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Alexander crossed the Indus and Indian History Aryan and Greek Invasions defeated an Indian king, he turned back without extending India is home to one of the rich- The country was influenced by his power into India. est and the most ancient civiliza- many invasions, the Arya or 8ons in the world, which existed Aryans (1500BC) as they are over 5,000 years ago. This civiliza- known today, are the first in- Maurya and Gupta Periods 8on originated in the Indus River vaders. Aryans were a group of Valley, hence the name given to it nomadic tribes who had origi- The receding 8de of Greek power was Indus Valley civiliza8on. It nally inhabited the steppes of led to a period of confusion and was the origin of many of the Central Asia, in par8cular the re- uncertainty in northern India as ideas, philosophies and move- gion between the Caspian Sea various rulers tried to make capi- ments which have shaped the and the Black Sea. Tall, fair tal of the vacuum that Alexander des8ny of mankind. Its people haired, with clear cut features, had le( behind. These circum- are thought to be Dravidians, they spoke a group of languages stances saw the rise of Mauryas, whose descendants s8ll inhabit which have become known as India's first imperial dynasty, the far south of India. Indo-European. They se9led in founded by Chandragupta Mau- the region to the north west of rya. Maurya dynasty reached its India, known as the Punjab. They peak around 260 BC under the History of India brought with them new ideas, Emperor Ashoka, the most fa- new technology and new gods, mous figures in Indian History. He India is home to one of the rich- this is one of the most important le( a series of inscrip8ons on pil- est and the most ancient civiliza- epochs in Indian history. With lars and rocks across the sub-con- 8ons in the world, which existed 8me, the Aryans were engaged in 8nent. But a(er his death, the over 5,000 years ago. This civiliza- struggle with the dark skinned Mauryan empire gradually fell 8on originated in the Indus River people or Dasyus. The Dasyus apart because his descendants Valley, hence the name given to it were the Dravidians. The superi- were not as strong rulers as he was Indus Valley civiliza8on. It is ority of the Aryans resulted in the was. the origin of many of the ideas, Dravidian submission. At the beginning of the philosophies and movements The second great invasion fourth century AD, India was frag- which have shaped the des8ny of into India occurred around 500 mented into a lot of small king- mankind. The civiliza8on with its BC, when the Persian kings Cyrus doms. They were o(en invaded main ci8es Mohenjadaro and and Darius, pushing their empire by stronger neighbors like Harappa flourished for over eight eastward, conquered the prized Greeks. They conquered Indus centuries. Its people thought to Indus Valley. A(er centuries of Valley again but they didn't stay be Dravidians, whose descen- obscurity, doubt and conjecture, for long. Out of this seeming dants s8ll inhabit the far south of India came into the full light of Chaos, King Chandragupta II India. recorded history with the inva- united all of northern India into a sion of Alexander the Great of great empire again. Macedonia in 327 BC. Although The Gupta period has been

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Special described as the golden age of In- Persian and Central Asian influ- of the three successive Carna8c dian history and under their rule ences manifested in an impres- wars between them, from 1746- of northern India, arts, including sive legacy of magnificent 48, 1748-54 and 1758-63 more- poetry and literature, flourished. palaces, forts, tombs and land- over sealed the fate of the French The exquisite Ajanta and Ellora scaped gardens-including India's possessions in India caves were excavated in this pe- magnificent edifice, the Taj In 1757, at the Ba9le of riod. Gupta period extended from Mahal. The golden era of the Plassey, Robert Clive, an em- 320AD to 480AD. But in 455 AD Mughal period was under the ployee of the Bri8sh East India the Huns invaded India from the rule of Akbar the great. Company, defeated the Nawab of north and destroyed the Guptan Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daulah and es- Empire. Again India was split into tablished their poli8cal sover- small kingdoms un8l the Muslim European Invasions eignty in India. It was an invasions around 1000 AD. important step towards the even- In South India, great empires The country’s riches in different tual Bri8sh dominance of the rose, en8rely independently from cultures, wealth in spices and country. The First War of Inde- those of the north. These in- minerals - made it a target for in- pendence (Sepoy Mu8ny) or the cluded the Kalachuris, Chalukyas, vasion and colonisa8on by Euro- first major Indian rebellion Rashtrakutas, Yadhavas, pean powers from the fi(eenth against the Bri8sh a(er the ba9le Hoysalas, Pallavas, Cholas, century onwards. of Plassey took place in 1857. Al- Pandyas, Cheras and the Vi- The Portuguese were the first though the rebels succeeded in jayanagar kingdom. Europeans to se9le in India, in capturing territories in the Goa, in the fi(eenth century Gange8c plain, it was recaptured (1498). The Europeans arrived by the Bri8sh and the rebellion Muslim Invasions even before the Mughals. The was completely crushed by mid Dutch East India company was 1858. The Bri8sh government The Medieval Period in Indian his- chartered in 1602 and they estab- took over control of India from tory began with the Muslim Inva- lished spice trade and factories in the East India Company. Britain sions. While the Hindu kingdoms Cochin, Nagapa8nam and Agra. then ruled India with local rulers ruled in the south and Buddhism They did not have any military for over three hundred years. was fading in the north, Muslim ambi8ons for India. In 1613, the invasions from the Middle East Bri8sh East India Company, a Indian Independence began, towards the end of the trading company, started its first 12th century. The Muslim period trading post in Gujarat. Later in Eventually demand grew for In- in India began with the Turkish the century, the East India Com- dian independence. The socio- conquests under Mahmud of pany opened permanent trading religious movements brought Ghazni and Muhammad Ghori. sta8ons at Madras, Bombay, and forth by various social reformers Many famous dynas8es such as Calcu9a, each under the protec- all over the country inspired na- the the Slave Dynasty, Khilji Dy- 8on of na8ve rulers. 8onal consciousness to improve nasty, Tughlaq Dynasty, Saiyyid Meanwhile around 1644, the their social condi8on and invoked and Lodhi, Bahmani Dynasty, and French established trade with the spirit of patrio8sm among the Others followed. In the16th cen- India. Pondicherry was the hub of Indian masses. A na8onal move- tury, Babur from Fergana (Uzbek- French se9lements. Other French ment for independence was cre- istan), a descendant of Genghis factories and se9lements were at ated. Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad, Khan swept across the Khyber Surat, their first trading post in Subhash Chandra Bosh, Bhagat Pass, defeated Ibrahim Lodi the 1666, then Masulipatanam, Singh, Rajguru, Mahamana, Sar- last ruler of the Delhi Sultanate at Karikal, Chandernagore in Bengal dar Ballabh Bhai Patel, Sarojini the ba9le of Panipat and estab- and Mahe at the Malabar coast. Naidu, Chander Shekhar Azad lished the Great Mughal Dynasty The struggle for establishing su- were the notable people of the which lasted for 200 years. premacy in trade resulted in wars movement. But the most rele- The Mughal (Mogul) period between the English and the vantverent leader of the move- saw a remarkable blend of Indian, French in the Deccan. The la9er ment was Mohandas

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Special Karamchand Gandhi, a lawyer ins8tu8ons of jus8ce, media and about the boundaries of king- who believed in non violent bureaucracy. doms and empire. protest (civil disobedience). Gandhi worked with Jawaharlal 2. Numisma%cs Nehru, the secretary of the Indian Sources of Indian History Numisma8cs is the study of coins. Na8onal Congress and trans- Coins yield informa8on on the formed the Indian Na8onal Con- The sources of Indian history can condi8on of country. The coins gress poli8cal party into a mass be classified under the following made of gold, silver and copper movement to campaign against heads: speak of the economic situa8on the Bri8sh colonial rule. A(er 1. Inscrip8ons of that place in the period. Coins several years of struggle, Britain 2. Numisma8cs gives us chronological informa- decided to quit India. 3. Archaeology 8on. It also gives us knowledge But a major problem had 4. Literature about the extent of influence of arisen. A large Muslim minority 5. Foreign Sources that a par8cular ruler or kingdom doubted that an independent 6. Tradi8ons and its rela8on with the distant India would also mean a Hindu- areas. Roman coins discovered in dominated India. The Muslim 1. Inscrip%ons India gives us an idea about the League, led by Muhammad Ali Epigraphy is the study of in- existence of contacts with the Jinnah began to call for an inde- scrip8ons. Epigraphic evidences Roman empire. Coins are the only pendent Muslim region- Pakistan. form the most reliable source of source of idea knowledge of the On 15th of August, 1947, India ancient history. They are en- Bactarian; Indo-Greeks and Indo- became completely independent graved on stone tablets, metal Parthian dynasty. The coins of from colonial rule, ending nearly plates, pillars, walls of caves, etc. this period brings to light an im- 350 years of Bri8sh presence in The inscrip8ons represent vari- provement in the coin ar8stry of India. Nehru became the first ous languages at different places India. Portraits and figures, Hel- Prime Minister of independent and period of 8me. Some inscrip- lenis8c art and dates on the India. 8ons give details about the poli8- coins of the western straps of Following independence cal and religious ac8vi8es of that Saurashtra are remarkable India was divided, to create Pak- 8me. Others are official, com- sources for reconstruc8ng this istan, which ini8ally also included memora8ve and historical. period. The Puranic accounts of present-day Bangladesh where The edicts of Ashoka, the pillars the Satavahanas is ascertained there were Muslim majori8es. of Samudragupta and from the Jogalthambi hoard of The separa8on escalated the Rudradaman I are religious and coins. brewing violence into a blood- administra8ve inscrip8ons. San- The circula8on of coins in bath. It is es8mated that over one skrit plays at Dhar and Ajmer and gold and silver during the Gupta million people were killed in sec- musical rules found in the empire imparts an idea of the tarian violence as up to six million Puduko9ai, trea8es on architec- healthy economic condi8on dur- Muslims moved towards Pakistan ture inscribed on a tower at Chit- ing the rule of the Guptas. and up to five million Hindus and tor are examples of inscrip8ons. Sikhs moved towards India. Ma- Inscrip8ons on metal plates also 3. Archaeology hatma Gandhi opposed par88on cast light on the period during Archaeology is the scien8fic study and in 30th January 1948 he him- the Mauryans. The Mandasor of the remains of the past. They self was gunned down by a copper plates, the Sohgaura plate include buildings monuments Hindu fundamentalist, enraged from Gorakpur district, the Aihole and other material relics that the by his support for the Muslims. inscrip8on of Mahendra-Varman, inhabitants of that period were On January 26, 1950 India the U:ramerur inscrip8ons of associated with. The Department became a republic. The country Parantaka Chola I cast light on of Archaeology was set up by adopted a new cons8tu8on trade, taxes, currency. Some of Lord Curzon under the Director based on the Bri8sh parliamen- these are dated in the Saka and Generalship of Dr Marshal. tary model. Newly independent, Vikrama era reflects the condi- Excava8ons conducted at India worked to establish strong 8on of India. It gives knowledge various sites in the valley of the

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Special river Indus, Lothal in Gujarat, music, dance, pain8ng architec- of Tibet is an insight into the reli- Kalibangan in Rajasthan, at Sind ture and administra8on of vari- gion and history of the India in and Punjab gives us knowledge of ous kings. that period. the civiliza8on during about 2700 Kau8lya`s Arthashastra is a BC. remarkable work on the system 5. Foreign sources Excava8ons at Taxila gives an of administra8on. The existence of details in the lit- idea about the Kushanas. The Sangam literature in erature of the Greeks, Chinese, Similarity in monuments ex- south is an elaborate record of Persians, Romans and Euro- cavated in India and abroad es- life in South India. peans gives an account of the tablish a rela8ons between Though these literature lacks condi8on of the country then. It various areas of the globe, be- historical sense yet they are the also speaks the truth about the sides this it express the Indian mi- main sources to venture into the condi8ons under which they gra8on beyond India. The fine facts of Indian history. came in contact India. The pres- example of this is the temple of (b) Foreign Literature ence of various ar8facts and ma- Angkor vat in Cambodia. The loop holes in the indige- terials of Indian origin has added Excava8ons at south Indian nous literature is supported by to the study of Indian history. sites such as Adichana llur, Chan- the numerous account by for- The histories of the Chinese dravalli, Brahmagiri highlights the eigners who were either pilgrims, from 120BC to 400AD and prehistoric periods. travellers, traders or ambassa- 700AD, the accounts of Abul-Fazl The rock cut temples of dors in the court of various kings. in his 'Ain - i - Akbari' are a few ex- Ajanta and Ellora with its sculp- The wri8ngs of Herodotus amples of the foreign sources to tures and pain8ngs express the helped in sca9ering the knowl- know about the Indian history. ar8s8c finery of that period edge of India to Europe before In many cases where there was a Besides all these pots, pot- the invasion by Alexander. He need to fill in the vagueness tery, seals, skeletal remains all are highlights the features of the caused by the lack of evidence in inseparable parts of the recon- Indo-Persian rela8ons. the study of Indian history these struc8ng history. Megasthanes the Greek am- foreign sources have proved bassador in the court of Chan- handy. 4. Literature dragupta gives us an idea about This can be classified into India in his book 'Indica'. 6. Tradi%ons • Indigenous literature Accounts of Fa-Hien and Tradi8ons have modulated and • Foreign literature Hieun-Tsang who toured India as synthesized the Indian life. These Literature in the ancient pe- a pilgrim during the rule of Har- were prac8ced from the dome of riod was not fuelled by the urge shavardhana and the Guptas civiliza8ons and prac8ced throu- to preserve history but was a gives us a detailed idea about the gh genera8ons. Songs, dramas, complica8on of experiences and country. fairs and fes8vals besides rituals rules of worship. Most of the lit- Accounts by Muslims person- are an inalienable part of the so- erature of this period was reli- ali8es also add a great insight into ciety. These are living sources of gious. the history of India. history. (a) The Indigenous literature 'Tarikh - e - Hind' ( 'an enquiry includes the Vedas, the Brah- into India') by Alberuni a learned manas, the Aryankas, the Upan- mathema8cian and astronomer Indus Valley Civilization ishads, the Epics Ramayana and is a remarkable document about Mahabharatha, the Brahmashas- the country. The composi8on of Human inhabita8on in the Indian tras, the Puranas. Firishta, the Ceylonese chronicle subcon8nent is traced to the Pa- The Buddhist and Jain litera- Deepavamsa of Mahavamsa of leolithic and Neolithic period. ture gives knowledge of the tra- Ceylon portrays the life in the an- Dated from about 2500 to 1500 di8ons prevalent in those cient period. Accounts of Pliny in BC. This civiliza8on is considered periods. The literature of this pe- the first century AD, accounts of to be at par with the other civi- riod are in Sanskrit Pali Prakrit. It Ptolemy in the second century liza8ons of the world . gives us a knowledge about AD and the Accounts of Taranath Sir John Marshal, the director

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Special general of archaeology with his spread the remaining part of the made of shell, beads, gold and sil- team excavated sites at Sind and city where the common people ver and copper. Razors, bronze Punjab. The ruins at Mohenjo- dwelt and pursued their profes- mirrors and combs made of ivory daro in the Larkana district of sion. Houses were well planned speaks of the people interest in Sind in the lower Indus and at and was built on both sides of the personal upkeep. Toys like the Harappa on the banks of the Ravi street. it had flat roofs and were whistle and carts besides pup- has brought to light the existence connected by stairs to the upper pets, ra9les and dolls made of of the Indus valley civiliza8on. storeys. They had thick walls and terraco9a speaks greatly about These excava8ons were further windows were few. Every house the a:tude of the people in child supported by the discovery in had a kitchen with a fireplace and care. People enjoyed playing in 1931 at Chanhudaro near Mo- large jars for storing grains or dice and marble. Gambling was a henjodaro. Traces of the Indus keeping other ar8cles of use. The favourite past 8me of the elder valley civiliza8on was discovered roofs of houses were flat. each members in the society. at Rupar in Ambala district and house had bathrooms with a sys- Rangpur, and Lothal in Saurash- tem of covered drains connected (c) Occupa%on tra, Bharatpur in Rajasthan, to the main drain of the street. A The discovery of various Kalibangan in the Burdwan dis- courtyard and a well were the equipments such as axes, knives, trict of West Bengal are a proof of special. features that brings to spears and daggers made of the existence of the Indus valley light the system of planning exist- bronze and copper suggest metal civiliza8on. Harappa being the ing then. work as a major profession com- main source of knowledge about monly pursued in the towns. Cop- the civiliza8on historians also call (b) Society per was used for making this civiliza8on as the Harappan Society in the Indus valley weapons and utensils besides or- culture. civiliza8on is said to have com- naments. Spinning, weaving and prised of three dis8nct social po9ery also formed important groups. One group ruled and ad- occupa8on. Po9ery in red with Features of the Indus Val- ministered the city, the other designs painted in black resem- ley Civilization group included the merchants bling shapes such as interes8ng who were associated with trade circles, pipal, leaves, peacocks a) Town Planning and other business ac8vi8es in were on it. The discovery of nu- The ruins of Mohenjodaro the city. The third group were the merous seals made of clay with provides evidence to confirm the labourers who worked in the city. figures of animals like the 8ger, existence of a system of planning They also included the farmers rhinoceros, elephant and croco- in the city. The streets were who cul8vated wheat and barley dile gives us more informa8on of broad and straight cu:ng each as their main crops. Animals like the significance of these animals other at right angles. The drains the buffaloes, sheeps and pigs in the Harappan society. These were lined with bricks and man- and the humped bull were bred. seals also have inscrip8ons in pic- holes to facilitate regular clean- Fish, mu9on, beef, poultry and tographic script. ing. This speaks highly of the pork consisted the food they ate. Agriculture with domes8cat- civiliza8on's advanced nature. Animals like the elephant, camels ing animals was a major occupa- The citadel was the main part and dogs were also domes8- 8on. The loca8on of granaries of the city built on a raised plat- cated. The discovery of a large near river, where the civiliza8on form. It consisted of public build- number of clay spindles suggest itself flourished was an important ings, a bath, granaries and the use of co9on besides woolen feature. The ornaments of these quarters for providing shelter to and linen fabrics. period worn by both men and the persons propaga8ng religion. Men also seemed to have women reflects the skilled cra(s- The planning of the city brings to worn ornaments like fillets, neck- manship of the people in the light the existence of an ac8ve laces, finger rings and armlets. Harappan culture. and efficient bureaucracy to ad- Women were fond of ornaments minister the ac8vi8es of the city. like earrings, bangles, bracelets, (d) Trade Around the citadel was necklaces, girdles and anklets The Indus valley people

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Special maintained commercial contacts the discovery of the Indus valley The Indus valley civiliza8on with Egypt and Crete, clay seals, po9ery there. This sug- has put India at par with the Mesopotamia and the towns in gests that the civiliza8on flour- other civiliza8on of the world, the Persian Gulf. Excava8ons at ished from about 3000 BC to which is said to be the founda- Lothal reveals the existence of a 1500 BC. 8on on which the present cul- dock suppor8ng the ac8vi8es of tures of na8ons are built. trade in that period. Trade also Anthropological inves8ga8on and existed with Northern examina8on of the human re- Afghanistan from where the mains shows that four racial Period Under the Aryans Harappans bought the famous types existed in this civiliza8on. blue gemstones,' Lapiz Lazuli'. They were the proto - Australiod, Origin of the Aryans Mediterranean, Alpine and the Opinions Areas under Aryan influ- (e) Religion Mongoloid. Archaeological exca- encediffer regarding the original The clay seals discovered during va8on reveal the existence of var- home of the Aryans. The most ac- excava8on reveals the presence ious racial types. Of all these the cepted view is that the region be- of a male god. The figure of a fe- existence of the Dravidian race tween Poland to the Central Asia male god also suggest their be- holds its relevance owing to its might have been of the Aryans. liefs on the female was source of wide spread acceptance. They were said to be semi- no- crea8on. The seal with a male madic people, who started mov- god wearing a head dress sur- ing from their original home rounded by various animals ex- Decline of the Indus towards the west, south and east. horts the belief in the male Valley Civilization The branch which went to Europe symbol of strength. The Indus val- were the ancestors of the Greeks, ley people cremated their death. The Indus valley culture though Romans, Celts and Teutons. An- This idea has been established existed in its modern form else other branch went to Anatolia. owing to the discovery of many where it had to submit to the ul- The great empire of the Hi:es urns containing human bones 8mate ravages of 8me which is evolved from the mixture of and ashes. In general it can be de- the universal law. The physical ex- these immigrants with the origi- rived that worship of the forces of istence of the civiliza8on ended nal people. The branch which re- nature in its lively forms such as due to various factors. mained were the ancestors of the stones, strong animals was the (a) Changes in the climate lead- Slavonic people. The group which religion they followed. This must ing to the decline of land and moved south came to conflict have been the principles upon agriculture, thereby enforcing with the west Asian civiliza8on. In which the present day Hinduism the need to evacuate to other course of their journey towards has prescribed as its principles. area might have been the rea- the east or south a group of Age, Origin and Decline of son for the disserta8on of the Aryans had se9led in Iran. They the Indus Valley Civiliza8on Indus valley. crossed the Hindukush and en- The Indus valley civiliza8on is (b) Increase in popula8on, exces- tered India through Afghanistan believed to belong to the copper sive deforesta8on decline in and captured the greater part of stone age as the presence of iron agriculture etc might have the northern India. They came to tools and implements has not yet created economic problems be known as Indo-Aryans to dis- been established at any part of leading to the gradual decay 8nguish them from the others this civiliza8on. of the culture. who spoke a language different Archaeological excava8on in- (c) Frequent floods may have led from those who se9led in west- dicates that the Indus valley civi- to the devasta8on of the city ern Asia and Europe. liza8on could have flourished in (d) The invasion of the Aryans is The Indo-Aryans entered about 300 BC much before the the other view that is said to Punjab and the other north-west- existence of other West Asian civ- be another reason which ern part of India. They moved to- iliza8on. Contacts with the civi- might have also led to the ex- wards south-east and eastwards liza8on of Mesopotamia, Elam 8nc8on of the life in the Indus into the Ganga Valley. The Aryans and Babylon can be deduced by valley. were pastoral Nomads. They set-

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Special tled in villages. The region which subjects, property, defence and and barley was the common food the Aryans occupied was known maintenance of peace. The king grains. Drinks included the Soma as Sapta Sindhu. Moving further was not an autocrat he was con- and Sura which were intoxica8ng eastwards they se9led along the trolled by two popular assemblies and was drunk during fes8vals. Ganga and Jamuna. In due course Sabha and Sami8. These assem- The dress consisted of two or of 8me the whole of northern blies brought forth the people's three garments- an under gar- India were under the Aryans and view on various issues. The Sab- ment, garment and a cloak. it was called Aryavarta or the has also discharged legal du8es These were made of wool or skin land of the Aryans. The period of like providing jus8ce. Individual and colored yellow and red. Gold Aryan se9lement was between ownership of property was recog- ornaments such as necklaces, 2500 and 1500BC. The early nized. The land was a property earrings, anklets, and bracelets Aryans were divided into many owned by the family. The prop- were common and was worn by tribes. A few among them are erty passed on in a hereditary both men and women. Women Anus, Druhyus, Yadus, Turvasas manner from father to son. enjoyed equal status and re- and Purus. They se9led on either ceived educa8on with the men. side of the river Saraswa8. They They also freely par8cipated in were involved in figh8ng among Economic Condition public life. themselves. Besides these tribal warfare the Aryans were engaged The Aryans who were semi-no- in struggles with the dark skinned madic people also domes8cated Religion people or Dasyus. The Dasyus animals which helped them in were the Dravidians who occu- the ac8vi8es of agriculture and The Aryans worshipped many pied the regions of the Indus val- other pastoral and hun8ng acts. gods and goddess. Most of the ley civiliza8on. The superiority of Agriculture consisted the major objects they worshipped were the Aryans resulted in the Dravid- share of their economy. Canals to the personifica8on of the forces ian submission and re8rement to provide irriga8on was a signifi- of nature. The religious beliefs of the south. cant feature of this occupa8on. the Aryans and its essen8al ele- Coins were unknown and trade ments were contained in the Rig was through the Barter system. Veda. It was based on the beliefs Political Organization Cra( was not a popular profes- that sion. The lack of good roads The numerous gods and god- Family served as the basis of the might have hampered trade, but dess were personifica8ons of both social and poli8cal organiza- river naviga8on was exis8ng. Spe- whatever that was noble splendid 8on. Families together formed cializa8on in areas such as car- and striking in nature . The com- the grama. Villages together pentry, smithy, weaving, po9ery, mon people sought refugee formed is and they turn formed etc had been taking place. under these powers who did the janas. The community was good answer as evil. To get the patriarchical and each tribe was good offerings as food and drinks under the chief whose posi8on Aryan Society has to be made. was hereditary. The rastra was Fire was the means of mes- ruled by the king which was nor- Family being the basis of the sengers who carried the offerings mally hereditary. The king led the Aryan social life needed to be a to the gods . This was done tribe in ba9le, and protected the healthy bond. Monogamy was amidst the chan8ng of hymns of people. The Purohita was one of the usual rule but polygamy was praise . the important signatory. He was also prac8ced. Women played an There were numerous the sole associate of the king his important role in the family. They dei8es, classified under terres- friend, philosopher and guide. also excelled in educa8on. Apata trial, atmospheric, and celes8al The Senani the leader of the Visvara and Ghosa were a few group. Agni, Indra and varuna army, and Gramani the head of who even composed mantras. were the chief dei8es. They also the village. The main duty of the Both vegetarian and non-vegetar- included Agni, vayu, surya, king was the protec8on of his ian food were common. Wheat prithivi,etc. Gods and goddess

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Special were worshipped with simple and Sama veda. This period indi- ceremonials known as Yajna or cated changes in the poli8cal, so- Social Condition sacrifices. cial economic and religious condi8ons of the life of the The need to perform the ceremo- Extent of Aryans in India Aryans. These changes were dif- nial yajnas required the services ferent from those in the early of a highly trained priests who The Aryans were said to have vedic period during the composi- were skilled in the religious mat- been spread into four divisions of 8on of the Rig Veda. ters. This group came to assume the country as portrayed by the 8tle of the Brahmanas. They Manu occupied a high status and were • Brahmavarta Political Condition respected and honoured by the • Braharishi Desha king. • Madhya Desha The Rig vedic Aryans were di- The constant inter tribal • Aryavarta vided into several tribes. Their figh8ng for establishing su- (a) The Brahmavarta or the land was frequent internal strife premacy, and struggle with the of Gods was the region lying among them. The weaker tribes original inhabitants gave birth for between the rivers Saraswa8 were absorbed into the stronger the need of persons skilled in the and Drishadwa8 It also in- ones and thus the kingdoms and warfare. Thus arose the new class cluded parts of Kurukshetra larger areas of residence of the Kshatriyas. Remaining peo- as men8oned in the Mahab- emerged. The poli8cal influence ple in the Aryan society were haratha. of the Aryans extended towards called Vaisyas. The group who (b) The Braharishi Desha or the the east and south. The Aryan were not Aryans were called Su- country of the holy sages. now established a powerful king- dras. These separa8on in the so- Comprised the territories of dom in the Deccan, to the north ciety was on the basis of the the Kurus, Matsya, Panchalas of the river Godavari. The mode profession they pursued. Gradu- and Swsenas. Today they are of succession con8nued to be ally the Aryans were divided into known as Thaneshwar, East- hereditary. The expansion of the the four varnas, succession to ern Rajputana, the Doab and territory also resulted in the in- these in course of 8me became Mathura district. creased domina8on of the king hereditary. The caste system be- (c) The Madhya Desa or the mid- assisted by a hierarchy of nobility. came rigid, Educa8on was con- dle country occupied the re- These nobles were assigned offi- fined to the upper classes. An gion lying between the cial du8es. Thus an administra- Aryan's life was divided into Himalayas and Vindhyas. 8ve machinery developed. The stages which began with Up- (d) The Aryavarta occupied the king now had a council of advis- anayana, which was the incep8on region between the Hi- ers which included the kings rela- of the pupil to educa8on. A(er a malayas and the Vindhyas 8ves, his cour8ers, heads of period of 12 years study of the from the east to west. various departments. The puro- Vedas, Brahmanas, Upanishads, Though a physical terrain hita (the priest ), the senani (the Ithihasa, Puranas, Grammer, segregated North and South India commander), the suta (the chari- Ethics etc. the individual could and resulted in the development oteer), the Samgrahitr (the treas- chose one of the four ashramas of a Dravidian culture, yet the urer ), tax collector, etc. were the i.e. Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Aryans influenced the religious individuals which assisted in the Sanyasa, Vanaprastha. thoughts of the Dravidians. kings ac8vi8es. The role of the popular assemblies was impor- tant. A notable feature of this pe- Religious Condition Later Aryan Period (Vedic riod was the ex8nc8on of the Period) Sami8. The sabha transformed Religion and philosophy in the from being a popular village as- later Vedic period became more The later vedic period is said to sembly, con8nued as a court or confirmed with elaborate sacri- have begun a(er the composing judicial assembly. fices. The doctrines of Karma, of the Atharva Veda, Yajur veda Maya, soul, Muk8 were estab-

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Special lished. Brahma, Vishnu and Mah- (Ayurveda), Dhanurveda (war), contains about 100,000 verses. eswara became the important Gandharvaveda, (music) etc. This is an encyclopedia of history, gods who were worshipped. morals and religion.

The Vedanta Literature in the Vedic Period It is the philosophy taught in Puranas most of the Upanishads. These are legends connected The Vedas with epics and law books. They The Upanishads are 18 in number and are mostly The vedas were the sources of re- recognized in North India . The construc8ng the vedic period. This contains the main idea that Vishnu Purana, for example, The oldest being the Rigveda, The cons8tute the intellectual aspect should treat of five subjects Samaveda, Yajurveda and Adhar- of the Hindu philosophy. They do namely primary crea8on, sec- vaveda had their own signifi- not lay emphasis to rites, cere- ondary crea8ons, Genealogies of cance. The sama veda contains monies and austeri8es. The Up- gods and patriachs reigns of vari- the verses from the Rigveda. The anishads are dated between 800 ous Manus and history of ancient hymns in it were relevant to the BC and 500 BC. The Upanishads dynas8es. The Vayupurana is one soma sacrifice . are about 100 in number. The of the oldest the Puranas. It was The Yajurveda also consist of Brahadaranyaka Upanishads, edited during the age of Guptas hymns from the Rig Veda, more Chandogva Upanishad, Aitreya when there was a great revival of than half of this is in prose to fa- Upanishad are a few. The Upan- the Sanskrit language. The other cilitate the performance of sacri- ishads reflects the richness and Puranas include Matsya and fices. It depicts the social and universality of the Indian Culture. Brahmanda which gives us ac- religious condi8on of this period. They are said to be the thinking count of the kings up to the im- The Atharva Veda contains philo- power of the Brahmana and the perial Gupta dynasty with other sophic specula8ons, popular cults Kshatriyas. contemporaries. and supers88ons.

Literature in the Later Laws of Manu The Brahmanas Vedic Period Also known as Manav They are prose of the sacrificial The Epics Dhramshastra in Sanskrit, it com- ceremonies. These explanatory They are the Ramayana and the prises of 2684 couplets arranged trea8ses lay emphasis on ritual- Mahabharatha. They introduce in twelve chapters. It is the earli- ism. They mark the transi8on us to a period of transforma8on est of law books. The laws of from Vedic to classical Sanskrit. It in the social and religious ins8tu- Manu forms the founda8on of also marks the period which 8ons of the Vedic age the court of law in India under marks the advance of the Aryans The Ramayana wri9en by the name of Hindu law. The book from the Panchala country to the Valmiki is said a poe8c legend makes a dis8nc8on between Vidha (North Bihar). based on mythology. It portrays varna and ja8s. The varnas were the ideal man- god Rama and the in the order of the occupa8ons ideal woman Sita. The sacrifices pursued by the people. This was The Vedangas and the made by the characters for the given as below, Upavedas preserva8on of truth appealed to • the learned, literate and the people.This was edited by the priestly order These are said to be supplemen- Brahmanas in course of 8me to • the figh8ng or the governing tary sec8ons of the Vedic litera- convert it a book of devo8on. class ture. These gives us idea about The Mahabharatha which • the trading and agricultural Jo8sh (Astronomy), Medicine consist of 18 parvas (sec8ons) group

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Special • the common folk, labourers strongest power with an able line of the Indian subcon8nent were The composi8on of this may of rulers. previously divided into Jana- be between 200BC and 200AD by While Magadha was estab- padas, this was a clear demarca- a sage named Bhrigu. lishing their way over northern 8on by boundaries. Many India, the regions of west, Pun- Janapadas by 600 BCE further de- jab, Sind and Afganistan were di- veloped into bigger poli8cal bod- Pre Mauryan Period vided into many states. Kamboja ies. These kingdoms came to be and Gandhara are two of the six- known as Mahajanapadas in the Indian history before the seventh teen Mahajanapadas men8oned Buddhist tradi8ons. century was not dated. The lack in the Buddhist scriptures. Sixteen great kingdoms as of wri9en records and other ma- they are referrd to by buddhist terial certainly breaks the con8- and other texts. The sixteen ma- nuity at several points yet the Magadha hajanapadas include Kasi, Kosala, prac8ces of the ancient and the anga, Magadha, Vajji, Malla, Vedic periods exists 8ll today as The history of the Magadha king- Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru, tradi8ons. The first recorded date dom was unleashed in south Panchala,Machcha, Surasena, As- is considered as 326BC, the year Bihar in the 4th century BC and saka, Avan8, Gandhara and Kam- of Alexander's invasion. The Mau- the drama commenced in the boja. ryan period dates slightly later Saisungha dynasty by a chie(ain and historical tradi8ons recorded named Sisunga in about 642BC. Kasi in literature gives us some infor- Bimbisara was the fi(h king of ma8on of the kingdoms of North- this kingdom. He contributed ex- The name Kasi is the tribe ern India in the seventh century tending his dominions by the who se9led in the region around BC. conquest of Anga the modern Varanasi where itself the capital Vast territories in the north- Bhagalpur and Monghyr district. was located. There is a belief that ern part of India were covered by He is said to reigned for twenty Varanasi got its name from the forest and inhabited by tribes. eight years, according to the pu- rivers that surround the city, Civilized se9lements existed in ranas. He is regarded as the per- namely Varuna and Asi. Kasi oc- the plains of the Indus and the son who laid the founda8on of cupied a predominant posi8on Ganga. Four important kingdoms Magadhan greatness. His policy among the sixteen Mahajana- of this period were the Magadha, of diplomacy and war, and able padas, before the rise of Buddha. the Avadh, the Vatsa and the administra8on made Magadha a We come to know a lot about Malwa. The other small kingdoms great empire. Kasi from the Jatakas which were were Kasi, Matsya, Kuru and Pan- a voluminous body of myths and chala. Besides these kingdoms folklore revolving about prvious there were many non - monar- Sixteen Mahajanapadas births of the buddha. This su- chial clans. The most important premacy called for a long drawn was the Virji confedera8on of The literal meaning of Mahajana- conflict for mastery between eight clans, of which the Liccha- padas is great kingdoms. They other ci8es, like Kosala, Anga and vis, who ruled from Vaisali as flourished in the north/north Magadha with Kasi. Kasi was no their capital was prominent. The western parts of India before the doubt influencial that is the rea- others were Sakyas of Kapilavastu rise of Buddhism. Aryans have son why we get a men8on of Kasi and the Mallas. These clans had migrated into India long 8me in the Vedic texts. Matsya Purana no hereditary rules. An assembly back and there were regular fric- and Alberuni are the texts where was in charge of administra8on 8on between them and the non we read Kasi as Kausika and helped by a council and an aryan tribes concerning, ca9le, Kaushika, others read it as Kasi. elected chief. The four kingdoms fodder, land etc. These tribes of maintained matrimonial rela8on, Aryans were called as Janas by though figh8ng among them- many Vedic texts. Later on there Kosala selves for supremacy was com- was a merger of the Vedic Janas mon. Magadha emerged as the into Janapadas. Different regions Among the sixteen Maha-

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Special janapadas, Kosala is one, which Bimbisara, this Mahajanapada lages), gosthas (groups). The em- comprised of Shravas8, Kusha- was usurped and taken over by inent people were chosen from va8, Saket and Ayodhya. Kosala Magadha. Champa was also a each khandas (districts) to repre- cons8tuted of the territories of major seat for the spread of Jain- sent on their behalf in Vajji gana modern Oudh or Awadh which is ism and Buddhism. parishad (people`s council of located in U9ar pradesh. The Vajji). The chairman of the council state capital of Kosala was Ayod- was called Ganapramukh (head hya which was under the com- Magadha of the democracy), but o(en he mand of Prosenjit the Kosala was addressed as the king.The King, a contemporary of Gautama Magadha emerged as a pow- other execu8ves were Mahabal- Buddha. The southern side it was erful kingdom in the reign of Bim- adhrikrit (equivalent to the min- bordered by the Ganges, the east bisara and his son Ajatshatru. The ister of internal security), had river Gandhak encircling it. earliest ruling dynasty according binishchayamatya (chief jus8ce), Magadha was a neighbouring to Mahabharata and Puranas dandadhikrit (other jus8ces) etc. state to Kosala, and there were seems to be founded by king Bri- Vajji had its capital at Vaishali. conflicts between them. Ajatsha- hadratha. The Vedas have a men- tru who was the king of Magadha 8on of the Magadhas as semi and Prasenjit were in con8nuous `brahmanised` and this was a rea- Malla struggle for power which finally son for the not so good impres- came to an end with the align- sion of the people. Kikata was a Malla was an ancient dynasty ment of the confedera8on of non Aryan country according to in India and is one of the sixteen Lichchavis with Magadha. A(er Yasaka and the king Pramaganda mahajanapadas. Epics like Ma- Prasenjit, Vidudabha rose into is said to be the ruler of Kikata. habharata men8ons that the power and Kosala ul8mately Kikata on the other hand was Mallas were considered along amalgamated into Magadha. considered a synonym for Maga- with the tribes of the Angas, Van- dha in later Vedic literature. gas and Kalingas. Buddhist and The city was known by many Jain works have the men8on of Anga other names like Magadhapura, the Mallas who existed in a re- Brihadrathapura, Vasuma8, public that consisted of nine teri- India`s earliest empire was Kushagrapura and Bimbisarapuri. tories. In a more original context evolving around the Gange8c Buddhism and Jainism were in it is evident that they actually had plains, which included the Maha- vogue in the religious scenario a monarchical form of govern- janapadas. Anga was one of during that 8me, and Magadha ment in the beginning but later these evolving states, which is became a dynamic center of Jain- they transformed into the repub- one of the sixteen Mahajana- ism along with the first Budhist lic form{Samgha). The Mallas padas that prospered during that Council being held in Rajagriha in were very warlike and brave peo- period. Malini, Champapuri, the Vaibhara Hills. ple and have been men8oned champa Malini, Kala Malini etc and referred as Vrtaya Kshatriyas were the different names by by Manusmri8, as Vasishthas in which this sate was called. The Vajji or Vriji the Mahapparnibbana Su9anta. Angas were first referred to in the Mallas have also suffered domi- Atharva Veda as the detested Sixteen Mahajanapadas of na8on by the Magadha empire people. Atharva Veda considers ancient Inida includes Vajji as one a(er Buddha`s death. Anga an unholy place and some of them. The Vajji was a confed- even condemned it as a place era8on a many clans of which the where wives and children were Licchhavis, the Vedehans, Jna- Chedi or Cheti sold. Mahabharata, tes8fies the trikas and the Vajjis were the people of Anga to be of noble most important. It was actually The Chedis were group of an- birth or `Suja8` proclaiming the known as the Vajji Sangha or the cient people of India living on the sanc8ty of the place Champa as a union of Vajji, which comprised of south of the river Yamuna. They pilgrimage. During the reign of many janapadas, gramas (vil- are men8oned in the Rigveda,

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Special and city called Suk8ma8 is men- living in the Kurukshetra and ac- were once ruled by the same king 8oned as the capital of Chedi. cording to the Buddhist text Sujata, and Matsya was a part of Chedi kingdom was one of the Sumangavilasini, the kurus came the kingdom ofn Chedi. sixteen Mahajanapadas, and was from the U9arakuru. Tes8fied by ruled by Sisupala, an ally of the Vayu Purana, the founder of Jarasandha of Magadha and Kurukshetra or kuru janapada Surasena Duryodhana of Kuru. Prominent was Kuru who was the son of Chedis during Kurukshetra War Samvarsana of the Puru lineage. The kingdom of Surasena, included Damaghosha, Shishu- During sixth/fi(h century BCE, underwent a lot metamorphosis pala, Dhrishtaketu, Suketu, the Kurus are believed to have in terms of religion. The capital Sarabha, Bhima`s wife and so on. shi(ed to republic form of gov- which was Mathura, was the cen- Chedi was the place that was ernment. tre of Krishna worship at the 8me chosen for spending the 13th of Megasthenes. Whereas Avan- year of exile by the Pandavas. 8pura who was the king of Panchala Surasena was one of the first de- sciples of Buddha, and it gained Vamsa Panchala was divided into U9ara- prominence evr since then in Panchala and Dakshina-Panchala. Mathura. The geographical locat- The Vamsa or the Vatsa was Counted among the sixteen Ma- 8on of this kingdom among the the kingdom that followed the hajanapadas, the northen Pan- sixteen mahajanapadas was monarchical form of government. chala had Chhatrava8 as its south west of Matsya and west of This kingdom is one of the sixteen capital and the south had its cap- the river Yamuna. There were Mahajanapadas, and the capital ital at Kampilya. In Panchala is sit- various tribe that in habited the of this was located at Kausambi. uated the renouned city of region and they were headed by One very important aspect of this Kanyakubja. Like many other a chief. city was that it formed the hub of kingdoms it was seen that the all economic ac8vi8oes and had Panchals tooo had shi(ed to a re- a prosperous trade and business publican form of government in Assaka or Ashmaka rela8ons. 6th century Bc has the sixth and fi(h century BCE from account of Udyana to be the ruler being a monarchy. Kingdom of Assaka or Ash- of the, kingdom at the 8me of maka was situated in the south- Buddha. About Udayana it is said ern part of India and one of the that earlier there were resent- Machcha or Matsya sixteen mahajanapadas. The Ash- ments on his side regarding Bud- maka had its capital located at hism as he was very warlike and The Kingdom of Matsya was Potana or Potali which have re- aggressive but in the later years again an important part of the semblences of Paudanya of Ma- became more tolerant and sixten mahajanapadas. This lay habharatha. The Assakas are finnaly a folower of Buddha. So south of the Kurus and west of placed in the north-west in the much he was affected by his the Yamuna which separated Markendeya Purana and the teachings that he made bud- them from the Panchalas. The Brhat Samhita. There are numer- dhism his state religion. Machcha tribe inhabited this re- ous associa8ons regarding the gion which had its capital at Vi- iden8fica8on of assakas. That is ratanagara. The Matsyas are why we have different views on Kuru generally linked up with the this. Like the commentator of Surasenas in Pali literature. The Aku8lya`s Arthashahstra iden8- The kuru janapada is one of Matsya tribe in comparison to the fies it with Maharashtra. the sixteen mahajanapadas. Re- other janapadas were of not garding the origin of the Kurus it much pooli8cal emminence dur- has been said that they belong to ing the age of Buddha. Matsyas Avanti the Puru-Bharata family. Kurus and the chhedis have a connec- were the specific origin of people 8on here when we see that they Avan8 was an important

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Special kingdom of the sixteen maha- were o the either side of the Hin- ship with Alexander and helped janapadas, and it lay in the west- dukush. Whereas originally they him in his invasion for India. ern part of India. Buddhism rose were located somewhre else. The When Alexander was at Nakai, to its prominence in this kingdom Kamboja Mahajanapada of the Ambhi, the king of Taxila sent and and this was one of the other Buddhist tradi8ons refers to the many costly presents and ele- kingdoms which ini8ated Bud- `cis-Hindukush branch` of ancient phants to Alexander as gi(s and dhism in a larger manner. The Kambojas. The kamboja being accepted his sovereignty. Ambhi kingdom was divided as north one of the sixteen mahajana- was the first traitor in the history and south Avan8 and the north padas were a republic since ages. of India who for his own self-in- had its capital at Ujjaini. There are many evidence from terest sent an invita8on to Mahissa8 was the capital of the Mahabharata, Kau8liya`s Alexander to visit India. Certain Avan8 in the beginning which Arthashastra and Ashoka`s Edict other kings of fron8er kingdoms was integrated into Ujjaini during No. XIII which affirms that the followed Ambhi and accepted the the period of Mahavira and Bud- Kambojas were a republic people. sovereignty of Alexander. dha. Avan8 in the later stages of Magadha emerged as a very pow- historu was amalgamated into erful mahajanapada with 8me the Magadha empire under the and this marked the annexa8on Alexander`s Fight with reign of Shishunaga. of sevaral janapadas of the `Ma- hill tribes jjhimadesa`. The Kasis, Kurus, Panchalas, Vatsyas etc were cer- Alexander had to face many races Gandhara tainly among the exterminated living on hills. They were very clans which had no trace in the brave and freedom loving. A(er The Gandhara kingdom com- folklore, poetry and so on. The terrible fight with them Alexan- prised of the Gandharas who sixteen Mahajanapadas were in- der first conquered the Aspasians were highly trained in the art of fact dis8nguished as the ones be- and the Guraeans. A(er the fight war and they have a men8on in longing to the Majjhimadesa or Alexander captured 40,000 pris- the Atharva Veda as well . though mid India, or U9arpatha or the oners and 2,30,000 oxen. A(er in the Vedas they are men8oned north-west region. this Alexander a9acked Nysa. as the despised people along A(er li9le opposi8on, the with some others due to their al- Nysaens submi9ed to Alexander. legiance to non Aryan group. Pu- Alexander`s Invasion Being encouraged with these suc- ranic and Buuddhis8c tradi8on of India cesses Alexander a9acked the As- included Gandharas in U9arap- sakenoi state. The people of this atha. The Gandhara kingdom of As remarked by V. A. Smith, state fought with an army of the sixteen mahajanapadas was "Alexander the great having com- 20,000 cavalry, 30,000 infantry founded by Gandhara, son of pleted the subjuga8ons of Bac- and thirty elephants. The fort Aruddha who was the son of Yay- tria, resolved to execute the Massaga was regarded impreg- a8. It was alos believed once ac- cherished purpose of emula8ng nable. Because of this reason cording to Gandhara Jatakas that and surpassing the mythical ex- Alexander became a li9le disap- they they were a part of Kashmir. ploits of Dionysos, Herokles, and pointed but it so happened that a Gandhara was an important seat Semiram is by effec8ng the con- chance arrow killed the chief of of interna8onal commercial ac8v- quest of India." By that 8me on Assakenoi. This created chaos i8es, and provided communica- the eve of Alexander`s invasion and confusion among the people 8on with other countries like Iran India was divided into small king- and they ul8mately surrendered and Central Asia. doms, which fought among to Alexander. There were 7,000 themselves. During Alexander`s mercenary soldiers in the garri- fight with the Persians, Shashi son of Massaga who were guar- Kamboja Gupta, a Hindu king helped Per- anteed safe passage by Alexander sians against Alexander. When but as and when they retreated Kamboja was believed to Alexander defeated the Persians, to a distance, Alexander got all of have composed of parts that Shashi Gupta entered into friend- them slaughtered through

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Special treachery. Diodoros and Plutarch enemy had crossed the river, he not only returned the territory of condemn Alexander for this sent his son with 2,000 horses Puru but also gave him certain breach of trust. A(er the con- and 120 chariots. Alexander eas- conquered states. To commemo- quest of Massaga in which a large ily routed this army and Purus`s rate his victory Alexander number of persons were massa- son along with 400 Indian sol- founded two ci8es of cred, Alexander captured the free diers was killed in this ba9le. `Bonkephala` and `Nikaia` ci8es of Aorons Bazira, Ora or Hearing the news of the rout, Dyrta. Puru moved with 203 elephants and a huge army. Puru mainly re- Other conquests of lied upon the elephants. Indians Alexander War with Puru fought with great courage. Indi- ans obs8nately maintained their A(er having defeated Puru, A(er Taxila, Alexander advanced ground 8ll the eight hour of the Alexander marched into the ter- towards Jhelum and sent a mes- day, but eventually the luck did ritory of Gausai and conquered senger to Puru to accept his over not favour them. The main 37 ci8es there. Therea(er he lordship. Puru sent the reply that strength of Puru lay in the chari- crossed river Chenab and de- he would see him in the ba9le- ots that became useless due to feated Kanishka or Chhota Poras field. The armies of Alexander u9er rains. The rain and storms and included his kingdom in that and Poras faced each other on ei- had made the ground slippery of the Puru`s. Towards the end of ther banks of the river of Jhelum. and unfit for horses to ride over, 326 B.C. Alexander crossed river Puru had a very big army consist- while chariots kept s8cking in the Ravi and captured the fort of Pi- ing of 50,000 infantry, 3,000 cav- muddy sloughts formed by the marama. A(er this , Alexander alry, 1,000 chariots and 130 rains and proved almost immov- captured San-goala, which was elephants. The armies of Alexan- able from their great weight." the stronghold of Kathas, the der consisted of different races Moreover due to slippery ground, Kathas fought with great bravery and there were also some merce- the Indian archers proved to be and made the cavalry of Alexan- nary soldiers. Alexander was a ineffec8ve. In the beginning the der ineffec8ve. Ul8mately Poras great diplomat and knew before elephants of Puru terrorized the came to the help of Alexander hand the strength of Puru. He enemy but due to narrow space with 5,00 Indian soldiers and with knew that it would be difficult to and being injured by the arrows his help Alexander conquered the cross the river, which was in they turned back and trampled Kathas. spate, in front of the army of their own soldiers. Puru. As pointed out by Arrian, As observed by Arrian, "The Alexander made up his mind to elephants being now cooped up Departure of Alexander steal passage. He took 11,000 sol- within a narrow space did no less to the homeland diers 16 miles up the river from damage to their friends than to his camp and crossed the river. their foes, trampling them under A(er conquering the Katha, the Puru was under the impression their feet as they wheeled and soldiers of Alexander refused to that Alexander would not cross pushed about" Thus ul8mately all proceed further. Alexander the river in the night and hence the chariots were destroyed, ele- wanted to conquer the Nanda he did not take any precau8ons. phants were either killed or cap- Empire about which he had All this prevented Puru from rest- tured and himself was taken a heard but despite his persuasion, ing and concentra8ng his prepa- prisoner in fain8ng condi8on, encouragement and even com- ra8ons at any one point selected However, Alexander was mand his army refused to pro- in preference to any other as the pleased with the bravery and val- ceed further. When Alexander best for defending the passage. our of Puru. On being asked as to failed to convince his army and how be wished to be treated, the soldiers who had not the Puru replied, "Treat me, O courage to speak openly to The battle of Jhelum Alexander as befits a king." Alexander, Koinos came up with Alexander was very much im- the courage and said, "Seek not As soon as Puru knew that the pressed with this answers and he to lead them against their inclina-

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Special 8on, for you will not find them several independent and ma- Kshudrakas were at daggers the same men in the face of dan- terial races living in the east drawn but forgot their differ- gers, if they enter without heart of Vyas. Moreover, in the ences and combined to give a into their contests with the middle of India there was the strong resistance to the Greek enemy." These words of Koinos mighty empire of the Nandas. soldiers. Their combined army had the full support of the army. Already depressed by the consisted of 90,000 infantry heroism of Poras and the skill 10,000 cavalry and 900 war char- of Indian soldiers, they had iots. Greek soldiers were fed up Reason for the refusal of "No stomach for further toils with wars and began to reproach army to proceed further in India." the king. Alexander appealed to In view of the reasons men- his soldiers to permit him to re- There were some specific reasons 8oned above, all the appeals turn from India with known and for which the army of Alexander made by Alexander proved to be not to escape from it like a fugi- refused to proceed further and ineffec8ve and ul8mately he had 8ve. Greek soldiers responded to these reasons are to order the retreat. the appeal of Alexander and at- • It was a long 8me since Greek tacked the enemy and killed a soldiers were away from large number of enemy troops home and they wanted to go Retreat and men and women mercilessly back to their homes. As at Malloi. As pointed out by Dr. R. pointed out by Plutarch, "It is Though quite reluctantly, Alexan- S. Tripathi, "The indiscriminate true that the Greek soldiers der divided his army into three slaughter of women and children were war worn and home- parts and ordered the retreat. He was undoubtedly an act of wan- sick, disease stricken and des- made Puru the master of 15 re- ton cruelty which casts a slur on 8tute. They had lost many of publics consis8ng of 5,000 ci8es. the war codes of the Greeks in their friends and rela8ons in He gave northwestern provinces India." A(er appoin8ng Philippos the ba9le and needed a well- Jhelum to Ambhi and Kashmir as governor over them, Alexan- earned rest as well. and Uarsha to Abhisara. der reached the junc8on of • Another reason, which dis- Chenab and Sind and waited for couraged the Greek soldiers Peridikkasas who had gone to from proceeding, further was conquer and subjugate the Abas- the bravery and figh8ng ca- Alexander`s Difficulties taroi. pacity of the Indians. It can in the way back Conquest of lower Sindh: be understood as remarked The ruler of the Brahinans, by Plutarch, "The ba9le with During the retreat Alexander had Musecanons submi9ed to the Poras depressed the spirits of too many difficul8es, which can Alexander. Alexander also con- the Macedonians and made be briefly described as below quered Patalre. them very unwilling to ad- vance further into India." Re- The Siboi and Agalassians : Other difficul%es: garding the heroism and skill At the confluence of Ravi and As regards other difficul8es of Indian soldiers Arrian also Chenab, Alexander had to face which Alexander had to en- observes that, "In the art of the Siboi and Agalassians who counter, Arrian writes, "The blaz- war they were far superior to had gathered 40,000 infantry and ing heat and the want of water the other na8ons by which 3,000 cavalry. They fought destroyed a great part of the Asia was at that 8me inhab- bravely but were defeated by army and specially the beasts of ited." Alexander. burden, which perished from the • Yet another reason, which great depth of sand and the heat depressed the spirits of the The Malavas and Kshudrakas : which scorched like fire while Greek soldiers was that, the The next encounter that Alexan- many of them died of thirst." state conquered by them der had to face was against the raised their head in revolt. warlike tribes of Malavas and • Greek soldiers had heard of Kshudrakas. The Malavas and the

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Special • Lack of able leadership, yond modern Pakistan, annexing Death of Alexander • Lack of organiza8on, and of Balochistan and much of what is course now Afghanistan, including the Alexander le( India in 325 B.C. He • The personality of Alexander. modern Herat and Kandahar divided his army into two parts. Besides this, Greek soldiers provinces. The Empire was ex- One part of the army, led by Ni- were more skillful in modern war- panded into India's central and parkas went through water fare. V. A. Smith remarks, "The tri- southern regions by the emper- whereas the other part led by umphant progress of Alexander ors Chandragupta and Bindusara, Alexander marched from Baluch- from the Himalayas to the sea but it excluded a small por8on of istan. In 323 B.C Alexander fell ill demonstrated the weakness of unexplored tribal and forested re- at Babylonia and expired. As re- the greatest Asia8c armies when gions near Kalinga (modern marked by a scholar, "Into thir- confronted with European skill Orissa). Its decline began 60 years teen years he had compressed and discipline." a(er Ashoka's rule ended, and it the energies of many life and dissolved in 185 BC with the 8mes." founda8on of the Sunga Dynasty Maurya Empire in Magadha. Under Chandragupta, the After Alexander`s Death The Maurya Empire was a geo- Mauryan Empire conquered the graphically extensive and power- trans-Indus region, which was Just a(er the retreat of Alexan- ful empire in ancient India, ruled under Macedonian rule. Chan- der, the conquered states raised by the Mauryan dynasty from dragupta then defeated the inva- their heads in revolt. The Greek 321 to 185 BC. Origina8ng from sion led by Seleucus I, a Greek satrap, commandant Philippos the kingdom of Magadha in the general from Alexander's army. was murdered. The king of Taxila Indo-Gange8c plains (modern Under Chandragupta and his suc- extended his empire from Kabul Bihar, eastern U9ar Pradesh and cessors, both internal and exter- valley to Hindukush. Eudamus re- Bengal) in the eastern side of the nal trade, and agriculture and mained the sole Greek represen- Indian subcon8nent, the empire economic ac8vi8es, all thrived ta8ve in India. In 323 B.C. a(er had its capital city at Pataliputra and expanded across India thanks the death of Alexander, there en- (modern Patna). The Empire was to the crea8on of a single and ef- sued a lot of contusion and his founded in 322 BC by Chan- ficient system of finance, admin- generals par88oned the empire dragupta Maurya, who had over- istra8on and security. A(er the among themselves. In 321 B.C. thrown the Nanda Dynasty and Kalinga War, the Empire experi- The empire was again par8- rapidly expanded his power west- enced half a century of peace and 8oned. Eudamus was totally ig- wards across central and western security under Ashoka. Mauryan nored and in 317 B.C. he returned India taking advantage of the dis- India also enjoyed an era of social to his home country where he rup8ons of local powers in the harmony, religious transforma- died. Peithon also returned to his wake of the withdrawal westward 8on, and expansion of the sci- home country. Ul8mately Chan- by Alexander the Great's Greek ences and of knowledge. dra Gupta Maurya drove away all and Persian armies. By 320 BC Chandragupta Maurya's embrace the Greeks from India. the empire had fully occupied of Jainism increased social and Northwestern India, defea8ng religious renewal and reform and conquering the satraps le( across his society, while Ashoka's Causes of defeat of by Alexander. embrace of Buddhism has been Indians It was one of the world's said to have been the founda8on largest empires in its 8me. At its of the reign of social and poli8cal There were many causes of de- greatest extent, the empire peace and non-violence across all feat of Indians but the main stretched to the north along the of India. Ashoka sponsored the causes can be men8oned as fol- natural boundaries of the Hi- spreading of Buddhist ideals into lows malayas, and to the east stretch- Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, West • Differences and dissension of ing into what is now Assam. To Asia and Mediterranean Europe. Indians, the west, it probably reached be- Chandragupta's minister

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Special Chanakya wrote the Arthashas- Shudra mother, others that he crossing the river Ganges also, tra, one of the greatest trea8ses was born of a union of a barber the width of which, as they on economics, poli8cs, foreign af- with a courtesan. Nandas were learned, was thirty-two furlongs, fairs, administra8on, military arts, the first of a number of dynas8es its depth a hundred fathoms, war, and religion ever produced of northern India who were of while its banks on the further in India. Archaeologically, the pe- non-Kshatriya origin. side were covered with mul8- riod of Mauryan rule in South tudes of men-at-arms and horse- Asia falls into the era of Northern men and elephants. For they Black Polished Ware (NBPW). The Nanda Rule were told that the kings of the Arthashastra and the Edicts of Ganderites and Praesii were Ashoka are the primary sources The Nandas are some8mes de- awai8ng them with eighty thou- of wri9en records of the Mau- scribed as the first empire sand horsemen, two hundred ryan 8mes. The Lion Capital of builders in the recorded history thousand footmen, eight thou- Asoka at Sarnath, is the na8onal of India. They inherited the large sand chariots, and six thousand emblem of India. kingdom of Magadha and wished figh8ng elephants.". to extend it to yet more distant The Nandas made the me- fron8ers. To this purpose they thodical collec8on of taxes by Nanda Dynasty built up a vast army consis8ng of regularly appointed officials a 200,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalry, part of their administra8ve sys- The Nanda Empire originated 2,000 war chariots and 3,000 war tem. The treasury was con8nually from the kingdom of Magadha in elephants (at the lowest es8- replenished, the wealth of the Ancient India during the 5th and mates). According to Plutarch Nandas being well-known. The 4th centuries BC. At its greatest however, the size of the Nanda Nandas also built canals and car- extent, the Nandas extended army was even larger, numbering ried out irriga8on projects. The from Bengal in the east, Punjab in 200,000 infantry, 80,000 cavalry, possibility of an imperial struc- the west and as far south as the 8,000 war chariots, and 6,000 ture based on an essen8ally Vindhya Range. The Nanda Em- war elephants. However, the agrarian economy began to ger- pire was later conquered by Nandas never had the opportu- minate in the Indian mind. Chandragupta Maurya, who nity to see their army up against founded the Maurya Empire. Alexander, who invaded India at The Fall the 8me of Dhana Nanda, since Alexander had to confine his The last of the Nandas was Dhana Establishment of campaign to the plains of Punjab, Nanda (called Xandrames or Ag- the dynasty for his forces, frightened by the grammes in ancient Greek and prospect of facing a formidable La8n sources). Dhana Nanda was Mahapadma Nanda has been de- foe, mu8nied at the Hyphasis dethroned a(er he was defeated scribed as the destroyer of all the River (the modern Beas River) re- by Chandragupta Maurya, a Kshatriyas. He defeated the Pan- fusing to march any further. This young adventurer born of a chalas, Kasis, Haihayas, Kalingas, river thus marks the eastern- Nanda prince and a maid named Asmakas, Kurus, Maithilas, most extent of Alexander's con- "Mura". He had a great poten8al Surasenas, Vi8hotras, etc. He ex- quests: to rule. Dhana Nanda was mur- panded his territory 8ll south of "As for the Macedonians, dered which finally signaled the Deccan. Mahapadma Nanda died however, their struggle with advent of the Maurya Empire in at the age of 88 and, therefore, Porus blunted their courage and 321 BC. he ruled the bulk of the period of stayed their further advance into Plutarch records that Chan- this dynasty, which lasted 100 India. For having had all they dragupta Maurya had stated that years. The Nandas who usurped could do to repulse an enemy he was able to overthrow Dhana the throne of the Shishunaga dy- who mustered only twenty thou- Nanda since he was hated and nasty were of low origin. Some sand infantry and two thousand despised by his subjects on ac- sources state that the founder, horse, they violently opposed count of the wickedness of his Mahapadma, was the son of a Alexander when he insisted on disposi8on:

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Special List of Nanda rulers generally referred to as Kau8lya Of these well-known 455 sutras, • Mahapadma Nanda (c. 424 derived from his gotra's name about 216 refer to raaja-nee8 BC – ?) "Ko8l" (Kau8lya means "of (the do's and don'ts of running a • Pandhuka Ko8l"). He was the master of kingdom). Apparently, Chanakya • Panghupa8 shrewd act of diplomacy. He be- used these sutras to groom Chan- • Bhutapala lieved in four ways, namely, Treat- dragupt and other selected disci- • Rashtrapala ing with Equality, En8cement, ples in the art of ruling a • Govishanaka Punishment or War and Sowing kingdom. • Dashasidkhaka Dissension. The Arthaśhāstra • Kaivarta iden8fies its author by the name • Mahendra Kau8lya, except for one verse Legend • Dhana Nanda (Argames) (? – which refers to him by the name c. 321 BC) Vishnugupta. One of the earliest Thomas R. Trautmann lists the Sanskrit literatures to explicitly following elements as common iden8fy Chanakya with Vish- to different forms of the Chanakya nugupta was Vishnu Sarma's Pan- Chanakya legend: chatantra in the 3rd century BC. * Chanakya was born with a Chānakya (c. 350–283 BCE) was K.C. Ojha puts forward the complete set of teeth, a sign that an adviser to the first Maurya view that the tradi8onal iden8fi- he would become king, which is Emperor Chandragupt (c. 340- ca8on of Vishnugupta with Kau- inappropriate for a Brahmin like 293 BCE), and was the chief archi- 8lya was caused by a confusion of Chanakya. Chāakya's teeth were tect of his rise to power. Kau8lya editor and originator and sug- therefore broken and it was and Vishnugupta, the names by gests that Vishnugupta was a prophesied that he will rule which the ancient Indian poli8cal redactor of the original work of through another. trea8se called the Arthaśāstra Kau8lya. Thomas Burrow goes * The Nanda King throws iden8fies its author, are tradi8on- even further and suggests that Chānakya out of his court, ally iden8fied with Chanakya. Chanakya and Kau8lya may have promp8ng Chānakya to swear re- Chanakya has been considered as been two different people. venge. the pioneer of the field of eco- Kau8lya's role in the forma- * Chānakya searches for one nomics and poli8cal science. In 8on of the Mauryan Empire is the worthy for him to rule through. the Western world, he has been essence of a historical/spiritual Chānakya encounters a young referred to as The Indian Machi- novel The Courtesan and the Chandragupt Maurya who is a avelli, although Chanakya's works Sadhu by Dr. Mysore N. Prakash. born leader even as a child. predate Machiavelli's by about * Chānakya's ini8al a9empt 1,800 years. Chanakya was a to overthrow Nanda fails, where- teacher in Takaśila, an ancient Works upon he comes across a mother centre of learning, and was re- scolding her child for burning sponsible for the crea8on of Two books are a9ributed to himself by ea8ng from the middle Mauryan empire, the first of its Chanakya: Arthashastra and of a bun or bowl of porridge kind on the Indian subcon8nent. Nee8shastra which is also known rather than the cooler edge. His works were lost near the end as Chanakya Ni8. The Arthashas- Chāakya realizes his ini8al of the Gupta dynasty and not re- tra discusses monetary and fiscal strategic error and, instead of at- discovered un8l 1915. policies, welfare, interna8onal re- tacking the heart of Nanda terri- la8ons, and war strategies in de- tory, slowly chips away at its tail. Nee8shastra is a trea8se on edges. Identity the ideal way of life, and shows * Chānakya changed his al- Chanakya's in-depth study of the liance with the mountain king He is generally called Chanakya Indian way of life. Chanakya also Parvata due to his obs8nacy and (derived from his father's name developed Nee8-Sutras (apho- non-adherence to the principles "Chanak") but, in his capacity as risms - pithy sentences) that tell of the treaty as agreed. author of the Arthaśhāstra, is people how they should behave. * Chānakya enlists the serv-

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Special ices of a fana8cal weaver to rid Empire and was instrumental in He donated all his wealth to the the kingdom of rebels. backing Ashoka to the throne. poor, widows and orphans and * Chānakya adds poison to According to a Jaina tradi8on, sat on a dung heap, prepared to the food eaten by Chandragupt while Chanakya served as the die by total abs8nence from food Maurya, now king, in order to chief administrator of Chan- and drink. Bindusara meanwhile make him immune. Unaware, dragupt Maurya, he started heard the full story of his birth Chandragupta feeds some of his adding small amounts of poison from the nurses and rushed to food to his queen, who is in her in Chandragupta's food so that he beg forgiveness of Chanakya. But ninth month of pregnancy. In would get used to it. The aim of Chanakya would not change his order to save the heir to the this was to prevent the Emperor mind. Bindusara went back and throne, Chānakya cuts the queen from being poisoned by enemies. vented his fury on Subandhu, and open and extracts the fetus, who One day the queen, Durdha, killed him. is named Bindusara because he shared the food with the Em- Chanakya a(er this incident, was touched by a drop (bindu) of peror while she was pregnant. renounced food and shortly died blood having poison. Since she was not used to ea8ng therea(er. Bindusara revered * Chānakya's poli8cal rivalry poisoned food, she died. Chanakya and the loss of his advi- with Subandhu leads to his Chanakya decided that the baby sor was a considerable blow to death. should not die; hence he cut him. Chanakya was an astute open the belly of the queen and brahmin and shrewd observer of took out the baby. A drop (bindu nature. Once, it is said that Mau- in Sanskrit) of poison had passed Pali Version ryan forces had to hide in a cave. to the baby's head, and hence There was no food, and the sol- Chanakya named him Bindusara. Chanakya is a Brahmin from diers were starving.They could Bindusara would go on to be- Takshila. not come out of the cave either, come a great king and to father as there was a threat to their the greatest Mauryan Emperor lives. Chanakya saw an ant taking since Chandragupt - Asoka. Other Versions a grain of rice, whereas, there When Bindusara became a was no sign of food or grain any- youth, Chandragupta gave up the The classical Sanskrit play by where. Moreover, the rice grain throne and followed the Jain Vishakhada9a, Mudrarakshasa, is was cooked. He ordered the sol- saint Bhadrabahu to present day one popular source of Chankya diers to search and they found Karnataka and se9led in a place lore. (The play has been dated that their enemies had been din- known as Shravana Belagola. He between 4th and 9th century CE). ing under the cave. Indeed, they lived as an asce8c for some years According to one tradi8on, Chan- were ea8ng at the ground floor. and died of voluntary starva8on akya was a na8ve of Dravida. One As soon as they saw this, they es- according to Jain tradi8on. of Chanakya's various names was caped and were thus saved. Chanakya meanwhile stayed Dramila, the Sanskrit form of as the administrator of Bindus- "Tamilian". ("Dramila" is believed ara. Bindusara also had a minister to be the root of the word Death named Subandhu who did not "Dravida" by some scholars). like Chanakya. One day he told Chozhiars, a sub-sect of Iyers, According to the Jain texts, Bindusara that Chanakya was re- hold that Chanakya was one of Chanakya lived to a ripe old age sponsible for the murder of his them. and died around 275 BC and was mother. Bindusara asked the There is also a claim that cremated by his disciple Radh- nurses who confirmed this story Chanakya belonged to the Brah- agupta who succeeded Rakshasa and he became very angry with min group from the present day Katyayan (great-grand son of Chanakya. Kerala and believed to be resi- Prabuddha Katyayan, who at- It is said that Chanakya, on dent of present day Ernakulam. In tained Nirvana during the same hearing that the Emperor was true Hindu tradi8on he is said to period as Gautam Budhha) as angry with him, thought that any- have persuaded King Chan- Prime Minister of the Maurya way he was at the end of his life. dragupt Maurya to forsake his

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Special throne and to join him in moving with the ruler, being a blunt per- donian satrapies in the northwest to the last phase of one's life viz. son he was soon disliked by and conquering the Nanda Em- Vanaprastha. Accordingly, he Dhanananda. This ended with pire by the 8me he was only took the King along with him to Chanakya being removed from an about 20 years old, to achieving South India where both of them official posi8on he enjoyed. an alliance with Seleucus I Nica- carried prolonged medita8on and tor and establishing centralized finally achieved Moksha. According to the Kashmiri rule throughout South Asia, re- Kau8lya was educated at Tax- version of his legend, Chāakya a main some of the most cele- ila or Takshashila, in present day thorn had pricked his foot. He up- brated in the history of India. Pakistan. The new states (in pres- rooted the tree and poured but- Over two thousand years later, ent-day Bihar and U9ar Pradesh) termilk in the roots. the accomplishments of Chan- by the northern high road of dragupta and his successors, in- commerce along the base of the cluding Ashoka the Great, are Himalayas maintained contact Chandragupta Maurya objects of great study in the an- with Takshasilâ and at the eastern nals of South Asian and world his- end of the northern high road Chandragupta Maurya, (born c. tory. (u9arapatha) was the kingdom of 340BCE, ruled c. 320, – 298 BCE Magadha with its capital city, died about 298 BCE) was the Pataliputra, now known as Patna. founder of the Maurya Empire. Origins Chanakya's life was connected to Chandragupta succeeded in con- these two ci8es, Pataliputra and quering most of the Indian sub- While many Indian historians Taxila. con8nent. Chandragupta, the held the view that Chandragupta In his early years he was tu- first Mauryan king, claimed de- was an illegi8mate child of the tored extensively in the Vedas - scent from Shakya clan of the Nanda Dynasty of Magadha in Chanakya memorized them com- Kshatriya varna. Having defeated eastern India, born to a Nanda pletely at a very early age. He was the Greek satrap in the Khyber prince and a maid named also taught mathema8cs, geogra- mountains around 303 BC, Chan- "Mura", later literary tradi8ons phy and science along with reli- dragupta was crowned King at imply that Chandragupta may gion. Later he travelled to Taksh- Taxila. As a result, Chandragupta have been raised by peacock- ashila, where he became a is considered the first unifier of tamers (Sanskrit: Mayura- teacher of poli8cs. Chanakya India and its first genuine em- Poshaka), which earned him the taught subjects using the best of peror. In foreign Greek and La8n Maurya epithet. Both the Bud- prac8cal knowledge acquired by accounts, Chandragupta is known dhist as well as Jain tradi8ons tes- the teachers. The age of entering as Sandrokyptos, Sandroko9os or 8fy to the supposed connec8on the University was sixteen. The Androco9us. between the Moriya (Maurya) branches of study most sought Prior to Chandragupta's con- and Mora or Mayura (Peacock). a(er around India at that 8me solida8on of power, small re- Yet there are other literary tradi- ranged from law, medicine, war- gional kingdoms dominated the 8ons according to which Chan- fare and other disciplines. Two of northwestern subcon8nent, dragupta belonged to Moriyas, a his more famous students were while the Nanda Dynasty domi- Kshatriya clan of a li9le ancient Bhadrabha9a and Purushdu9a. nated the middle and lower basin republic of Pippalivana located Poli8cal turmoil in Western of the Ganges. A(er Chan- between Rummindei in the India at that 8me caused by dragupta's conquests, the Mau- Nepali Terai and Kasia in the Greek invasion forced Chanakya rya Empire extended from Bengal Gorakhpur district of U9ar to leave the University environ- and Assam in the east, to Pradesh. A kshatriya people ment for the city of Pataliputra Afghanistan and Balochistan in known as the "Mauryas" who (presently known as Patna, in the the west, to Kashmir and Nepal in had received the relics of the state of Bihar, India), which was the north, and to the Deccan Gautama Buddha are also men- ruled by the Nanda king Plateau in the south. 8oned in the Mahaparinibbana Dhanananda. Although Chanakya His achievements, which Su9a of the Digha Nikaya: "Then ini8ally prospered in his rela8ons ranged from conquering Mace- the Moriyas of Pipphalivana

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Special came to know that at Kusinara the Blessed One had died. And Early life Foundation of the they sent a message to the Mallas Maurya Empire of Kusinara, saying: "The Blessed Very li9le is known about Chan- One was of the warrior caste, and dragupta's youth. Much of what Chandragupta Maurya with the we are too. We are worthy to re- is known about his youth is gath- help of Chanakya defeated the ceive a por8on of the relics of the ered from later classical Sanskrit Magadha kings and the bulk army Blessed One. We will erect a literature, as well as classical of Chandravanshi clan and de- stupa over the relics of the Greek and La8n sources which feated generals of Alexander set- Blessed One and hold a fes8val in refer to Chandragupta by the tled in Gandhara (Kamboja their honor. names "Sandraco9os" or "Andra- kingdom of Aryan Mahajanpad) Others claim that the Mau- co9us". He was paragon for later which is called as Afghanistan ryas were the Muras or rather rulers. now. At the 8me of Alexander's Mors. Jat authors such as B. S. According to tradi8onal ac- invasion, Chanakya was a teacher Dahiya also propose an Indo- counts, Chanakya, a teacher at at Takshasila University. The king Scythian lineage common to the Takshasila University at the 8me of Takshasila and Gandhara, Mauryas and the Jats. Another of Alexander's invasion, found Ambhi (also known as Taxiles), school of thought, including the boy Chandragupta from the made a treaty with Alexander scholars such as B. M. Barua, J. W. Magadha kingdom in eastern and did not fight against him. McCrindle, D. B. Spooner, H. C. India. As the story goes, Chan- Chanakya saw the foreign inva- Seth, Hari Ram Gupta, Ranajit Pal, dragupta was playing as a king sion against the Indian culture Gur Ra9an Pal Singh and Kirpal with his friends and was giving and sought help from other kings Singh have connected Chan- jus8ce to another boy playing to unite and fight Alexander. dragupta to Gandhara (or Kam- criminal. He also saw the kind- Porus (Parvateshwar), a king of boja) in modern day Pakistan. ness inside him to help others. Punjab, was the only local king Based on interpreta8ons of Chanakya saw this and was im- who was able to challenge Plutarch and Appian's wri8ngs, pressed with Chandragupta's Alexander at the Ba9le of the Hy- these scholars assert that Chan- sense of jus8ce. Chanakya asked daspes River, but was defeated. dragupta Maurya may have be- his mother about him. His mot- Chanakya then went to Mag- longed to the north-west fron8er her told him that his father used adha further east to seek the help region, possibly to the Assakenoi to work as a servant of the Nanda of Dhana Nanda, who ruled a vast or Ashvaka (q.v.) Kshatriya clan of king who ruled over the kingdom Nanda Empire which extended Swat/Kunar valley (modern Koh- of Maghada and due to some from Bihar and Bengal in the east I-Mor or Mer-coh — the Meros of fault he was sent into the prison. to eastern Punjab in the west, but the classical wri8ngs; probably Chanakya told her to take him to he denied any such help. A(er Meru of Sanskrit texts and Mor the king and ask him to give some this incident, Chanakya began and Mer in Prakri8c). It has been educa8on to Chandragupta. Then sowing the seeds of building an claimed by several scholars that she went to his court. There empire that could protect Indian Chandragupta belonged to the Chandragupta solv-ed a problem territories from foreign invasion Ashvaka tribe of this region for the king. The king was im- into his disciple Chandragupta. (known as Mor), and thus, the dy- pressed and told his minister to Chandragupta later adopted nasty founded by him was called join him in the best university at Jainism. It is said he died fas8ng Moriya or Maurya. The Ashvakas that 8me, The Vishvavidhyalay of which was according to Jainism a were a sec8on of the Kambojas, Takshasila [o(-en known as the holy way of sacrificing mortal life. who were exclusively engaged in Takshasila University] Kau8lya's role in the forma- horse-culture and were noted for Plutarch reports that he met 8on of the Mauryan Empire is the providing mercenary cavalry. H.C. with Alexander the Great, proba- essence of a historical/spiritual Raychaudhuri noted that the bly around Takshasila in the novel The Courtesan and the name Priyadarshi was adopted northwest, and that he viewed Sadhu by Dr. Mysore N. Prakash. also by Chandragupta as also the ruling Nanda Empire in a neg- noted by W. W. Tarn. a8ve light:

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Special army of his own. the northwest, Chandragupta pushed east towards the Nanda Nanda Army Conquest of Macedonian Empire. Territories in India According to Plutarch, at the 8me of Alexander's Ba9le of the Hy- A(er Alexander's death in 323 Conquest of the Nanda daspes River, the size of the BC, Chandragupta, turned his at- Empire Nanda Empire's army further east ten8on to Northwestern India numbered 200,000 infantry, (modern Pakistan), where he de- Chanakya had trained Chan- 80,000 cavalry, 8,000 chariots, feated the satrapies (described as dragupta under his guidance and and 6,000 war elephants, which "prefects" in classical Western together they planned the de- was discouraging for Alexander's sources) le( in place by Alexan- struc8on of Dhana Nanda. The men and stayed their further der (according to Jus8n), and may Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadu9a progress into India: have assassinated two of his gov- as well as the Jaina work Parisish- "As for the Macedonians, ernors, Nicanor and Philip. The taparvan talk of Chandragupta's however, their struggle with satrapies he fought may have in- alliance with the Himalayan king Porus blunted their courage and cluded Eudemus, ruler in western Parvatka, some8mes iden8fied stayed their further advance into Punjab un8l his departure in 317 with Porus. India. For having had all they BC; and Peithon, son of Agenor, It is noted in the Chandragup- could do to repulse an enemy ruler of the Greek colonies along takatha that the protagonist and who mustered only twenty thou- the Indus un8l his departure for Chanakya were ini8ally rebuffed sand infantry and two thousand Babylon in 316 BC. The Roman by the Nanda forces. Regardless, horse, they violently opposed historian Jus8n described how in the ensuing war, Chandragupta Alexander when he insisted on Sandroco9us (Greek version of faced off against Bhadrasala – crossing the river Ganges also, Chandragupta's name) con- commander of Dhana Nanda's the width of which, as they quered the northwest: “" S o m e armies. He was eventually able to learned, was • thirty-two fur- 8me a(er, as he was going to war defeat Bhadrasala and Dhana longs, its depth • a hundred fath- with the generals of Alexander, a Nanda in a series of ba9les, end- oms, while its banks on the wild elephant of great bulk pre- ing with the siege of the capital further side were covered with sented itself before him of its city Kusumapura and the con- mul8tudes of men-atarms and own accord, and, as if tamed quest of the Nanda Empire horsemen and elephants. For down to gentleness, took him on around 321 BC, thus founding the they were told that the kings of its back, and became his guide in powerful Maurya Empire in the Ganderites and Praesii were the war, and conspicuous in fields Northern India by the 8me he awai8ng them with eighty thou- of ba9le. Sandroco9us, having was about 20 years old. sand horsemen, two hundred thus acquired a throne, was in thousand footmen, eight thou- possession of India, when Seleu- sand chariots, and six thousand cus was laying the founda8ons of Expansion figh8ng elephants. And there was his future greatness; who, a(er no boas8ng in these reports. For making a league with him, and By the 8me he was only about 20 Androco9us, who reigned there se9ling his affairs in the east, pro- years old, Chandragupta, who not long a(erwards, made a pres- ceeded to join in the war against had succeeded in defea8ng the ent to Seleucus of five hundred An8gonus. As soon as the forces, Macedonian satrapies in India elephants, and with an army of therefore, of all the confederates and conquering the Nanda Em- six hundred thousand men over- were united, a ba9le was fought, pire, had founded a vast empire ran and subdued all India. in which An8gonus was slain, and that extended from the Bay of "Plutarch, Parallel Lives, "Life his son Demetrius put to flight. Bengal in the east, to the Indus of Alexander" 62.1-4 —Junianus Jus8nus, Histori- River in the west, which he would In order to defeat the power- arum Philippicarum libri XLIV, further expand in later years. ful Nanda army, Chandragupta XV.4.19 needed to raise a formidable Having consolidated power in

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Special Paropamisadae, and Aria. that some contrivances are of Mainstream scholarship as- wondrous efficacy in such mat- Conquest of Seleucus' serts that Chandragupta received ters. And Phylarchus confirms eastern territories vast territory west of the Indus, him, by reference to some of the including the Hindu Kush, mod- presents which Sandrako9us, the Seleucus I Nicator, a Macedonian ern day Afghanistan, and the king of the Indians, sent to Seleu- satrap of Alexander, reconquered Balochistan province of Pakistan. cus; which were to act like most of Alexander's former em- Archaeologically, concrete indica- charms in producing a wonderful pire and put under his own au- 8ons of Mauryan rule, such as degree of affec8on, while some, thority eastern territories as far the inscrip8ons of the Edicts of on the contrary, were to banish as Bactria and the Indus (Appian, Ashoka, are known as far as love." ” History of Rome, The Syrian Wars Kandhahar in southern Afghani- —Athenaeus of Naucra8s 55), un8l in 305 BC he entered in stan. a confronta8on with Chan- “ "A(er having made a treaty dragupta: with him (Sandrakotos) and put Southern Conquests “ "Always lying in wait for the in order the Orient situa8on, Se- neighboring na8ons, strong in leucos went to war against A(er annexing Seleucus' eastern arms and persuasive in council, An8gonus." ” Persian provinces, Chandragupta he acquired Mesopotamia, Arme- —Junianus Jus8nus, Histori- had a vast empire extending nia, 'Seleucid' Cappadocia, Persis, arum Philippicarum libri XLIV, across the northern parts of In- Parthia, Bactria, Arabia, Tapouria, XV.4.15 dian Sub-con8nent, from the Bay Sogdia, Arachosia, Hyrcania, and It is generally thought that of Bengal to the Arabian Sea. other adjacent peoples that had Chandragupta married Seleucus's Chandragupta then began ex- been subdued by Alexander, as daughter, or a Greek Macedonian panding his empire further south far as the river Indus, so that the princess, a gi( from Seleucus to beyond the barrier of the Vind- boundaries of his empire were formalize an alliance. In a return hya Range and into the Deccan the most extensive in Asia a(er gesture, Chandragupta sent 500 Plateau. By the 8me his con- that of Alexander. The whole re- war-elephants, a military asset quests were complete, Chan- gion from Phrygia to the Indus which would play a decisive role dragupta succeeded in unifying was subject to Seleucus. He at the Ba9le of Ipsus in 302 BC. In most of Southern Asia. Megas- crossed the Indus and waged war addi8on to this treaty, Seleucus thenes later recorded the size of with Sandroco9us [Maurya], king dispatched an ambassador, Chandragupta's acquired army as of the Indians, who dwelt on the Megasthenes, to Chandragupta, 400,000 soldiers, according to banks of that stream, un8l they and later Deimakos to his son Strabo: came to an understanding with Bindusara, at the Mauryan court “ "Megasthenes was in the each other and contracted a mar- at Pataliputra (modern Patna in camp of Sandroco9us, which riage rela8onship. Some of these Bihar state). Later Ptolemy II consisted of 400,000 men" exploits were performed before Philadelphus, the ruler of Ptole- ”— Strabo, Geographica, 15.1.53 the death of An8gonus and some maic Egypt and contemporary of On the other hand, Pliny, a(erward." Ashoka the Great, is also who also drew from Megas- —Appian, History of Rome, The recorded by Pliny the Elder as thenes' work, gives even larger Syrian Wars 55 having sent an ambassador numbers of 600,000 infantry, The exact details of engage- named Dionysius to the Mauryan 30,000 cavalry, and 9,000 war ment are not known. As noted by court. elephants: scholars such as R. C. Majumdar Classical sources have also “ "But the Prasii surpass in and D. D. Kosambi, Seleucus ap- recorded that following their power and glory every other peo- pears to have fared poorly, having treaty, Chandragupta and Seleu- ple, not only in this quarter, but ceded large territories west of cus exchanged presents, such as one may say in all India, their cap- the Indus to Chandragupta. Due when Chandragupta sent various ital Palibothra, a very large and to his defeat, Seleucus surren- aphrodisiacs to Seleucus: wealthy city, a(er which some dered Arachosia, Gedrosia, “ "And Theophrastus says call the people itself the Pali-

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Special bothri,--nay even the whole tract two sons, Susima and Ashoka, ma, his eldest son. The reason for along the Ganges. Their king has who were the viceroys of Taxila the second revolt is unknown, in his pay a standing army of and Ujjain. The Greeks called him but it could not be suppressed by 600,000-foot-soldiers, 30,000 Amitrochates or Allitrochades - Bindusara due to his death; it was cavalry, and 9,000 elephants: the Greek translitera8on for the later crushed by Ashoka. whence may be formed some Sanskrit word 'Amitraghata' Ambassadors from Seleucid conjecture as to the vastness of (Slayer of enemies). He was also Empire (such as Deimachus) and his resources." ” called 'Ajatashatru' (Man with no Egypt visited his courts. He main- —Pliny, Natural History VI, enemies) in Sanskrit. tained good rela8ons with the 22.4 Hellenic World. Unlike his father Chandragupta (who was a Jain), Life he believed in the Ajivika (an an- Jainism cient Indian sect that preached The son of Chandragupta the equality for all people). Chandragupta gave up his throne Great, by a woman named Durd- Bindusara died in 272 BC towards the end of his life and hara, Bindusara inherited a large (some records say 268 BC) and became an asce8c under the Jain empire that consisted of what is was succeeded by his son Ashoka saint Bhadrabahu, migra8ng now, Northern, Central and East- the Great. Bindusara is known as south with them and ending his ern parts of India along with parts "Born out of Blood drops", rea- days in sallekhana at Shravan- of Afghanistan and Baluchistan. son being Chanakya had to cut abelagola, in present day Kar- Bindusara extended this empire Chandragupta's wife Durdhara's nataka; though fi(h-century to the southern part of India, as stomach who was in death bed. inscrip8ons in the area support far as what is now known as Kar- the concept of a larger southern nataka. He brought sixteen states migra8on around that 8me. A under the Mauryan Empire and Bindusara's Empire small temple marks the cave thus conquered almost all of the (Bhadrabahu Cave) where he is Indian peninsula (he is said to Bindusara extended his em- said to have died by fas8ng. have conquered the 'land be- pire further as far as south tween the two seas' - the penin- Mysore. He conquered sixteen sular region between the Bay of states and extended the empire Successors Bengal and the Arabian Sea). from sea to sea. The empire in- Bindusara didn't conquer the cluded the whole of India except Chandragupta Maurya re- friendly Dravidian kingdoms of the region of Kalinga (modern nounced his throne to his son, the Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras. Orissa) and the Dravidian king- Bindusara, who became the new Apart from these southern states, doms of the south. Kalinga was Mauryan Emperor. Bindusara Kalinga (the modern Orissa) was conquered by Bindusara's son later became the father of the only kingdom in India that Ashoka. Ashoka the Great, who was one didn't form the part of Bindus- Early Tamil poets speak of of the most influen8al kings in ara's empire. It was later con- Mauryan chariots thundering history due to his important role quered by his son Ashoka, who across the land, their white pen- in the history of Buddhism. served as the viceroy of Ujjaini nants brilliant in the sunshine. during his father's reign. Bindusara campaigned in the Bindusara's life has not been Deccan, extending the Mauryan Bindusara documented as well as that of his empire in the peninsula to as far father Chandragupta or of his son as Mysore. He is said to have con- Bindusara was the second Mau- Ashoka. The philosopher Chana- quered 'the land between the ryan emperor (Born c. 320 BC, kya served as prime minister dur- two seas', presumably the Ara- ruled: 298 - c.272 BC) a(er Chan- ing his reign. During his rule, the bian sea and the Bay of Bengal. dragupta Maurya the Great. Dur- ci8zens of Taxila revolted twice. ing his reign, the empire The reason for the first revolt was expanded southwards. He had the maladministra8on of Susee-

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Special India a(er a number of military alted majes8es' and so on. They conquests. His empire stretched shone for a brief moment, and as Administration during from present-day Pakistan, Afgh- quickly disappeared. But Ashoka Bindusara's Reign anistan in the west, to the pres- shines and shines brightly like a ent-day Bangladesh and the bright star, even unto this day. Bindusara maintained good Indian state of Assam in the east, Along with the Edicts of rela8ons with Seleucus Nicator and as far south as northern Ker- Ashoka, his legend is related in and the emperors regularly ex- ala and Andhra. He conquered the later 2nd century Aśokā- changed ambassadors and pres- the kingdom named Kalinga, vadāna ("Narra8ve of Asoka") ents. He also maintained the which no one in his dynasty had and Divyāvadāna ("Divine narra- friendly rela8ons with the Hel- conquered star8ng from Chan- 8ve"), and in the Sinhalese text lenic West established by his fa- dragupta Maurya. His reign was Mahavamsa ("Great Chronicle"). ther. Ambassadors from Syria and headquartered in Magadha (pre- A(er two thousand years, Egypt lived at Bindusara's court. sent-day Bihar, India). He em- the influence of Ashoka is seen in He preferred the Ajivika philoso- braced Buddhism from the Asia and especially the Indian phy rather than Jainism. prevalent Vedic tradi8on a(er subcon8nent. An emblem exca- Apparently he was a man of witnessing the mass deaths of vated from his empire is today wide interest and taste, since tra- the war of Kalinga, which he him- the na8onal Emblem of India. In di8on had it that he asked An8- self had waged out of a desire for the History of Buddhism Ashoka ochus I to send him some sweet conquest. He was later dedicated is considered just a(er Gautama wine, dried figs and a sophist: to the propaga8on of Buddhism Buddha. “ But dried figs were so across Asia and established mon- very much sought a(er by all uments marking several signifi- men (for really, as Aristophanes cant sites in the life of Gautama Biography says, There's really nothing nicer Buddha. Ashoka was a devotee of than dried figs), that even ahimsa (nonviolence), love, truth, Early life Amitrochates, the king of the In- tolerance and vegetarianism. Ashoka was born to the Mau- dians, wrote to An8ochus, en- Ashoka is remembered in history ryan emperor Bindusara and his trea8ng him (it is Hegesander as a philanthropic administrator. Queen 'Dharma' (although she from Delphi who tells this story) In the history of India Ashoka is was a Brahmin or Shubhadrangi, to buy and send him some sweet referred to as Samraat Chakr- she was undervalued as she was- wine, and some dried figs, and a avar8n Ashoka- the Emperor of n't of royal blood). Ashoka had sophist; and that An8ochus Emperors Ashoka. several elder siblings (all half- wrote to him in answer, The dry His name "aśoka" means brothers from other wives of figs and the sweet wine we will "without sorrow" in Sanskrit. In Bindusara). He had just one send you; but it is not lawful for a his edicts, he is referred to as De- younger sibling, Vi9hashoka (a sophist to be sold in Greece vānāmpriya and Priyadarśin or much loved brother from the Athenaeus, "Deipnosophistae" "He who regards everyone with same mother). Because of his ex- XIV.67 affec8on". Another 8tle of his is emplary intellect and warrior Dhamma, "Lawful, Religious, skills, he was said to have been Righteous". the favorite of his grandfather Ashoka Renowned Bri8sh author and Chandragupta Maurya. As the social cri8c H. G. Wells in his best- legend goes, when Chandragupta Ashoka (304–232 BC), popularly selling two-volume work, The Maurya le( his empire for a Jain known as Ashoka the Great, was Outline of History (1920), wrote living, he threw his sword away. an Indian emperor of the Maurya of emperor Ashoka: Ashoka found the sword and kept Dynasty who ruled almost all of In the history of the world it, in spite of his grandfather's the Indian subcon8nent from there have been thousands of warning. Ashoka, in his adoles- 269 BC to 232 BC. One of India's kings and emperors who called cence, was rude and naughty. He greatest emperors, Ashoka themselves 'their highnesses,' was a fearsome hunter. He was a reigned over most of present-day 'their majes8es,' and 'their ex- kshatriya and was given all royal

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Special military trainings and other Vedic nito. There he met a fisher rude, Chandi-devi being associ- knowledge. According to a leg- woman named Kaurwaki, with ated with Kali. end, he killed a Lion with just a whom he fell in love. Recently Ascending the throne, wooden rod. Ashoka was very found inscrip8ons indicate that Ashoka expanded his empire over well known for his sword figh8ng. she would later become either the next eight years, from the He was very adventurous and this his second or third queen. present-day boundaries and re- made him a terrific fighter. Meanwhile, there was again gions of Burma–Bangladesh and Ashoka was a frightening warrior a violent uprising in Ujjain. Em- the state of Assam in India in the and a heartless general. Because peror Bindusara summoned east to the territory of present- of this quality he was sent to de- Ashoka out of exile a(er two day Iran / Persia and Afghanistan stroy the riot of Avan8. years. Ashoka went into Ujjain in the west; from the Pamir Knots Rise to Power Developing and in the ensuing ba9le was in- in the north almost to the penin- into an impeccable warrior gen- jured, but his generals quelled sular of southern India (i.e. Tamil- eral and a shrewd statesman, the uprising. Ashoka was treated nadu / Andhra pradesh). Ashoka went on to command in hiding so that loyalists of the several regiments of the Mauryan Susima group could not harm army. His growing popularity him. He was treated by Buddhist Conquest of Kalinga across the empire made his elder monks and nuns. This is where he brothers wary of his chances of first learned the teachings of the While the early part of being favored by Bindusara to be- Buddha, and it is also where he Ashoka's reign was apparently come the next emperor. The eld- met Devi, who was his personal quite bloodthirsty, he became a est of them, Susima, the nurse and the daughter of a mer- follower of the Buddha's teaching tradi8onal heir to the throne, chant from adjacent Vidisha. a(er his conquest of Kalinga on persuaded Bindusara to send A(er recovering, he married her. the east coast of India in the pres- Ashoka to quell an uprising in It was quite unacceptable to ent-day state of Orissa. Kalinga Taxshila, a city in the north-west Bindusara that one of his sons was a state that prided itself on District of Pakistani Punjab re- should marry a Buddhist, so he its sovereignty and democracy. gion, for which Prince Susima was did not allow Ashoka to stay in With its monarchical parliamen- the Governor. Taxshila was a Pataliputra but instead sent him tary democracy it was quite an highly vola8le place because of back to Ujjain and made him the excep8on in ancient Bharata the war-like Indo-Greek popula- governor of Ujjain. where there existed the concept 8on and mismanagement by The following year passed of Rajdharma. Rajdharma means Susima himself. This had led to quite peacefully for him, and Devi the duty of the rulers, which was the forma8on of different mili8as was about to deliver his first intrinsically entwined with the causing unrest. Ashoka complied child. In the meanwhile, Emperor concept of bravery and Kshatriya and le( for the troubled area. As Bindusara died. As the news of dharma. news of Ashoka's visit with his the unborn heir to the throne The pretext for the start of army trickled in, he was wel- spread, Prince Susima planned the Kalinga War (265 BC or 263 comed by the revol8ng mili8as the execu8on of the unborn BC) is uncertain. One of Susima's and the uprising ended without a child; however, the assassin who brothers might have fled to conflict. (The province revolted came to kill Devi and her child Kalinga and found official refuge once more during the rule of killed his mother instead. Ashoka there. This enraged Ashoka im- Ashoka, but this 8me the uprising beheads his elder brother to as- mensely. He was advised by his was crushed with an iron fist) cend the throne. In this phase of ministers to a9ack Kalinga for this Ashoka's success made his step- his life, Ashoka was known for his act of treachery. Ashoka then brothers more wary of his inten- unquenched thirst for wars and asked Kalinga's royalty to submit 8ons of becoming the emperor campaigns launched to conquer before his supremacy. When they and more incitements from the lands of other rulers and be- defied this diktat, Ashoka sent Susima led Bindusara to send came known as Chandashok (ter- one of his generals to Kalinga to Ashoka into exile. He went into rible Ashoka), the Sanskrit word make them submit. Kalinga and stayed there incog- chanda meaning cruel, fierce, or The general and his forces

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Special were, however, completely his state religion around 260 BC, Dhammashoka (Sanskrit), mean- routed through the skilled tact of and propagated it and preached ing Ashoka, the follower of Kalinga's commander-in-chief. it within his domain and world- Dharma. Ashoka defined the Ashoka, baffled at this defeat, at- wide from about 250 BC. Em- main principles of dharma tacked with the greatest invasion peror Ashoka undoubtedly has to (dhamma) as nonviolence, toler- ever recorded in Indian history be credited with the first serious ance of all sects and opinions, un8l then. Kalinga put up a s8ff a9empt to develop a Buddhis8c obedience to parents, respect for resistance, but they were no policy. the Brahmans and other religious match for Ashoka's brutal Prominent in this cause were teachers and priests, liberality to- strength. The whole of Kalinga his son Venerable Mahindra and wards friends, humane treatment was plundered and destroyed. daughter Sanghamitra (whose of servants, and generosity to- Ashoka's later edicts state that name means "friend of the wards all. These principles sug- about 100,000 people were killed Sangha"), who established Bud- gest a general ethic of behaviour on the Kalinga side and 10,000o hism in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). to which no religious or social from Ashoka's army. Thousands He built thousands of Stupas and group could object. of men and women were de- Viharas for Buddhist followers. Some cri8cs say that Ashoka ported. The Stupas of Sanchi are world fa- was afraid of more wars, but mous and the stupa named among his neighbors, including Sanchi Stupa was built by Em- the Seleucid Empire and the Buddhist Conversion peror Ashoka. During the remain- Greco-Bactrian kingdom estab- ing por8on of Ashoka's reign, he lished by Diodotus I, none could As the legend goes, one day a(er pursued an official policy of non- match his strength. He was a con- the war was over, Ashoka ven- violence (ahinsa). Even the un- temporary of both An8ochus I tured out to roam the city and all necessary slaughter or mu8la8on Soter and his successor An8ochus he could see were burnt houses of people was immediately abol- II Theos of the Seleucid dynasty and sca9ered corpses. This sight ished. Everyone became pro- as well as Diodotus I and his son made him sick and he cried the tected by the king's law against Diodotus II of the Greco-Bactrian famous monologue: sport hun8ng and branding. Lim- kingdom. If his inscrip8ons and What have I done? If this is a ited hun8ng was permi9ed for edicts are well studied one finds victory, what's a defeat then? Is consump8on reasons but Ashoka that he was familiar with the Hel- this a victory or a defeat? Is this also promoted the concept of lenic world but never in awe of it. jus8ce or injus8ce? Is it gallantry vegetarianism. Ashoka also His edicts, which talk of friendly or a rout? Is it valor to kill inno- showed mercy to those impris- rela8ons, give the names of both cent children and women? Do I oned, allowing them leave for the An8ochus of the Seleucid empire do it to widen the empire and for outside a day of the year. He at- and Ptolemy III of Egypt. The prosperity or to destroy the tempted to raise the professional fame of the Mauryan empire was other's kingdom and splendor? ambi8on of the common man by widespread from the 8me that One has lost her husband, some- building universi8es for study, Ashoka's grandfather Chan- one else a father, someone a and water transit and irriga8on dragupta Maurya defeated Seleu- child, someone an unborn in- systems for trade and agriculture. cus Nicator, the founder of the fant.... What's this debris of the He treated his subjects as equals Seleucid Dynasty. corpses? Are these marks of vic- regardless of their religion, poli- The source of much of our tory or defeat? Are these vul- 8cs and caste. The kingdoms sur- knowledge of Ashoka is the many tures, crows, eagles the messen- rounding his, so easily overth- inscrip8ons he had carved on pil- gers of death or evil? rown, were instead made to be lars and rocks throughout the The brutality of the conquest well-respected allies. empire. Emperor Ashoka is led him to adopt Buddhism and He is acclaimed for construct- known as Piyadasi (in Pali) or he used his posi8on to propagate ing hospitals for animals and ren- Priyadarshi (in Sanskrit) meaning the rela8vely new religion to new ova8ng major roads throughout "good looking" or "favored by the heights, as far as ancient Rome India. A(er this transforma8on, gods with good blessing". All his and Egypt. He made Buddhism Ashoka came to be known as inscrip8ons have the imperial

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Special touch and show compassionate men8ons Hellenis8c kings of the dhism, as some of the emissaries loving. He addressed his people period as converts to Buddhism, of Ashoka, such as Dharmarak- as his "children". These inscrip- although no Hellenic historical sita, are described in Pali sources 8ons promoted Buddhist moral- record of this event remain: as leading Greek (Yona) Buddhist ity and encouraged nonviolence The conquest by Dharma has monks, ac8ve in spreading Bud- and adherence to Dharma (duty been won here, on the borders, dhism (the Mahavansa, XII). or proper behavior), and they talk and even six hundred yojanas of his fame and conquered lands (5,400–9,600 km) away, where as well as the neighboring king- the Greek king An8ochos rules, Death and Legacy doms holding up his might. One beyond there where the four also gets some primary informa- kings named Ptolemy, An8gonos, Ashoka ruled for an es8mated 8on about the Kalinga War and Magas and Alexander rule, like- forty years. A(er his death, the Ashoka's allies plus some useful wise in the south among the Mauryan dynasty lasted just fi(y knowledge on the civil adminis- Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as more years. Ashoka had many tra8on. The Ashoka Pillar at Sar- Tamraparni (Sri Lanka). wives and children, but many of nath is the most popular of the —Edicts of Ashoka, Rock Edict their names are lost to 8me. relics le( by Ashoka. Made of 13 (S. Dhammika) Mahindra and Sanghamitra were sandstone, this pillar records the Ashoka also claims that he twins born by his first wife, Devi, visit of the emperor to Sarnath, in encouraged the development of in the city of Ujjain. He had en- the 3rd century BC. It has a four- herbal medicine, for human and trusted to them the job of making lion capital (four lions standing nonhuman animals, in their terri- his state religion, Buddhism, back to back) which was adopted tories: more popular across the known as the emblem of the modern In- Everywhere within Beloved- and the unknown world. Mahin- dian republic. The lion symbolizes of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi's dra and Sanghamitra went into both Ashoka's imperial rule and [Ashoka's] domain, and among Sri Lanka and converted the King, the kingship of the Buddha. In the people beyond the borders, the Queen and their people to transla8ng these monuments, the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Buddhism. They were naturally historians learn the bulk of what Sa8yaputras, the Keralaputras, as not handling state affairs a(er is assumed to have been true fact far as Tamraparni and where the him. of the Mauryan Empire. It is diffi- Greek king An8ochos rules, and In his old age, he seems to cult to determine whether or not among the kings who are neigh- have come under the spell of his some actual events ever hap- bors of An8ochos, everywhere youngest wife Tishyaraksha. It is pened, but the stone etchings has Beloved-of-the-Gods, King said that she had got his son Ku- clearly depict how Ashoka Piyadasi, made provision for two nala, the regent in Takshashila, wanted to be thought of and re- types of medical treatment: med- blinded by a wily stratagem. The membered. ical treatment for humans and official execu8oners spared Ku- Ashoka's own words as medical treatment for animals. nala and he became a wandering known from his Edicts are: "All Wherever medical herbs suitable singer accompanied by his men are my children. I am like a for humans or animals are not favourite wife Kanchanmala. In father to them. As every father available, I have had them im- Pataliputra, Ashoka hears Ku- desires the good and the happi- ported and grown. Wherever nala's song, and realizes that Ku- ness of his children, I wish that all medical roots or fruits are not nala's misfortune may have been men should be happy always." available I have had them im- a punishment for some past sin Edward D'Cruz interprets the ported and grown. Along roads I of the emperor himself and con- Ashokan dharma as a "religion to have had wells dug and trees demns Tishyaraksha to death, be used as a symbol of a new im- planted for the benefit of humans restoring Kunala to the court. Ku- perial unity and a cemen8ng and animals. nala was succeeded by his son, force to weld the diverse and het- —Edicts of Ashoka, Rock Edict 2 Sampra8, but his rule did not last erogeneous elements of the em- The Greeks in India even long a(er Ashoka's death. pire". seem to have played an ac8ve The reign of Ashoka Maurya Also, in the Edicts, Ashoka role in the propaga8on of Bud- could easily have disappeared

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Special into history as the ages passed by, "Amidst the tens of thousands of and would have had he not le( names of monarchs that crowd behind a record of his trials. The the columns of history ... the Historical Sources tes8mony of this wise king was name of Asoka shines, and shines discovered in the form of magnif- almost alone, a star." Western sources – Ashoka was al- icently sculpted pillars and boul- most forgo9en by the historians ders with a variety of ac8ons and of the early Bri8sh India but teachings he wished to be pub- Buddhist Kingship James Prinsep contributed in the lished etched into the stone. revela8on of historical sources. What Ashoka le( behind was the One of the more enduring lega- Other important historian was first wri9en language in India cies of Ashoka Maurya was the Bri8sh archaeologist Sir John Hu- since the ancient city of Harappa. model that he provided for the bert Marshall who was director- The language used for inscrip8on rela8onship between Buddhism General of the Archaeological was the then current spoken and the state. Throughout Ther- Survey of India. His main interests form called Prakrit. avada Southeastern Asia, the were Sanchi and Sarnath besides In the year 185 BC, about fi(y model of ruler ship embodied by Harappa and Mohenjodaro. Sir years a(er Ashoka's death, the Ashoka replaced the no8on of di- Alexander Cunningham, a Bri8sh last Maurya ruler, Brhadrata, was vine kingship that had previously archaeologist and army engineer assassinated by the commander- dominated (in the Angkor king- and o(en known as the father of in-chief of the Mauryan armed dom, for instance). Under this the Archaeological Survey of forces, Pusyamitra Sunga, while model of 'Buddhist kingship', the India, unveiled heritage sites like he was taking the Guard of Honor king sought to legi8mize his rule the Bharhut Stupa, Sarnath, of his forces. Pusyamitra Sunga not through descent from a di- Sanchi, and the Mahabodhi Tem- founded the Sunga dynasty (185 vine source, but by suppor8ng ple; thus, his contribu8on is rec- BC-78 BC) and ruled just a frag- and earning the approval of the ognizable in realms of historical mented part of the Mauryan Em- Buddhist sangha. Following sources. Sir Mor8mer Wheeler pire. Many of the northwestern Ashoka's example, kings estab- who was a Bri8sh archaeologist territories of the Mauryan Empire lished monasteries, funded the also exposed Ashokan historical (modern-day Iran, Afghanistan construc8on of stupas, and sup- sources, especially the Taxila. and Pakistan) became the Indo- ported the ordina8on of monks in Greek Kingdom. their kingdom. Many rulers also Eastern Sources : When India gained independ- took an ac8ve role in resolving Informa8on about the life ence from the Bri8sh Empire it disputes over the status and reg- and reign of Ashoka primarily adopted Ashoka's emblem for its ula8on of the sangha, as Ashoka comes from a rela8vely small own, placing the Dharmachakra had in calling a conclave to se9le number of Buddhist sources. In (The Wheel of Righteous Duty) a number of conten8ous issues par8cular, the Sanskrit Ashoka- that crowned his many columns during his reign. This develop- vadana ('Story of Ashoka'), writ- on the flag of the newly inde- ment ul8mately lead to a close ten in the 2nd century, and the pendent state. In 1992, Ashoka associa8on in many Southeast two Pāli chronicles of Sri Lanka was ranked #53 on Michael H. Asian countries between the (the Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa) Hart's list of the most influen8al monarchy and the religious hier- provide most of the currently figures in history. In 2001, a semi- archy, an associa8on that can s8ll known informa8on about Asho- fic8onalized portrayal of Ashoka's be seen today in the state-sup- ka. Addi8onal informa8on is con- life was produced as a mo8on ported Buddhism of Thailand and tributed by the Edicts of Asoka, picture under the 8tle Asoka. the tradi8onal role of the Thai whose authorship was finally at- King Ashoka, the third monarch king as both a religious and secu- tributed to the Ashoka of Bud- of the Indian Mauryan dynasty, lar leader. Ashoka also said that dhist legend a(er the discovery has come to be regarded as one all his cour8ers were true to their of dynas8c lists that gave the of the most exemplary rulers in self and governed the people in a name used in the edicts world history. The Bri8sh histo- moral manner. (Priyadarsi – 'favored by the rian H.G. Wells has wri9en: Gods') as a 8tle or addi8onal

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Special name of Ashoka Mauriya. Archi- da8ng the consecra8on of the Vedic animal sacrifices; these tectural remains of his period Maurya emperor Ashoka. strongly suggest that he at least have been found at Kumhrar, did not look to the Vedic tradi8on Patna, which include an 80-pillar Dipavamsa : for guidance. Furthermore, there hypostyle hall. The Dipavamsa, or "Deep- are many edicts expressed to avamsa", (i.e., Chronicle of the Is- Buddhists alone; in one, Ashoka Edicts of Ashoka : land, in Pali) is the oldest declares himself to be an "up- The Edicts of Ashoka are a historical record of Sri Lanka. The asaka", and in another he collec8on of 33 inscrip8ons on chronicle is believe to be com- demonstrates a close familiarity the Pillars of Ashoka, as well as piled from A9hakatha and other with Buddhist texts. He erected boulders and cave walls, made by sources around the 3–4th cen- rock pillars at Buddhist holy sites, the Emperor Ashoka of the Mau- tury, King Dhatusena (4th century but did not so for the sites of ryan dynasty during his reign CE) had orderd that the Di- other religions. He also used the from 272 to 231 BC. These in- pavamsa be recited at the word "dhamma" to refer to qual- scrip8ons are dispersed through- Mahinda (son to Ashoka )fes8val i8es of the heart that underlie out the areas of modern-day held annually in Anuradhapura. moral ac8on; this was an exclu- Pakistan and India, and represent The use of Buddhist sources sively Buddhist use of the word. the first tangible evidence of Bud- in reconstruc8ng the life of Finally, the ideals he promotes dhism. The edicts describe in de- Ashoka has had a strong influ- correspond to the first three tail the first wide expansion of ence on percep8ons of Ashoka, steps of the Buddha's graduated Buddhism through the sponsor- as well as the interpreta8ons of discourse. ship of one of the most powerful his edicts. Building on tradi8onal kings of Indian history.It give accounts, early scholars regarded Important years in the life of more informa8on about Ashoka's Ashoka as a primarily Buddhist Ashoka prosely8sm, Moral precepts, Reli- monarch who underwent a con- gious precepts, Social and animal version to Buddhism and was ac- Birth – 304 BC welfare . 8vely engaged in sponsoring and Marriage with – 286 BC suppor8ng the Buddhist monas- Maharani devi Ashokavadana : 8c ins8tu8on. Some scholars Mahindra's birth – 284 BC The Ashokavadana is a 2nd have tended to ques8on this as- Sanghami9a's – 281 BC century CE text related to the leg- sessment. The only source of in- birth end of the Maurya Emperor forma8on not a9ributable to Reign BC to his – 272/273 Ashoka. The legend was trans- Buddhist sources are the Nirvana / Death (232 BC) lated into Chinese by Fa Hien in Ashokan edicts, and these do not Rajyabhisheka – 270 BC 300 CE. explicitly state that Ashoka was a Tending to – 266 BC Buddhist. In his edicts, Ashoka ex- Buddhism Mahavamsa : presses support for all the major Building Chaityas – 266/263 BC The Mahavamsa ("Great religions of his 8me: Buddhism, Mahindra and – 264 BC Chronicle") is a historical poem Brahmanism, Jainism, and wri9en in the Pali language, of Ajivikaism, and his edicts ad- Sanghamitta Become the kings of Sri Lanka. It covers dressed to the popula8on at large Buddhist the period from the coming of (there are some addressed King Vijaya of Kalinga (ancient specifically to Buddhists; this is Kalinga Vijaya – 262/263 BC Orissa) in 543 BC to the reign of not the case for the other reli- Converted to – 263 BC King Mahasena (334–361).As it gions) generally focus on moral buddhism o(en refers to the royal dynas8es themes members of all the reli- Dharmayatra – 263–250 BC of India, the Mahavamsa is also gions would accept. Third Buddhist – 250–253 BC valuable for historians who wish However, there is strong evi- council to date and relate contemporary dence in the edicts alone that he Mahindra's – 252 BC royal dynas8es in the Indian sub- was a Buddhist. In one edict he Sri Lanka Yatra con8nent. It is very important in beli9les rituals, and he banned Buddhist – 250 to his De-

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Special Prosely8sm ath/Nirvana (old name Mahara9hha); Ma- tries. In his neighboring countries Edicts – 243/242 BC harakhhit Sthavira and Yavand- Ashoka helped humans as well as Death / Nirvana hammarakhhita Sthavira to South animals. Ashoka also planted of Sanghami9a – 240 BC India. Ashoka also invited Bud- trees in his empire and his neigh- Rani Tishyaraksha dhists and non-Buddhists for reli- boring countries. Ashoka was becomes Pa9arani – 236 BC gious conferences. Ashoka perhaps the first emperor in Prince Kunal inspired the Buddhist monks to human history to ban slavery, becomes Upraja – 233 bc compose the sacred religious hun8ng, fishing and deforesta- Ashoka's Death / texts, and also gave all types of 8on. Ashoka also banned the Nirvana – 232 BC help to that end. Ashoka also death sentence and asked the (Note – There are some histori- helped to develop viharas (intel- same for the neighboring coun- ans according to whom Ashoka lectual hubs) such as Nalanda and tries. Ashoka commanded his embraced Buddhism in 266 BC Taxila. Ashoka helped to con- people to serve the orders of but became a true follower of struct Sanchi and Mahabodhi their elders parents) and religious Buddhism a(er the Conquest of Temple. Ashoka never tried to monks (shramana and Brahmin). Kalinga 262 BC or 263 BC) harm or to destroy non-Buddhist Ashoka also recommended his religions, and indeed gave dona- people study all religions and re- 8ons to non-Buddhists. As his spect all religions. According to CONTRIBUTIONS reign con8nued his even-handed- Ashoka, to harm another's reli- ness was replaced with special in- gion is a harm to someone's owns clina8on towards Buddhism. religion. Ashoka asserted his peo- Global Spread of Ashoka helped and respected ple to live with Dharmmacha- Buddhism both Sramans (Buddhists monks) rana. Ashoka asked people to live and Brahmins (Vedic monks). with harmony, peace, love and Ashoka, now a Buddhist emperor, Ashoka also helped to organize tolerance. Ashoka called his peo- believed that Buddhism is bene- the Third Buddhist council (c. 250 ple as his children, and they could ficial for all human beings as well BC) at Pataliputra (today's Patna). call him when they need him. He as animals and plants, so he built It was conducted by the monk also asked people to save money 84,000 stupas, Sangharama, viha- Moggalipu9a-Tissa who was the and not to spend for immoral ras, Chaitya, and residences for spiritual teacher of the Mauryan causes. Ashoka also believed in Buddhist monks all over South Emperor Ashoka. dharmacharana (dhammacha- Asia and Central Asia. He gave do- rana) and dharmavijaya (dham- na8ons to viharas and mathas. mavijaya). According to many He sent his only daughter Sang- As an Administrator European and Asian historians hami9a and son Mahindra to the age of Ashoka was the age of spread Buddhism in Sri Lanka (an- Ashoka's military power was so light and delightment. He was the cient name Tamraparni). Ashoka strong that he was able to crush first emperor in human history also sent many prominent Bud- those empires that went to war who has taught the lesson of dhist monks (bhikshus) Sthaviras against him s8ll, he was on unity, peace, equality and love. like Madhyamik Sthavira to mod- friendly terms with kingdoms in Ashoka's aim was not to expand ern Kashmir and Afganistan; Ma- the South like Cholas, Pandya, the territories but the welfare of haraskshit sthavira to Syria, Persia Keralputra, the post Alexandrian all of his subjects (sarvajan- / Iran, Egypt, Greece, Italy and empire, Tamraparni, and Suvarn- sukhay). Turkey; Massim Sthavira to abhumi who were strong enough Nepal, Bhutan, China and Mon- to remain outside his empire and golia; Sohn U9ar Sthavira to mod- con8nued to profess Hinduism. ern Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar According to his edicts we know (old name Suvarnabhumi for that he provided humanitarian Burma and Thailand), Thailand help including doctors, hospitals, and Vietnam; Mahadhhama- inns, wells, medical herbs and en- rakhhita stahvira to Maharashtra gineers to his neighboring coun-

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