveryandIndentureatthe UniversityofMauritiusin2018withthetitle‘TowardsaNewIconographyofSlavery(a WorkinProgress)’.Fortheexhibition,fivenewpaintingswerecommissionedonthe everyday life history of slavery, which took issue with earlier representations, drew attentiontonewdimensionsofthehistoryanddifferentiationsbetweenexperiences ofslavery,andsucceededinprovokingvaluablediscussionsaroundthem.

Dialogic exhibitions at the Slavery Museum should also involve interaction with representationsofslaveryandunfreelabouratalreadyexistingmuseumsinMauritius. ThesewouldincludetheNationalMuseumatMahébourg,themuseumattheMahatma Gandhi Institute in Moka, and – perhaps most importantlyͲthe displays at the AapravasiGhatWorldHeritageSite,whichisnextdoortotheexͲMilitaryHospital, wheretheSlaveryMuseumwillhaveitshome.Itwouldbeaproductivechallengefor theSlaveryMuseumtobothcollaboratewithAapravasiGhatandatthesametimetake issue with its representation of indentured labour as a ‘great experiment’ and as somethingthatrepresentedaradicalbreakͲratherthancontinuityͲwithslavery. Dialogicrepresentation Dialogicrepresentationcouldtaketheformoftemporaryexhibitionsonanumber ofissuesthathaveinvolvedcontroversy.Thesemightinclude:

a)DifferenttypesofslaveryinMauritius.Thedevelopmentofplantationslavery overtimeshouldbeaddressedhere,aswellasofcompounds,segregationandethnic stereotypingofslaveswithdifferentorigins.Thelifeexperiencesofplantationslaves whocouldbecontrastedwiththoseofgovernmentslaves,ofdomesticslaves,orof slaves who were hired out for work, and would sometimes have contracts, remuneration and social welfare rewards offered to them. Also the forms of apprenticeshipsthatcamealongwithabolitionandtheindentureof‘liberatedAfricans’ and the children of freed slaves alongside Indian should be made the subject of representationandexhibitions.

b)ImportationofslavesfromIndiatoMauritius.Ninepercentorsoofthetotal numberofslavesinMauritiuswereimportedfromIndiathroughCalcuttaandMadras, andweresourcedprimarilyfromBihar,theBengaliandtribalhinterlandsofCalcutta, andfromTanjoreandtheinlandregionsoftheCoromandelandMalabarcoasts.The recruitment,transportation,workandlifeworldexperiencesoftheIndianslaveshave beenneglectedandhiddenfrommemory,anditwouldbeanimportantintervention bytheSlaveryMuseumtobringthembackintoviewinaspecialexhibition.

c)ThesoͲcalled‘Tinkerianparadigm’thatindenturedlabourwas‘anewsystemof slavery,’andthattherewascontinuity,ratherthanabreak,betweenplantationslavery ontheonehandandindentureandsubsequentformsofmoreorlessunfreewage,

69 migrantandcontractlabourontheother.22Specialexhibitionshereshouldbearranged incriticaldialoguewiththoseoftheAapravasiGhatHeritageSite,andcouldbelinked todisplaysonIndianslaveryasproposedabove.Aspecialexhibitioncouldfocusonthe areasoforigininIndiafromwherebothslavesandindenturedlabourerswereexported forworkinMauritius.Itshouldshowthesocial,economicandpoliticalconditionsin Indiathatmadeenslavementpossible,anddemonstratewhatformsofunfreelabour were characteristic of the regions in India, from which the slaves and indentured labourerscame.

d)TheoriginsofAfricanslavesimportedintoMauritius,slavetradediasporas,and their postͲabolition histories (Makua, Malagasy, Makonde, Yao, Inhambani, Guinea, etc). A special exhibition of the Slavery Museum might show how slaves were categorisedinthenumerousreturnsandcensusesoftheslavepopulationinMauritius, whichwerecompoundedinthe18thand19thcenturies.Whatwerethecategories usedtodesignatethedifferentgroupsofslavesͲ‘castes’,‘national’,‘races’etc,and whatwerethemarkersusedtodifferentiatebetweenslaveswithinthecategoriesͲ names,languages,tribes,father’sandmother’snames,tattoosandculturalincisions, etc?Whatisthestateofanthropologicalandhistoricalresearchregardingthecultures and societies of slave origins? How was slave agency employed in determining designationsoforiginatthetimeofenslavementandslavery?Howdidmissionaryand otherphilanthropicagencyaffecttheidentificationsoffreedslavesafterabolition?

e)Theculturalentrepreneurship,administrationofmemoriesandstrategiesfor recognitionofformerslavesincomparablecontexts.Howhavegroupsofdescendants of slaves from different origins gone about memorialising and interpreting their histories? A special exhibition project might focus on the different trajectories of memorialisationof,forexample,descendantsofMakuaslavesindifferentdiasporic environmentsinMauritius,Madagascar,SouthAfrica,Somalia.Whydidfreedslaves within some contexts strive to preserve, safeguard and develop strategically their cultural,religious,andlinguisticheritage,whileinothersituationstheydidtheirutmost toforgetanddoawaywithanykindofsignifierthatcoulddenoteaslavepast?Why was a slave past seen by some as stigma, and by others as tragic and heroic victimisation?Howshouldcontemporaryheritageconservationeffortsrelatetosuch diametricallyopposedtraditionsofmemorialisation? 





22HughTinker,ANewSystemofSlavery:TheExportofIndianLabourOverseas,1830Ͳ1920(Oxford: OxfordUniversityPress,1974). 70 f)VarietiesofslaveryinneighbouringIndianOceansocietiessuchasMadagascar, Mozambique,Malawi,SouthAfrica.AspecialexhibitionoftheSlaveryMuseumcould contrastthedifferentandinteractinghistoriesofPortuguese,Dutch,French,British colonialslaveryandslavetrading,anddemonstratewhatimpacttheyhadonMauritius. Another special exhibition could be concerned with the history of abolition programmes, which also developed through multinational interaction, again with a focus on what this meant for Mauritius. Yet another special exhibition (or set of exhibitions) might address histories of nonͲcolonial slavery in neighbouring Indian Ocean societies, and Madagascar and Northern Mozambique in particular. How did indigenousformsofslaveryindifferentpartsofMadagascarrelatetotheexportof slavesandthetradeinslaveswithMauritius?Whatformsofslaveryexistedinchiefly MakuasocietiesinNorthernMozambique,andhowweretheseaffectedbyraidsto provideexportslavesforthePortugueseandBraziliantradefromIbo,Mossuril/Ilhaand Quelimane? In what ways did Islamic alliances between Swahili sheikhs and African chieflylineagesaffecttheexportationofslavesfromNorthernMozambique?Towhat extentwasthereanantiͲcolonialslavetrade,whereincomewasgeneratedfromthe sale of slaves from Angoche, Sancul and similar Sufi Islamic strongholds to finance armedresistanceagainstthePortuguese?

Finally, an important function of the Slavery Museum will be to highlight connectionsandcomparisonsbetweenthepastandthepresent.Thelastingimpactof thehistoryofslaveryandtheslavetradeonsubsequentgenerationsofdescendants should feature prominently in the Museum, and the consequences in terms of inequalityanddiscrimination,whichwereexposedinthereportoftheTruthandJustice Commissionin2011shouldbemadethesubjectofdisplays.AtthesametimeMuseum exhibitionsshouldlinkslaveryandunfreelabourinthepasttocontemporarymodesof transnationalmigrant labour recruitment. One possible focus wouldbe the political economyandsocialandculturallifeconditionsofBangladeshiworkersinMauritius today.Suchafocusmightbringtoviewsomeoftheeffectsofglobalisationonlabour markets internationally in terms of informalisation, new inequalities, and the emergenceofanewglobalprecariatandreservearmyoflabour.





71  

72 9 MetLiDanMize! DaniellaBastien Anthropologist,Musician 

Aswarkanzetwalsintiyedanlesiel

Ennlavwarezonekassilanslanwit

EnnsonbatͲbateferlekorfrisone

Lwin,danzistwarnoupei

Lekerakordelorennselbatman

DansatanͲla,tanbourbatepoudir

boner,doulerlexistans

Kadanssilekotepouekoutparolanvole

Lersalerlaflammonte

Lekorsakouye

Poutirtoudoulermaler

Ravannmaravann

Tanbourbob

Otourklartedife

Lekortouseflite

Komiebananefinnpase

MofinntrouvmozanfansotiͲzanfan



Mwa,avekloderlapomor

Anbadouserledwa

Moranimzistwarennpep

73 Mwa,tonbeͲleve

Arsekipafinnlesmwamor



Mwa,memsimosonrezone

Dirkimoenncholo



AzordidisanmonteͲdesann

Kanmolestomaouverpoukriye



Aster,zotpoumetmwadanmize?

Tansionpeanpaymwa

Metmwadanvitrinn



Personnpapoutousmwa?

Fermolapozigile?



Esi...

Laba,seennlotlavantirmolavi?



Laba,seennlotlouvertirlanvi?

Poukonnvrememmozistwareaksepteli...





74 

 PARTIITHEWAYFORWARD  PRESENTINGAND REPRESENTINGSLAVERYIN MUSEUMS 

 2EPARTIELAMARCHEA SUIVRE  PRÉSENTERETREPRÉSENTER L'ESCLAVAGEDANSLESMUSÉES

75 

76 10 LesMotsdel’esclavage MyriamCottias Directrice de recherche au CNRS & Directrice du Centre International de RecherchessurlesEsclavagesetlesPostͲEsclavages 

Danslestravauxderecherchesetsurlescartelsdesmusées,destermesdoivent rendredésormaisvisibleslesdifférentesfaçonsderendrecomptedupassédansle présentcommedeschangementsderégimed’historicité. Introduireunedemandeofficielleauprèsdel’UNESCO Briserlesilenceestl’undesargumentscentrauxduprogrammedel’UNESCO,«La Routedel’Esclave:résistance,liberté,héritage»,lancéen1994àOuidah,auBénin,sur propositiond’Haïti.L’organisationd’unComitéscientifiqueinternationalavaitl’objectif de structurer les travaux et de réaliser la feuille de route de la mémoire que le programmeinstituait.Cetobjectifappuyépardesorganisationscitoyennes,associéà des décisions étatiques et à organismes de recherche ont permis, entre autres, l’établissementdeprogrammeséducatifs(l’intégrationdeleçonssurl’esclavageetla traite dans certains pays).Des sites mémoriaux ontété valorisés comme l’Arche du retour à NewͲYork, le Mémorial de l’abolition de Nantes, le Monument national de l'Esclavage dans l’Oosterpark d’Amsterdam, le Mémorial ACTe à PointͲàͲPitre en Guadeloupe,leSlaveMemorialàCapeTown,l’AntigoMercadodeEscravos,levieux marché aux esclaves, en projet à Lagos …). Des expressions culturelles ont été patrimonialisées comme le Maloya de la Réunion, le Gwo Ka de la Guadeloupe, la CharteduMandènduMalietlaTumbafrancesadeCuba.Desmuséesontétéétablis comme l’Aapravasi Ghat, à PortͲLouis, ou le Musée de l’Esclavage de Maurice, le NationalMuseumofAfricanͲAmericanHistoryandCulture,àWashingtonDC,leMusée Internationaldel’EsclavagedeLiverpool,leMuséedesDucsdeBretagneàNantes,le Muséed’AquitaineàBordeaux,leRijksmuseumàAmsterdam,leMuséemaritimede NorvègeàOsloouencorelemuséeSoulofAfricad’EssenenAllemagneparmid’autres.

Bien que de nombreux champs de recherche soient encore en friche, les programmesderechercheetlesproductionsacadémiquesontprisdel’importance.De nouveaux types d’archives ont été analysés et dans la recherche de l’expérience esclavagiste,auplusprèsdesacteursdel’histoire,s’estimposélesujetesclave,acteur desaproprehistoirequiretransformelesconditionsdesaproprevie,desapropre survie,dansdesconditionsdecoercitionextrême.

77 Larechercheenscienceshumainesetsocialesn’apendantlongtempspascherché àretranscrirecetteprisedeposition.L’agentivitédelapersonnemiseenesclavageͲsa compétenceentantquesujetͲaétédéveloppéedansleshistoriographiesanglophone, lusophoneethispanophonemaisplusrarementfrancophone.Pourrendrecomptede la capacité du sujet esclavage à résister au système de l’esclavage, un changement sémantique s’est opéré, un peu partout dans le monde. Il s’agissait d’exprimer la disjonctionentrelestatutcivild’unindividuavecsonidentité.Quoiqu’onaitpurefuser aux personnes mises en esclavage ce statut, quoiqu’une idéologie racialiste les ait cantonnés dans un statut d’inférieur, ils.elles sont demeuré.es des êtres humains, mêmeauseind’unsystèmedeviolenceextrême.L’histoiredesdominationsradicales montre que l’humain sait toujours trouver des espaces, même les plus ténus, pour revendiquersonhumanité.Lesrésistancesetlesrévoltes–mineuresouradicales–,les avortements, les empoisonnements ou les homicides témoignent d’ailleurs de la nécessitéderendrehommageàlaforcedel’humain.

Unpeupartoutdanslemonde,cetournantlinguistiqueàl’œuvres’estépanouidans desmomentsderupturepolitique,généralementsousl’impulsionderevendications citoyennes. En portugais, escravizado(a), dont l’usage s’est généralisé parmi les historienͼne.s brésilianistes, est déjà utilisé dès le XIXe siècle par les abolitionnistesbrésiliens.Dansl’historiographieanglophoneetparticulièrementétatsͲ unienne,letermeenslaveds’imposepeuàpeudanslederniertiersduXXesièclegrâce autravaildemilitantͼeͼsafricainesͲaméricainͼeͼs.Enitalien,letermeestschiavizzato. Enespagnol,c’estletermeesclavizados,«parcequec'estunecatégoriequirépondà unerevendicationsocialeetpolitiquequisignifiequelesgensnesontpasparnature des esclaves, mais qu'ils ont été violemment asservis à des fins politiques et économiques»23.

Enfrançais,ilmanquaituntermepourrendrecomptedecespositionsheuristiques. Denombreuses.xchercheurͼseͼsfrancophonestelͼleͼsqueceuxͼcellesduCIRESCmais bien d’autres encore proposent ainsi de cantonner l’emploi du terme esclave à l’expressiond’unstatutcivil–iniqueͲetàpréférerletermeesclavisé.epourdésignerle sujet mis en esclavage. La transformation du substantif « esclave » par le suffixe adjectival«Ͳisé»marqueainsiladistanceparrapportàcequiestsouventpriscomme uneessenceoriginelle,commeuneidentitéimpérissable.Or,êtremisenesclavageest unstatutjuridiqueetnonuneidentité.Ilfautl’affirmerparunemutationdetermeafin





23 Extrait de l’introduction du numéro spécial Alteridades, « Desde el norte hacia el sur: esclavizadosfugitivosenlafronteratexanoͲmexicana»,coordonnéparMaríaCamilaDíazCasas, vol.28,56,2018. 78 de provoquer un changement des représentations; les mots sont une ressource essentielledel’émancipation.CeslignescontextualisentlalettreadresséeàMadame ladirectriceͲgénéraledel’UNESCO.



           

79  Paris,le12novembre2019. MadamelaDirectriceͲgénéraledel’UNESCO 7,PlacedeFontenoy 75007Paris MadamelaDirectriceͲgénéraledel’UNESCO, L’UNESCOpeuts’enorgueillird’avoirlancésousl’impulsionduBéninetd’Haïti,le programmeLaroutedel’esclaveen1994.SonDirecteurinitial,M.DoudouDiène,a permisl’ouvertured’uneprisedeconscienceplanétairesurleshorreursdel’esclavage etsesconséquencesdanslemondecontemporain. Différentesactionsontétéinitiéesauniveauinternationaletontétérelayéespar les pays. Les dates de commémoration ont permis que des jours soient dédiés à la mémoiredel’esclavageetàlaluttecontreleracisme.Desmémoriaux,deslieuxde mémoireetdesmuséesontétéérigésunpeupartoutdanslemondepourrappelerla souffrance endurée par les esclaves mais aussi pour célébrer leurs combats pour la libertéetleurluttepourladignité.Lesculturesissuesdel’esclavagecommelegwoka, lemaloyaouencorelejazzsontentrées,pourcertaines,auPatrimoineImmatérielde l’Humanité.L’enseignementdecesquestionss’estimposéprogressivement,quoique fragilementencore,etdesactionspédagogiquestranscontinentalesontmisenrelation desécolesd’Europe,d’AfriqueetdesCaraïbes.Larechercheuniversitaire,enfin,s’est développéeetleslivres,lesarticlesetlesthèsessesontmultipliésdanslesuniversités. Ces progrès sont indéniables quoique la connaissance profonde, l’acceptation sereinedel’histoiredelatraiteetdel’esclavagenesoientpasacquises.Cesquestions mobilisent,eneffet,encoretropdesubjectivitésautraversdesquellesl’histoirede l’esclavageesttraduiteparunemiseenaccusationd’unepartiedumondeparune autreetàcetitre,rejetée.Onpeutespérerquelesoutiendel’UNESCOauprogramme Laroutedel’esclavenefaiblirapasafind’atteindrelesobjectifsdepaixetd’interͲ reconnaissance ainsi que la lutte contrele racisme qui doivent fonder ses actions. Cependant,permettezͲmoi,MadamelaDirectricegénérale,d’attirervotreattention surunpointtrèsimportant,sémantiqueetheuristique. Grâceàl’importancepriseparl’histoiredel’esclavagedanslechampacadémique, une relecture des archives a été initiée ces dix dernières années pour retrouver l’agency,la«capacitédusujetàagir»,etlasubjectivitédesesclaves.Denouvelles interrogationssurlesexpériencesdessujetsdominésontétéainsirenduespossibles. Atraversl’analysedesdocumentsjuridiquesetinfraͲjuridiques,destémoignages, des«voixd’esclaves»ontétéretrouvées.Desdestinsetdesparcourstransatlantiques, intraͲafricainsoudansl’OcéanIndienetjusqu’enAsie,depersonnesmisesenesclavage ontétéreconstruits.Lareconstitutiondecesdestinsrassemblésenbiographicalturna construitunenouvelle«bibliothèquedessituationsd’esclavage»enmontrantl’écart entreunehistoirenormativedel’esclavageetcelledesexpériencesdel’esclavageoù la « ruse » du sujet coexiste avec la violence inouïe et la domination radicale. Finalement,unenouvellegrammaires’estinstallée.Danslalignedulinguisticturnqui

80 aopéréenhistoiredugenre,deschangementsconceptuelsetsémantiquesimportants ontétéconsolidés Il s’agit maintenant d’en rendre compte officiellement. Ainsi, de nombreux chercheur.e.stelsqueceuxduCIRESC,proposentͲilsdecantonnerl’emploiduterme d’esclaveàl’expressiond’unstatutcivil–iniqueͲetàpréférerletermed’enslaved, enslavedpeopleoud’esclavisé.epourdésignerlesujetmisenesclavage. Ils’agitparceladedissocierlestatutcivil,del’êtreetdel’individu.Unêtrequi, quoiqu’onluirefusecestatut,quoiqu’uneidéologieracialistelecantonneàunstatut d’inférieur,demeureunhumain,mêmeauseind’unsystèmedecoercition.L’histoire des dominations radicales montre que l’humain sait toujours trouver des espaces, mêmelesplustenus,pours’exprimerentantqu’êtrehumain.Larésistanceetles révoltes –mineures ou radicalesͲ, les avortements, les empoisonnements ou les homicidestémoignent,d’ailleurs,delanécessitéderendrehommageàlaforcede l’humain.Ceterme«d’esclavisé.e»enrendcompte,ilsignifielefaitd’êtremisen situation d’esclavage. La transformation du substantif « esclave » par le suffixe adjectival«Ͳisé»marqueainsiladistanceparrapportàcequiestsouventpriscomme uneessenceoriginelle,commeuneidentitéimpérissable.Or,êtremisenesclavage estunstatutjuridiqueetnonuneidentité.Ilfautl’affirmerparunemutationdeterme pourfairetransformerlesreprésentations. Ainsi devientͲil important d’opérer un changement du titre du programme en français, non pas pour celui « de personnes réduites en esclavage » car, une fois encore,onnerendraitpashommageàl’humain,onle«réduirait»encoreettoujours commecelaaétélecaspendantdessiècles,maispourleterme«d’esclavisé.e».Il seraitutileenceladesuivrelesrecommandationsduComitéscientifiqueinternational duprojetLaroutedel’esclavequiemploie,enanglais,letermed’enslavedouenslaved people,etdemandeàcequ’ilensoitrenducompteenfrançais.Nousavonsl’honneur de vous recommander celui d’Esclavisé.e.s et des chercheurs du CIRESC sont à la disposition de l’UNESCO pour ouvrir cette discussion qui est à mener aussi avec l’Académiefrançaiseafind’entérinerceterme. Jeconcluraiscettelettreensoulignantquecechangementdeterminologieest demandéinstammentparlasociétécivileseréclamantdel’histoireetdelamémoire del’esclavage.C’est,enfait,unequestioncrucialedansl’exercicedel’égalitéentreles citoyens. Envousremerciantdetoutel’attentionquevousapporterezàcettequestion,je vousadresse,MadamelaDirectriceͲgénéraledel’UNESCO,l’expressiondemaparfaite considération.  

MyriamCottias DirectricederechercheauCNRS DirectriceduCentreInternationaldeRecherchessurlesEsclavagesetlesPostͲEsclavages

81 Lesmotsdel’esclavage:unevigilancenécessaire* A l’heure où le débat sur la restitution des oeuvres d’art est ouvert, d’autres questions urgentes se posent dans les musées de France et d’Europe: celles de la présentationetdelacontextualisationdesobjetsetdesoeuvresliésàl’histoirede l’esclavage et à celle de la colonisation. Avec l’appui des recherches en sciences humainesetsociales,certainsobjetsnesontplusconsidérésdupointdevuedeleur utilisationenEuropemaissontréinterprétésenfonctiondecircuitsglobauxausein desquelscirculentdesproduitscoloniauxtirésdesociétésesclavagistes.Parexemple, lestassesdefaïencedeChine,danslesquelleslasociétéeuropéenneéléganteduXVIIIe sièclebuvaitcafé,théetchocolatsontlaconcrétisation,enEurope,derapportsde pouvoiretdecommerceallantdel’AsieauxAmériques.Certainstableauxsont,eux aussi,décryptésdefaçonnouvelle.Desanonymes,sujetscolonisésnoirs,émergentde l’oublicommedansl’expositionactuelleauMuséed’Orsaysur«lemodèlenoir».Dans letableauduradeaudelaMéduse,l’hommeenfiguredeprouearetrouvésonidentité etdesbribesdesonhistoireontétéreconstituées.Ils’agitde«JosephleMaure», HaïtiendelanouvelleRépubliqueindépendante.Ilfutunmodèlecélèbredudébutdu XIXesiècle.Quantautableaudel’OlympiadeManetquiscandalisaen1865àcausede lanuditédelafemmeblanchecouchéelascivementqu’ilprésentait,iln’estplusanalysé delamêmefaçon.Placéederrièreelle,laservantequiétaitjusqu’alorsanonymedans leslivresd’histoiredel’art,présentéecommeunmoyendemagnifierlapeaublanche parcontrasteavecsapeaunoire,aétédepuisidentifiée.Elles’appelaitLaureetétait unmodèlerégulierdeManet.Lesoucidenommer,deretracerlesbiographiesdeces modèles,parfoisparbribes,sontsymptomatiquesdel’interrogationactuellesurles rapportsdepouvoiretdedomination,surlaviolence,surlesreprésentationsinduites parlesmotsquidésignentlesindividus,leursactions,leursfonctions.

Patrimonialiser,exposer,montrer,valorisercertainsélémentsplutôtqued’autres: voilàdesquestionsdébattues,commelorsdurécentcolloqueduMuséed’Aquitain24, par des experts internationaux, conservateurs de musée et chercheurs, d’Afrique, d’EuropeetdesAmériques.Commentrendrecomptedeschangementsdel’époque, delareprésentationdeladomination?LapolitiqueduRijksmuseumd’Amsterdamya, parexemple,étéprésentée.Depuislemoisdedécembre2015,destitresd’œuvresont étérebaptisésàcausedesmotsjugésoffensantsqu’ilscontenaientcarilsétaienttrop empreints de terminologies colonialists et esclavagistes, reproduisant les rapports raciauxdissymétriques:«nègre»,«esclave»,«sauvage»,«maure»,«mahométan».Une 



24LederniercolloquedesRencontresAtlantiquess’estdérouléles9et10mai2019àBordeaux. OrganiséparleMuséed’AquitaineetleCentreinternationalderecherchesurlesesclavagesetles postͲesclavages(CIRESC),ilportaitsurLessémiophoresdestraitesetdesesclavages. 82 nouvellegrammaireestainsiproposéepournepasréduiredesindividusàunstatut. Par exemple, un néologisme tel que celui d’esclavisé évoque la capacité du sujet à résisteràlaviolenceextrême:unefaçondedirequel’humaindemeurehumainmême ensituationdedominationmortifère.Leprojetestambitieux,ilestnécessaire.Ilestà l’œuvre, par exemple au Musée d’Aquitaine, et contredit les critiques qui ont pu récemmentêtreadresséesàcetteinstitutionsanspourautantconsidérerqueletravail en cours ne soit pas exempt d’approximations et de reconductions sourdes qui affaiblissentsavisée25.

Laquêtededialoguespourtendreversunemuséographielamoinsenpriseaux impensésdesmots,discoursetreprésentationsducolonialismeestbienl’objectifà poursuivre activement. Les discussions du colloque ont eu pour conclusion que ces changementsdoiventsefaireencoͲconstructionentrechercheursetprofessionnels desmuséesetendiscussionaveclepublic.Lavigilancesurlesmotsdel’esclavageetdu postͲesclavageconcerne,eneffet,chacun.ed’entrenous,maisilfaut,danslemême temps, être attentif aux processus en cours dans les établissements muséaux et participerdefaçonconstructiveauxprojetsd’avenir.C’estenfavorisantlarencontre des voix dissonantes, en s’interrogeant sans répit sur les catégories en usage, en pratiquant le doute permanent sur nos outils de représentation que nous pouvons espéreratteindreunlangageéthiquementacceptablepourdirel’ampleurducrimede latraiteetdel’esclavage.



*ArticlepubliédansLibération,le28juin2019.





25LeMuséed’Aquitaineafficheuncartelauxrelentsrévisionnistessurlatraitenégrière»,parun collectifd’écrivains,emmenéparAnneͲMarieGarat,LeMonde,22mai2019

83 AnnetteBECKER,historienne,ProfesseurdesUniversités ChristineCHIVALLON,anthropologue,DirectricederechercheCNRS GaetanoCIARCIA,anthropologue,DirecteurderechercheauCNRS CatherineCOQUERYͲVIDROVITCH,historienne,ProfesseuréméritedesUniversités MyriamCOTTIAS,historienne,directricederechercheauCNRS,directriceduCIRESC AntoniodeALMEIDAMENDES,historien,Maîtredeconférences,UniversitédeNantes

MaximedeFORMANOIR,historiendel’art,doctorant,UniversitéLibredeBruxelles CharlesFORSDICK,professeurdefrancais,UniversitedeLiverpool MatthieuDUSSAUGE,Conservateurdupatrimoine,MuséedépartementalVictor Schoelcher,Guadeloupe. AnneͲClaireFAUCQUEZ,maitressedeconférencesencivilisationethistoirenordͲ américaine,UniversitédeParisVIII CélineFLORY,historienne,ChargéederechercheauCNRS BertrandGUILLET,Directeurdumuséed'histoiredeNantes,ChâteaudesDucsde Bretagne. KrystelGUALDÉ,Directricescientifiquedumuséed'histoiredeNantes,Châteaudes DucsdeBretagne. JoëlNORET,Professeurd'Anthropologie,UniversitélibredeBruxelles AnnaSEIDERER,Philosophe,Maîtressedeconférences,UniversitédeParisVIII 

84 11 LesMuséesàTamatave:Quelleplace pourlaTraiteetl’esclavage? ChaplainToto CEREL (Centre d’Etudes et de Recherches en Ethnologie et Linguistique), UniversitédeToamasina 

Comme dans beaucoup d’autres pays, l’esclavage en général et la traite en particuliercontinuentàêtreunsujetdedivisionouunsujetdeconflitdunouveaugenre aveclalibérationdesparolesetdepenserdutempsprésent.Pournepasévoquer souventcetépisodedel’Histoire,certainessociétésoptentpourunoublicollectifsur quelques passages de l’Histoire. Il semblerait qu’une partie des Malgaches se retrouvent dans cette option. Pour clarifier cet argumentaire, nous avons visité six musées dans la Province de Tamatave et l’absence d’une représentation, même symbolique de l’esclavage, ou de la traite nous interpelle, compte tenu de la prédominancedecettepartiedelaGrandeIlesurcesujetmajeurdel’Histoire.Cette contributionconsisteàpartagerunregardquiseveutéquilibrésurlareprésentation, mêmepartielle,desfaitshistoriquessurl’EstdeMadagascaràtraversletempsetdes espacesdifférents. 1.CERELetleMuséeRégionalàl’UniversitédeToamasina Aucoursdesannées1990,unmuséeethnographiquerégionalaétécrééauseinde l’établissementduCentred’EtudesetdeRecherchesenEthnologieetLinguistiquede l’UniversitédeToamasina.Endehorsdequelquesdébrisdepoterietirésdesrecherches archéologiquesmenéesparleschercheurslocauxencollaborationavecdesinstitutions internationales,lemuséepossèdenotammentdesobjetsethnographiquesspécifiques du pays des Betsimisaraka. Nous citons notamment des talismans appartenant aux guérisseurs traditionnels du pays et les outils de base pour le travail domestique quotidientelsquelaforgetraditionnelle,lepressagedelacanneàsucreetd’autres techniquespourtirerlesnoixdecoco.

On note également l’existence de quelques représentations cartographiques des différentes vagues de migrants d’origine asiatique et africaine dans l’histoire du peuplementdeMadagascar.Uneprotohistoirequis’étalethéoriquementduVesiècle avantauVesiècleaprèsJésusChrist.

Si les reliques représentant le passé de Tamatave sont très limitées au musée régionaldeTamatave,lepeuplementdelavilleapourtantétéattestédepuisleXVIIIe

85 etapparaitcommelepremierportdelatraitedansl’EstdeMadagascardèsledébut du XIXe siècle. Le « Royaume de Madagascar » avait même installé son port d’embarquementdesesclavesverslesMascareignesjusteàcôtédel’actuellevillede Tamatave dans la localité d’Ivondro26. Malgré l’engagement signé par le roi de Madagascaren1817àManangarezaTamataveévoquantpourlapremièrefoisl’arrêt delatraitedesesclavesdanssonroyaume27,Ivondrocontinueàexercersesactivités portuaires et ses activités économiques rayonnent auprès des communautés environnantes.

Le poids de l’économie de la traite va laisser pour toujours ses marques dans l’organisationsocialedelavilledugrandportjusqu’àsaformemoderned’aujourd’hui. Nous citons notamment l’existence d’un grand quartier appelé Antanamakoa qui signifielittéralementdanslevillagedesMakoa,uneréférenceauxesclavesd’origine africainedébarquésàMadagascardanslecadredelatraitedesnoirs.SilenomdeJean Renéesthistoriquementassociéavecl’intensificationdelatraiteàdestinationdesîles sœurs de l’océan Indien occidental en utilisant ses Makoa comme des chasseurs d’esclaves redoutables et sans pitié dans les arrièreͲpays, l’hégémonie merina a égalementlaisséuneautreempreinteineffaçablejusqu’àlacartographiemodernede lavilledugrandport.UnquartierestactuellementappeléAntanamborozanorappelant leurdébarquementaudébutduXIXesièclepouraccompagnerledéplacementroyalde 1817etceluide182328.

Cesélémentsnesontquelapartieémergéedel’icebergparrapportàl’immensité deshéritagesdurantlessièclesdel’esclavageetdelatraitedontlavilledeTamatave elleͲmêmeestl’undesvestigeshistoriquesdecettepratiquecommercialemondialisée.

Pourunregardscientifique,ilestinadmissibled’ignorercetépisodedel’Histoire dansunereprésentationmêmepartielledupassédeshabitantsdel’EstdeMadagascar, etsurtoutdanslavilledeTamataveoùtoutsembleassumerlerôledelapremièreville portuairedupays.

Malgrél’absenceremarquéedel’esclavagedanslesreprésentationsaumuséedu CEREL,unévénementmérited’êtresoulignéparmilesactivitésdececentredepuisces





26EsoavelomandrosoM.(1979),Laprovinceorientaledu«RoyaumedeMadagascar»àlafindu XIXèmesiècle(1882Ͳ1895),Antananarivo,p.417. 27TotoC.(2019),«DescendantsethéritagesMakoaàTamatave»,inHistory,MemoryandIdentity – Comparative Perspectives, Vol. 2, PortͲLouis, Nelson Mandela Center forAfrican Culture Trust Fund,pp.65Ͳ81. 28TotoC.(2019),Idem,cartep.66. 86 dernièresannées.Ledeuxièmeévénementscientifiquedédiéàl’esclavage,organiséà Madagascar par l’Université de Toamasina et pour le compte du CEREL, a eu lieu à Tamatavedu20au22septembre1999.LestextesprésentéssurlathématiqueLaRoute desEsclaves:Lesystèmeservileetlatraitedansl’EstMalgacheontétéensuitepubliés en2000parl’Harmattanetl’UniversitédeToamasina.

N’importequelmuséereprésentantenpartiedel’Histoiredeshabitantsdecette région ne doit pas ignorer la dimension esclavagiste de la société dont les traces continuenttoujoursàrongerlasociétéditemoderneetcontemporaine.Maiscertaines denosexpériencessemblenttournerverslerefusd’enparlerouvertementalorsque chezlesautres,lalibérationdesparolessurl’esclavages’inscritdansleprocessusde tournerenfindéfinitivementlapageconflictuelleverslanouvelle:celledelapaixetde lajustice.



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Figure3Tandrokoaodyouuntalismanencornedezébu (Source:MuséeduCERELUniversitéToamasina)

87 2.MuséeduPortdeToamasina:l’historiquedestransports Crééen2005,unautremuséedanslathématiquedetransportaétéinauguréà TamatavedanslepériphériqueduPortdeToamasina.Lenouvelmusées’estdotéd’une riche collection d’images et de photos anciennes sur les grands travaux d’embellissementdelavilledeTamataveetledébutdesmoyensdetransportterrestre, navigationfluvialeetmaritime,etdesphotosd’archivesdespremiersatterrissagesdes avionsdanscettevilleportuaire.

Appartenantàl’entrepriselaplusricheetlaplusdynamiquedelaville,àsavoirle PortdeToamasina,lemuséerayonnetrèsviteetattiredeplusenplusdevisiteurs. PourlesétudiantsenHistoiredel’UniversitédeToamasina,lavisitedu«MuséeduPort de Toamasina » devient une tradition. Pour une société dont la culture est plutôt tournée vers la mer comme la majorité des habitants de la côte orientale de Madagascar29,lesreprésentationsdestechniquesdenavigationetlesmoyensdesurvie enmersontobservésavecuneattentionparticulièreaumusée.

 Figure4VuededevantduMuséeduPortdeToamasina(2013) (Source:ChaplainToto) Parmilespièceslesplusmarquantesexposéesaumusée,onretientencoreune belle photographie en noir et blanc de l’embarquement des tirailleurs malgaches à destinationdelaFrancepourcombattreàcôtédesmilitairesfrançaislorsdelaSeconde





29Cf.TotoC.(2018),Labaied’Antongildansl’EstdeMadagascarduXVIIͲXIXèmesiècle:LePayset lesHommesdansladurée,ThèsededoctoratetHistoire,EDͲSHSUniversitéd’Antananarivo. 88 Guerremondiale.CesMalgachesembarquéssontappelés«lesvolontaires»dansles archivesofficiellesalorsquelesrécitssurlespréparatifspourpartirenguerredonnent unetouteautreversiondesfaits:dejeunesMalgachessesontmutilésvolontairement pourêtreinvalideavantl’embarquement30.Descérémoniesdignesd’unenterrement sontaussiorganiséesparlesfamillesdesjeunesindigènessélectionnésetimprovisés ensoldats.Maislesreprésentationsdanscegenred’institutioncontredisentsouventla mémoirecollectivelocale.

Unefoisdeplus,l’embarquementdesesclaves,deszébusvivantàdestinationdes îlesvoisinesn’yestpasillustréalorsqueleportenquestionetsurtoutlapartieoùle muséeestconstruitsetrouvejusteàquelquescentainesdemettredel’Ivondro,leplus grandportdelatraitedel’EstdeMadagascarduXIXesiècle.L’absencedespassagessur latraiteetl’esclavagedevientalorsdeplusenpluspréoccupantedanscedeuxième établissementdelavilledeTamatave.

Ironiedusort,lemuséenedurequequelquesannéescarl’extensionduportl’efface carrément du périmètre de la ville de Tamatave. Toutefois, l’ancien responsable du projetaffirmequelescollectionssontactuellementconservéesenlieusûrenattendant unnouvelendroitpourlesaccueillir. 3.Muséedel’Andrònaaucœurd’unfoyercultureltsimihety Créé en 1999 dans les hautes villes de Mandritsara, le Musée de l’Andròna est inspirédel’expérienceduCERELdel’UniversitédeToamasina.Audépart,l’institution estmiseenplaceparlesautoritésuniversitairesdeToamasina,etestdirigéeparle Recteur Mangalaza en présence du Président du Conseil d’Administration en la personnedeEmileTsizaraina.Scientifiquement,leMuséedel’Andrònaestdonccréé par l’Université de Toamasina mais étant donné que Mandritsara est administrativement dans la province de Majunga, une collaboration s’impose avec l’UniversitédeMahajangaetlesautoritésadministrativesdelaprovince.

Mandritsaraestavanttoutunfoyerdelaculturetsimihetyetcapitaled’unezone géographique appelée Andròna. Le pays Tsimihety forme une aire culturelle où des groupes, résistant au rouleau compresseur sakalava, sont bien installés depuis essentiellementleXVIIesiècle.LenomTsimihetysignifieceluiquinesecoupepasles cheveux.SelonlatraditiondutempsdesSakalava,lorsqu’unroimeurt,leshommesse





30 Mémoire collective précisée par le témoignage de Darivelo, 74 ans au moment de notre entretienen2014.Mèredefamilled'AndranofôtsyetdescendantdesZafindrabay.Lesentretiens onteulieudemanièreinformelleàplusieursrepriseschezellede1997à2014. 89 coupent les cheveux pour marquer le deuil dans le royaume. Le groupe tsimihety, commesonnoml’indique31,auraitrésistécontrecettepratiqueroyaleancestrale.

Sansvouloirànouveauretracerl’histoiredesTsimihety,déjàl’objetdedifférents travauxderecherche,legroupeavaitconnusansaucundoutel’atrocitédesonvoisin Sakalavaoùl’esclavageetlatraiteavaientcommencédepuisletempsdupartageavec lesArabesdansl’OuestetleNorddeMadagascar32.Laconquêteterritorialeetlatraite continuentjusqu’àl’arrivéedesEuropéensdurantlaquellelesSakalavatentaientde conquérirpresquetouslespaysvoisins.NouscitonsnotammentlepaysdesTsimihety, lepaysdesSihanaka,lepaysdesAntakaranaetmêmedanslepaysdesBetsimisaraka. Ces conquêtes s’effectuent généralement par la réduction des hommes en esclaves danslespaysconquis.

DepuisleXVIIIesièclejusqu’àlapremièremoitiéduXIXesiècle,différentsgroupes d’esclaves d’origine africaine s’installent définitivement à Mandritsara. Dans le processusdelibérationdesMasombika,lesesclavessesontéparpillésformantainsiles Makoa : la mémoire collective à ce propos est souvent présente dans les chansons populairesetlesvariétés.LesrecherchessurlestracesdesMakoadeMandritsarasont encoursetlesrésultatspartielssontencourageants.Cequiestcertainaumomentde larédactiondecettecontribution,c’estqu’unelocalitéaétédécouverteactuellement commeétantunvillagemakoa.Ils’appelleAnkôtsohôtso,situépresqueàlalimitedu districtdeMandritsaraendirectionversceluideMaroantsetra;levillagemakoaest relativement isolé33. Très peu de contacts et d’échanges entre Ankôtsohôtso et les autres groupes lignagers de la région de l’Andròna. L’interdiction d’épouser les individusdecegroupen’estpasformellementétabliemaisilsemblequelegroupevit plutôtàl’écart,mêmesilevillageesttraverséparunedespisteslesplusempruntées reliantdel’AndrònaàlacôteEstdeMadagascar.





31RakotonavoryH.(2015),LeBaliͲmanjôfoouBalpoussièredanslaRégiondel’Andròna:pour quelsregardsanthropologiques,MémoiredeMasterenAnthropologieSocialesousladirectionde Mangalaza,UniversitédeToamasina,115p. 32ZafidadyI.E.(1991–1992),LeSahadel’Andròna,étudeethnologiquedelasociétéTsimihety del’Andròna.Casduvillaged’Antratramidôla,LaRéunion,UniversitédeLaRéunion,151p. 33TémoignageHilarionRakotonavory,39ansaumomentdenotreentretienen2019.Chanteuret auteurͲcompositeuroriginairedeMandritsaraconnusouslenomdescèneLeJim415.Doctoranten ethnomusicologieàl’UniversitédeTuléar. 90  Figure5Représentationdesmatériauxutilisésparlesguérisseurstraditionnelslocauxparun photographelocalsurnomméZafyAlbert (Source:ChaplainToto)

 Etantlethéâtred’uneconquêteterritorialeetd’unepressionpolitiqueetculturelle des Sakalavadurant des siècles, et unelocalité où lamémoire surles Makoa reste encoretrèsviveetpopulaire,ilestdifficiled’admettrequeleMuséedel’Andrònane possèdemêmepasunepiècereprésentant,d’unemanièreoud’uneautre,l’esclavage etlatraitedesesclaves. 4.MuséeLampydeFénériveͲEstdanslepaysdeRatsimilaho Lampy a été créé à la fin des années 1990 par l’Université de Toamasina parallèlementavecuneformationeninformatiquedanslavilledeFénériveͲEst.L’idée de créer un musée consistait à mettre en place une structure qui garantirait l’attachementdelajeunesseauxvaleursculturelleslocalestoutenleuroffrantlesoutils modernesàtraverslesnouvellestechnologiesdel’informationetdelacommunication. Silaprésentationestséduisante,lastructureestloind’êtrecomplète.Lesobjetsqui formentlaprésentationserésumentainsi:lesoutilstraditionnelsdelapêchelocale,la cuisinedanslaviequotidienne,quelquesinstrumentsdemusiqueainsiquelesaodyou lesplanteslocalesutiliséesparlesguérisseurstraditionnels.

FénériveͲEstestavanttoutunevilleattestéedepuisletempsdeFlacourtquidevient ensuiteunebasearrièredespiratesauXVIIesiècle.Unthéâtredescompétitionsentre 91 lesgroupeslignagersmalgachesd’originesdiverses,lavilleattiretrèsvitelaconvoitise etestrecherchéetrèstôtparlesnavigateursenvoyésparlesgrandespuissancesde l’époquemoderne.Ils’ensuitdesliaisonsentrelesfilleslocalesetlespiratesoules traitantsquisillonnaientlazone.Subséquemment,ungrouped’enfants métisplutôt fortuné émerge et se développe à travers le temps34. Au début du XVIIIe siècle, différentes localités dans l’Est de Madagascar deviennent des centres de traite fournissantdel’approvisionnementetdesesclavesauxbateauxmarchandseuropéens. UnjeunemétisnomméRatsimilahoprendlepouvoiràFénériveetdevientleroides Betsimisaraka35.Sonroyaumes’étendthéoriquementdelabaied’Antongiljusqu’au paysdesAntatsimoausuddeTamatave.

 Figure6MuséeRégionaldeFeneriveͲEstLAMP  Créepourdonnerunancrageculturelrégionalàtraversl’histoireetl’ethnographie.Installéaucœur ducentreͲvilledeFénériveͲEstLampyestsituédanslazonelaplusaccessible. 

Depuissonrègnejusqu’àlafindusiècleavecl’installationdeBeniowskyàAntongil etsontraitantMayeurquiassurelesliensaveclesdifférentesformationspolitiques contrôlant chacune des zones portuaires, la traite d’esclaves explose à l’Est de Madagascar. Les Zafindrabay agissaient librement dans ce contexte. La capitale politique est la ville de FénériveͲEst qui gère l’ensemble de la façade orientale de Madagascar,devenueuneplaquetournantefournissantdesesclavesàl’IledeFrance





34GrandidierG.(1898),HistoiredelaformationduRoyaumeBetsimisaraka,extraitduBulletindu ComitédeMadagascar,Paris,LibrairieMaritimeetColoniale,14p. 35Cf.LemanuscritdeNicolasMayeur,HistoireduRoiBetsimisarakaRatsimilaho(1695Ͳ1750), Londres,BritishMuseum,sourcedactylographiée.DisponibledanslefondsGrandidieràTsimbazaza, Antananarivo,p.1. 92 mais également à d’autres destinations riveraines de l’océan Indien36. Inspiré d’une réalitéidentiqueàcellequiprévautàMadagascarlorsdesonséjouràl’étranger,leroi métisetfilsd’unpiratedonneunelargelatitudeàsespartisanslocaux,créantainsiune ambiancedefêtequasiquotidienneillustréeparleconcept«libertalia»37.

Cesélémentshistoriques,constituantlamatricedel’identitédeshabitantsdecette partiedelaGrandeIle,sonttotalementabsentsdecettestructureculturellecensée constituerunsoclepourl’ancrageidentitairedesBetsimisaraka.Unenouvelleapproche s’impose et les nouveaux responsables de la ville nous ont donné leur accord de principe pour rétablir la place et le rôle de FénériveͲEst dans l’histoire du pays des Betsimisaraka.







36RakotoI.(2000),LaRoutedesEsclaves,Systèmeservileetlatraitedansl’Estmalgache,Actes duColloqueInternationaldeTamatave(20Ͳ22Septembre1999),Paris,l’Harmattan. 37LestémoignagesdesdescendantsdeRatsimilahoàtraversdesentretiensquenousavonseu avecAlainFrédéricMAVERANA,navigateurdeprofessionetaussiprésidentdel’associationdes ZanamalataàlarecherchedeshéritagesduroiàFénériveͲEst.Ilrevendiqueetditavoirdespreuves etdesconsignesgardéesjalousementparlesaînésdelafamille:lefameuxLibertaliasepassaitbel etbienquelquepartàFénériveͲEst. 93  Figure7CharlotetSabinereprésentantleRoiRatsimilahoetsonépouseMatavy (Source:Al’occasiondu30èmeanniversairedelaFLSHdeUniversitédeToamasinaen2015)

 5.AutresMuséesaussiprochesdeTamatave A250kmsdeTamatavesurlaRN2versAntananarivodanslavilledeMoramanga, se trouvent deux Musées de thématique différente. Le premier est celui dédié à immortaliser l’histoire du mouvement pour l’indépendance symbolisé par la révolte malgache de 1947. Etant une institution inscrite dans le nationalisme malgache, l’établissementdétientunelargecollectionsurlesrécitsconcernantlemouvementde 47àtraverslepays,lespersonnalitéspolitiquesdanslerangdesnationalistesetsurtout lesoutilsdeguerreutilisésparlesMalgachescontrel’arméecolonialefrançaise.Tous lesans,lemuséeendosselerôled’unépicentredelacommémorationdelatragédie del’époquecolonialele29mars,maisdemeurepresquesilencieuxpendantlerestede l’année.Parailleurs,ilestmuetsurlesdifférentsaspectsdeladominationhiérarchique àtraversletemps.

Dansunautresitedelavillesedresseunautremusée,celuidelagendarmerie nationale malgache. Il serait peutͲêtre nécessaire de rappeler que l’actuelle

94 gendarmerie est la continuité de la fameuse Garde Indigène de l’époque coloniale, tristement célèbre à cause des abus perpétrés envers la population. La mémoire populaire l’associe quasiͲsystématiquement à la répression et aux traitements indécents infligés par le régime colonial. Le « Musée de la gendarmerie nationaleMoramanga»détientunelargecollectionsurl’histoiredelagendarmerie depuislesoriginesetlesdifférentshautsresponsablesdecettebranchedusystème sécuritairedeMadagascar.Néesouslacolonisation,reforméeparlasuitedansunpays devenuindépendant,lagendarmerienationaleestavanttoutuneinstitutionsécuritaire d’Etat.

Pourunregardreculé,laprésencedecesdeuxmuséesdanslavilledeMoramanga symboliselacontinuitéd’unconflitentempsdepaix;ils’avèrequechacunessaiede perpétuerlamémoiresursonsystème.Ilestaussiinutilederappelerquelavillede Moramangapuisedirectementsonnomdel’Histoiredel’esclavage.Sonnomillustre l’abondanceetlebonprixdesesclavesdanslepasséetMayeurͲletraitantleplus connuduXVIIIesiècledeMadagascarͲaétélepremierblancpénétrantàl’intérieurde laGrandeIledepuisTamatave,etils’estarrêtésurl’actuelMoramangaetsesalentours. Moramanga est donc la première ville des hautes terres connue et visitée par un traitantd’esclavesdanslesannées177038.

En2014,l’UniversitédeToamasinaaaussiétésollicitéelorsdelamiseenplaced’un autremuséedanslepaysdesBetsileo.Ils’agitdu«MuséedesDeuxGuerres»baptisé Johanesa Rafiliposaona, en rappel du rôle prépondérant de cet ancien tirailleur malgache qui combat à côté des Français lors de la Première Guerre mondiale. Les premièrespiècesconstituantlepatrimoinedecemuséesontlesdocumentsconservés par ce Malgache ; il est un des rares lettrés et il est chargé par beaucoup de ses camaradespourécriredeslettresàleurfamilleàMadagascar.Descopiesconservées dansuncoffreontétédécouvertesrécemmentparsesdescendants,àl’originedece projet.LeMuséeestconstruitsurlaterredesesancêtresdonnantainsiletitreprivéde l’établissementdanslaCommuneRuraledeTadiodansledistrictdeFandrianadela ProvincedeFianarantsoa39.





38Cf.RatsivalakaG.(1977),«ElémentsdebiographiedeNicolasMayeur1747Ͳ1809»,inOmalysy Anio,n°5Ͳ6,Antananarivo,Dép.d’Histoiredel’Universitéd’Antananarivo,pp.79Ͳ88. 39Cf.LetellierS.(2014),LeMuséedesDeuxGuerresdanslesrizièresàTadioCommuneUrbainede Fandriana,Documentdecréationdumuséeavecl’appuideRégionNormandieenFrance,leComité duCentenairedelaGuerre14Ͳ18etleMinistèredel’EnseignementSupérieuretdelaRecherche scientifiquedeMadagascar,37p. 95 Silesidéessonttoujoursséduisantes,l’absencespectaculairedel’esclavageͲne seraitͲcequesuruneseuledesesmultiplesfacettesͲinterpelleceluiquiveuttourner définitivementlapagedeconflitpourouvrirunenouvellepagedel’Histoireetdudroit àlamémoirepourtous. Conclusion Depuisseptembre1996Ͳladatedelapremièrerencontrescientifiqueévoquant spécialementlesujetdel’esclavageàMadagascarͲjusqu’àaujourd’hui,onnecompte pasplusdetroisouvragescollectifspubliés40,cequiesttrèspeupourunsujetcentral commel’esclavage,etlatraitedesesclavesetseshéritages.Sil’inexistenced’unmusée sespécialisantsurcesujetsemblelogique,comptetenudelararetédesrencontres spécialisées pour débattre de la question, l’absence d’une rubrique traitant de l’esclavage dans les musées évoqués est très gênante. Malgré cette constatation alarmante,laprésenceennombredescontributionsfaitesparlesjeuneschercheursà côté de Rakoto et Urfer(2014) dans leur dernier ouvrage est un signe plutôt encourageant.L’esclavagefaitpartieintégrantedel’Histoiredupaysmaislesujetreste toujoursbrûlantetgênantàMadagascar.Heureusementqu’ilyalanouvelletendance menée par nos artistes pour briser enfin le tabou. La chanteuse Denise assume et imposesonimaged’unefemmeissued’ungroupemakoa;unenouvellereprésentation plutôt bien accueillie pour l’instant et qui mérite probablement une place dans les muséesàMadagascar.

  





40RakotoI.(1997),L’esclavageàMadagascar,Aspectshistoriquesetrésurgencescontemporaines, ActesduColloqueinternationalsurl’Esclavage,Antananarivodu24Ͳ28Septembre1996,publiéen 1997parInstitutdeCivilisationͲMuséed’ArtetArchéologieetl’FTM;RakotoI.(2000),Laroutedes Esclaves, Système servile et la traite dans l’Est Malgache, Actes du Colloque international de ToamasinadeSeptembre1999,publiéen2000parl’UniversitédeToamasinaetl’Harmattan;et enfinRakotoI.etUrferS.(2014),EsclavageetlibérationàMadagascar,Paris,KarthalaͲCentreFoi etJustice,364p. 96 Références EsoavelomandrosoM.(1979),Laprovinceorientaledu«RoyaumedeMadagascar» àlafinduXIXèmesiècle(1882Ͳ1895),Antananarivo,p.417.

Grandidier A. (1903), un manuscrit dactylographié intitulé ‘Histoire du Roi Betsimisaraka Ratsimilaho (1695Ͳ1750)’, British Muséum, Disponible dans le fonds GrandidieràTsimbazaza,Antananarivo.

GrandidierG.(1898),‘HistoiredelaformationduRoyaumeBetsimisaraka’,extrait duBulletinduComitédeMadagascar,Paris,LibrairieMaritimeetColoniale,14p.

LetellierS.(2014),LeMuséedesDeuxGuerresdanslesrizièresàTadioCommune Urbaine de Fandriana, Document de création du musée avec l’appui de Région NormandieenFrance,leComitéduCentenairedelaGuerre14Ͳ18etleMinistèrede l’EnseignementsupérieuretdelaRecherchescientifiquedeMadagascar,37p.

Maminirina R. (2018), « Antanetibe Zazamanga : L’âme oubliée de l’Afrique », Antananarivo,MidiMadagasikaradu26Octobre2018enligne,consultéle01août 2019.

Rakoto I. (1997), ‘L’esclavage à Madagascar, Aspects historiques et résurgences contemporaines’,ActesduColloqueinternationalsurl’Esclavage,Antananarivodu24Ͳ 28 septembre 1996, publié en 1997 par Institut de CivilisationͲMusée d’Art et Archéologieetl’FTM.

Rakoto I. (2000), ‘La Route des Esclaves, Système servile et la traite dans l’Est malgache’,ActesduColloqueinternationaldeTamatave(20Ͳ22septembre1999),Paris, l’Harmattan.

Rakoto I. (2000), La route des Esclaves, Système servile et la traite dans l’Est Malgache’,ActesduColloqueinternationaldeToamasinadeseptembre1999,Paris, l’HarmattanetUniversitédeToamasina,352p.

RakotoI.etUrferS.(2014),EsclavageetlibérationàMadagascar,Paris,KarthalaͲ CentreFoietJustice,364p.

Rakotonavory H. (2015), ‘Le BaliͲmanjôfo ou Bal poussière dans la Région de l’Andròna : quels regards anthropologiques’, Mémoire de Master en Anthropologie SocialesousladirectiondeMangalaza,UniversitédeToamasina,115p.

RatsivalakaG.(1977),«ElémentsdebiographiedeNicolasMayeur1747Ͳ1809»,in OmalysyAnio,n°5Ͳ6,Antananarivo,Dép.d’Histoiredel’Universitéd’Antananarivo,pp. 79Ͳ88.

97 Razafindralambo L. (2005), « Inégalité, exclusion, représentations sur les Hautes TerrescentralesdeMadagascar»,Cahiersd’étudesafricaines,3Ͳ4,179,pp.879Ͳ904.

TotoC.(2018),‘Labaied’Antongildansl’EstdeMadagascarduXVIIͲXIXèmesiècle: LePaysetlesHommesdansladurée’,ThèsededoctoratetHistoire,EDͲSHSUniversité d’Antananarivo,390p.

TotoC.(2019),«DescendantsethéritagesMakoaàTamatave»,History,Memory andIdentity–ComparativePerspectives,Vol.2,PortͲLouis,NelsonMandelaCentrefor AfricanCultureTrustFund,pp.65Ͳ81.

ValetteJ.(1962),«Rapportd’expéditiondeSylvainRoux»,BulletindeMadagascar, n°188,p.19.

ValetteJ.(1964),«LeTraitépasséentreRadama1eretJeanRené(9Juillet1817)», BulletindeMadagascar,n°222,Antananarivo,ImprimerieNationale,pp.957Ͳ959.

ZafidadyI.E.(1991–1992),‘LeSahadel’Andròna,étudeethnologiquedelasociété Tsimihetydel’Andròna.Casduvillaged’Antratramidôla,LaRéunion’,UniversitédeLa Réunion,151p.

 

98 12 TheImageryofSlavery PénélopeMarieͲCharlotteAudreyEmile, Researcher,CRSI  Introduction IntheAtlanticworld,asMarcusWoodhasstated,theimageryofslaveryhasnot beentakenasseriouslyasitshouldhavebeen”.ThesamecouldbestatedfortheIndian Oceanregion.InlightoftheIntercontinentalSlaveryMuseumproject,apriorityproject fortheGovernmentofMauritius,theCentreforResearchonSlaveryandIndenturehas focusedonacriticalexaminationofmemorialisationofslaveryinitiativesthroughvisual media. Although it has been involved in historical, archaeological and ethnographic researchonslaveryforthepastdecade,thepotentialoftheuseofthesestudiesfor memorializationactivities,andparticularlythevisualizationisimportanttoinvestigate. Twopastactivities,conceptualizedbytheCentre:livingmuseumexhibitsinLeMorne in 2013 and 2014 led to further discussions on choices of what to present, how to presentinformationwithouttheavailablesupportingvisualmaterialandhowtoinvolve thelocalcommunityinrepresentingtheirhistory.Itwasclearthatintheabsenceof muchvisualandoralmaterial,newwaysofrepresentingthehistoryofslaverywould needtobefound.In2016,italsoconductedapreliminarysurveytogatherMauritians’ viewsoftheproposedSlaveryMuseum,astudywhichisonͲgoing.

On the Atlantic side, Marcus Wood has critically examined the visualization of slavery though four ‘themes’ which have, in Europe, the USA and the Caribbean, attracted much attention at the time and even today: the slave trade, maroonage, physical punishment and the visual imagery created from Harriet Beecher Stowe’s UncleTom’sCabin.WehaveyettoundertakesuchastudyfortheIndianOceanworld.

Myownstudyforadissertationin2017,whichconsistedofexaminingvisualsand othericonographicmaterialrelatingtoslavery,concludedthatmuchoftheeighteenth andnineteenthcenturyimagesoftheenslavedarestereotypicalyetcontinuetobe usedbythoseattemptingtomemorialiseslaverytoday.Thesevisualisationsdonotdo fulljusticetounderstandingthefullbreadthofthehistoricalexperienceofslaves.There isanurgentneedtocreatenewvisualdocumentationthatreflectsmoreaccuratelyand holisticmanner,the‘slaveexperience’.Itisalsocrucial,asRosabelleBoswellhasstated, to consider the use of other sensory experiences in visualizing slavery in public

99 representationsofslavery.41Inthelightofthesestudies,itappearsessentialtobreak awayfrom‘traditional’‘stereotypical’visualisationsofslaveryandconceptualisenew visualformsofmemorialisingthehistoryofslavery.Ihopethatthispaperwillserve thosesettingupthefutureIntercontinentalSlaveryMuseum. SlaveryinMauritianiconographichistory Slavery forms an intrinsic part of Mauritian history. Slaves’ contribution to the constructionofMauritiuscannolongerbedenied.Astheformerbuildersoftheisland anditseconomyandthehorrorthatslaveshaveendured,itisour‘devoirdememoire’ towardstheenslavedtoremembertheirhistoryastheylivedit.Variousinitiativeshave beenundertakentohonourslaveryinMauritius,suchasthelistingofheritagesites such as the Le Morne Cultural Landscape, a day set aside for commemorating the abolitionofslaveryonFebruary1stetc.TheTruthandJusticerecommendationshas also examined the memorialization of slavery and indenture and made several recommendations.42

Museumshave,inthepast,inMauritiusandinEurope,portrayedslaveryusingold printsandotherartisticworksasvisuals.Evencontemporaryartusesoldprintsand transformspastrealitiesofslaverythroughtheartist’seyes.Itishoweverimportantto stressthatmemorialisingthehistoryofourancestorsthroughmuseumdisplaymust communicate a Verstehen/Empathic aspect of slavery through one of the most communicativewaysthatisthroughvisuals.

In comparison to other slave importing countries like the USA, the number of museumsinMauritiustowhichslavedescendantscoulddirectlyrelatetoisscarce. Accessibility of data on slavery from slave testimonies is inexistent; all information concerningslaveryreliesonthecolonisers’writingsandtheserepresentandamount toaoneͲsidedrecordofevents.History,seenfromtheenslaved’spointofviewcan rapidlybeforgotten;thatiswhyitsconservationandtransmissionisimportantsothat itremainsengravedinpeoples’memory.Aneffectivewaytodosoisthroughimages oracombinationofbothwordingandvisuals...

ButoneofthekeyactionsrequiredbeforesettingupaMuseumofSlaveryisto determine its importance for the Mauritian population and their expectations and viewsonthis.Thevisualaspectsofthisfuturememorializationformsanintrinsicpart ofthispublicconsultation.Indeed,“Museumsaremorethanculturalinstitutionsand





41RosabelleBoswell(2017)‘SensuousstoriesintheIndianOceanislands’. 42Seeforexample,CorinneForest,‘MemoryandRepresentationsofSlaveryandIndenture’inTJC Report,Vol4PartXPreservingtheNation’sMemory. 100 showplacesofaccumulatedobjects:theyarethesitesofinteractionbetweenpersonal and collective identities, between memory and history, between information and knowledgeproduction”.43

Thus the aim of my survey, conducted in 2017, was to gather and understand peoples’viewsofslavery,theirperceptionsofslaverythroughvisualsandtheiropinions regarding a possible slavery museum.Although a total of 30 questionnaires were distributed,onlytwentyresponded.Thirteenwerefemalerespondentsandsevenwere male.Itwasinterestingthatthosebelow40,identifiedthemselvesas‘Mauritian’while thoseofupperagecategorygavetheirethnicorreligiousbackgrounds.44

Throughtheinformationgathered,itwasfoundthatgenerationalperceptionand forsome,theirculturalbackgroundmadeadifferenceintheknowledge,perception andinterestconcerningslavery.Howeverduetotheunevenagegroupresponseand the small sample, the issue of generational/cultural identification could not be generalized.Generally,itwasalsofoundthatrespondentswereawareofwhatslavery isanditsessence;evenifcriteriaofcompletenessandtotalaccuracyintheiranswers werenotmet.Ontheotherhand,itwasnoticedthatvariousstereotypicalfeedbacks aboutslavesexisted.Regardlessofgender,age,culturalandeducationalbackground, respondentswerereallytouchedaboutthesubjectandinterestedinknowingmore aboutthehistoryofslaveryinMauritius.Onerespondentneverthelessexpressedher unwillingnesstoknowaboutslaveryasithadcaused“toomuchpainandhorror”.

Respondents were also asked about their opinion concerning the creation of a slaverymuseuminMauritius.Thedatacollectedrevealedthatoverall,museumvisits werenotaregularoccurrenceforthem.ButitisnotonlyinMauritiusthatthereisless and less interest in Museums. The cause? According to Jonathan Jones, economic pressures[…]aredestroyingtheaspirationsweexpresswhenwegotogalleries.[…]It isanexpressionofhopeandselfͲesteem.Hecontinues,“Thedropinmuseumvisitors reveals a nation without aspiration or hope”.45  Though the Truth and Justice CommissionofMauritiusrecommendedseveralmeasurestobetterpromotemuseums





43Crane,SusanA.Museumsandmemory.StanfordUniversityPress,2000,12. 44Pénélope MarieͲCharlotte Audrey Emile, ‘Visualising Slavery through Old Prints And ContemporaryArt’,BADissertation,UniversityofMauritius,88Ͳ90. 45JonathanJones,‘Thedropinmuseumvisitorsrevealsanationwithoutaspirationorhope’,The Guardian2February2017, https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/jonathanjonesblog/2017/feb/02/dropͲukͲmuseumͲ attendance 101 so as to increase the general public’s interest, it can be stated that the designed incentivesdidnotgeneratetheexpectedfeedback.

Thevariousopinionsexpressedaregreatlyimportanttounderstandthemotives thatmakeMauritianswillingtohavesuchaplacededicatedtoslaveryinMauritius.It was also stated quite eagerly that the truth must be shown. One respondent was againstthedisplayofthemistreatmentofenslavedwomenbecauseitmightimpact negativelyondescendants’selfͲesteem.

Allrespondentsweresupportiveandinterestedinthisinitiativeforthecountry. NoneofthemviewedtheestablishmentofaSlaveryMuseumasaprojectthatmaylead toabadimagetoMauritius.Instead,respondentsputforwardthefactthatthissortof Museummayhelptoshowanddefinetherich,somehowuniqueandcomplexaspect of the Mauritian social reality. The general feeling was that there was a need for transmissionofthehistoryofslaverytothepresentforfuturegenerationssoasitisnot forgottenorignored.

It was observed in contrast, that there was a generational difference which influencedtheinterestandconsiderationaboutthesubject.Oneintervieweewhowas above sixty years old claimed that, “remembering slavery is somehow useless as Mauritianswillnotbeinterestedandgiveimportancetosomethingthatisfinishedand whichdoesnottouchesthemdirectly”.However,opinionschangedafterthevisioning of selected prints. Personal interviews were arranged with five interviewees from differentagesandculturalbackground,togainagenerationalperspectiveaboutslavery after viewing selected images shown to them and to ascertain if their views varied accordingtoethnicityorculturalbackground.Theinterviewswerecarriedoutsoasto haveadeeperinsightintotheopinionsandfeelingsofintervieweesregardingSlavery through an interesting selection of images not normally shown to the Mauritian public.46

FromthesurveyandinͲdepthinterviews,itcanbestatedthatvisualsdomakea differenceandimpactenormouslyonlearningaboutslavery.Opinionschangedwhen visuals were shown. By viewing images of slavery, interviewees stated they could identifywiththeslavesandfeltthattheywereintheslaves’shoes.Theystatedthat they were trying to imagine whether they would have been able to support all the violenceandtorture.Someaddedthatby‘visualising’slaveryratherthanreadingabout it,learningandcomprehensionwereenhancedastheimagescapturedone’sattention and generated emotions,compared to if one were to simply read text. Some





46Emile,‘VisualisingSlavery’,100. 102 intervieweesalsosuggestedthatachildren’scornershouldbedesignedsoasnotto traumatizeorhurttheirsensitivities.

Thispreliminarystudyofpeoples’perceptionsofslaveryandtheirviewsconcerning thesettingupofamuseumofslaveryrevealedsomeinterestingpointsandalsoareas ofconcernfordesignersoftheproposedmuseum.Thereisclearlyagreatinterestin thehistoryofslaveryandthereweregreatexpectationsabouttheslaverymuseum project.Inordertoacknowledgeandincorporatetheexpectationsandviewsofthe publicandessentialcomponentstothesuccessofthemuseum,aholisticapproach about representing history slavery to visitors is required. A special unit of trained individuals with a dynamic competence to transmit knowledge with passion is recommendedtodealwithvisitorssoastogenerateinterestinthemuseum.Currently, museums in Mauritius are not a conductive environment to develop visitors’ continuousinterestduetotheirrigidity,monotony,coldanddisinterestedapproach towardsvisitors. Visualisingslaveryintheeighteenthcentury MostofthevisualimagesthatexistofMauritianslaverystemsfromtheeighteenth centuryperiod,whenvisitorsarrivedinMauritiusandproducedworkswhicharetoday usedoverandoveragainbywriterstoillustratetheirworkonslavery.Therehasbeen rarely any critical questioning of whether these representations are stereotypes or show the realities of slavery. In fact, we have today in Mauritius, only these visual imagesofslaverydrawnbyEuropeansandnooralinformationorinformationderiving directlyfromtheslavesthemselves.

Atthistime,inFranceandEngland,landscapeartwasundergoingarevival,inspired byItalianartanddrewinspirationfromthecountryside.Theseincludedpeacefulscenes ofmountains,rivers,farmhousesandanimals.47IntheUSA,aderivativewaswhatis termedthe‘plantationview’.48Thesepaintingsoftheplantationhavebecomeamajor objectofstudyofsocialandculturalhistorians.Today,asinMauritius,“theplantation





47J.PaulGettyMuseum,BriefHIstoryoftheLandscapeGenre, https://www.getty.edu/education/teachers/classroom_resources/curricula/landscapes/backgroun d1.html 48AngelaD.MackandStephenG.Hoffius(eds).LandscapeofSlaveryThePlantationinAmerican Art. 103 hasenduredintheAmericanconsciousnessasanostalgicmemoryforwhitesandasan openwoundforblacks.”49

JustasEdwardSaidshowedforthe‘Orient’in‘Orientalism’,theoverallpictureone hasofslaverytherefore,isacreationofEurope.Thevisualsarepartof“thegeneral mode of discourse with supporting institutions, vocabulary, scholarship, imagery, doctrines”.50Theoverallimageofslaverydepictedinpaintingsandlithographsofthe eighteenthcenturyisheavilyinfluencednotonlybylandscapeartbutbyartiststrying tofindawaytomakethehorrorsofslaveryseemmorepalatable.ButMarcusWood has questioned whether there is such a way to represent the horrors of slavery artistically.51

Mostofthepaintingsdepictingslavestendtodiminishtheviolenceofslavery,as the slaves, although part of the landscape, are barely visible in this landscape dominatedbymorenaturalfeaturesortheowner’shouseandotherbuiltstructures. OneneedsalsotorememberthatoftenwriterswerewritingforaEuropeanaudience andworksdepictingscenesofviolencewouldnothavesoldwell.Manywerefinanced bywealthymerchants.

Theexceptiontothisis,ofcourse,alltheabolitionistpropagandawhichhighlighted the horrors of slavery and particularly of the slave trade. The most famous is undoubtedlytheBrookesship.52Anotherexampleofa‘negativevisual’thattriggers powerfulemotionalrepresentationandresponseistheimageofanenslavedmanwho bearsthescarsofhismultiplefloggings(Fig.7).

Atthattime,theonlyartworkthatdepictedviolenthumanfigures/situationswas the renaissance art of the Italian.According to Scott Nethersole, “Renaissance Florentines were constantly subjected to the sight of violence, whether in carefully staged rituals of execution or images of the suffering inflicted on Christ. There was nothing new in this culture of pain, unlike the aesthetic of violence that developed towardstheendofthe15thcentury.”53





49 William R. Ferris, Senior Associate Director, Center for the Study of the American South, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, reviewing Mack & Hoffius’s book. https://www.sc.edu/uscpress/books/2007/3720.html 50EdwardSaid,Orientalism,10 51MarcusWood,BlindMemory:VisualRepresentationsofSlaveryinEnglandandAmerica,15. 52WooddevotesawholechaptertotheiconographyoftheMiddlePassageinBlindMemory: Chapter2:‘TheIrrecoverable:RepresentingtheMiddlePassage’. 53ScottNethersole.2018.ArtandViolenceinEarlyRenaissanceFlorence,YaleUniversityPress 104  Figure8Scarsofawhippedslave,1863 (Source:http://picturahistoria.com) ‘Mauritian’iconographyofslavery During the slavery period, various artists and travellers’ related their travel experiencethroughthecoloniestheyvisited.Theyalsoproducedalargeamountof visual material, such as prints, paintings etc. The different stages of an enslaved person’s life in Mauritius are often portrayed through these various colonial period printsandreproducedinmostMauritianartistic,literaryandcommemorativemedia creations(Fig.8).ButwhethertheserepresentactualandtruereflectionsofMauritius orofslaverycanbedoubted.Today,therefore,itisdifficulttorepresentslaverythrough onlythesehistoricalprintswhenhistoricalresearchhasshownthatoftenstereotypical images have been represented and moreover that travellers did not fully enter the ‘slaveworld’.Itisadvanced,thatasmorelocalresearchisundertakenonslavery,a morerepresentativevisualhistoryofslaverycouldbecreatedbylocalartists.Artists could be at the forefront of as future movement to create a more balanced and historicallycorrectpictureofslavery.

   

105   Neverforgotten,PanthersandEthiopia. SlaveryhistoryandtheAfricancomplicity:Africans Slavecaptureinvillages captureandsoldotherAfricansintoslavery. (Source:Pinterest.com) (Source:https://factreal.wordpress.com/2010/07/08/).

 BrandingͲofͲslavesͲbrutalͲactͲusedͲforͲ  identificationͲpurposesͲandͲsevereͲ Theslavetrade/slaveinspectioninCuba. punishment. Source:http://abolitionwya.org.uk. (Source:https://blackthen.com).

 SlaveShipArtefactsRecovered.  Source:SmithsonianInsiderͲ FugitiveSlaveAttackedbyDogs,19thcent SmithsonianInstitution. Source:https://sniffingthepast.wordpress.com.

Figure9CompilationofafewprintsusedinMauritiustodepict‘Mauritian’slavery

106 EighteenthandnineteenthcenturytravellerstoMauritiusalsoproducedprintsthat havestillnotbeensufficientlyanalysedorused.Bytakingasexampletheseprintsfrom Milbert54.Hisprintsdemonstrateaformofvisualcommunicationintermsofcalibration and documentation of everything: mountain, landscape and local population are represented.Itisinterestingthatthelocalpopulationformspartofthelandscapeand aredrawninsmallpersonageformingpartofthedecor.Toanalysehisprintsfromthe perspectiveoffindingoutaboutlifeofslaves,‘zooming’inisnecessarytocapturethe littlefeaturesthatoftenhavegoneunnoticedinMauritius.Theseshowslaves’activities orslavesneartheirhuts(butnotinside).Theseaspectsofdailylifeofslavesbecome sortof“invisible”ifonedoesnotexaminedocumentssuchastheseclosely(Fig.9and 10).Thereisneverthelessasenseoferasureconcerningslaves,asonehastoexamine theprintverycloselytoactuallyseeanypersonsofcolourrepresented.

 Figure10ViewoftheMontagnedesCalebasses (Source:MNA:N2/20,J.G.Milbert,AtlasduVoyagePittoresqueà l’IledeFrance,Paris,Nepveu1812)







54Milbert,JacquesͲGérard.(1766–1840)wasaFrenchnaturalistandartist.Heistheauthorof VoyagePittoresqueÀL’ileDeFranceAuCapDeLaBonneEsperanceEtAL’ileDeTénériffe. 107  Figure11CloseͲupofoneslavebringingbackhiscatchandaccompaniedbyhisdog.

Theprints,somehowcreateintrigueabouthowtoconstructacomprehensionof slaveryperiodinMauritius.Formanyyears,therewasthenotionthattheseprintswere only artistic representations. Today, scholars are placing emphasis on the power relationsimpliedbytheseimages.55Accordingly,TerrySmithhasdevelopedthisidea andputforwardwiththetheoryofavisualregimeofcolonisation.56Heproposedthe idea that colonisation come along with a triple approach in terms of visual culture: obliteration(wipingoutslavecultureinMauritiancontext),calibration(tomeasureor map out documents) and aesthetic (what is symbolised as important and socially beautiful). Theendogenousgazetoday IthasbeenfoundthatevenamongartiststodayinMauritius,therearefewwellͲ researcheddepictionsofslavesandofslavery.Therareprintsthatarefocusedonslaves areduetothefactthatthoseslavesweredifferentfrommostothersandledtothe artistsdevelopingaparticularinterestinthem.Oneexamplecouldbethisprintofa “Mozambicanslave”,coveredwithethnicscarificationpatterns.Itisquiteastriking image(Fig.11)andwasprobablythereasonbehindtheinterestoftheartisttopay attentiontothisparticularperson.57





55Sturken,Marita,andLisaCartwright."Images,Power,andPolitics."PracticesofLooking:An IntroductiontoVisualCulture(2009):9Ͳ48. 56TerrySmithisanAustralianarthistorian,artcriticandartist.Smith,Terry,MartinJay,and SumathiRamaswamy."Visualregimesofcolonization:EuropeanandAboriginalseeingin Australia."Empiresofvision:Areader(2014):267Ͳ268. 57AnalysisofRamduth,HurrybansLallah.‘Exoticismandthedynamicsofidentityconstructionin thefieldofvisualcultureinMauritius’,PhDdissertation,2015. 108  Figure12ANativefromtheMozambiqueCoast (Source:DrawnbyNicolasͲMartinPetit(1777Ͳ1804, ©Muséumd’histoirenaturelle.LeHavre.CollectionLesurer)  Intermsofvisualcultureitwasfoundthatitislaterthattheendogenousgazebegan totransformitselfthroughthecontributionofthefirstgenerationofCreoleartists. NeverthelesstheseCreoleartistsdidnotconcentrateontheconceptofslavery.They placedmoreemphasisontheMauritianlandscape.Itisonlyrecentlythatsomeartists likeGerardFoyhavefocusedontryingtoportraytherealitiesofslavery.Nonetheless, the interest in painting or drawing about slavery is not widespread except during paintingcompetitionsinitiatedbytheNelsonMandelaCentreforAfricanCulture,when thereisanoutpouringofartisticrepresentationsofslavery(Fig.12). 

  Chaînebrisé(‘Brokenchains’) Freedom (Source:ArtistJeanNorbertMeunier) (Source:Artistunknown) 

  (Source:ArtistK.TokoroͲDiaso) Esclavage (Source:ArtistJeanClaudeBaissac) Figure13DisplayoftheIllustrationsofslaverybyMauritianartistsattheNelsonMandelaCentre forAfricanCulture

109 In conclusion, despite the preliminary studies conducted in Mauritius aimed at reviewingthememorialisationsandvisualisationsofthehistoryofslavery,therehas not been as yet an inͲdepth study of the various historic plantation landscapes of Mauritiusinrelationtoslavery.Thisgenreconstitutesanextremelyrichsource:one could explore power relations on the plantation, aswell as “wealth, race, memory, nostalgia,andconflict”.Thereisalsoaneedforinterdisciplinarystudieswherecurators, artists,ethnographersandhistoriansworktogethertoexaminetheseprintsto“assess motivesandaesthetics”.WhatseemstobemissinghoweverinMauritius,sofaristhe emergenceofa‘blackaesthetic’:thisneedstodevelopasa‘dissidentcounterpointto this tradition’. 58The use of the ‘plantation genre’ in the cultural tourist sector in Mauritius,alsoneedstobecriticallyexamined.Inrecentyears,theeighteenthcentury romanticlandscapehasbeenrevivedinthetouristsectorwherethehistoryofslavery andindentureiserasedorromanticallyportrayedintouristbrochuresandinvisitsto plantationhomes.ThechoiceofusingtheromanticisedviewofslaveryinBernardinde StPierre’sPauletVirginieratherthanhisVoyageàl’iledeFrancewhereheseverely condemnsslaveryinMauritius,isacaseinpoint.  References Boswell,Rosabelle.2017.‘SensuousstoriesintheIndianOceanislands’,TheSenses andSociety,12:2,193Ͳ208,DOI:10.1080/17458927.2017.1319603 Crane,Susan.2000.Museumsandmemory.StanfordUniversityPress. Emile,PénélopeMarieͲCharlotteAudrey.2018.‘VisualisingSlaverythroughOldPrints andContemporaryArt’,BADissertation,UniversityofMauritius. Ferris,WilliamR.CenterfortheStudyoftheAmericanSouth,UniversityofNorth CarolinaatChapelHill,reviewingMack&Hoffius’sbook. https://www.sc.edu/uscpress/books/2007/3720.html Forest,Corinne.2011.‘MemoryandRepresentationsofSlaveryandIndenture’inTJC Report,Vol4,PartXPreservingtheNation’sMemory. JonathanJones,‘Thedropinmuseumvisitorsrevealsanationwithoutaspirationor hope’,TheGuardian2February2017, https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/jonathanjonesblog/2017/feb/02/dro pͲukͲmuseumͲattendance J.PaulGettyMuseum,BriefHistoryoftheLandscapeGenre, https://www.getty.edu/education/teachers/classroom_resources/curricula/landsc apes/background1.html





58Ibid.https://www.sc.edu/uscpress/books/2007/3720.html 110 MackAngelaD.andHoffiusStephenG.(Eds).2009.LandscapeofSlaveryThe PlantationinAmericanArt.PublishedinCooperationwiththeGibbesMuseumof Art/CarolinaArtAssociation. Nethersole,Scott.2018.ArtandViolenceinEarlyRenaissanceFlorence,Yale UniversityPress. Ramduth,HurrybansLallah.‘Exoticismandthedynamicsofidentityconstructionin thefieldofvisualcultureinMauritius’,PhDdissertation,2015. Said,Edward.1978.Orientalism.London:Routledge&Kegan. Smith,Terry,MartinJay,andSumathiRamaswamy.2014"Visualregimesof colonization:EuropeanandAboriginalseeinginAustraliainEmpiresofvision:A reader Sturken,Marita,andLisaCartwright.2009."Images,Power,andPolitics."Practicesof Looking:AnIntroductiontoVisualCulture,OUP. 

111  





 Figure14StephanKarghoodiscussingapaintingdepictingan18thcenturysceneatthe BassindesEsclavesinPamplemousses    

112 13 RepresentationofSlaveryamongst PrimarySchoolChildreninMauritius JimmyHarmon,Member,CRSI& StephanieTamby59Member,CRSI 

Thispublicationexaminesacollectionofdrawingsandtextsthatweremadeby34 pupilsofGrade560ofNotreDamedeLourdesRomanCatholicSchoolintheRepublicof Mauritius during a class activity that was conducted on 21 August 2019.The class activitylastedalmostonehourandfortyminutesinaclassroomsetͲup.Facilitators weretheGradeTeacher,oneDeputyHeadTeacherandthefirstauthorofthispaper. TheclassactivitywasofficiallyconductedasaninitiativeoftheCRSIincollaboration withtheServiceDiocésaindel’EducationCatholique(SeDEC)61whichistheumbrella institutioncomprisingof46primaryschoolsand10secondaryschoolsinMauritius. Protocolsregardingethicalclearance,consentformsandaccesstotheworksofartof thechildrenwerefollowed.Onlyfiveoutofthirtydrawingswereselectedforanalysis becausetheycoverthedifferentaspectsofthelivesoftheenslavedpeople. Introduction NotreDamedeLourdesSchoolisagrantͲaidedprimarycatholicschool.Pupilsofthis schoolcomefromvarioussocioͲeconomicbackgroundsandarequiterepresentativeof urbanandsuburbanMauritius.ItshouldbenotedthatinMauritiustheprimaryschool curriculumforGrade5doesnotmakeprovisionfortopicsonslavery.Thereforeithas beenassumedthatthepupilshavescantknowledgeofthisimportantchapterofthe historyoftheisland.Weconsideredthattherepresentationofslaverybythisagegroup wouldbeinteresting.





59JimmyHarmonholdsaPhDinAppliedPedagogyfromtheUniversityofWesternCapeandisa Researcher attached to the CRSI. Stephanie Tamby completed her PhD on Postemancipation MauritiusfromtheUniversityofMauritius.SheworksasEducatorinSocialandModernStudiesat CollegeduSaintEspritQuatreBornes. 60InMauritius,Grade5referstothefifthyearbeforethelastyearofprimaryschoolingwith studentswhoare9yearsofage. 61ThechoiceofcollaborationwithSeDECwasforreasonsofconvenience.Thefirstauthoris DeputyDirector/HeadofSecondaryatSeDEC. 113 ApresentationofthefindingswasmadeataneveningroundtableattheNelson Mandela Centre for African Culture Trust Fund as part of the Slavery Museums Workshopheldon13thand15thSeptember2019.Thisworkshopwasjointlyorganised by the then Ministry of Arts and Culture and the University of Mauritius with the supportoftheUNESCOSlaveRouteProject.Thethemeofworkshopwas“Issuesand ChallengesofRepresentationsofSlaveryinMuseums”. Rationale,ReflexiveMethodology&TransformativePedagogy The rationale underpinning this class activity was to compile and examine the representationofenslavedpersonsbyMauritianyouthatprimaryandsecondarylevels throughdrawingsorshorttexts(freewriting).Theconceptualisationoftheresearch work was done by a team of researchers from CRSI comprising of Jimmy Harmon, StephanieTambyandSophieLeChartier.62Thelasttworesearchersweremembersof theIntercontinentalSlaveryMuseumConceptCommitteesetupbytheGovernmentof MauritiusinMay2019followingaCabinetdecision.Fortheanalysisofthedrawings, theexpertviewsofStanleyHarmon63weresolicited.

The choice of the term ‘enslaved people’ instead of the word ‘slaves’ in the formulationofourrationalewasadeliberatechoiceasitexpressedtheperspectiveof theresearchteamonslavery.Howoneuseslanguagemakesacrucialdifferencewhen wethinkaboutthemeaningsofourpast.64Itmayseemtobeaminordifference–for example, when we use the term ‘Mauritians’ and ‘the Mauritian people’ – but it is actually quite powerful. By shifting from the use of a noun “slave” to an adjective “enslaved”,wegive“theseindividualsanidentityaspeople”(AndiCumboͲFloyd,2011). Theterm“enslaved”referstotheirpositioninsocietyratherthanreducingthemtothat position(AndiCumboͲFloyd,2011).Inotherwords,theyareacknowledgedaspeople thoughfromalegalandsocialperspectivetheywereconsideredasapieceoffurniture, a‘possession’.Itgivesusanideaabouttheconditionofthevictim(theslave)andthe





62SophieLeChartierisanappliedanthropologistwhohasalsoworkedfortheTruthandJustice Commission. 63StanleyHarmonworksasEducatorinArtandDesignatCollegedelaConfiance.HeispartͲtime lectureratRabindranathTagoreInstituteandisalsoaresourcepersonatCaudanArts. 64PainterNellIrvin,"Howwethinkabouttheterm'enslaved'matters"inTheGuardian,14August, 2019.Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/usͲnews/2019/aug/14/slaveryͲinͲamericaͲ 1619ͲfirstͲshipsͲjamestown[AccessedFebruary2020] 114 perpetrator (slaveͲtrader or slave owner) who caused the enslaved person to lose his/herfreedomofchoiceandaction.65

Thisimportantshiftinlanguagealsotranslatesintoachangeinideology.Asscholars ofslavery,weunderstandthepoweroflanguagetoshapeusasmuchasitchanges those who read our work. Language should be used to honour people rather than perpetuatestereotypesorsystemsthatdehumanisepeoplebasedontheirskincolour, amongstothers.Thislexicalclarificationbeforeenteringthefieldwasimportantasit helped the CRSI team to locate the research within reflexivity and transformative pedagogy.

First,onelineofargumentherestartsfromthenotionthatknowledgecannotbe separated from the knower (Steedman, 1991: 53).66 Data and facts are the constructionsorresultsofinterpretation:wehavetodosomethingwithoursensory impressionsifthesearetobecomprehensibleandmeaningful.Thisassertionfollowsa “beliefthatsocialrealityisnotexternaltotheconsciousnessandlanguageofpeopleͲ membersofasocietyaswellasresearchers(who,ofcourse,arealsomembersofa society)”.67 Second, the issue of slavery in Mauritius is intrinsically linked with the history,memoryandidentityofthedescendantsofenslavedthatarereferredtoasthe ‘Creoles’ethnicgroup.Itwasessentialtoreflectuponhowtonegotiateentranceinthe fieldasnativeresearchersandhowtokeeparelativedistancewiththetopicthatis beingexplored.Itwasimportantthatthepupilsandtheschoolcommunitydidnotsee theresearchersasCreoleactivistsbutasengagedresearchersexploringtheissueof representationofslavery.







65 CumboͲFloy, Andi, 2011. “Slaves vs Enslaved People – The Subtle, Strong Power of Words” Available from: https://andilit.com/2011/10/12/slavesͲvsͲenslavedͲpeopleͲtheͲsubtleͲstrongͲ powerͲofͲwords/[AccessedFebruary2020] 66QuotedfromAlvessori,MatsandSköldberg,Kaj2000.ReflexiveMethodology.NewVistasfor QualitativeResearch(2ndEd.).London:SAGEPublications,p.1. 67MatsAlvessonandKajSköldberg,ReflexiveMethodology:NewVistasforQualitativeResearch (2ndEd.).London:SagePublicationsLtd. 115 Analysis

 Figure15DrawingbyMatthias  PupilMathiashasdrawnamaleenslavedpersonpullingacartloadedwithwhat seems to be sugar cane. A pair of shorts is the only clothing that he is wearing. Moreover,particularlynoteworthyishisfacialexpression:heissmilingdespitehaving toworkthewholedayundertheburningsun.Inadditiontohisdrawing,Mathiashas chosentoincludeamessage:“SlaveswereillͲtreated.Theydidnotenjoyanyprivilege. Theyweremiserable.”Themessageshowsaperfectunderstandingofthelivingand workingconditionsofenslavedpeople.YetMathiaschosetoportrayamaleenslaved personwhoissmiling.Thismayillustratetheresilienceoftheenslavedpeople.



 Figure16DrawingbyEmilia InthisdrawingmadebyEmilia,therearetwohouses(thefirstonebiggerthanthe other)nearariver.Asmallgirlisholdingflowersinherhandswithasmileonherface. Thefactthatthesmallgirliswearingadressandthatsheisnotworkingmayindicate thatEmiliawantedtoportraythedaughterofaslaveͲowner.Thelittlegirlislookingat thetwoenslavedpersonswhoareworkingveryhardunderthescorchingsun.These two images illustrate a sharp reality: the disparity between the experience of the enslavedandthatoftheirowners(thoughhereitisthroughtheinnocenteyesofasmall girl).

116  Figure17DrawingbyFarell Farell has chosen to illustrate enslaved persons working with members of their family.Anenslavedmanwithsweatrollingalonghischeeksiscuttingsugarcaneunder thescorchingsunwhileasmallchildandawomanarehelpinghim.Itseemsthatthis represent an enslaved family. On the left, an enslaved woman, who is seated on a bench,isbusyworking.Sheiseithercryingorsweatisrollingdownhercheeks.Inthe background, an enslaved man and a boy are carrying something. There is also an enslavedfamily(father,motherandchild)inthebackground.Thereisonlyonesmall hutinthediagramwhereitiswritten“maisondesesclaves”(houseoftheenslaved people).Farellrightlydrawsattentiontothestrengthoffamilytiesfortheenslaved persons.Veryoftenenslavedchildrenworkedwiththeirparents.AstudyoftheSlave Census of 1835 has shown that in fact there were many enslaved families on large estatesinMauritius.OnesuchexampleistheBazilefamilyownedbyJulienDesjardins inthedistrictofFlacq.



 Figure18DrawingbySerena Ontheleft,twoenslavedwomenarewashingclothesintheriver.Inthebackground, anenslavedmanisbeingwhippedbytheoverseer.Asmallenslavedboyisintearsat thesightofthishorriblescene.Thereisalsoanenslavedmanwithasweatyfacewho iscuttingdowntreesintheforestintheburningsun.Notethatthereisachildhiding behindthetreesmostprobablyhorrifiedbytheviolenceofthefloggingscene.Thefact 117 thatthechildishidingmayindicatethedesireoftheenslavedpersonstoescapefrom thehorrorsofslavery.



 Figure19DrawingbySeverine Inherdrawing,Severinehasdescribedtheworkingconditionsofenslavedwomen. Oneenslavedwomanisputtingclothesoutontheline.Anotherenslavedwomanis cuttingdowntreesandwecanseetearsorbeadsofsweatrollingdownhercheek.A thirdenslavedwomaniscarryingstraw.Itlookslikesheisbuildingathatchedhouse. Finally,thereisanenslavedwomanwhohasbentovertocutsomething.Dropsofsweat arerunningdownherface.Severine’sportrayalofenslavedwomenascourageousand hardͲworking indicates an understanding of slavery based on modern concepts of gender.Hereenslavedwomenarenotonlyperformingdomesticworkbutalsohard worksuchascuttingwoodthatnormallywasperformedbyenslavedmen.Sheseems toquestionthenotionofgendereddivisionofenslavedlabour. Findings&SomeHistoricalInsights Ananalysisofthedrawingshasrevealedthatpupilsprefertheportrayalofenslaved childrenandwomen,whichisnormalfortheirage.Furthermore,thethemesoffamily ties,hardͲwork,resistanceandresilienceandgenderedaspectofdivisionoflabourare recurrentinthedrawingsasillustratedbythefivedrawingsthatwerechosen. FindingNo.1:Enslavedchildren Littleinformationisavailableontheleisureactivitiesofenslavedchildrenoutside theirworkinghours.Itisbelievedthattheyspentmostoftheirfreetimetogetherwith theirfamiliesinthe“campdesnoirs”(slavecamp)ontheplantation.Thoughtherewas littletimeforplay,thereareseveralaccountsabouttheleisureactivitiesofenslaved children.Forinstance,intheWestIndies,childrenhadastronglikingformusic.They madetheirownmusicalinstrumentsandlikedtosinganddancewhentheyhadthe

118 opportunity to do so. Both enslaved children and adults were particularly fond of storytelling.68

Workrepresentedanimportantaspectofthedailylifeofenslavedchildrenfroma veryyoungage.Atfirstthechildrenhadtoadapttotheworkoftheirparentsandas they grew older, household or field tasks were allocated to them on a daily basis according to their age and strength.69 In British slave colonies, such as Mauritius, childrenhadtostarttoworkfortheirownersasfromtheageofsevenyearsold.For theenslavedchildrenwhowereinvolvedinnonͲagriculturalactivitiesorwholivedin town,theywerebusywiththepreparationoffood,collectingfodderfortheanimals, cultivatingthekitchengarden,andvariousothertasks.70Allenslavedlabourerswho workedinthefield,childrenaswellasadults,weredividedaccordingtotheirstrength into“gangs”orworkteams.Oldandweakenslavedpersonsalsoworkedwiththegangs, allaccordingtotheirstrength.InMauritius(andmanyotherslavecolonies),agewas perhapsthemostcrucialfactorinoccupationalstratificationonanyestate:theages preferredwerefrom15to39yearsastheenslavedwereattheirmostproductive.71In hisstudyofslaveryintheWestIndies,BarryHigman(1984)hasassertedthatchildren didnotbecomeprofitableuntilafter14yearsandhadtobesupporteduntilthen.72In theBritishEmpireitwasnotuntilthe1840s,aftertheabolitionofslavery,thatpublic schoolingforthechildrenofformerlyenslavedpersonswasintroduced. FindingNo.2:Enslavedwomenatwork PlantersinslavesocietiessuchasMauritiusforcedenslavedwomenandmento performexhaustingworkinthefieldswithlittleregardforsexorgender.Genderwas especiallyimportantonsugarestates.Physicallyarduoustaskssuchasclearing,hoeing, plantingandharvestingwerethoughttobebestfulfilledbymen.Theratioofmaleto female slaves on sugar estates in the West Indies has been used to indicate this preference for males. Higman (1984) has shown that the slave population on sugar estatesconsistedofonlyaboutoneͲthirdofwomenalthoughonsomeestates,because





68GeorgeF.TysonandArnoldR.Highfield(Eds.),TheKaminaFolk:SlaveryandslaveLifeinthe DanishWestIndies.U.SVirginIslands:VirginIslandsHumanitiesCouncil,1994. 69Ibid. 70NevilleA.T.Hall,SlaveSocietyintheDanishWestIndies.St.Thomas,St.JohnandSt.Croix.(Ed. B.W.Higman).Kingston,Jamaica:TheUniversityoftheWestIndiesPress,1992. 71Teelock,Vijaya,1993.BitterSugar.SlaveryandEmancipationinNineteenthCenturyMauritius. PhDDissertation:UniversityofLondon.p.142. 72Higman,Barry,1984.SlavePopulationandEconomyoftheBritishCaribbean,1807Ͳ1834.John HopkinsUniversityPress:Baltimore,p.74. 119 thesugarindustrywasnolongerdominant,thepercentageofwomenhadreached45 percentby1832.Healsoobservedthatthesexratiofellasthesizeoftheownership increased.73

How about the situation in Mauritius? In her seminal book Bitter Sugar, Vijaya Teelock(1993)hascalculatedthatonestatesbelongingtothelargestowners(those owningonehundredormoreenslavedpersons),37percentoftheslavepopulation werewomen.MediumslaveͲownershadbetween39Ͳ41percentwomenwhilesmall owners39Ͳ43percentwomen.74ThroughherstudyoftheProtector’sreports,Teelock (1993)hasrevealedthatduringtheeraofeconomicexpansion,(whenslavetradewas completely eradicated)since additional male labour could not be found, enslaved womenwereusedtoperformlabourthat,inasituationofadequatemalelabour,would havebeenassignedtomales.75 FindingNo.3:Genderedaspectofdivisionoflabour Slavesocietiesadoptedaprofoundgenderedaspectofdivisionoflabourbetween enslaved men and women. Historians76 who have adopted a gendered analysis of slaveryhaveshownthatenslavedwomenhadlittleaccesstoskilledoccupations,anda higherproportionofwomenthanmenwerefieldworkers.Beyondthefields,gender continuedtostructurework.Enslavedmenoccupiedalmostalloccupationsthatwere considered as skilled. Men were the mechanics, blacksmiths, carpenters, coopers, masons,carters,carriagedrivers,sugarmakers,boilermen,andfurnacemen.Themost highly skilled enslaved men enjoyed some prestige and received extra rations and authorityovertheotherbondsmen.Ontheotherhand,enslavedwomenhadasmaller range of skilled crafts, like cooking, midwifery, and nursing, and those granted less prestigeandfewermaterialrewardstothewomen,andlittleornoadditionalmobility. SlaveͲowners did not consider domestic work — the most common female specialization—asskilled,althoughhouseservantssometimeshadprivilegedaccessto theusedclothesandleftoverfoodoftheirowners.





73Higman,Barry,1984.SlavePopulation.p.74. 74Teelock,Vijaya,1993.BitterSugar,p.143. 75Ibid. 76Foradetaileddiscussionaboutthegenderedaspectofslavery,seeforexample:Beckles,Hilary M.,1990.NaturalRebels:ASocialHistoryofEnslavedBlackWomeninBarbados.NewBrunswick, NJ:RutgersUniversityPress;Bush,Barbara,1990.SlaveWomeninCaribbeanSociety,1650–1838. London:JamesCurry;Moitt,Bernard,2001.WomenandSlaveryintheFrenchAntilles,1635–1848. Bloomington,Ind.:UniversityofIndianaPress;Morrissey,Marietta,1989.SlaveWomenintheNew World:GenderStratificationintheCaribbean.Lawrence,Kan.:UniversityPressofKansas. 120 Furthermore, while enslaved women were expected to show strength and sturdiness in the fields, white women ideally did little or no outdoor work. AfroͲ Malagasy women were known to perform agricultural work in Africa and it was considerednormalforenslavedwomentoworkinthefields.Manyaccountsfromthe WestIndiesreportthattheenslavedwomenhadtheirnewbornswiththemwhenthey workedinthesugarfields.Theveryyoungestchildrenwerenormallyattachedtothe mother’s back while she worked. The slightly older children of 1Ͳ1½ years slept or playedattheedgeofthefield,wheretheadultscouldkeepaneyeonthem.Thereisa greatprobabilitythatthesituationwasthesameinMauritiusinthedaysofslavery.It shouldbenotedthatReverendPatrickBeatonwholivedinMauritiusduringfiveyears wrote in 1858 that after the abolition of apprenticeship formerly enslaved women stoppedworkinginthefieldsandchosetoremainathometonursetheirchildren.77 TheWayForward ThepresentationofthefindingsattheeveningroundtableattheNelsonMandela CentreforAfricanCultureTrustFund(date)gaverisetoaninterestingdebateoniconic representationinadults’worksofartportrayingenslavedpersons.HannaPitkin(1967), perhaps,providesoneofthemoststraightforwarddefinitions:torepresentissimplyto “makepresentagain.”78IntheonͲgoingdebateaboutrepresentation,itisimportant thatworksofartdemonstratenotonlythenarrativesofpainandstrugglebutalsojoy andpride.Inthecaseofthechildren’sdrawings,itwassuggestedthatschoolchildren couldbeinvitedtomakedrawingsbeforeandaftervisitingtheslaverymuseum.This would provide an interesting comparative study about their views before and after visitingthemuseum.TheCRSIteamintendstoconductthisactivitywithotherschools. Thisactivityhasshownthatvisualartscanbeusedasameansthroughwhichchildren canlearnaboutthetroubledandcruelhistoryofenslavementinMauritiusandother slave societies. However, omission or inaccurate portrayal of the sufferings of the enslavedpersonscandolastingsocietaldamagetothefuturegenerationandhowthey viewtheworld.Asthechildrenthemselveshaveshownit,representationsofslavery should celebrate the strengths of the enslaved family as a cultural institution and agencyforsurvival,andbearwitnesstotheAfroͲMalagasy’sdeterminedstrugglefor freedom,equality,anddignity.





77PatrickBeaton,CreolesandCooliesorFiveYearsinMauritius.London:JamesNisbet&Co.,1859. 78HannaPitkin,TheConceptofRepresentation.UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1967. 121  

122 14 LeQuartierdeRivièreNoire,Lieude Reminiscencedel’esclavageetdu marronnage BenjaminMoutou79 

Grandcommedeuxfoisetdemil’îleRodrigues,lequartierdeRivièreNoireestla seulerégiondupaysquiagardéuncachetparticulierliéàsonpasséservile.Aujourd’hui encore180ansaprèsl’abolitiondel’esclavage,cequartierresteunlivreouvert.

Quelssontlestraitsmarquantsquiontperdurémalgrélepassagedutempspour nouslivrersonpassé?C’estcequenousessayeronsdefairerevivreaucoursdecet exposé.

Quellequesoitlaroutequel’onchoisitpourpénétrerdanscedistrict,l’onestfrappé d’emblée par la splendeur d’un paysage grandiose, encadré par des chaînes de montagnesd’unbleuazuretceinturéauloind’unemerd’émeraudeetdesaphir.

RivièreNoireaujourd’hui:cesontaussiceschampsdecannequis’amenuisentpour faireplaceàdegrandstravauxd’infrastructuresafindetransformerleslieuxenune régionpharedutourismehautdegammesurtoutsonlittoral.Quedechangements danscequartieroù,ilyaàpeinetroisquartsdesiècle,lepaludismesévissaitsurune populationdedescendantsd’esclavesquel’onavaitlaissépourcompteduranttoutela périodecoloniale.

Les descendants des colons, détenteurs de concessions, avaient délaissé leur demeureseigneurialedelarégioncôtièrepourmigrerversleshautsplateauxetfuirla malaria dès le milieu du XIXe siècle. Seuls y sont restés les descendants d’esclaves chassésdesdomainessucriersaprèsl’abolitiondel’esclavage.Ilsontéludomiciledans





79 Benjamin Moutou était fonctionnaire pendant de nombreuses années dans le secteur des coopératives. Il a effectué des recherches et a écrit de manière extensive sur l’Histoire de la communautécréoledeMaurice.IlétaitundescommissairesdelaCommissionJusticeetVérité, créée pour étudier l’héritage de l’esclavage et de l’engagisme à Maurice et faire des recommandations.  123 larégioncôtièredecetteRivièreNoireprofondeoùlespoissonsetlesfruitsdemerleur procuraientunesubsistancecontrelafaim.

Çaetlà,ilsontconstruitdeshameauxdefortunedevenusvillagesàPetiteRivière Noire,àCaseNoyale,àChamarel,àLaGaulette,auMorneBrabantàBaieduCapet aussi dans de petits coins excentrés tels que Trou Chenille. Aujourd’hui encore,ces villages sont pratiquement les seuls à Maurice où la majorité des habitants sont essentiellementd’origineafricaineetmalgache.

Duranttoutel’occupationbritannique,ilsfurentconsidéréscommedes«children ofalessergod»etdèslors,ilsfurentlaisséspourcomptecarlescolonsne’envoulaient pluspuisqu’ilfallaitlespayer.Quoid’étonnantsicesvillagesfurentdépourvusdetout: pointdecentresmédicaux,d’écolesprimairesetd’autresservicesessentiels.Lesgens vivaientetmouraientselonlaloidelasélectionnaturellelorsdesgrandesépidémies. Végétantquasimentenautarcieetdansl’illettrisme,demainnepouvaitêtreunautre jour.Leurseulrecours:c’étaitlapêcheetquelquespetitsmétiersjustebonspourleur procureruneprotectionminimecontrelafaim.

Ils devenaient pêcheurs de père en fils et tombaient dans les filets des intermédiaires allogènes pour la commercialisation de leurs prises et pour un approvisionnement en biens et services. D’autres encore étaient gardiens de campementoudechassés;certainsétaientengagésdanslafabricationducharbonet dansunemultitudedepetitsmétiers;lesmétiersagricolesleurétaientinterdits.Les femmes, elles, étaient engagées dans les marées salantes ou les filatures d’aloès ; certainesétaientemployéescommedomestiquesdanslescampementsdesnantis.

Ilfautattendrelafindesannées50dusiècledernierpourquecettepartiedela RivièreNoiresortedesatorpeur.D’unepart,ladisparitiondupaludismeprovoquale retourdesfamillesfrancoͲmauriciennesetd’autresnantisdanslesbungalowssitués aux abords des belles plages et, d’autre part, la découverte des nappes d’eau souterrainesdonnaunnouveausouffleàlaculturedelacannedanscesrégionspauvres en précipitations. Mais c’est le développement du tourisme qui devint le véritable catalyseurpourtransformercedistrict.

L’octroidudroitdevoteaveclesuffrageuniverselen1958etlaconstructiondes écolesprimairesontaidéàapporterunenouvelleprisedeconscience.Danslesannées 2000,unétablissementsecondairefutconstruitdanscedistrict.Maisailleursdansle pays,d’autresconcitoyensd’origineafricaineetmalgacheetapparentésélèventlavoix, ilsveulentconnaîtreleurhistoire.Cettedémarchemetuntermeàl’HistoiredeMaurice racontéeuniquementàtraverslaperspectivedescolons.

LephénomènedumalaisecréoleenclenchéparleregrettéprêtreRogerCerveaux, quel’onpourraitqualifiercommelanaissanced’uncreoleconsciousness,acontribué

124 pour situer la place de la communauté créole dans la République de Maurice. Parallèlement,ilyacettequêtepourconnaîtreleurhistoire.C’estdanscecontexteque lequartierdelaRivièreNoireapparaîtcommeunlaboratoireàcielouvert,dépositaire despagesd’histoiresécritesdanslasueuretlesangdesdescendantsd’esclaves.Ils apprennentàmieuxconnaîtrel’horreurdel’esclavagevécueparleursancêtres,leurvie surlesnégrierspendantlatraiteetlarigiditéduCodeNoir.Ilsapprennentqueleurs ancêtresfurentaussidesvraisbâtisseursdecepayscarpasuneseulepierrenefut posée,pasunédificenefutconstruitsansleursapports.

GrâceauxrécitsdesvoyageurstelsqueleChevalierdelaMotte,BernardindeSaint PierreetleRévérendRyan,nousavonsapprisàmieuxconnaîtreunautrevraivisagede l’esclavageetdumarronnageliéàlamontagneduMorneBrabantetàd’autreslieux dupays.LecimetièredeTrouChenilleauMorneBrabant*estunautrelieudemémoire quenousrappellecetarticleduCodeNoir:«LesEsclavesbaptisésdansleChristseront enterrésenterresainte,lesautreslanuitvenueserontenterrésdanslechampleplus voisin».

Le20juillet2008,l’inscriptiondelamontagneduMorneBrabantcommepatrimoine mondial de l’UNESCO est un vibrant hommage rendu à ces milliers d’esclaves qui avaientsouffertlemartyreenessayantdefuirl’enferdel’esclavage:ilsontchoiside vivre en marrons dans les remparts et les montagnes escarpés au risque d’être décapitésparlessoldatsduroietd’avoirleurcorpsdéchiquetéparleschiensauxcrocs sanguinaires.L’Histoireveutqued’autresesclavesenfuitesejetèrentdesfalaisesdu Mornehautde525mètrespourrejoindreleursancêtresbienͲaimés.Maisl’Histoiredu marronnageresteàbiendeségardsunehistoirenonécritecaremportéparleventqui nesaitpaslire!

La quête entreprise par les chercheurs de l’Université de Maurice et d’autres passionnésd’Histoire,deconcertavecleMorneHeritageTrustFundetleCentreNelson Mandela,pourfairetoutelalumièresurl’histoiredel’esclavageetdumarronnageest loin d’être terminée. Elle se veut pluriͲdisciplinaire comprenant des études anthropologiques,ethnologiques,socioͲéconomiques,politiquesetculturelles.

LaCommissionJusticeetVéritéalivrésonrapporten2011etamisl’accentsur l’importancedetoutmettreenœuvrepourquelesMauriciensdontlesancêtresont connulesaffresdel’esclavageretrouventladignitéetlerespect,etlaplacequileurest dueencedébutdutroisièmemillénairecarrienneserapluscommeavant.

S’agissantdesdescendantsd’esclavesàtraverslepays,leconstatdelaCommission estaccablant:

125 x à l’orée du troisième millénaire, une majorité d’entre eux se trouvent encoreparmilescitoyenslesplusmallotis;cesontdeshabitantsdescités ouvrièresdépourvuesd’aménitéslesplusélémentaires;

x l’enseignement dispensé tant au niveau primaire que secondaire aux enfantsdoitêtrerepenséauvuduconstatd’échecetdesmaigresrésultats obtenuschaqueannéeͲriend’étonnants’ilsnesontpasembauchésdans lafonctionpubliqueetlescorpsparaͲpublics;

x leurabsencequasiͲcomplètedanslesmétiersagricoles,phénomèneliéà l’abolitiondel’esclavage;

x leurabsenceégalementdanslessecteursducommerceetdel’industrie touchantlespetitesetmoyennesentreprises;

x leuromniͲprésencedansdesmétiersdedurlabeuretmalrémunérés;et

x contrairement aux autres communautés, ils n’ont pas de groupes de pressionàmêmedefaireentendreleurvoixauprèsdesdirigeants,cequi faitqueleursgriefsnesontpasprisencompte.

Toutes ces problématiques ont fait l’objet d’études scientifiques par les responsablesdelaCommission.Siuncertainnombrederecommandationssoumises ontétémisesàexécutionsurtoutdansledomainesocioͲcultureletqued’autressont envoied’êtreréalisées,ilresteunlongcheminàparcourirpourassainirlasituation dansplusieursdomaines:éducatif,emploi,foncier,logement,leracismequiperdure, etd’autressecteurstantdécriés;etce,pourquelestaresetlesséquellesdel’esclavage ayantmarquécesMauriciensnesoientqu’unmauvaissouvenir.

Enfin,ladémarchedesautoritésdecréerunmuséedel’esclavagedanslacapitale et un centre d’interprétation concernant le marronnage au Morne seront les deux témoins visant à rendre un vibrant hommage à la mémoire de ces êtres humains victimesd’uncrimecontrel’humanité.

 

126 Références BoraineAlexetal.,MauritiusTruth&JusticeCommission,Volsi&II,2011. deSaintͲPierre,Bernardin.Voyageàl'IsledeFrance,àl'isledeBourbon,auCapde BonneͲEspérance, etc : Avec des observations nouvelles sur la nature & sur les hommes.Vol.1.ImprimeriedelaSoc.Typographique,1773. Cesaire, Aimé. Esclavage et colonisation, Presses universitaires de France, Paris, 1948. Filliot,J.M.LaTraitedesesclavesverslesMascareignes,XVIIISiecle.Paris,ORSTOM, 1974. LeCodeNoir.MauritiusNationalArchivesPublication,2000. Hornell,James.ReportonthefisheryresourcesofMauritiusGovt.PrinterPortLouis, 1928. LeChevalierdelaMotte.,Correspondence,1756. Moutou,Benjamin.LesChrétiensàl’ileMaurice,PortͲLouis,CompoCenter,1996. Moutou,Benjamin.LaRivièrenoire:400ansd'histoire,1601Ͳ2001.2002. Nagapen,Amédée.Lemarronnageàl'IsledeFranceͲI’lleMaurice:rêveouriposte del'esclave?CentreCulturelAfricain,1999. Noël,Karl.L'esclavageàl'IsledeFrance(ÎleMaurice):de1715à1810.Éd.Twocities, 1991. Ryan,William.Journal:TheAnglicanDiocese,1973.



127 

128 15 ArtefactsRelatingtoSlaveryinthe MauritiusMuseumsCouncil DeorazRamracheya NationalHistoryMuseum,MauritiusMuseumsCouncil 

In1826,JulienDesjardinsandLouisBoutonmadearequesttoGovernorSirLowry ColetosetupamuseuminMauritius.In1880,theMauritiusInstitutewasestablished (OrdinanceNo.19of1880)byGovernorSirGeorgeFergusonBowenattherequestof theRoyalSocietyofArtsandSciences.In1884,theMauritiusInstitutewasinaugurated by Sir John Pope Hennessy. The Mauritius Institute had a Public Institute, a Public Museum and a Public Library for the purpose of promoting the general study and cultivationofthevariousbranchesanddepartmentsofArts,Sciences,Literatureand Philosophy.The Mauritius Institute functioned as a national scientific and cultural institutionmainlydedicatedtocarryingoutresearchanddisseminatingknowledge.

TheMauritiusInstitutewasreplacedbytheMauritiusMuseumsCouncilinAugust 2000.TheMauritiusMuseumsCouncil,abodycorporate,isresponsibleforthepublic museumsserviceundertheaegisoftheMinistryofArtsandCulturalHeritage.The MauritiusMuseumsCouncilhastwonationalmuseumsandfivespecialisedmuseums under its purview. The National History Museum of Mahebourg comprising of five galleriesdepictswithshorttextsandillustrationsthehistoryofMauritius.Paintings, maps,lithographs,watercolourdrawings,prints,shipmodels,archaeologicalobjects andartefactsareexhibited.

VariousobjectsrelatedtoslaveryaredisplayedintheDutchperiod,Frenchperiod andBritishperiodgalleries. Dutchgallery In1641theDutchcommander,AdriaenvanderStelinauguratedtheslavetradeto Mauritius.HebroughtaboutahundredslavesfromtheeastcoastofMadagascar.  

129 TheSpeaker TheSpeaker,apirateshipunderthecommandofpirateJohnBowenwaswrecked in1702atGrandRiverSouthEast.Maritimearchaeologicalresearchstartedin1979Ͳ 1980.VariousobjectswererecoveredfromthewreckandaredisplayedattheNational HistoryMuseumatMahébourg.

 Figure20CollectionoftradingbeadsoftheshipSpeaker

Therearegarnets,agatesandglassbeadssomeofwhichhavebeenmanufactured inVenice.Theyhadanimportantroleintheslavetradeastheywereusedastrading currency. Frenchgallery ThenumberofslavesinMauritiusincreasedconsiderablyduringtheFrenchperiod (1721Ͳ1810).SlavepopulationofMauritiusatthetimeofabolitionofslavery,in1835, was76,774outofthetotalpopulationof101,469.Fig.19showsslavebeadsrecovered fromSt.Géranwreck.

 Figure21Glassbeadsusedascurrencyforslavetrade   

130 SaintGéran TheSaintGéran,avesselbelongingtotheEastIndiaCompany,waslaunchedat Lorient,France,in1736.Itwaswreckedduringitsfourthcrossingonthenightof17 August1744asaconsequenceoffaultysteeringnearIled'Ambreoffthenortherncoast ofIsledeFrance(Mauritius).OnitswaytoIsledeFrance,theSaintGéranhadcalledat GoréeIslandand20blackYoloffmenand10blackwomencameonboard.Theyall perishedinthewreck.Amarinearchaeologymission,ledbyJeanͲYvesBlot(Marine Archaeologist)andAlainLeHoux,(FrenchEngineer)exploredthewreckin1979with theagreementoftheMauritiangovernment.  Britishgallery Thesetagsbelowaremarkedwithanumberandwereprobablyusedtoidentify slaves.TheywererecentlygiventothemuseumbyRadhaKrishnaRamasawmyandVan Lanza.

 Figure22RectangularshapedBadges  Thebadgeswithtwoshanksmarkedwithanumberandtheletter‘A’forartillery, sewnontoclothingoruniform.

 Figure23OctagonalshapedBadges 

131 BadgesmarkedwithanumberandthelettersART.ForartilleryorGENforGéniefor theFrenchtermforengineering.

 Figure24CircularshapedBadges  BadgesmarkedwithanumberandstampedwithafleurͲdeͲlismotif.

 Figure25Leadtags  Thesetemporarytransfertagsweremarkedwithanumberandplacedaroundthe neckofaslaveforidentification

. Figure26Early19thcenturytradingbeadsfromtheshipwreckGustaveEdouard(1845)   132 Manilla Africantradersconsideredmanillastobeaformofcurrency.2Ͳ10manillasusedto buyonemaleslavein15thand16thcenturies.Itsmarketvalueisroughly$15(Rs435). Themanillas,whicharerarerandvaluable,arethoseofAfricanoriginarecalled,‘King’ or‘Queen’Manillas.

 Figure27ManillaTokenorSlavetradeBracelets

Early18thcenturyslavetradebraceletsfromtheSpeakershipwreck(1702).  ManillaTokenorSlavetradeBracelets ThesebronzeringscalledManillasweremadeinBirmingham,Englandduringthe 18thand19thcenturiesandusedtoacquireslaves.ThisManillaslavetokenhasbeen foundonthewreckoftheEnglishschoonerDuorothatsankofftheIslesofScillyin1843



133 ManillaTokenorSlavetradeBracelets ThesebronzeringscalledManillasweremadeinBirmingham,Englandduringthe 18thand19thcenturiesandusedtoacquireslaves.ThisManillaslavetokenhasbeen foundonthewreckoftheEnglishschoonerDuorothatsankofftheIslesofScillyin1843

 Figure28AnkleFetters  These19thcenturyanklefettershavebeenhandforgedinCalabarsouthͲeastof Nigeria.Calabarwasamajorslavetradeportfromthelate17thtothe19thcentury.

 Figure29AnkleFetters,Bartype  Fettersconsistingofahalfloopwiththeeyeletsclosedbyashortbarbearinga buttonononeendandattheotheraholeforthepassageofapeg.Captiveswere generallychainedbytwos. 

134 

 Figure30AnkleFetters,Chaintype  Fettersconsistingofahalfbraceletendingateachendbyaneyeletwhichreceives akindofrectangularloop.Theseloopsengageintoeachotherclosingthehalfbracelet. Throughoneoftheeyeletspassesaring,whichistheendofashortchainterminating inaringthroughwhichpassesachainthuslockingtheanklefetters.  ThewreckofLeCoureur,atestimonyoftheillegalslavetrade LeCoureurwasasmalltradingshipbuiltin1818inGrandPort.Launchedon28 August 1818, the ship was recorded as a lugger and was authorised to  trade with BourbonIslandandMadagascar.LeCoureurthenbelongedtoAthanaseToucheand was successively commanded by Captains Louis, L’Hoste and Tasdebois. In 1820 Le Coureur began to engage in illegal slave trading on the coasts of Madagascar and Zanzibar,withAugusteL’HosteasownerandCharlesLetordaliasDorvalasCaptain.On 3March1821,LeCoureurtransportingacargoofapproximately100slaveswaspursued byHenrietta,agovernmentcoastingvesselandwaswreckedatPointeauxFeuilles.The crew managed to unload the slaves and partially destroyed the ship to erase all evidenceoftheirtrafficking.LeCoureurwasdiscoveredin2004andwasexploredby maritimearchaeologistsledbyMrYannvonArnimin2005.

 Figure31UnderwaterArchaeologicalcampaignatPointeauxFeuillesin2005 

135 SlaveͲrelatedartefactsretrievedfrom‘LeCoureur’wreck Ironrings Highlyconcreteironrings,onewithflatsectionandtwowithcircularsectionwere probablychainlinksusedinslavefetters.



  Figure32Ironringoffetter  LeadTag Asmallleaddiskwithaholeatoneedgewasidentifiedasatagthatmighthave beenmarkedwithanumberandplacedaroundtheneckoftheslaveforidentification purposes.

 Figure33Leadtagpotentiallybeingusedasidentificationmarkerfortheslaves

136 16 DesigningaTrailofMemorialSitesof SlaveryinPamplemousses,Mauritius MaurinaSoodhinͲRunghen MemberandGISSpecialist,CRSI  Introduction Atrailisanestablishedroutelinkingsitesofsignificancetoanarea’sheritage.The trailservestoraiseawarenessaboutthelocalheritageandpromotethehistoryofthe areawhileprovidinganeducationaljourneytoadiverseaudience.Thelinkbetween thesitescanbeageographicalfeatureoftheareaͲasforanaturaltrailͲoritcanbea topicsuchaslearningaboutslaveryingeneralorathemesuchaslearningaboutthe storyoftheslaves.Forthepresentproject,thelasttwopurposeswerechosen,through thetrail,thevisitorlearnsabout18thcenturyslaveryinMauritius,whilethesitesgive aninsightintothelifeoftheslavesinPamplemousses.Pamplemoussesisagoodcase study,asinthesmallgeographiclocality,wefindthehistoryofslaveswhowereowned privately,bythechurchandbythegovernmentinstitutions.Theywereemployedin activities that ranged from domestic work to the production of gun powder to the maintenanceofthebotanicalgardensthatbroughtrecognitionandfametoIslede France.Thevillagealsorepresentedthevariousphasesinaslave’slifeandcontribution inMauritius,fromslavetradeandsettlementtotheireconomicandmilitaryactivity, andeventheirhealthandeventheirdemise.

           Figure34SlaveMemorySitesinPamplemousses 

137 Thesitesonthetrail Thesitesincludedinthetrailaredescribedinmoredetailinthebookletlaunched bytheCentreforResearchonSlaveryandIndenture,undertheaegisoftheUniversity ofMauritius;theNationalHeritageFundandtheNelsonMandelaCentreforAfrican CultureundertheaegisoftheMinistryofArtsandCultureinSeptember2019. Thechoiceofsites Thechoiceofsiteswasmainlyinfluencedbythefollowing:

1. ThehistoryofeachsiteanditslinktothatofPamplemoussesandtothe themeofthetrailwasassessed.

2. Theconditionofeachsitewasassessedtoensurethateachsitecanreceive visitorsandthatthefeaturesofthesitethatbestdemonstratethehistorical aspectisstillpresent.



















 Figure35SitesalongtheTrail 

Themaindifficultylaymainlyinthechangethatthelandscapesawoverthepast centuries.Thelocationofsomesiteswasretracedthroughoralhistory,whileothers had to be identified through the overlay of maps using Geographical Information System. The steps followed for this process are briefly outlined as follows. High Resolution pictures or scans were taken of historical maps, which were then georeferenced(Briggs,2008;Florance,ND;GézaKirályetal.,2008;GregoryN.Ianand EllS.Paul,2007)anddigitised.

138 

















  Whyproposeatrailinsteadofopeningsitesandbuildingstovisitors x AccordingtoCroesandSemrad,culturaltourismisemergingasagrowing market segment which small island destinations are trying to accede to throughpolicyconsiderationsandbroadeningoftouristofferings(2013,p. 470).Aruba,asmallisland,ispresentedasacasestudy.Despitebeingone ofthemostcompetitivedestinationsintheCaribbeanregion,(Craigwell, 2007; Croes, 2011; Jayawardena & Ramajeesingh, 2003 in Croes and Semrad,2013,p.471),it,chosetoincreasetherangeofculturalattractions towards “more authentic experiences” to attract “culturally sensitive tourists”, encourage tourists spending and stimulate the local entrepreneurialsectortomaintainitsappeal.Basedontheirinterviewof departingtouristsinDecember2008,CroesandSemradfoundthattourists participating in cultural activities such as “entertainment, to arts, crafts, photography, books, music, education, and historical sites” contributed US$23.14million,thatis,about2%ofthetotalinternationalreceiptsof Aruba(2013, p. 483). Moreover, though the multiplier effect, cultural touristsalsogenerated“US$8,931,821inindirecteconomicimpactsforthe island”throughspendingincategoriessuchastransportation,shopping, food, accommodation, among others (Croes and Semrad, 2013, p. 485). However,onlythe‘purposefulculturaltourists’whochoseadestination primarilytolearnandexperienceitsculturespentmoretimeandmoneyin formalculturaldestinationssuchasmuseums,historicsites,galleriesand festivals,whilethosewhoconsideredsightseesingasmoreimportantor thosewhoconsideredculturaltourismasnomotiveatall,seemedtoprefer 139 experiencingthecultureofaplacethrough“observationandinteractional aspectswiththehostcultureintheformofeverydaylife,practices,and behaviors”(CroesandSemrad,2013,p.482)whichgeneratedmoretourist excitement.Thus,thestudyconcluded,interalia,that“althoughthetourist maybeinvolvedwithallkindsofculturalactivitieswhileonvacation,the touristmaynotconsiderhimselfasaculturaltourist”(CroesandSemrad, 2013,p.486).

x The cultural trail is thus a means to not only provide an authentic and unique experience to the visitors of the region but also to present the visitorswiththeopportunitytowalkaroundinthevillageandexperience thedailylifewhilelearningaboutthesitesandthetheme.Atthesametime. The local community will also have the opportunity to benefit from this endeavourthroughtheindirectbenefitsandtheprospectofdiversifying theiractivities.Thetrailisexpectedtoresultinaccruedrecognitionofthe historyandimportanceofthearea,whileimprovingtheinterestsofthe localcommunityinthepreservationoftheheritageofthearea.

 Aspectsconsideredindesigningthetrail x Targetaudience

Giventheimportanceofthetheme,thetargetaudienceforthetrailisvaried,beit intermsofgeographicorigin,agegrouporevenlevelofeducation.However,thisalso meansthattheirneedsandexpectationsarevaried.

x Visitorexperience

A trail can be guided or selfͲguided. Both options have their advantages and disadvantages,andbothhaverequirementsthatwouldneedtobecateredto.Thefirst willcatertolargergroupsthatarealreadyorganizedbyatouroperatororagroup leader.Itincludesaguide’spersonaltouchandappreciation,whichcouldcontributeto personalizingtheexperienceofthetrail.Furthermore,itiseasiertoarrangeforaccess toprivatespacesforsuchgroupsasthetimeslotscanbepreͲarranged,andthusa balancebetweenprivateand‘public’useofthespacescanbearrangedmoreeasily. 

140 Seniorcitizens Family(2adults School Typeofaudience Foreigntourists &associations +3children) children Informationto History:sites,slavery,country cover Normal Pace Relaxedpace Relaxedpace pace Reststops Frequent atreasonabledistance SelfͲguided byAssociation by Typeofguiding SelfͲguided byTour staff/officer teacher Operator Language Kreol Kreol/French/English MultiͲlingual Additional Activities/immersive Souvenirs  expectations experienceforchildren shopping 

On the other hand, the selfͲguided tour is cheaper to maintain as it entails less staffingcosts.Visitorscanstartandendthetrailsattheirowntimeandpace,thus resulting in a better appreciation of the sites that the visitor feels connected to. Interactionwiththelocalcommunitywillalsobemorecandidandauthentic.However, the installation and maintenance of supporting infrastructure such as information panelsandtrailsignagewillbecrucialinthetrail.

Itisproposedthatamixtureofbothapproachesbeadoptedinthelongrun.Thatis, thattheinfrastructurebeputinplaceforselfͲguidedtours,butthatalimitednumber oforganizedtoursalsobeputinplaceonspecificdaysandtimeaccordingtothestaffing capacity.Furthermore,stafffrominstitutionssuchasprimaryandsecondaryschool teachers,associationsstaffcanalsobetrainedthroughregularworkshopstoensure thatthelargegroupscanbecateredforatleastcost.Localvolunteerscouldalsobe trainedinasimilarmannertoassistinpeakseasons. Resourcesandinfrastructureneeded 1. Sharinginformation(willneedtobeupdatedonaregularbasistomaintain interest):

a. Brochures

i. Longversionwitheasytofollowmapandcomprehensivetext forselfguidedtours.

ii. Shortversionwitheasytofollowmapandminimumtextfor thosefollowingguides.

141 b. WebApplications(willalsoneedITproficientstafftocreate,update andmaintaintheapplications)

c. InformationPanels(willalsoneedmaintenance)

i. Can be on any medium such as wooden, aluminium, stone plaques.

ii. Shouldprovidethemaininformationabouteachsite.

iii. Should also include the name of the trail, distance and directiontothenextsite.

2. Markingthetrail

a. Directionalsignsalongthetraileitherassignpostsorincorporatedon thefootpath,whichwillalsoraiseawarenessonthetrailandsitesand helpinbrandingthearea

3. Additional infrastructure needed: Restrooms, Parking, Restaurants, public seatingfacilities,InformationPoint

4. Other facilities that would enhance visitor experience: Banks, Bureau de Change,BusStop,FuelPump,otherplacesofinterest



 Figure36.Infrastructureandotherconsiderationsthatinfluencedthedesignofthetrail

142 Proposalsforthemanagementofthetrail a. Forthepurposeofthisproject,themodeloftheecoͲmuseumasdescribed by Davis et al (2010, p. 81) was adopted. According to them, the ecoͲ museumischaracterisedbyitsstronglinktothegeographicallocality,out ofwhichafewheritageresourcesareidentifiedasthesymbolsofthearea. Thelocalcommunityisamainactorintheconservationandinterpretation ofthesesites,andthusclaim'ownership"notonlyofthesitesbutalsoof thetrailitselfandoftheaspectsthatwillbepromotedthroughthetrail. Advantages to the local community include renewed pride in the place, rescueofheritagesitestheyvalueandeveneconomicbenefits.

b. Inordertoreachthisresult,itisproposedthatotherformalstakeholders bealsoidentifiedandinvolvedinthemanagementofthetrailinlinewith theirrespectivemandatesandexistingresources:

 NationalHeritageFund(NHF)

o Monitoringimpactonsites.

o Maintenanceofsitesandinfrastructure.

 DistrictCouncil

o Cleaning&basicmaintenanceofsitesandinfrastructure.

 NHF&NelsonMandelaCentreforAfricanCulture(NMCAC)

o Preparing&disseminatingmaterials.

 SILWF/SWC

o Guidingofseniorcitizens&associations.

 MauritiusTourismPromotionAuthority

o Promotingtrail.

 MauritiusTourismAuthority,NHF&NMCAC

o Training&accreditationofguides.



  

143 References Briggs,2008.SpatiallyPositioningData:SpatialAdjustmentandGeoreferencing.

Croes,R.,Semrad,J.K.,2013.'TheRelevanceofCulturalTourismastheNextFrontier forSmallIslandDestinations'.JournalofHospitality&TourismResearch39,465– 491.https://doi.org/10.1177/1096348013491599

Davis,P.,Huang,H.,Liu,W.,2010.'Heritage,localcommunitiesandthesafeguarding of‘SpiritofPlace’inTaiwan'.MuseumandSociety8,80–89.

Florance,P.,ND.BringingHistoricMapsintoGIS.

GézaKirály,UlrichWalz,TomažPodobnikar,KornélCzimber,MarcoNeubert,Žiga Kokalj,2008.GeoreferencingofhistoricalmapsͲͲmethodsandexperiences,in: Spatial Information Systems for Transnational Environmental Management of ProtectedAreasandRegionsintheCentralEuropeanSpace.RhombosͲVerlag,53Ͳ 63.

Gregory N. Ian, Ell S. Paul, 2007. GIS and its role in historical research: an introduction, in: Historical GIS: Technologies, Methodologies and Scholarship. CambridgeUniversityPress.

HeritageTourismGuidebook,n.d.

MarkA.Bonn,SachaM.JosephͲMathews,MoDai,SteveHayes,JennyCave,2007. Heritage/CulturalAttractionAtmospherics:CreatingtheRightEnvironmentfor the Heritage/Cultural Visitor. J TRAVEL RES 45, 345–354. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287506295947

SueGalt,1995.GuidelinesforHeritageTrails.



144 17 LivingLegacyor“Museumification”: ChagossianMusicalHeritage DrPatrickAllen SOASUniversityofLondon  Musicisofvitalimportancetohumans.ForBannan(2014),Musicis“embeddedin the human genome” and humans are “hardͲwired for music.” Koelsch (2012) summarisesthesocialbenefitsaffordedbymusicasthe“SevenCs”:contact,cognition, coͲpathy, communication, coͲordination, coͲoperation, cohesion. Ruud (2012) identifies four areas of social and personal health which benefit from active music making:

x Vitality(emotionallife,aestheticsensibility,pleasures);

x Agency(senseofmasteryandempowerment,socialrecognition)

x Belonging(network,socialcapital),

x Meaning(continuityoftradition.Transcendentalvaluesandhope)

Despiteitscentralplaceinhumanlife,musicisgenerallynotwellrepresentedin museums. As an ephemeral and transient form of communication it exists in the moment and its meaning, life and vitality are not well conveyed by the musical instruments and musical scores which are sometimes used to represent it. Such artefactsprovidefewcluesaboutthemusicallifeofcommunitiesandindividualsorthe actual music which was practised. Furthermore, the accounts of outsiders, such as thosebyAragoinMauritiusinthe1820sorbyDussercleontheChagosIslandsinthe 1930s,areglimpsesbyoutsidersintothemusicallifeofacommunityandareoften colouredbyreligiousorsocialprejudice.Thevoicesandexperiencesofthecommunity themselvesarelost.Similarly,transcriptionsofmusicintoWesternnotationoftenforce musicalpracticeintothelimitationsofanalienmusicalsystemandreducethecomplex multiͲsensorycommunicationsystemofmusictojustpitchandrhythm.

AgreementexistsamongscholarsthattheSégaandrelatedformsintheformer French colonies of the southwest Indian Ocean, developed as a form of escape, emotional uplift and social bonding in the harsh lives of the slave community. (Considine2013).“Byfashioninginstrumentsmadefromthenaturalmaterialsfound ontheplantationandgettingtogethertosinganddance,theslaveswereabletofind solaceandcreativityinmusicandentertainment.”(Boswell2006:62)BasilConsidine’s

145 historicresearchesintoSégainMauritiustracethehistorybacktothefirstescaped slavesoftheDutchin1640(Considine2013:40).Hisresearchrevealsaccountsofsecret nocturnalgatheringsduringthe18thcentury,whereslavesandescapedslaveswould meetfornightͲtimeSégaparties,guardedbydogs.QuotingthewritingsofAuguste Billiardfrom1822healsodescribesSégapartiesverysimilartothoseinmodernday Mauritius,whichhesummarisesas:

x Groupdancingaroundabonfireinhiddenlocations

x Dancingandmusicfromlateatnighttoearlymorning

x Useofalcohol

x Improvisedsinginganddancingwhichwere“imitative,frequentlyusingcall andresponseforgroupsongsandchoruses”(Considine2013:140)

x Athleticdancing,oftenledbywomen

Oraltraditionsofmusic,rootedincommunitiesandsocialpractice,linkuswiththe past.InMauritius,anunbrokencommunitytraditionofSégahasbeenmaintainedin families, friendships, daily life, festivals and celebrations since the days of slavery. Although its purpose and application have adapted over time, this living tradition, uniquetoMauritius,isprobablyourbestandmostvividrepresentationofthe‘music of slavery’.Like our spoken language, music carries within it the history, social structures,valuesandnormsofacommunityandprovidesameansofconnectionand emotionalexpressionforindividualsandcommunities,unitingpeoplewitheachother, andtheirancestors.

SuchvibrantandlivingmusicaltraditionshavebeenallbutlostinEngland,whereI live.MydramaticencounterwiththelivingmusicaltraditionsoftheIndianOceanin Englandwasaprofoundandlifechangingexperienceformeandmanyothers.

AsaresultoftheBritishOverseasTerritoriesAct(2002)80,whichgaverightofabode intheUKtofirstgenerationChagossians(andthesecondgenerationbornbetween 1969and1985),hundredsofChagossiansbegantomigratetoEngland(fromMauritius andtheSeychelles)andsettledinCrawley,WestSussex,duetoitsproximitytoGatwick Airport.By2009,about3,000Chagossianshassettledinthetown.Iwastheheadof musicinoneoffourstatesecondaryschoolsinthetown,servingthesideofCrawley where mostChagossians were settling in rented accommodation. The arrival of the Chagossians–whowereoftenreferredtoas‘Mauritians’,eveniftheycamefromthe Seychelles–wasproblematicinmanyrespects.Theirarrivalwasunplanned,unfunded 



80BritishOverseasTerritoriesActs(2002)http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2002/8/contents. 146 and - to many schools - unwelcome. To schools they represented an unforeseen demand on resources, often needing additional support and secondary schools feared they would damage the exam results on which school reputations and resources depended on comparative league-table rankings. The Chagossians themselves experienced hardship and discrimination, struggling to find accommodation and to remain financially solvent in a country which still demanded they pay for full citizenship, visas and passports.

One day in 2009 during a normal music lesson, I let a group of Chagossian students in year 9 work in a friendship group, and it was here I encountered their exceptional musicality, as they played with others from their own community. The performance was of an exceptional standard, and immediately impressed me and all the other members of the class, who began to look on the new arrivals in a new light. Asking to see if they also had musical friends, more arrived over the coming days and weeks to ‘jam’ in a practice room. I soon discovered there was not a Chagossian in the school who didn’t sing, play or dance. Over time a vast repertoire of songs and improvised pieces emerged, eventually completely altering music education at our school.

They displayed exceptional timing, control and instrumental/vocal technique, highly developed ensemble skills and a remarkable sensitivity to changes in mood, tempo and dynamics. They had a creative and improvisatory approach to music making, a real sense of style and ‘flow’. They played with commitment, passion, communication and energy, particularly when performing within their own traditions. They also displayed rapid learning by ear/observation and remarkable musical memory. This was the result of family and community music making which they had grown up with, and a musical enculturation process which linked them to their ancestors. As I became a friend to them and many Chagossian families I observed that, like the Suyá people, observed by Seeger (1987: 86), music for the Chagossians “created euphoria out of silence, a community out of the collection of residences, a socialised adult out of physical matter.”

In 2009 there were about 80 Chagossians in the school, representing one in 12 of the school population. By 2011 most Chagossians were involved in one of our performance groups and/or involved in classroom coaching and skills development projects. The Chagossians played music from their own cultural traditions, but also worked across musical cultures and genres and in a variety of ensembles, notably the school choir. The success and skill of their music making challenged the prejudices they had first encountered at the school and brought the Chagossians to its heart. The high public profile of the group, appearing frequently on BBC Radio, winning awards and frequently reported on in newspapers and journals, obliged the school to take them seriously.

147 These musical discoveries were the beginning of a seven-year journey which transformed the attitudes of teachers and pupils at the school and altered our approach and attitudes to teaching, developing a more culturally responsive and flexible curriculum. It extended, expanded and improved the quality of our school ensembles and led to local, national and international success for the Chagossian drummers and the school choir. It also raised the aspirations of the Chagossians and other students at the school and led to musical encounters and exchanges in musical practice between the Chagossians and other musical cultures and ensembles.

Photos from the event “Chagos is Calling" that took place at the Hawth Theatre in Crawley, West Sussex. (Photos by Patrick Allen)

Figure 37 Chagossian Jean-Noel Narainen sings an original composition about forced and onward migration

Figure 38 Chagossian teenagers fuse African and Sega rhythms in front of a painting by Chagossian artist Clement Siatous

148

Figure 39 Native born Chagossians share traditional dances with younger community members

Writing to the Chagossian musicians after a performance on radio, Michael Emery, Senior Producer at BBC Radio 3 wrote: We were stunned by the power of these young people..they were superb. You perform with such heart, commitment and passion...you have made the music a bridge between cultures, flying the flag for ideals of acceptance, mutual respect and understanding to which we can all aspire.81 An important aspect of our approach to the music and culture of the Chagossians in the school was a preparedness to let them lead the way when they had expertise and skills which we didn’t. This involves an openness and flexibility by those in authority to allow for a degree of co-creation of the curriculum by students (Freire 1970) and an encouragement for them to lead their own learning. As culture bearers, the young Chagossian musicians were sharing with us the musical practices, musical passions and expertise of their ancestors as well as themselves and this required an attitude of “unconditionality, a welcome without reservation” from educators (Higgins 2012: 139). In establishing a museum of slavery, I believe that if music is to be represented as a living and vital force, then the community which has inherited and nurtured the musical legacy of slavery must become central to the representation of music in the museum. Mauritius is lucky to have a number of active and vibrant community musical cultures which connect people intimately with their ancestors and historical events. Shortly after I left the school I became involved in a project at the local theatre, where the Chagossians presented their culture and history through songs, dramatic tableaux and dancing.82 It included both traditional and newly composed songs and traced their story from slavery to their present day lives in Crawley. For this event I worked as a facilitator, opening up practice spaces, negotiating support and finance and they led the shape and content of the project. It included all generations of Chagossians, and presented musical

81 Letter from Michael Emery 6 March 2012. 82 “Crawley Chagos Islanders tell their people's history on the stage” Crawley Observer 9 September 2016 https://www.crawleyobserver.co.uk/news/crawley-chagos-islanders-tell-their- peoples-history-stage-2133541 (retrieved August 17th 2020) 149 styles ranging from Séga to Creole rap and Seggae. These musical styles were all felt to be part of the Chagossian identity. The Crawley Chagossian community I knew were less keen to get involved in a similar project organised by ‘outsiders’, despite being well funded. Those I spoke too were reluctant, as they felt they and their culture might be exploited for the benefit of others. The Chagossians I know also felt strong connections to the music of the wider diaspora of Africans displaced by slavery and indeed Seggae is a hybrid musical form born of this shared past. A museum would hopefully attempt to make sense of this international cultural connection and would encourage both research into local and international traditions as well as encourage and enable creativity in emerging and hybrid local traditions. Engaging the marginalised in an ‘official’ project is a delicate process. I have been somewhat astonished that Séga and the community cultures of Mauritius do not have a more important place in the official life and education process on the island. However, I believe that in a living and vibrant museum such inclusion could in itself be liberating. Although we must be wary of damaging the social and cultural ecosystems which sustain community cultures, (Cottrell 2011) we should nonetheless aim at a model where heritage and culture are democratised, and can perhaps become emancipatory by ‘rejecting elite cultural narratives and embracing the heritage insights of people, communities and cultures that have traditionally been marginalised in formulating heritage policy’. (Association of Critical Heritage Studies).

References Arago, Jacques. Promenade autour du monde pendant les années 1817, 1818, 1819 et 1820, sur les corvettes du roi l'Uranie et la Physicienne. Vol. 1. Leblanc, 1822 pp.223-24. Association of Critical Heritage Studies (ACHS) Manifesto cited by Robert Baron (2016) “Public folklore dialogism and critical heritage studies”, International Journal of Heritage Studies, 22:8, 588- 606 p.589 Bannan, Nicholas (2014): "Music, play and Darwin’s children: Pedagogical reflections of and on the ontogeny/phylogeny relationship." International Journal of Music Education 32.1 98-118 Billiarde Auguste, Voyage aux Colonies Orientales: ou Lettres Écrites des Îles de France et de Bourbon pendant les Années 1817, 1818, 1819 et 1820, à M. le Cte de Montalivet, Pair de France, Ancièn Ministre de l’Intérieur, etc (Paris: L’Imprimèrie de David, 1822), Boswell, Rosabelle. (2006) Le malaise créole: ethnic identity in Mauritius. Berghahn Books Considine, Basil. Priests, pirates, opera singers, and slaves: séga and European art music in Mauritius," The little Paris of the Indian Ocean". Diss. 2013. Cottrell, S. (2011, August). “The impact of ethnomusicology”. In Ethnomusicology Forum (Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 229-232). Taylor & Francis Group. Dussercle, R. 1934. Archipel de Chagos en mission 10 Novembre 1933 – 11 Janvier 1934. Port Louis: General Printing and Stationery Cy. . Dussercle, R. 1935. Archipel De Chagos En Mission, Diégo – Six Iles – Péros, Septembre – Novembre 1934. Port Louis: General Printing and Stationery Cy. . Dussercle, R. 1937. Dans les ‘Ziles là-Haut. Port Louis: General Printing and Stationery Freire, Paulo. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed (MB Ramos, Trans.). New York: Continuum 2007 Higgins, Lee (2012). Community music: In theory and in practice. Oxford University Press Koelsch, Stefan. Brain and music. (2012) John Wiley & Sons, p.208-9 Ruud, Even (2012): "The new health musicians." in Music, health, and wellbeing, Oxford 87-96 Seeger, Anthony. (1987). Why Suyá Sing: A Musical Ethnography of an Amazonian People. Smith, L. (2012). “Discourses of Heritage: Implications for Archaeological Community Practice.” Nuevo Mundo Mundos Nuevos. doi:10.4000/nuevomundo.64148 150 18 MuséeEnMode2.0 StephanRezanna, Directeur,JorezBox 

L’universdesmuséesévolueavecsontemps.Savoirallierlacultureetlesnouveaux outilstechnologiquesestdoncdevenuunenjeumajeurdanslemondemuséal.

Lesnouvellestechnologiessontomniprésentesdanslaviequotidiennedupublic, commelesmartphonequiestmultiͲdigitalets’adapteàdenombreusesdemandesdu consommateurouencoredesobjetsconnectés.Etlapaletted'outilsdisponiblesest trèslarge:écrans,vidéos,audioguides,VR,réalitéaugmentée,espacejeuxinteractifs. Ilsoffrentuneautreapproched'uneexpositionmultiͲsensorielle,etaideàcomprendre son contenu différemment. D'autres procédés, comme les spectacles en 3D et les maquettes interactives, viennent enrichir le contenu de la présentation et les connaissancesdesvisiteurs.Ilspermettentégalementd'avoirunrapportplusindividuel àuneœuvre,oumêmed'inviterunnouveaupublicàl'art.

Lesmuséess’intéressentaussiàla3D,offrantainsiuneimmersiontotaleauvisiteur. UnexempleestleGoogleGlass;cesontdeslunettesquipermettentdevisionneren 3D.Lestablettesnumériquespermettentaussidevisualiserdesséquencesen3Douà l’aide de casques pour de la réalité virtuelle. Ce sont des outils qui permettrontde s’associeràd’autrestechnologiestoutesaussiinteractives.

«Lesnouvellestechnologiespermettentdevoirlecontenudesmuséesdefaçon différente. Elles ouvrent la porte à des expériences originales », dit Michel Perron, directeurgénéraldelaSociétédesMuséesQuébécois(SMQ).

Danslecasdumuséedel’esclavageàMaurice,lemultimédiapeutfairenaîtredes façonsderacontertrèsnovatrices.Lescontenusdemeurent,maisilssontexploréset approfondis de façon plusdynamique. Et le fait de personnaliser une visite à partir d'applicationstechnologiquesoffreuneexpérienceintense.

«Lemeilleurusagedunumériqueestdenepasvousfaireprendreconsciencedela technologie,maisdevousfaireprendreconsciencedel’art»,adéclaréJaneAlexander, responsabledel’informationauClevelandMuseumofArt.

Deplusenplusdemuséesdanslemondeutilisentdenouveauxoutilspourenrichir l'expériencedesvisiteurs.Munid'unetablettenumérique,chacunpeutorganiserla

151 visiteselonsespropresintérêts.Certes,denombreuxconservateursdumondedel’art critiquentrapidementl’intégrationdelaréalitévirtuelle.

Cependant,lesmuséesfontunedécouvertesurprenante:latechnologien’empêche pasl’appréciationdel’artphysique.«Lafréquentationdesmuséesamontéenflèche plusquejamaisdepuisquelesordinateursetlesiPadssontentrésdanslemondede l’art»,seloncertainsexpertsenarteuropéens.

Lemuséedonneainsilaparoleauvisiteuretouvreunespacededialogueaveclui. Certainscréentmêmedevéritablescommunautésdanslesquelleslesréseauxsociaux tiennent un rôle de premier plan. Le précurseur en la matière est certainement le BrooklynMuseumdeNewYork.Présentsurtouslesréseauxsociaux(Twitter,Tumblr, Facebook,Flickr,Yelp,Foursquare,YouTube,etc),ilinvitelacommunautéenligneà enrichir l’indexation des œuvres de sa collection en laissant des commentaires ou encore à participer au choix des œuvres pour une exposition temporaire. C’est l’avènementduMusée2.0.

L'environnementtechnologiqueouvredifférentesformesdedialogueaveclepublic, dontlesattentesévoluenttrèsrapidement.Lesvisiteursveulentparticiperaudiscours, intervenirdansl'expositionetdanslesréseauxsociaux.

«Celaélargitconsidérablementleschampsderecherchequiconstituentlapremière vocationdesinstitutionsmuséales».

Une réalité subsiste toutefois : le prix ! Les barrières peuvent être de plusieurs ordres,budgétaireentreautres.Danslecadredelanumérisationdesœuvres,sepose laquestiondel'ouverturedesdonnées:lefaitderendreaccessibledesœuvresàtous, celanécessitedesouleverdeslicencesdepropriétéintellectuelle,cequicoûteparfois trèscher.«Lesoutilsnumériquespeuventégalementreprésenteruncoûtimportant. Il peut être intéressant d'y avoir recours pour des expositions temporaires, et non permanentes,etdoncdelouerledispositif.Ilfautsavoiradaptersonbusinessmodel.

«L’outilnumériqueaumaximum,ildoitêtreutile,raconterunehistoireparallèle», ditDianeDubray,dusalonMuseumConnections.



152  SLAVERYMUSEUMS:MEMORIALISATIONPERSPECTIVES MIZEESKLAV:MEMWARNOUZANSET 12Ͳ16APRIL2016 HELDAT THEUNIVERSITYOFMAURITIUS LEMORNEVILLAGEHALL VILLENOIRECOMMUNITYHALL

 

153  

154 19 SMW2016SomePreliminaryFindingsof theSurveyonSlaveryMuseums SophieLeChartier,AppliedAnthropologist AssistedbyUrvaneeDookhorun,Assistant 

Following the announcement of the setting up of the Intercontinental Slavery MuseumintheBudgetSpeech2018Ͳ2019,itwasimperativetohavetheinsightofthe localonthisprojectandmoreimportantontheirexpectationsofthemuseum.The objectives of the survey were to capture information on, first, factors impacting people’sdecisionmakingprocesstovisitamuseum;second,people’sperceptionof ISM; third, their expectations of the future design of the museum and forth, their opiniononthemanagementandfundingofthemuseum.

AsprescribedbytheTruthandJusticeCommissionandheCRSI,thesettingupof themuseumshouldadoptapeopleͲcenteredapproach.Inthisrespect,aparticipatory approachisadvocatedensuringtheinvolvementofthelocalpopulation.Thissurvey formspartofthepublicconsultationprocessthatensurestheparticipationoflocal communitiesinthemuseum’sconceptualization.Givenlimitedtimeandlackofhuman resources to administer the questionnaires, convenient sampling was chosen. SixtyͲ nine questionnaires were administered in Ville Noire (located in the SouthͲEast of Mauritius), Le Morne Village (SouthͲWest) and on the campus of the University of Mauritius.Thefindingsofthesurveythatarepresentedbelowshouldbeconsidered withcautionandsolelyasindication. Profileofrespondents Mostoftherespondentswereagedbetween18and25yearsoldandweremostly womenthatreachedtertiaryeducation.Thisisunderstandablegiventhatmorethan halfofthequestionnaireswereadministeredattheUniversityofMauritius.InVille Noiretheprofileofparticipantswereabitolder,inthe25Ͳ50agegroup.FortyͲnine respondentswerewomenandnineteenweremenoutofwhich14wereaged25to50 yearsold;46wereaged18to25yearsold;7wereaged50to64yearsoldandone respondentwasunder13yearsold. 

155 Educationalbackgroundofinformant GiventhatmorethanhalfofthequestionnaireswereadministeredatUniversity, 78% of the respondents had reached university level. 17% went to school up to secondarylevel.FiftyͲonepercentconsideredtheyhadagoodknowledgeofMauritian historywhile43%felttheyhadafairknowledge.Only4%and1%optedforthe'not good'optionand'poorknowledge'ofMauritianhistory.Tothequestiononthesources ofMauritianhistoryknowledge,20%and30%selectedMedia/TV/Internetandschool respectively,27%and17%choosebooksanddiscussionsrespectivelyand6%other sources. CulturalIdentity Wehadincludedanoptionalquestionaskingparticipantstotickoneormoreboxes corresponding to their cultural identity and preferences. Most chose the Mauritian category (72%), the next largest category was Creole (30%). Some 16% listed themselvesasAsian;7.2%asEuropeanand4.3%identifiedasAfroͲMalagasy. Museums ͲWhenaskedwhentheyhadlastvisitedamuseum,overhalfstatedtheyhad visitedamuseumin2015Ͳ2016.Mostvisitedthemuseumbecauseaspecial exhibitwasbeingheld,othersbecauseofthethemeoftheexhibition.30% couldnotrememberwhentheyhadlastvisitedamuseum.

ͲPreferredtimesanddaysweretheafternoonsandeveningsintheweekends.

Thefactorsinfluencingrespondents’decisionstovisitamuseumwererated.These areshowninthetable.

Very Somewhat  NotImportant Important Important SpecialExhibit 6 1 Thetopic 8 1 Location 6 2 3 Cost 5 3 3 Other 0 0 0 (pleasespecify)  

156 NinetyͲninepercentoftherespondentsconsideredimportanttohaveaMuseumon slavery and when questioned over why a Museum of Slavery was important, the followingresponseswerereceived:

x TogivevaluetothehistoryoftheCreolecommunity

x Topromotehistoryandespeciallythehistoryofslavery

x TopreserveMauritianhistory

x Topreservememories

x Tohighlightthestruggleforfreedom

x Totransmitknowledgeofhistorytofuturegenerations

x Toencouragedebatesonslavery

x Topromoteanddisseminateknowledgeespeciallyonthelivesoftheslaves

x Toconnectpeopletotheirorigins

x Todissipatestereotypes

x Tocreateanawarenessaboutthehistoryofslavery

x Tocommemorateslavery

x TobuildMauritianCitizenship



Onthetypeandkindofmuseumthelatterwouldexpect,30%wouldpreferan interactive/multimediaand25%optedformultiͲsensorymuseumandtouchandfeel experienceandonly19%chooseatraditionaltypeofmuseum.

OnthequestionofwhoshouldfundtheMuseum,therewasanalmostunanimous response.98%feltthattheGovernmentshouldfirstfundtheMuseum,thentheprivate sector(52%)followedbyinternationalbodies(49%)andvoluntarycontributions(43%).

Onthequestiononcuration,formostoftherespondents,thegeneralpublicshould be included in the decision making process together with official bodies and the descendantsofslaves.Forsome,academicsandpeoplewhoarenotofslavedescent aswellshouldbeincluded. 

157 RESOLUTIONSADOPTED Recallingthatthesubjectofslaveryisofinternationalandglobalimportanceto humanityandislistedasoneoftheUnitedNationsmajorissuesofthe21stcentury

RecallingthesettingupoftheTruthandJusticeCommissionandthesubmissionof 290recommendationsrelatingtocreatingamostjustsociety

Recallingthat2015isthebeginningofUNDecadeforPeopleofAfricanDescent

RecallingtheResolutionsthatwereadoptedduringtheInternationalSeminar“Yer Resistans, Zordi Rezilyans Comparative Perspectives on Resistance, Resilience and AccommodationinSlaveandpostͲSlaveSocieties”heldinFebruary2015

Takingnotethatmostoftheseresolutionshavenotyetbeenimplemented



The following resolutions were adopted on the subject of memorialisations of slaveryandmuseums: OnthesubjectoftheimportanceofaSlaveryMuseuminPortLouis x TheIntercontinentalSlaveryMuseumshouldbeinPortLouis

x TheSlaveryMuseumprojectinPortLouisshouldpreservethehistoricfabricof theMilitaryHospitalbecauseitistheoldestbuildingontheisland OnthesubjectofthememorializationofslaveryinLeMorne x ItisimportantnottodestroythelivingheritageofLeMorneCulturalLandscape andtheprojectofthe“LivingMuseum”shouldbemaintained. OnthesubjectofSlaveryMuseumsgenerally x ASlaveryMuseumsandSlaveheritagetrailshouldbecreated

x Emotionalcomponents/elementsshouldbeincorporatedintothemuseum.

x Use more innovative ideas or the creation of a ship to show the reality of slavery

x Theproject‘Saturne’shouldbeincluded

x AsslaveryisaboutslavesandtheirownersandconsideringMauritiuswasa slavesociety,themuseummustincorporatetheslaveowners

x ThetruthaboutthehistoryofMauritiusshouldbetold

x TheMuseumshouldalsobeaneducationalexperience

158 x The spirit of democratic and community participation at all levels should adoptedasisrecommendedbytheTruthandJusticeCommission

x The empowerment of the slave descendants and peoples of African and Malagasyoriginshouldbeenvisagedatalllevels,includingatmanageriallevels andintheconceptualizationofthemuseums

x SlaveryMuseumsmustincludeastrongcomponentofintangibleheritage,oral traditionsandhistoryandculturalpractices

x ThemesofresistanceandresilienceinAfricaandMauritiusmustbeincluded.

x Themuseumexhibitsshouldbedesignedinsuchawaysoasthethemesare easilyunderstoodandaccessibletothegeneralpublic

x TherearemanyprojectsandresearchthathavealreadybeenconductedonLe Morneandonthesubjectofslavery:thesefindingsshouldbeusedtokickstart theprojects.

x TheSlaveryMuseumprojectsshouldbeviewedasa‘Devoirdememoire’and shouldallowpeopletoreͲconnectwiththeirorigins.

x Museumsshouldbeapoliticalandnotpayallegiancetoanypoliticalparty

x Themuseumshouldhaveasectionexplainingwhatslaveryisanditsorigins.

x TheteamoftheCRSIshouldpilottheprojectofthemuseumsettingupwith communityconsultation.



159  

160 20 SMW2019:Issues,Suggestions,Opinions, RecommendationsandEmotions CompiledbyVijayalakshmiTeelock  ThetwoͲdayseminarwasamemorableoneforthosewhohadbeencampaigning foraSlaveryMuseumsincethe2011TJCrecommenationwasmade.Despiteseveral Cabinet decisions, implementation committees, workshops, public protests, GovernmentapprovalandsponsorshipoftheSlaveryMuseumWorkshopof2019was a major step forward. The workshop had been an idea of the UNESCO Slave Route ProjectandparticularlyofitsDirector,AliMoussaIyeandfollowedtheCharlottesville Seminarof2018.An'IndianOcean'versionwasmandatory.

Memorable because it vindicated past demands and showed that those conceptualising,campaigningandmobilisingwere'ontherighttrack'.

Memorablebecauselisteningtothosewhohadtroddenthatroadbeforeuswas enlightening.

Memorablebecauseweheardatfirsthandwhatalongroadstilllayinfrontofus.

This compilation of opinion papers, thoughts, sentiments, suggestions and recommendationaispossiblethankstoMaurinaSoodinͲRunghen,rapporteur,whohad thegoodsensetotakemeticulousnotesandcompensatedforthtechnicalrecording failuresofDayTwooftheWorkshop.Wewereabletoretrievesomeoftheveryvalid comments,issuesandsuggestionsmadebyparticipantsandtheaudience.  IssuesandSuggestions 1.Identity Thedifferentidentitiesgeneratedbytheslavetrademustberepresentedinthe futureMuseumsuchasthedifferentethnoͲlinguisticgroupsbroughttoMauritius.The contemporary manifestations of this identity must also be represented such as the presenceoftheMakuainMadagascarandinMauritius.

The ‘Intercontinental’ aspect of the concept must be defined and refined more clearly and the balance between national and intercontinental aspects more clearly defined. 2.Decolonisation Thereisaneedtodecoloniseconcepts,terms,labelsandnames. 161 3.IssueofMemory–Slavetestimonies x Collectionofslavetestimoniesofrealitiesofslavetradethroughlifehistories, storiesinachronologicalapproach.Periodisationshouldbecarefullydefined. Aninterdisciplinaryandgenderedapproachshouldbeadopted.

x ThefindingsoftheMauritiusTruthandJusticeCommissionshouldbeused.

x The Study of postemancipation Mauritius are crucial to study. Archival sourcescanbeusedtocollectslavetestimonies,inmissionarchivesetcin MozambiqueKenya,SouthAfricaetcaswellasinEurope,IndiaandUSA 4.EducationalpurposesoftheMuseumthroughtheNationalCurriculum x Africantraditionsandancestralvoicesmustbeheardaswellasthevoices representingtheoriginsoftheslavetrade

x Humanisationoftheslavetrade;theissueoftraumamustbepartandparcel ofanyrepresentationoftheslavetrade

x Thepast,presentandfuturemustberepresented

x Anationalcurriculummustbedevelopedformusic,artanddancebasedon the cultural heritage of slavery, indentured labour and western culture in Mauritius 5.Useofdigitaltechnology x Digital,interactiveandimmersivetechnologymustbeused:

x Toproduceanalternativerepresentationofslavesandslavery

x Todeconstructmythsaboutslaverythroughpaintingsandotherartwork

x To create a virtual museum linking Mauritius, Mozambique, Madagascar, Comores,ReunionandSeychellesamongstothers

x Toexhibitartefactsandobjectsfromdifferentcontinents

x Tofurtherdiscussaboutwhichtopicsandexhibitsshouldusetechnologyand whicharenotappropriate

x Toproducemusicalandotherculturaldisplaysandexhibits 

162 6.Representingtrauma,emotion,sensoryexperiences x Itisimportanttohighlightthetraumaoftheslavetradeandslavery

x Emotionalandmultisensoryexperiencemustbeusedinthefuturemuseum 7.Languages x EnglishandFrenchmustbethemainlanguagesused

x Creole,Malagasy,Portugueseetctobeuseddependingonitemandtheme beingdisplayed 8.OralTestimonies x Howarefactstobepresented?Howdowechoosewhattopresentina museum?Arethereanyparameterstorespect?Orpresentasinpast?Or canwemodifythefacts?

x Definitionofrepresentation:makepresentthosewhoareabsent/whois representingwhom/representingsomebodyonhisorherbehalf

x Factsmustbepresentedbutalsohowtopresentthefacts.Italldepends whereyouplacethefactoritsrepresentation.

x Ourdutyasscholars/academicsistosaythingsastheyare

 Recommendations 1. Afterallthetechnicalandresearchworkiscompleted,themostimportant activitywillbetopresentinthedirectandsimplestformpossiblethefruitof alltheresearchworksothatallaudiencescanappreciatetheexhibits.NoͲone shouldfeelintimidatedorfeeltheycannotrelatetowhatisbeingshownor heard.

2. Mauritiustendstohavemuseumsfixedintime.Thereisaneedtokeepthe museumrelevant,dynamicandlivelytomaintainagoodlevelofvisitors.

3. Wehaveanopportunitytoreflectonwhatneedstobeaccomplishedforthe ISM.Itisalongprocessthatneedstobewellthought.Themediashouldbe fullypartofthis.

4. Factsneedtobeshown.Buthowtheyareshownmattersmore.TheISMwill needtoshowlifehistories,butnotonlyabouttheenslavedbutalsoaboutall others who were attached to the system. One should blame people in the present.ISMmustbeameltingpotofideasandaplaceofreconciliation

163 5. Pedagogicaltoolsmustbeincorporatedinthemuseum.Historyisnottaught properly in schools or in a very basic way at primary / secondary level. Pedagogicaltoolswillenableaudiencetointeractwiththematerialpresented.

6. TousepastexperiencesofinstitutionssuchasAGTF.Whentheprojectwas launchedandacallforobjectsmade,nobodycameforward.Thiswasbecause Mauritians did not know what the ‘objects’ were. ISM project will be an opportunitytoshowpeoplehowtheycancontributetothemuseum.Everyone /everyMauritianhasahistoryandisconnectedtothisheritage.Curatorial/ administration/museologists/historiansmustworktogether

7. Thereisaneedtomakethemuseummoreinteractiveforchildrenandalsofor theelderly.

8. Itisimportantforthemuseumnotbea‘deadmonument’,itmustpromote plurality,reflectthetransnationalnatureofslavery,themultinationalityofthe slave trades and the multiple interactions. Abolition processes must be included/

9. Museum dynamic through a permanent collection but also a second space opentotemporaryexhibitionsthatreflectwiththemesincollaborationwith organisations such as schools and tradeunions. Could also be site for inter museumcollaborationtoshareresources.Couldstartwithasmallerspecial exhibitionwhichwillgrow

10. Goodtoshowcasethestoryofslaveryforthemuseum,butalsoneedstobe abouttoday’sreality,connectionbetweenpastandnow.Forsomedeprived people the story of slavery is not a priority. Must democratise access to museums

11. Muststatethefacts,butalsobecarefulaboutwhattowriteinthelabel

12. Notonlyabouthowmuchtruth,butratherwhattruththatwillbeshown

13. Knowing our history, our identity, others, which will lead to resilience and reconciliation

14. Spaces related to indenture and slavery in Mauritius. Museum has several aspect:representationofhistory,writingthehistorybutalsothespaceofthe museum itself. Jewish museum use of space to convey the suffereing. The spaceshouldconveymore.

15. Hopethatmuseumwillbeopportunitytoanswersomequestions:willbeonly limitedtoAfricanandMalagasy?Hopethismuseumwillsetabenchmarkfor thefuture.Contentofmuseumshouldnotbelimitedbydecisionmadetoday, 164 needscopeforfutureexpansion.Museumisatooltoconveyhistorybutalso need other sites to be studies to uncover other aspects of history not only indentureandslavery

16. Question:Isthebufferzoneisaproblemforthemuseum?

17. ThenewMuseologyinMauritius:Hopethatin20yearsmoresuchmuseums aresetupinothercountries

18. Wouldliketoknowmoreaboutsitesofconscience.Thismuseumwouldbe abletoconnectthepastwithtoday’srealityandthequestions,claimsofthe communityofslaves’descendants.Thesedimensionsshouldnotbeforgotten orerased.Themuseumshouldincludethisdimensionbecausetodaythetraces andlegacyofslaveryarestillpresent.

19. Museumshouldbeasinteractiveaspossiblebutalsomaintainlinktohistory.

20. Question: How is the museum aiming to be intercontinental as a slavery museum.OnewayisbydocumentingMauritius'placeintheslavetrade.

21. Willitnotbeachallengetofindartefacts?

22. Museummustbeaspacefortheyouthtobetterconceivetheirfuture.They musthelpustobringforwardandalsothereisneedforpresentgenerations tobejudgedforwhattheyaredoingandnotwhattheirancestorsdid.

23. Museum must showcase reality of slavery, take the opinion of public, pay attentiontopedagogicaltoolsforthechildren

24. Thetroublewithhistoryisthatfactsmustbechosen.Alldocumentscannotbe reproduced.Needtomakeachoice.Historyisaconsequenceofchoice.Need toreviveinterpretationofhistoryevery20yearstoreflectnewresearch.THere isalackofresearchinhistoryofMauritius.Themuseumwillcontributeto someunderstandingofhistory.Thelapsesinknowledgeofhistorymustbe takencareof.

25. Onemustnotlimitoneselfbyboundaries.Peoplewhohavemovedoutcanstill contribute.Thereisinformationoutside,whichcanstillbefound.Needtothink outsidethebox.

26. Skillstobetappedlocallyandregionally.NeedtobridgebetweentheIndian OceanandtheAtlantic.

27. Sustainability:fundraisingtodevelopcapitaltokeepthemuseumgoing,need privatefunding.

165 28. SSRChairofAfricanStudiesprogram:buildaglobalPhDprogram.Themewill be critical museum studies. Need to staff the museum. University is also evolvingtobecomemoreculturallyaware

NotionofintercontinentalbutalsoconnectIndianOceantoAtlantic.Itisaway tosaythatweneedsolidarity,butalsootherswhocanparticipate.Shouldbe permanentandtemporaryexhibitsandmakesurethattheexhibitsalsocome toMauritius.Importanceofhumanbeings,tohaveamuseumconnectedto realfactsbutalsowithhuman–givenames/facetotheslaves

29. Intercontinentalslaverymuseumdimension–howtheclaimfortheidentityof theKreolcommunityclaimingtheirAfricanidentity,Malagasyidentity,claim forreparations,dimensionofslavery,howtheTJC(uniqueinworld,onlyone tolookatslavery)recommendationformuseumisaformofreparationthat evolvedfromlocaltouniversalaspect.Needtolookat/showhistoryofall groupswhowerepartofthesystem,eventhosewhobenefitted.Shouldhave animportantsectionforart/performingart

30. Fundingneededwillbeconsiderable.

31. Important to not get lost in the process. Need to identify phases of implementation

32. Phase1:contributionofideas

 Mostprioritythemes Intercontinental

Grassrooteffortstocollectobjects

 Individualcontributionssentpostworkshop AngelaRamsoondur,LecturerUoM i. Thatslavesbeportrayednotassubjectsbutashumansthathavefacedthe crueltyofbeingtreatedasnonͲhuman

ii. Varioussourcesbeusedfortheunderstandingandalsotoprovokereflections onthepartofthepublicthroughartifacts,paintings,musicalinstruments, recordings of people that have souvenirs of what has been transmitted throughoralhistory.

iii. That part of Mauritian literature or literature about Mauritius be displayed/highlightedassourceaboutslavery.Ihavesometextsinmindthat 166 refertoslavesbutfromaEurocentricperspectivethatinfactdenotesthe slaves'voicelessnessandinvisibilityandthusdehumanizedtreatment

iv. Thatspecificinfrastructurebeprovidedtothepublicwhohavesomephysical issuestoaccess(forexampleavoidingtheconstructionofstairsforthosein wheelchair, have sign language videos by the side of displays, or braille. Maybehavecopiesofdisplaysfortheblindpeoplesotheycantouchthe objectandreadinbraille)

v. That reports from the Truth and Justice Commission be accessible to the publicastheyaredocuments

vi. Portraytheinformationinthemuseuminsuchamannerthatdemonstrates thehistoriography

vii. Imperativenatureofinvolvingpupils(primaryandsecondaryschools)and educationaltours.Recommendedforseniorcitizensaswell.

viii. Regularlyworkshopsforpublicofallagegroups.

ix. Interactiveanduseoftechnologyhighlyrecommended.Mobileapplications tooforthemuseum.

x. Asectioninthemuseumwherethosewhohaveinformationorartifactsfrom theirancestorscanbringforwardandthecommitteeinvolvedcanexamine anddecideifitcanbedisplayed.

xi. CollaboratewithAfriEdXandotherinstitutionsthatcanhelpinusingvirtual realityandaugmentedrealityformoreprofoundexperience.

xii. MyresearchworkonWilliamFaulknerformyMPhilbroughtmetostudyand examineplantationslaveryinMississippi.Therearemanytexts(writtenand visual)thattalkandrefertoslaveryandespeciallytotheirsufferingandthat touchedmethemost.

FrancoisMark,AfriDexVRcreator i. InclusiveͲRemoteRuralareas

ii. Deafpeoplefriendly(SignLanguage)

iii. Choiceoftechnologiesisveryimportant

Recommendations: i. Immersivecontentsshouldbeadaptiveandbasedincontextandtakeinto accountlocations

167 ii. ImmersiveContentsshouldbeportableanywhere,irrespectiveofinternet connectivity

iii. Partoftheimmersiveshouldbeaccessibleoffline  MyriamCottias,SeniorHistorianofSlavery,CNRS ConceptetpositionnementduMusée: i. Mauritius comme croisement des routes de la traite, transformation vers l’engagismeetced’autantplusquelemuséeAapravasiGhatmuseumest justeàcôtédel’ancienhôpital.

ii. Positionnerlemuséecommeexceptionalité:OcéanIndien,multifacettede lafiguredel’esclave.Différentdel’Atlantique.NotioninterͲcontinentalitéest importante.Notiondediversitéaussiimportante.

iii. DéterminerlaZoneconcernée:Maurice,Rodrigues.Agaléga.SaintͲBrandon? Madagascar.Mozambique.

iv. Faire discuter histoire et création artistique. En faire un lieu vivant, collectionpermanent,expositionstemporaires.

v. Mettre l’humain au centre du Musée de l’esclavage. Lien avec les communautés.Avecunesallepourlesdiscussions.

vi. Nommerlesesclavisés,leurdonnerunedimensionhumaine.Listedenoms.

vii. Montreragency,subjectivités

viii. Muséecitoyen:participatif,inclusif.Fairesortirlestémoignages,lesobjets. Fairedesprésentationsdanslescommunautéspourleurfairecomprendre l’importancedesobjetsqu’ilsont.

ix. Interactivitéimportante.

x. Educationtrèsimportant.

Pistesd’organisationduMusée: i. Symbole à l’entrée. PeutͲêtre le Morne avec description du suicide des esclavisés.Hologramme.

ii. Chronologiequisuperposelesdifférentesvaguesdepopulationenlienavec questionpolitiqueetéconomique

Présentationparthématique i. Routesetorigines

168 ii. Archéologie.

iii. Travailcontraint.

iv. Révoltes,résistances,agency

v. Lesfemmesetlesenfants.

vi. Lesabolitions…

vii. Transformationsdelarelationesclavagisteenrelationsdedépendance.

viii. Conséquences,stigmatesdel’esclavagedanslecontemporain.Crimecontre l’humanité.

ix. Placedel’Afrique,questionsdesréparations.

x. Culture:musique,danse(ségamaispasseulement).

xi. Films.

xii. Makoa:Routesdeslibérésetdesengagés,secroisent.

Phasesdemiseenplace i. Action préalable: avoir une exposition itinérante sur le Musée dans les communes de l’Ile Maurice pour avoir des retours des personnes (objets, idées)etadhésionauprojet.

ii. Liensavecpublicpourrecueillirdesobjetsduquotidienetdel'exceptionnel

iii. Réseauentrelesmuséesdanslemonde.

iv. Pourlesexpositionstemporaires:

v. Idéeexpositionsurlespoupéesnoires.NoraPhilippe.

vi. Idée:ExpositionsurlemodèleNoir.

vii. 1èrephase:fairelacampagnedesensibilisationauprèsdupublicetmiseen placed’unpland’occupationdessallesrestaurées.

 

169 JohnHStanfieldIISSRChairAfricanstudiesUoM i. WemustassurethattheplanningprocessesfortheinterͲcontinentalslavery museumandtheprogrammaticgoalsoftheSSRChairofAfricanStudieswork handinhand.Sopleaseconsidermetobeacolleagueyoucancalluponto assistintheplanningprocessasyoumovealongwhileIamherefor2or3 yearsandafterIleavetheposition.InturnIwanttomakesurethereisa slaveryandindenturedstudiesoptioninthevirtualglobaldoctoralstudies programinAfricanandAfricanDiasporasStudies.

ii. Ididnotwanttodistractduringtheconferencebyinjectingmyconcernfor acleareroperationaldefinitionofrestorativejusticesuchasoneembedded in shall we say the 6 PhasesStanfield model I have been testing and modifyingovertheyearsandamnowwritingupasabook.Itishintedatin thefollowingWhatsAppconversationIhadthismorningwithaSenegalese Americanfriendabouttheconference.Isenther(Aida)acopyofmyL'Express interview published last Thursday which the journalist emphasized me observing that most Americans don't even know slavery existed though I should add leaving out the fact that even Americans who do know Africanslavery did happen presume it was a past experience African Americansexperiencedwithnoongoingimpacts(apointseveralofusmade attheconference):

iii. The question I have is how do we develop an interͲcontinental slavery museum model which exhibits the complexities and paradoxes of a restorativejusticeprocessholisticindisplayingthedifferentphasesandthe different roles and perspectives of members of perpetrator and victim populations.I have attached three papers to illustrate what I am trying to convey.PerhapsIshouldofferaseminaronmymodel.  RosabelleBoswell,Anthropologist i. Whowillhelpustoraisefundingforthemuseum?Howcanwegoaboutit?I heardMaryElliotttalkingabouthavingtoraise$405millionforthemuseum shepresidesoverandthatmuseumonlydealswithAmericanhistory.

ii. ArchitecturalworktobedoneattheMilitaryhospital.I'mthinkingthatthey willtrytokeepthefacadeofthebuildingasitisaheritagebuilding,but,before anyhammerhitsthebuilding,theywillneedtoincorporatealltheinputswe madeattheendintothedesignbuild.

iii. Experiential spaces will have to have particular space & design before any deconstruction of the present building happens. Temperature controlled roomsforartworkmayneedparticulardesignspecifications.Iwasreallykeen 170 tohearwhatMunishPandithadtosayaboutthiskindofthing,asheisan architect.Basically,wecan'tmakeboxͲlikeroomsinsidethebuildingandthen justfillthese?

iv. Withregardtocollecting/borrowingfromprivatecollectionsͲͲI'veseensome interestingstuffinpeople'shomesinMauritius,especiallypeoplewhohave lived in Africa but, these are part of their personal memories. How do we managesomethinglikethat?

v. TheremightbeaneedforamultiͲskilledadvisoryboardspecificallytodealwith implementationofthemuseumnotjustitsconceptualization?

 ZiaGopee,Museumeducator FirstofallIwouldliketocongratulateyoufortheamazingworkshopandI'mgrateful forhavingtheopportunitytohaveparticipatedinthisworthwhileevent.

IleftMauritius6yearsagotogotoParisIVwhereIwasselectedtostudyhistoryof artandarchaeologyandafterwardsgotascholarshiptogotoSorbonneAbuDhabi whichofferedtrainingforthefutureLouvreAbuDhabi.IdidmyBAinHistoryofArtand ArchaeologyandMastersatSorbonneAbuDhabiincollaborationwithEcoleduLouvre and Paris IV. I did my specialization in museum education and cultural mediation. I wrotemyM2on'Lesoutilspédagogiquesdanslesmuséesenfaveurdelavalorisation dupatrimoineculturalmauricien.ͲFaceauxenjeuxdu21èmesiècle,quellessontles stratégiesdemédiationetéducativesenvisagéesouàenvisagerpourlesmuséesdel'île Maurice?'.Iwouldbehappytoshareitwithyou.IfIwillbeabletocontributetothis greatproject,Iwouldbemorethanhappytobringmyexpertiseintermsofmuseum educationandculturalmediation.

Also,ifIcancontributetothedevelopmentofthemuseummanagementcourse thattheUniversityofMauritiusislookingforwardtoo,Iwouldbehappytocontribute too.MygrandfatherwasanAntiquaireinMauritiusandsincechildhoodIwasdeeply connectedtoHistoryandtheloveofmuseumsandwentabroadinmindofbringing somethingnewtomycountry(museology).IcamebacktoMauritiusinJuneasthecoͲ curatorofthepremiereMauritiusInternationalArtFair(8Ͳ11August2019)andPanel DiscussionmanagerincollaborationwiththeEconomicDevelopmentBoardwherewe heldapaneldiscussionon'modelingtheartandculturalecosysteminMauritius'where webroughtmuseumprofessionalsandourdiaspora.Iwillbeabletosharethereport onceit'spublished.



171  

172 21 Unmuséepourdes humainsconscientsde leurLiberté DominiqueBellier,journaliste81 

Lorsquejesuisvenuem’installeràMauriceen1996etquej’aicommencéàtravailler commejournalisteauMauricienenseptembre,j’étaisloind’imaginerquecepaysse doterait par la suite de deux sites du patrimoine de l’Humanité, et verrait tant de muséesouvrirleursportes.LepayscomptaitalorsdeuxmuséespublicsàPortͲLouiset Mahébourg et nombre de bâtiments anciens, à l’instar de l’imprimerie du gouvernement,del’ancienmarchédeCurepipeoudemaisonstraditionnelles,créoles oucoloniales,avaientdéjàcédélaplaceàdesconstructionsplusmodernes,enbéton arméetblocsdeparpaing.

Depuis1986quejevivaisavecmoncompagnonàParis,nousvenionsrégulièrement enséjourdanssonpaysnatal.J’avaiseuventdescombatsdequelquesamoureuxdu patrimoine,quiavaientprotestécontrecesdémolitions,envain,etjenepouvaisguère concevoirquelepatrimoinedevienneunsujetdepréoccupationcrucial,constatantque celuiͲci était considérablement négligé et malmené, de toutes les manières avec lesquellesnossociétésmodernesdémolissent,entravent,effacentetoublient.

En vérité, lepatrimoine acontinué d’être maltraité jusqu’à nos jours, comme le prouventlesinnombrablesbâtimentsenbétonquiontremplacédepuisdubâtiancien, desterresagricolesoudesportionsderivages,maislanouveautéaétédeconstater qu’ilexistaitparallèlement,deplusenplusdepassionnésd’histoire,d’historiens,de linguistes et de spécialistes des sciences humaines ainsi que des intellectuels indépendants qui mettaient beaucoup d’énergie à fouiller les archives pour écrire l’histoire qui ne l’avait pas encore été, celle des anonymes, à commencer par les travailleursengagésetlesesclaves.Cesgensétaientattachésàlasymboliqueetausens deslieuxdupasséetilstenaientfermementàcequelepatrimoinemauricienprenne toutlesensqu’ilavaitd’unpointdevuehistoriqueetmémoriel.





81DominiqieBellierisajournalistandhaslivedinMauritiusformanyyears. Shehasbeenakeen followeroftheSlaveryMuseumproject.

173 Jelisaisavecaviditélesarticlesdemesconfrèresetconsœursquiparaissaientsur ces sujets, et il m’est arrivé de plus en plus souvent d’écrire des articles sur ces conférencesetséminairesdescienceshumaines,quiexhumaientdespansentiersde l’histoire enfouie, non dite, non explorée, cette histoire des populations qui n’était jusqu’alorspasvraimentconsidéréecommedel’histoire.Laconsciencedupatrimoine commençaitàessaimer,parallèlementàcelledelaculturemauricienne,faited’une langueparléeparleplusgrandnombre,lecréole,d’unemusique,lesega,detraditions oralesquis’étaitévanouiesdepuisquelatélévisionetlesmagnétoscopesétaiententrés danslesmaisons,etd’unelittératureparticulièrementdynamique,etc.

Depuis24ansquejevisàMauriceetquejesuisentantquejournalistel’avancée des recherches sur l’histoire, le patrimoine et la culture mauricienne, j’éprouve régulièrement le fabuleux sentiment de vivre la renaissance d’un pays à luiͲmême, grâceàcesdonnéesmisesaujourpourlapremièrefoisetauxanalysesquiensont faites.Moiquivientd’unpaysduvieuxmonde,laFrance,oùbeaucoupsembleavoir étéfaitenmatièredecultureetdepatrimoine,jenecessedepuisvingtͲquatreansde m’émerveillerenobservantcettehistoiredeMauricequis’écritdavantageàchaque séminaire,cettetraditionmémoriellequis’enrichitdenouvellesinformationsetqui redonneunevoix,unsensetmêmeunenouvellevieauxlieuxsilongtempsoubliés,en mêmetempsqu’infusentdesimaginairesrevivifiés.

Lahontedudescendantd’esclavecèdepeuàpeulaplaceàlafiertédedescendre d’unpeuplequiarésistédanslesilence,quis’estbattupoursaliberté,quiamarronné, unpeupledontoncommenceàreconnaîtrelacontributiondanslaconstructiondu pays,unecontributionpatienteàlasueurdeleurfront,àlaforcedeleursbras,dans lesplantationsoulesvilles,auxchampsoudanslesdépendancesetcuisines,dansles jardinsetlesfamilles.

AvantdeveniràMaurice,j’avaisétéimpressionnéeparlesthèsesduphilosophe LouisSalaͲMolins,quiréexaminaientlapenséedesphilosophesdesLumièresàl’aune del’histoirecolonialeetdes«hiérarchiesanthropologiques»…Ceshiérarchisationsde l’humanité préparaient en quelque sorte le terrain aux nombreuses et terribles déviancesracistesqu’ontconnulespaysoccidentauxauxXIXèetXXèsiècles.Aussi, l’actualitédesscienceshumainesquej’aipusuivreàMauriceàpartirde1996,apermis deprolongeretenrichircetteréflexion,toutenrenforçantmesconvictions.

Ilfautavoirvéculescolloquesetséminairesd’histoire,organisésàl’Universitéde Maurice,dontlescérémoniesd’ouvertureparvenaientparfoisàremplirl’auditorium OctaveWiehé,avecuneassistancecomposéenonseulementd’étudiantsetchercheurs directementconcernés,maisaussidemultiplesreprésentantsdelasociétécivile,des citoyensordinaires,desMauriciensquiadhéraientàdesassociationsculturelles,des artistes,etc.J’aimeraisavoirletalentdedécrirel’atmosphèrequirégnaientdansces

174 amphithéâtres,lessentimentsquis’affichaientsurlesvisages,lessourirescompliceset surtout,cettecertitudequisemblaitàchaquefoismouvoirtoutescespersonnes:la convictiondeparticiperd’unemanièreoud’uneautre,danslasalleouàlatable,à l’édificationd’unrécitnationalplusjusteetplusvraiquejamais.Jepensequecetype deconvictionestirremplaçableetunique:elleestunpeul’ordutempsdanslavied’un pays.

Ces moments vécus comptent pour moi parmi les plus émouvants de ma petite expériencejournalistiqueàMaurice.Yassister,etécrirecetexteaujourd’huicomme VijayaTeelockm’yainvitée,représententpourmoiunprivilègeinestimable,etj’espère quelesretombéeséducativesquiémanerontdecemuséeetdetoutletravailquil’a précédé, deviendront l’ordinaire de tous les enfants, écoliers et collégiens de l’île Maurice.Etpourquecesdémarchesatteignentcomplètementleursobjectifs,ilfaudra aussiquedansunmouvementdegénérositésanslimiteetdetotaleempathie,lesfruits decettesoifinextinguibledeconnaissanceetdecompréhensionatteignentaussiceux quisesententencoreaujourd’huiexclusdecerécitnational.

Lorsqu’en2001,lacélébrationdel’Abolitiondel’esclavagele1erfévrierestdécrété fête nationale, je me suis inquiétée de voir ce nouveau jour de congé public ne concernerqu’unecommunauté,celledesdescendantsd’esclaves,quel’onappelleicià lacommunautécréole.J’aialorsrencontrédifférentsintellectuelspourécrireunarticle sur la question de savoir en quoi elle célébrait un acquis pour la population toute entière.Chacund’entrenousbénéficieaujourd’huietdepuisplusde185ansdecette premièregrandeavancéedesdroitshumains,quiaétésuivieparbiend’autresdepuis, etilimported’enêtretoutàfaitconscient.L’esclavageestreconnucommeuncrime contrel’humanité,sonabolitioncommeunacquispourcettemêmehumanité.

Pourmoi,cemuséeintercontinentaldel’esclavagepermettraenquelquesortede bouclerlabouclesurcepoint,endéveloppantenchacunlaconsciencedecetacquis selonlequeltousleshumainssontégauxendroitetnuln’aledroitd’exploiterunde sessemblablessansunejusterétributionpoursontravail.Cemuséenousrappelleraà travers la description des combats qui ont conduit àcet avènement, que rienn’est acquisd’avance,etquelecombatdoitcontinueraujourd’huipourlamaind’œuvre étrangère dont les conditions de travail sont souvent délétères ou encore pour les victimesdesréseauxdeprostitutionoulesenfantsencoreréduitsàdiversesformes d’asservissement dans certains pays. L’histoire du XXè siècle et de ces dernières décenniesnousenseignequ’undroitn’estjamaisdéfinitivementacquis,mêmes’ill’est surlepapier,inscritdanslaloi,qu’ilnefautnefautjamaisbaisserlagarde.Jesouhaite profondément que ce musée soit le musée de tous les citoyens de Maurice et de l’Océanindien,etquecesderniersviventsavisitecommeuneexpériencevécuequiles construit.Lemuséedel’apartheidàSowetoinvitelesvisiteursàserangerdansdesfiles d’attenterépartiesselonlesdifférentescouleursdepeau,cequipermetàchacunde 175 prendreconsciencedeceàquoicetteignobleidéologiearéduitl’humain,lapersonne. Dèsl’entrée,ilpermetdecomprendrecepourquoinousdevonsnousbattre:vivreet semouvoirlibrementoùquel’onaille.

J’attendsduMuséeintercontinentaldel’esclavagequ’ilnousfasse vivredesexpériencesfortes,qu’ilnoustoucheaufonddestripes,pour ensortirgrandidansunespritderésiliencecollective,avecunepleine consciencedetoutcequereprésentelalibertéindividuelleetcollective pourunêtrehumain.

J’attendsdecemuséequ’ils’adresseautantànosémotionsqu’à notreintelligence,ànospenséesautantqu’ànoscorps,etqu’ilnous apprenne à comprendre personnellement, et même intimement, ce quesontlalibertéetl’égalité.

J’attends qu’il nous donne des outils non seulement pour comprendre l’histoire de l’esclavage dans l’Océan Indien, mais aussi pourrevisiternospropresviesetnossociétésd’aujourd’huiavecun regardpluslucideetclairvoyant.

176 SLAVERY MUSEUMS WORKSHOP

ABOUT THE CRSI Issues and challenges concerning The Centre for Research on Slavery and Indenture CRSI is a multidisciplinary Research Centre based at the University of Mauritius. It is part of the University’s commitment to the scientific representations of slavery in museums study of Mauritian history and in particular the history of slavery and indenture, these two being the most important migratory movements into Mauritius. CRSI is also committed to playing a regional role, in supporting collaborative, interdisciplinary research. We are represented on the International Scientific Committee of the Slave Route Project and since 2015, CRSI activities fall under UNESCO’s Slave Route Project. An International Advisory Board also exists. The members regularly provide expert opinions on various issues, research projects and activities of CRSI. The current Head of the Centre is Vijayalakshmi Teelock.

CRSI PUBLICATIONS Ratsitatanina’s Gift - Pier Larson Inventaire Sélectif de la série Col C 4 Volume 1 - S. Philips, S.Tamby, Y.Argot, T. Vernet, V.Teelock Inventaire Sélectif de la série Col C 4 Volume 2 - R. Thiebaut, T. Vernet & V. Teelock Maritime Maroonage in Isle de France (Monograph) - A L. Levasseur Elizabeth History and Archaeology of the Moulin à Poudre Cultural Landscape - A.Benard, H.Maurel, J.Mungur-Medhi, D.Ramasawmy, V.Teelock Maroonage and the maroon heritage in Mauritius - J. Cornet, A. Nagapen, V.Teelock etc History Memory Identity Volume 1 - E. Alpers & V. Teelock (eds) Traites, Esclavage et Transition vers l’engagisme - Multiple authors Evading enslavement in the Seychelles (Monograph) - P. Nicholls Issues and challenges concerning representations of slavery in museums - Multiple authors Bonded Self, National Disgrace and Human Misery: Indian Nationalists and Campaign for Abolition of Indentured Labour Emigration - Amit Mishra Select Documents: The End of Indentured Immigration including 1895 Report on the Condition of Indian Immigrants in Mauritius & Distribution List of the SS Surada, the last ship carrying labourers in 1921 - S. Ramchurn ATELIER SUR LES FORTHCOMING Esclavage, dépendance et hiérarchie sociale à Madagascar: Réflexion sur quelques faits dans les MUSÉES DE L’ESCLAVAGE représentations contemporaines - Chaplain Toto, University of Toamasina Parcours d’un Musicien, Marclaine Antoine - Vina Ballgobin, University of Mauritius Les enjeux et les défis de la représentation Compiled and Edited by de l’esclavage dans les musées G����� A����� V��� B�������� R�������� B������ V������������ T������ S����� W��� L���� 2020