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Year: 1994

Temperament, Eysenck’s PEN system, and humor-related traits

Ruch, Willibald

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/humr.1994.7.3.209

Posted at the Zurich Open Repository and Archive, University of Zurich ZORA URL: https://doi.org/10.5167/uzh-77509 Journal Article Published Version

Originally published at: Ruch, Willibald (1994). Temperament, Eysenck’s PEN system, and humor-related traits. HUMOR: International Journal of Humor Research, 7(3):209-244. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/humr.1994.7.3.209 Temperament, Eysenck' s PEI M System, an d humor­related traits*

WILLIBALD RUCH

Abstract

The Eysenckian PEN System of personality (Eysenck 1991; Eysenck and Eysenck 1985), comprising the superfactors Psychotidsm (P), Extraversion (E), and Neuroticism (N), is used äs a means to locate different humor- related traits. A sample of 159 German adults answered a sample of temperamental traits relating to the PEN System äs well äs five humor- related questionnaires. The temperament inventories investigated comprised the following: the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire-revised (EPQ-R; Eysenck, Eysenck and Barrett 1985), the L 7 Impulsiveness Questionnaire (1.7; Eysenck, Pearson, Easting, and Allsopp 1985), the Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS; Zuckerman 1979), the STQ (Claridge and Broks 1984), the Affect Intensity Measure (AIM; Larsen and Diener 1987), the Pavlovian Temperament Survey (PTS; Strelau, Angleitner, Bantelmann, and Ruch 1990), and the Dimensions of Temperament Survey-Revised (DOTS-R; Windle and Lerner 1986). The humor inventories were the following: the Situational Humor Response Questionnaire (SHRQ; Martin and Lefcourt 1984), the Coping Humor Scale (CHS; Martin and Lefcourt 1983), Svebak's Sense of Humor Questionnaire (SHQ; Svebak 1974), the Telic Dominance Scale (TDS; Murgatroyd, Rushton, Apter, and Ray 1978), and the Sense of Humor Questionnaire (SHQZ; Ziv 1979). A joint factor analysis yieldedfactorsof Extraversion, Psychotidsm, and Neuroticism. Primarily E (and to a minor extent P) appeared to be relevant for the location ofthe current humor questionnaires. The Extraverts' sense of humor seemed to be characterized by their greater susceptibility for positive affect, smiling and laughter, enjoyment of entertaining others, carefreeness, and their lower degree of seriousness. A separate factor analy- sis of the humor scales yielded factor s of surgency and seriousness, which

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Introduction

At a formal level, the expression "sense ofhumor" refers to a personality characteristic aime d a t describin g habitua l individua l diiference s i n humor­related behavior . I t i s a descriptiv e hypothetical construct, a n invention, not a n "existing" entity. A certain conceptualization of sense of humor may be useful o r not useful, bu t not true orfalse. It s usefulness has to be demonstrated (als o ä s compared to alread y existing concepts) by predictin g individua l difference s primaril y i n humor­relate d phen ­ omena, not i n other domains of behavior. As a personality trait, the "sense o f humor" refer s to a disposition fo r humor­related behavio r not to the behavior itself. It can not be observed directly bu t inferred vi a indicators . Variou s conceptualization s o f th e sense o f humor o r facet s o f thi s construc t hav e been propose d an d a large number of measurement devices (including seif­ and peer­evaluation techniques an d objectiv e tests ) hav e bee n constructe d (fo r review s see Ruch 1990,1993). There are many facets ofhumor behavior (for example, comprehension, enjoyment, creation, Initiation, and entertainment), and they involve many domains o f psychic functioning (fo r example, percep­ tion, cognition, emotion, motivation, attitudes, and performance). Hence, a comprehensiv e approach t o th e sens e of humor, that is , one which is aimed a t representin g th e whol e real m o f humor­related behavior , wil l most likely arrive at a multidimensional concept. The state of the art in defining and measuring this concept, however, is far from being satisfac­ tory (see Thorson and Powel l 1993a) . Nevertheless, several facets o f the sense of humor­construct hav e been proposed an d tools to thei r assess ­ ment were constructed. Som e of these assessment tools , most frequently questionnaires, refer t o habitual form s o f the humor behaviors depicte d above.1 In other words , the tendency to laugh easily, to initiate humor, and s o fort h ar e see n ä s component s o f a sens e o f humor­trait . Th e present stud y examine s th e locatio n o f thes e humor­relate d trait s an d habits in the PEN model of personality. While a sense of humor­construct obviously would be a good predictor of individua l difference s i n humor­related behavior , i t shoul d b e noted that othe r mor e general personality trait s migh t b e successfu l i n doing

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The PEN syste m

The PEN syste m is a factor analytically based descriptiv e taxonomy of personality containing the three superfactors Psychoticism, Extraversion , and Neuroticism (Eysenck and Eysenck 1985). The PEN system assumes a hierarchica l arrangemen t o f personalit y characteristic s wit h Psy ­ choticism (versu s Impulse Control), Extraversion (versu s Introversion) , and Neuroticism (versus Emotional Stability) located at the highest level. They are referred t o ä s types (o r second­orde r factor s in factor analytic terms) ä s oppose d t o traits (o r first­orde r factors ) definin g them . Th e type concept o f Psychoticism, o r P, is made up o f traits like aggressive, cold, egocentric, impersonal, impulsive , antisocial, unemphatic , creative , and tough­minded . Th e trait s whos e intercorrelations giv e ris e t o th e type concept o f Extraversion, or E, are sociable, lively , active, assertive, sensation­seeking, carefree, dominant, surgent, and venturesome. Finally, Neuroticism, o r N , i s mad e u p o f trait s lik e anxious , depressed , guil t feelings, lo w self­esteem , tense , irrational , shy , moody, an d emotiona l (Eysenck an d Eysenc k 1985) . Thes e superfactor s wer e extracted fro m different inventorie s an d sho w a hig h degre e o f generizabilit y acros s different cultures . The y als o resembl e factor s extracte d fro m anima l behavior.

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The PEN System also forms the basis for a causal theory of personality. There are many studies aimed at investigating the genetic architecture of P, E, and N and at identifying the psychophysiological an d biochemical factors relating to them. Eysenck has suggested cortical arousal, mediated by the reticular formation, äs being responsible fo r individual difference s in Extraversion and differences i n limbic System arousal, mediated by the sympathetic nervous System , ä s bein g responsibl e fo r individua l differ ­ ences i n Neuroticism . Mor e recently , Psychoticis m wa s relate d t o th e hormonal Syste m (Eysenck and Eysenc k 1976).

The superfactors P, E, and N an d temperament

How do selecte d temperamen t traits relat e t o th e PEN System ? Due t o their Status äs higher­order factors of temperament, the PEN Syste m was frequently use d ä s a fram e o f referenc e fo r locatin g newl y develope d concepts. Thi s usually took th e for m o f Computing correlations among these trait s an d P , E , an d N o r b y performing a joint facto r analysis . The Eysenc k Personalit y Questionnair e (EPQ ; Eysenc k an d Eysenc k 1975) was introduced fo r the assessment of P, E, and N. It also contains a Li e (L) scale, a measure of Social Desirability. Th e EPQ­R (Eysenck , Eysenck, and Barrett 1985 ) was developed in an attempt t o improve the psychometric properties o f the questionnaire. In the following a brief introduction t o the temperament traits investi­ gated i n th e presen t stud y wil l b e given . This wil l als o includ e studie s examining their relationshi p with the PE N System . Thes e temperamen t traits wil l be providing the basis for determining the PEN­factors a t a n empirical level.

Impulsiveness and Venturesomeness and the PEN System

Initially Impulsivit y was seen to b e a constituent par t o f Extraversion , together wit h sociabilit y an d liveliness . However , whe n th e Eysenck s began t o stud y Psychoticis m ä s a second­orde r facto r o f personality i t became clear that two components o f impulsivity had to be distinguished: Venturesomeness an d Impulsiveness . Th e Eysenck s develope d a n Impulsiveness questionnaire (lates t version 1.7) measuring these two traits äs well äs Empathy. Their position i n the PEN Syste m has been studied

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extensively in children (Eysenck, Easting, and Pearson 1984 ) and adult s (Corulla 1987 , 1988 ; Eysenc k an d Eysenc k 1978 ; Eysenck , Pearson , Easting, and Allsopp 1985). Impulsiveness is positively correlated with P, E and N but most highly so with P (Corull a 1987 , 1988 ; Eysenck, et al . 1985) . Venturesomeness correlates positively with E and P but i s more aligned with E. Whereas the correlations obtained between Venturesomeness and N are typically negative they are not alway s significant.

Affect intensity and the PEN System

Affect intensit y (AI ) wa s introduced t o describ e stabl e interindividua l differences i n the magnitude of emotional reactions t o emotion­inducing situations (Larse n and Diene r 1987) . It is assumed that th e intensity of an individual's affective responsivenes s generalize s across different emo ­ tion categories. This AI­dimension is defined at one pole by persons who experience their emotions only mildly and with minor fluctuations , an d at the other pole by persons who experience their emotions quite strongly and wh o ar e emotionall y reactiv e an d variable . Th e arousal regulation theory ofaffect intensity (Larsen and Diener 1987) suggests that emotional response intensity functions within persons äs a compensatory mechanism for th e regulation of internal Stimulation level (that is, arousal). Larsen and Diene r (1987 ) suggest that intensit y o f emotional response s serves äs a source of Stimulation for use of arousal regulation , an d individuals develop strong emotional responsivenes s t o compensat e fo r chronicall y low levels of baseline arousal . Given thi s vie w o f th e biologica l basi s o f affec t intensit y a positiv e relationship betwee n bot h Extraversio n an d Aifec t Intensit y ca n b e expected. In fact, studies showed AI to be positively correlated with both superfactors Extraversion and Neuroticism (Goldsmith and Walters 1989; Williams 1989) . AI does not relate to Psychoticism.

Schizotypal and borderline personality traits and the PEN System

A fundamental assumption underlying the concept of Psychoticism is the postulate by Eysenck and Eysenck (1976) that a dimensional predisposi­ tion exists towards different kinds of psychotic breakdowns in the general

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Population. A further attemp t t o measure "psychotic " traits in normale was undertaken by Claridge and Broks (1984), who developed the STQ, a two­scal e questionnair e assessin g Schizotypa l (STA ) an d Borderlin e (STB) personalit y traits . However , they took a more clinica l viewpoin t in the measurement of these predisposing characteristic s and they devel­ oped more symptom based scales . Information regardin g the locatio n o f the ST A and ST B scales in th e PEN Syste m i s availabl e fro m studie s conducte d i n Englan d (Claridg e and Hewit t 1987 ) an d Spai n (Muntaner , Garcia­Sevilla , Fernandez , and Torrubia 1988) . It turns out that the STA and STB scales correlated primarily positively wit h Neuroticism. Bot h scale s als o correlate d posi ­ tively with P, however, only the STB (Borderline Personality) scale yields higher coefficients .

Sensation Seeking and the PEN System

The trait o f Sensatio n Seekin g (SS ) ha s bee n define d ä s "th e nee d fo r varied, novel and complex sensations an d experiences and the willingness to tak e physica l an d socia l risk s fo r th e sak e o f suc h experience. " (Zuckerman 1979 : 10) . Sensatio n seekin g i s understood ä s a biosocia l trait with a physiological underpinning and a strong genetical component . Four components of SS are distinguished: Thrill and Adventure Seeking (TAS), Experienc e Seekin g (ES) , Disinhibitio n (Dis) , an d Boredo m Susceptibility (BS). Extraversion an d Sensatio n Seekin g were expecte d t o correlat e posi ­ tively (Eysenck and Zuckerman 1978 ) since both traits have been theor­ etically relate d t o th e construc t o f a n "optima l leve l o f arousal. " Furthermore, a positiv e relationshi p betwee n Sensatio n Seekin g an d Psychoticism wa s expected , sinc e bot h trait s shar e element s lik e non ­ conformity, atypica l attitudes indicating a lack of socialization, or weak superego. Th e results of a variety of studies (for example, Corulla 1988 ) show that Sensatio n Seekin g falls betwee n the P and E dimensions and there is no relationship betwee n SS and Neuroticism .

The revised Dimensions of Temperament Survey (DOTS-R) and the PEN system

The DOTS­R (Windle and Lerner 1986 ) results from an attempt to assess the nine temperament categories proposed b y Thomas and Chess (1977)

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The Pavlovian Nervous System Properties and the PEN System

Based o n hi s studie s wit h dogs , Pavlo v postulate d th e centra l nervou s System (CNS) properties o f "strength," "equilibrium," and "mobility. " According to Pavlo v (1951­1952) , Strengt h o f Excitation (SE ) reflect s the ability to endure intense or long­lasting Stimulation without passing into transmarginal Inhibition. Strength of Inhibition (SI) reveals itself in the ability to sustain a state of conditioned Inhibitio n such s extinction, differentiation, o r delay. The essence of Mobility (MO) of nervous pro­ cesses consists i n the abilit y of the CN S to respon d adequatel y to con ­ tinuous change s i n th e surroundings . Th e Pavlovia n concept s o f CN S properties wer e ver y influentia l wit h respec t t o th e constructio n o f Western temperament theories (see Strelau, Angleitner, and Ruch 1989) . For exampl e Pavlov's ide a t o explai n individua l differences i n th e effi ­ ciency o f conditionin g b y mean s o f particula r feature s o f CN S pro ­ cesses — excitation and Inhibition — was for Eysenck (1970) one of the starting point s i n developin g hi s vie w o n th e physiologica l basi s o f Extraversion­Introversion. A review of many studies allowed for a reliable location o f the Pavlovian Temperament Survey (PTS) scale s in the PEN

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System (Strelau , e t al . 1989) . According to thes e studies , S E correlates positively with E and negatively with N. S I correlates negativel y with N and P. MO correlates positively (and even more highly so than SE) with Extraversion and negatively with Neuroticism.

The PEN Syste m and humor­related traits

The PEN personality model Claims to provide a comprehensive taxonomic System for temperamental traits. The question arise s whether it can also account fo r humor­related phenomena. In fact, ther e are many grounds to assume that it is predominantly the broad superfactor of Extraversion which relates to interindividual differences in the realm of humor. Firstly, hypotheses about suc h relationships can be derived from th e contempo­ rary model s an d th e definitio n o f Extraversio n (Eysenc k an d Eysenc k 1985). Secondly, subfactors of extraversion provide links to this domain. For example , th e primar y facto r o f surgency refer s t o bein g cheerful , witty, liking to laugh, and soforth. Thirdly, typological precursors of the Extraversion dimension were even more explicitly related to the sense of humor construct. For example, being cheerful, humorous , and witty had a central place in Kretschmer's (1961) conceptualization of the "cyclothy­ mic" temperamen t (which , i n th e for m o f Cattell' s 16PF­ A scale , i s a marker of E). In th e followin g theoretica l link s betwee n Extraversio n an d humor ­ related behavior will be outlined. Based on these considerations hypothe­ ses regarding the relationship between Extraversion and various concep­ tualizations of the sens e of humor or facets thereof wil l be advanced .

Extraversion äs a gener al disposition for positive affect

It was postulated that E is a predictor o f the intensity and variability of positive affec t (Eysenc k an d Eysenc k 1985) . I n regar d t o mood states, Extraverts ar e expecte d t o sho w Variatio n between positiv e affec t an d neutrality wherea s th e moo d state s o f hig h N scorer s ar e expecte d t o vary predominantl y betwee n negativ e affec t an d neutrality . Thus , Extraverts ca n b e expecte d t o b e i n a positiv e moo d mor e frequentl y than introverts. One type of positive mood, cheerfulness, has been demon­ strated t o represen t a stat e o f lowere d threshol d fo r th e inductio n o f

Bereitgestellt von | UZH Hauptbibliothek / Zentralbibliothek Zürich Angemeldet | 130.60.233.47 Heruntergeladen am | 19.04.13 13:37 Temperament, Eysenck's P System, and humor-related traits 21 7 smiling, laughter, and exhilaration (Ruch 1990) . It can be expected that Extraverts are more susceptibl e t o th e induction o f positive affec t tha n Introverts. Extraverts are more likely than Introverts to respond with joy to a give n pleasure­inducin g Situation . Recentl y th e postulat e tha t Extraverts hav e a tendenc y t o "laug h an d b e merry " (Eysenc k an d Eysenck 1975 : 9) has been explicitly tested and confirme d (Ruc h 1994) . While Extraversion predicted both the frequency and intensity of humor­ induced facial exhilaration (that is, smiling and laughter), Extraverts and Introverts did not diffe r muc h with respect to the perceived funniness of the Stimuli . Thus, smilin g and laughte r see m to b e habitual behaviora l acts typifying Extraversion . Based on the hypotheses of an Extraversion­positive affect relationship it ca n b e predicte d tha t Extraversio n wil l correlate positivel y wit h th e Situational Humor Response Questionnaire (SHRQ; Martin and Lefcour t 1984), a scal e o f Humor Appreciation (Ziv 1979), and the Emotional Expressiveness subscal e o f th e Sense of Humor Questionnaire (Sveba k 1974). Th e SHR Q assesse s "th e frequenc y wit h whic h th e individua l smiles, laughs, or otherwise displays amusement in a variety of situations" (Lefcourt an d Marti n 1986 : 22). Whil e Ziv (1984 : 111 ) define s humo r appreciation ä s "the abilit y to understand and enjoy messages containing humor creativity , ä s wel l ä s situation s tha t ar e incongruou s bu t no t menacing," th e item s o f th e Humor Appreciation (SHQ Z HA ) scal e mostly relate to the frequency an d intensity of laughter and amusement (for example , laughin g easil y o r tearin g durin g laughter) . Finally , Emotional Expressiveness (SH Q EE ) refer s t o th e tendenc y t o freel y express one's emotions. All thre e scale s refe r t o th e behaviora l act s o f smilin g an d laughte r and t o positiv e affec t an d ar e thus expected to correlat e positivel y with EPQ­R E. It should be mentioned that the DOTS­R Moo d Quality scale basically consists of items asking for the frequency of laughter and smiling äs wel l (withou t specifyin g elicitin g situation s ä s th e SHR Q does ) an d hence might serv e äs a further marke r o f positive affect/laughter i n th e present study . Sinc e the SH Q EE als o contain s item s relating to bein g an impulsive person, positive correlations with P and N can be expected äs well (like for 1. 7 Imp). Recently, Ruch and Decker s (1993) confirmed a positive relationshi p between Extraversion and the SHRQ on the basis of the present German data and an American sample. Additionally, however, there was a minor positive correlatio n wit h P, whic h was based onl y o n a fe w situation s

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Extraversion äs a disposition for the enjoyment of entertaining others

While Extraverts generally are more sociable, active , and talkative than Introverts, they also seem to specificall y enjo y entertaining others, being witty, cracking jokes, playing practical jokes, and so forth. Not surpris ­ ingly, a n affirmativ e answe r t o th e questio n whethe r on e like s tellin g jokes an d funn y storie s t o one' s friend s i s credite d on e poin t o n th e Extraversion scal e o f th e EPQ . Construct s wit h a simila r scop e (fo r example, need for play, or need for exhibition) are known to be subfactors of Extraversion. Thus, extraversion seems also to account for individual differences i n more active sorts of humor behavior. The hypothese s predic t a positiv e correlatio n betwee n Extraversion and the Humor Creativity scal e (Ziv 1979). While Ziv (1984: 111) defines humor creativity äs "the abilit y to perceive relationships between people, objects, or ideas in an incongruous way, äs well äs the ability to communi­ cate this perception to others" some of the items of the humor creativity (SHQZ HC ) scal e refer t o entertainin g other s (fo r example my friend s expect m e to mak e the m laugh). Zi v and Gadis h (1990 ) di d repor t a relationship between Extraversion an d th e SHQZ­scale s which was not based on the present rationale, however.

Extraversion and carefreeness

Extraverts ar e considere d t o b e carefree, easy­going , lighthearted , an d optimistic (Eysenck and Eysenc k 1975) . This might be a predisposition of not losin g one's humor in the fac e o f adversity and o f being able t o laugh, to try saying something funny, o r to find something comical even in trying situations . This aspec t o f humo r i s covere d b y th e Coping Humor Scale (CHS ; Martin an d Lefcourt 1984 ) which is considered to asses s "the degre e to which individual s make use of humor to cop e with the stressfu l event s they encounte r i n thei r lives " (Lefcour t an d Marti n 1986 : 28) . Th e predominance of positive affect eve n in trying Situation and mayb e also

Bereitgestellt von | UZH Hauptbibliothek / Zentralbibliothek Zürich Angemeldet | 130.60.233.47 Heruntergeladen am | 19.04.13 13:37 Temperament, Eysenck's P System, and humor-related traits 21 9 the tendency to not take things too seriously suggest a positive correlation between the CHS and Extraversion, albeit to a lower extent than for the positive emotion scales . Th e aspec t o f not losin g one's sens e of humor in trying situations suggest s an involvement of emotional stabilit y (tha t is, lo w N ) i n th e CH S and henc e a negativ e correlatio n wit h EPQ­ R Neuroticism is expected äs well.

Introversion and seriousness

Extraversion might vary inversely with traits representing the low humor pole. For example, the typical introvert is considered to take "matters of everyday lif e wit h proper seriousness, " he "tends t o pla n ahead, " and "does not like excitement" (Eysenck and Eysenck 1975 : 9). Seriousmindedness, plannin g orientation , an d arousa l avoidanc e ar e the components of the teile dominance (Apte r 1982 ) construct, äs mea­ sured by the TDS (Murgatroyd, Rushton, Apter, and Ray 1978) . Whüe Murgatroyd, et al. (1978) did not find a relationship between teile domi- nance and the Eysenck scales, Matthew s (1985) found negativ e correla­ tions betwee n a 1 6 PF­based secon d orde r facto r o f Extraversio n an d the TDS­scales of arousal avoidance (TDS SM) and planning orientatio n (TDS PO) , an d wit h th e tota l scal e o f teli c dominance . Fo r serious ­ mindedness (TDS SM ) a negative coefficient wa s obtained which, how­ ever, faile d t o b e significant , ä s di d th e negativ e correlatio n betwee n seriousness and surgency (16PF­F), a marker of extraversion. However, Psychoticism wa s neglected so far. The high P­scorer i s said to no t pla n ahea d an d t o enjo y highl y stimulatin g situations . Henc e it can be hypothesized that the TDS­scales are additionally inversely related to P. First support fo r thi s hypothesis come s from th e fact tha t serious ­ mindedness and plannin g orientatio n correlat e positively with superego strength, a 16PF­marke r o f (low) Psychoticism (Matthew s 1985) . The above mentione d hypothese s expec t tha t Extraversio n relate s t o humor in a variety of ways both at the level of the actual and the habitual form o f the humor­related behaviors . While it is strongly recommended to includ e Extraversion ä s a personalit y variable i n future experiment s of humor and test, for example, the hypotheses that Extravert s laugh or initiales humor mor e frequentl y than d o Introverts , th e presen t stud y will relate Extraversio n to humor at th e habitual level ; that is , to sens e of humor­tests.

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Two of the scales to be studied do not provide such clear relationships with Extraversion, namely the other components of Svebak's conception of th e sens e of humor. Metamessage Sensitivity (SH Q MMS) is under­ stood ä s the abilit y t o recogniz e humor in situations . Partl y on e could expect that more serious people would be less sensitive to such messages. Also, items relate to having much cause for amusement during an ordinary day and this provides a link with the positive affect face t o f extraversion. Personal Liking of Humor (SH Q LH) relate s to the enjoyment o f humor and acceptance of the humorous role. Such aspects seem to be primarily related to attitudes and convictions. Also, from the phrasing of the items, no link with Extraversion is apparent . Thus, the ai m of the present study is fourfold. A joint factor analysis of th e temperamen t an d th e humo r scale s wil l b e performe d t o locat e a) the temperament scales and b) the humor scales in the resulting factor space. A separate facto r analysis of the humor scale s will be performed to c) determine their basic dünensions. Furthermore, d) the psychometric properties o f th e Germa n adaptation s o f th e humo r scale s wil l b e determined.

Methods

Sübjects

The sampl e i s comprised o f 15 9 Germa n adult s o f the Düsseldor f are a (86 men and 73 women), aged from 2 0 to 67 (M=33.6; SD = 12.9). One third o f th e subject s wer e undergraduat e psycholog y student s a t th e beginning of a personality course. The other Ss consisted of relatives and friends o f the students and were recruited by them.

Instruments

German translation s o f the followin g 1 2 inventories have been given. If not stated düferently, the questionnaires were translated int o German by the author and most of them are currently adapted for use in the German culture. The temperament inventories were the following:

(1) Th e Eysenck Personality Questionnaire-Revised (EPQ­R ; Eysenck , Eysenck, and Barrett 1985 ) in a German Adaptation b y Ruch and Hehl

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(1989). Thi s i s a 102­ite m questionnair e containin g fou r scales : Psychoticism (P, 3 2 items), Extraversion (E, 2 3 items), Neuroticism (N , 25 items), and Lie (L, 2 2 items).

(2) Th e /. 7 Impulsiveness Questionnaire (1.7; Eysenck, Pearson, Easting , and Allsopp 1985). This is a 54­item questionnaire containing three scales: Impulsiveness (Imp ; 1 9 items), Venturesomenes s (Vent; 1 6 items) an d Empathy (Emp; 1 9 items).

(3) Th e Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS ; Zuckerman 1979 ) äs translate d and adapte d b y Unterwege r (1980) . Thi s questionnair e include s fou r subscales: Thrill and Adventure Seeking (TAS), Experience Seeking (ES), Disinhibition (DIS) , an d Boredo m Susceptibilit y (BS) . Thi s revisio n excluded some of the items of form SSS­I V with insufficient properties .

(4) Th e STQ (Claridge and Broks 1984). This questionnaire include s the STA (37 items) and STB (18 items) scales aimed at measuring Schizotypal and Borderline personality traits, respectively. These four questionnaire s are in a yes/no format.

(5) Th e Affect Intensity Measure (AIM : Larsen and Diene r 1987) . This is a 40­ite m questionnair e o f Affec t Intensit y i n a 6­poin t Liker t scal e format.

(6) Th e Pavlovian Temperament Survey (PTS ; Strelau , Angleitner , Bantelmann, an d Ruc h 1990 ) measuring th e Pavlovia n nervou s Syste m properties: Strengt h of Excitation (SE), Strength of Inhibition (SI) , and Mobility (MO). Furthermore, a Social Desirability (SD) scale is included. The 16 6 items are answered in a 4­point Likert scal e format.

(7) Th e Revised Dimensions of Temperament Survey-Adult (DOTS­ R Adult) b y Windl e an d Lerne r (1986 ) an d translate d b y Angleitner , Köhler, Ruch , and Silny . The DOTS­R i s a 54­items questionnaire i n a 4­point Liker t scal e forma t measurin g 1 0 temperamen t dimensions : Activity Level­General , Activit y Level­Sleep , Approach/Withdrawal , Flexibility/Rigidity, Moo d Quality , Rhythmicity­Sleep , Rhythmicity ­ Eating, Rhythmicity­Daily Habits, Distractibility , and Persistence .

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The humor­related inventories 2 were the following :

(8) Th e Situational Humor Response Questionnaire (SHRQ) b y Marti n and Lefcour t (1984 ) assesse s th e individua l capacit y t o respon d t o a variety of situations (1 8 items) with amusement, smiling or laughter even if the y ar e unexpecte d o r demanding . Furthermore , thre e item s ar e included which relate to self­perceptio n o f humor.

(9) Th e Coping Humor Scale (CHS) by Martin an d Lefcour t (1983) is a 7­ite m scale in a 4­point Likert­typ e format whic h assesses the degree to which individuals make use of humor to cope with the stressful events they encounter in their lives.

(10) Th e Sense of Humor Questionnaire (SHQ) by Sveba k (1974 ) con­ tains 21 items in a 4­point Likert­type format assessing generalized indivi­ dual difference s i n humor production an d appreciation. Ther e are three subscales, Metamessag e Sensitivit y (MMS), Persona l Likin g of Humor (LH)5 and Emotional Expressivenes s (EE). (11) Th e Sense of Humor Questionnaire (SHQZ;Ziv 1979,1981)contain s 14 item s i n a 7­poin t Liker t forma t assessin g tw o component s o f th e sense of humor: Humor Appreciation (HA) and Humor Creativity (HC).

(12) Th e Teile Dominance Scale* (TDS ; Murgatroyd, Rushton , Apter , and Ra y 1978 ) is a 42­item s questionnaire i n a 3­poin t answe r format measuring thre e component s o f teli c dominance : Seriousmindedness (SM), Planning Orientation (PO), and Arousal Avoidance (TDS AA).

Procedure

All subjects were tested individually. The questionnaires were grouped in three package s an d wer e given t o S s in thre e wee k intervals . Subject s were instructe d t o complet e th e test s a t home , alone , an d withou t any hurry. They were asked to return th e tests after a week.

Results

Means, Standar d deviation s an d rehabilitie r (coefficient Alpha ) o f th e temperamental an d the humor­related scales , and their correlations with sex and ag e are give n in Table 1 .

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Table 1. Means, Standard Deviations and Reliability (Coefficient Alpha) for the different scales and their correlations with age and sex

Scales M SD α age sex1

Temperamental traits EPQ­R Psychoticism 10.43 4.83 0.79 ­0.42*** ­0.14 Extraversion 11.98 5.81 0.88 ­0.25** 0.22** Neuroticism 11.85 5.24 0.83 ­0.16* 0.18* Lying 6.52 3.52 0.75 0.34*** 0.18* 1.7 Impulsiveness 6.89 4.10 0.80 ­0.27** 0.16* Venturesomeness 7.87 3.92 0.81 ­0.46*** ­0.22** Empathy 13.77 2.94 0.67 0.05 0.13 AIM Afiect intensit y 144.77 21.80 0.89 ­0.28*** 0.37*** STQ STA 13.19 6.41 0.84 ­0.25** 0.09 STB 4.69 3.27 0.75 ­0.34*** 0.03 SSS Thrill & Adventure Seeking 6.18 3.49 0.82 ­0.42*** ­0.14 Disinhibition 5.06 2.83 0.71 ­0.44*** ­0.18* Experience Seeking 10.08 4.30 0.82 ­0.45*** ­0.07 Boredom Susceptibility 4.53 2.47 0.66 ­0.40*** ­0.17* Total 25.86 10.66 0.91 ­0.53*** ­0.16* PTS Strength of Excitatio n 120.05 17.68 0.89 ­0.07 ­0.14 Strength of Inhibition 140.57 15.84 0.87 0.42*** ­0.14 Mobility 128.40 15.97 0.88 ­0.08 0.10 Social Desirability 36.12 4.31 0.66 0.16* ­0.03 DOTS­R Activity Level­Genera l 15.52 3.55 0.66 ­0.20* 0.03 Activity Level­Sleep 11.43 2.88 0.80 0.01 0.03 Approach/Withdrawal 19.55 3.57 0.72 ­0.30*** 0.09 Flexibility/Rigidity 15.16 2.72 0.68 ­0.18* ­0.03 Mood Quality 21.58 3.93 0.81 ­0.24** 0.14 Rhythmicity­Sleep 14.20 4.13 0.76 0.31*** 0.04 Rhythmicity­Eating 11.75 3.91 0.82 0.30*** ­0.02 Rhythmicity­Da y Habits 11.05 3.16 0.67 0.35*** ­0.06 Distractibility (low) 12.04 3.06 0.80 0.20* ­0.11 Persistence 8.35 1.85 0.61 0.09 0.03 Humor-related traits SHRQ 55.99 9.15 0.75 ­0.28*** 0.14 CHS Coping Humor 18.77 3.24 0.53 ­0.01 0.06 SHQ Metamessage Sensitivity 20.44 2.90 0.53 ­0.08 ­0.11 Liking of Humor 18.86 3.12 0.52 ­0.12 0.09 Emotional Expressivenes s 20.12 2.59 0.35 ­0.21** 0.05 Total Sense of Humor 59.42 5.94 0.62 ­0.22** 0.01

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Table 1 . continued

Scales M SD age sex1

SHQZ Humor Appreciatio n 28.14 6.79 0.73 ­0.16* 0.23** Humor Creativit y 26.78 6.22 0.66 ­0.21** 0.04 Total Sense of Humo r 54.92 11.67 0.81 ­0.19* 0.14 TDS Seriousmindedness 24.19 4.12 0.45 0.08 ­0.20** Planning Orientation 24.34 4.73 0.59 0.21** ­0.03 Arousal Avoidanc e 25.35 6.30 0.80 0.45*** 0.03 Telic Dominance Total 73.88 11.67 0.80 0.36*** ­0.08

Note, l Mal e sex coded äs l, femal e sex coded äs 2. Abbreviations: 1. 7 = Impulsiveness Questionnaire; AIM=Aflect Intensit y Measure ; ST Q = Schizotypal Personalit y Questionnaire ; SS S = Sensation Seekin g Scale ; DOTS­ R = Dimensions o f Temperamen t Survey­Revised ; SHR Q = Situational Humo r Respons e Questionnaire. CH S = Coping Humo r Scale , SH Q = Sense o f Humo r Questionnaire , SHQZ=Ziv's Sense of Humor Questionnaire , TDS=Telic Dominance Scale. *P<0.05, **P<0.01, ***P<0.001.

Table l shows that most of the temperamental traits yielded sufficientl y high reliabilities. The Alpha coefficient s range d fro m .6 1 to .9 1 (median .80). There was a strenger heterogeneity in the coefficients o f the humor scales. While the Cronbac h Alph a fo r TD S S M and SH Q EE were not acceptable, th e one s fo r TD S AA , SHQ Z HA , an d th e SHR Q wer e satisfying. Scores in SHRQ, SHQ EE, an d SHQ Z HA decreased with age, while TDS PO and TD S AA increased with age. Sex differences i n the humor traits were rare; females scored higher in SHQZ HA and males higher in TDS SM.

Jointfactor analysis of the humor-related and temperamental traits

Do temperamen t an d humo r shar e commo n dimension ? I f yes , what is their number and nature? In order to answer these and related questions a principa l component s analysi s wa s applie d t o th e intercorrelation s among the scales of the humor­related and the temperamental inventories. Whereas only three eigenvalues were markedly different fro m th e others, the scree test suggested the extraction of either 3 or 5 factors (Eigenvalues: 9.202, 4.669 , 3.392 , 2.164 , an d 1.823) . Varimax­rotation s o f 4 an d 5

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Location of the temperament traits in the PEN space

The Extraversion factor was loaded by the DOTS­R scales Mood Quality and Approach/Withdrawal , th e PTS­scale s Strengt h o f Excitatio n an d Mobility, 1. 7 Impulsiveness , an d Affec t Intensity . Furthermore , ther e were mino r loading s b y SS S Experienc e Seeking , 1. 7 Venturesome ­ ness, DOTS­ R Activit y Level­General , an d SS S Thrill an d Adventur e Seeking. The Neuroticism facto r wa s loade d positivel y b y Affec t Intensity , Schizotypal an d Borderlin e Personality , 1. 7 Empathy , an d DOTS­ R Activity Level­General . Ther e were negative loadings by the PTS­scales Strength of Excitation, Strength of Inhibition, an d Mobility, and by the DOTS­R scale s (low) Distractibility and Flexibility/Rigidity. The Psychoticism facto r was loaded positivel y by th e fou r Sensatio n Seeking scale s an d Venturesomeness , Borderline Personality , DOTS­ R Flexibility/Rigidity, PT S Strength o f Excitation, 1. 7 Impulsiveness, an d DOTS­R Approach/Withdrawal . There were negative loadings for age , the three DOTS­R Rhythmicit y scales, PTS Strength of Inhibition, an d DOTS­R (low ) Distractibility.

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Table 2. Joint factor analysis of the temperamental and humor-related traits (Varimax loadings)

Variables Extraversion Neuroticism Psychoticism

Age ­0.172 ­0.219 ­0.593 Sex 0.263 0.316 ­0.236 EPQ­R Psychoticis m 0.013 0.057 0.734 EPQ­R Extraversio n 0.703 0.021 0.231 EPQ­R Neuroticis m ­0.094 0.807 0.032 EPQ­R Lyin g ­0.106 ­0.143 ­0.498 1.7 Impulsiveness 0.458 0.288 0.386 1.7 Venturesomeness 0.377 ­0.185 0.672 1.7 Empathy 0.136 0.487 ­0.218 AfFect intensit y 0.439 0.605 0.027 STQ STA 0.110 0.586 0.235 STQ STB 0.060 0.605 0.414 SSS Thrill & Adventure Seeking 0.324 ­0.199 0.595 SSS Disinhibition 0.259 0.036 0.696 SSS Experience Seeking 0.377 ­0.092 0.725 SSS Boredom Susceptibility 0.154 ­0.037 0.702 PTS Strength of Excitation 0.436 ­0.554 0.351 PTS Strength o f Inhibitio n ­0.218 ­0.588 ­0.393 PTS Mobility 0.569 ­0.425 0.259 PTS Social Desirability 0.276 ­0.678 ­0.017 DOTS­R Activit y Level­Genera l 0.375 0.342 0.248 DOTS­R Activit y Level­Slee p 0.055 0.135 0.098 DOTS­R Approach/Withdrawa l 0.654 ­0.134 0.351 DOTS­R Flexibility/Rigidit y 0.231 ­0.385 0.407 DOTS­R Moo d Quality 0.723 ­0.074 0.048 DOTS­R Rhythmicity­Slee p 0.174 ­0.094 ­0.556 DOTS­R Rhythmicity­Eatin g 0.063 ­0.080 ­0.476 DOTS­R Rhythmicity­Dail y Habit s 0.087 ­0.184 ­0.571 DOTS­R Distractibilit y (low) 0.150 ­0.544 ­0.315 DOTS­R Persistenc e 0.263 ­0.152 ­0.292 SHRQ 0.696 ­0.024 0.266 CHS Coping Humor 0.593 ­0.054 ­0.096 SHQ Meta­Message Sensitivity 0.514 ­0.224 0.022 SHQ Liking of Humor 0.280 0.044 0.030 SHQ Emotional Expressivenes s 0.503 0.254 0.309 SHQZ Humor Appreciatio n 0.695 0.191 ­0.045 SHQZ Humo r Creativit y 0.693 0.125 0.033 TDS Seriousmindedness ­0.253 ­0.062 ­0.134 TDS Planning Orientation ­0.292 ­0.142 ­0.441 TDS Arousal Avoidance ­0.374 0.008 ­0.733

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Location ofthe humor-related traits in the PEN temperament space

Table 2 confirmed the hypotheses that a) Extraversion accounts for most of th e varianc e i n th e humo r related­trait s an d b ) th e Psychoticis m dimension additionally correlates with some of the humor­related traits . In detail , Extraversio n wa s loaded positivel y by the sens e of humor­ scales (tha t is , SHQ Z HA , SHQ Z HC , SHRQ , CHS , SH Q MMS , SHQ EE, and — with a medium­size coefficient ­ SH Q LH) and nega­ tively b y th e teile dominance scale s (tha t is , TD S SM , TD S PO , an d TDS AA). Psychoticism wa s loaded positivel y by the SHR Q and SH Q Emotional Expressivenes s and negativel y by TDS Planning Orientation and TD S Arousa l Avoidance . Th e loading s o n N wer e mino r ones ; SHQ MM S loade d negativel y an d SH Q E E loade d positivel y o n th e Neuroticism factor. Thus, th e humor­related trait s d o not for m a separat e facto r but fit well into this three­dimensional space. In fact, only two ofthe dimensions appeared necessar y t o accoun t fo r th e majo r varianc e i n th e humor ­ related traits . The location o f the humor­related trait s äs compared t o the P and E factors is given in Figure 1 . Figure l show s that SHQ Z HA , SHQ Z HC , CHS , an d SH Q MMS were locate d righ t o n th e axi s suggestin g t o b e goo d marker s o f Extraversion. Interestingly , th e SHR Q wa s locate d clos e t o DOTS­ R Approach/Withdrawal. Both loaded on E and on P and share the element of reacting favorably to new and demandin g situations: With approach (DOTS­R A/W ) or with laughter (SHRQ). Thi s aspect o f a demanding Situation is missing in SHQZ Humor Appreciation an d DOTS­ R Moo d Quality. As a consequence, thes e two scales did not sho w any alignment with P but were taking adjacent positions on the Extraversion axis. Thus, while the general tendency for positive affect an d laughter seem s to be a characteristic of Extraverts, high P Extraverts also laugh in more demand­ ing situations. No t surprisingly , SH Q Emotional Expressivenes s (which contains impulsivity items) was located near 1.7 Impulsiveness. Both also load positivel y o n N . Finally , Plannin g Orientatio n an d TD S Arousal Avoidance are located i n the E­P­quadrant .

Infernal structure of the humor-related traits

One migh t argu e tha t th e analysi s o f th e humor­relate d scale s i n th e context o f general temperamenta l trait s might not b e suitable t o detec t

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Figure 1. Location of the temperamental and humor-related traits in a space defined by factors of Extraversion and Psychoticism the mor e subtl e domain­specifi c difference s amon g th e tests . I n othe r words, furthe r o r mor e humor­specifi c factor s might emerg e from th e factoring o f onl y th e humor­relate d scale s an d thes e factor s migh t b e independent o f the PEN­model. This possibility was examined next.

Intercorrelations among the scales

To what extent do th e scale s overlap i n measuring humor? In orde r t o examine their convergent validity the 1 0 humor­related scale s were inter­ correlated. The results are given in Table 3. Table 3 shows that ther e were essentially two blocks of variables: on e consisting of the sense of humor scales (that is, SHRQ, CHS, SHQ MMS, SHQ LH, SHQ EE, SHQZ HA, and SHQZ HC), an d one composed of the tetic dominance scale s (that is , TDS SM , TDS PO , an d TD S AA) . While thes e tw o cluster s appeare d t o b e independent , tw o variable s

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(SHRQ an d SHQ EE) provided a link between them. Not surprisingly , these were the ones which also loaded o n the P factor (see Figure 1).

Factor analysis of the humor-related scales

A principa l component s analysi s o f th e 1 0 scale s clearl y yielde d tw o factors (Eigenvalues : 3.65 , 1.52 , .95, .85 , and .71 ) which togethe r explained 52% of the variance. The unrotated loadings and the Varimax­ rotated loading s are given in Table 4. In order to investigate the location of thes e humor factors in the temperamen t spac e their intercorrelations with th e EPQ­ R scale s wer e compute d an d ar e presente d i n Tabl e 4 äs well. Table 4 shows that all variables loaded on a first unrotated componen t suggesting a general bipolar facto r of low vs. high sense of humor. This factor correlated positively with Extraversion and — to a lower extent — also wit h Psychoticism . However , a secon d unrotate d facto r emerge d which wa s not instrument­specifi c an d shoul d no t b e neglected . I t was

Table 4. The two main factors (unrotated and rotated) underlying the 10 humor-related traits and their relationship to the EPQ-R-scales, age, and sex

Humor scales Unrotated Varimax­rotated

Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 1 Factor 2

SHRQ 0.76 0.01 0.65 ­0.40 CHS 0.61 0.37 0.71 ­0.01 SHQ MMS 0.57 0.19 0.58 ­0.14 SHQLH 0.44 0.06 0.40 ­0.19 SHQEE 0.68 ­0.15 0.50 ­0.49 SHQZHA 0.71 0.36 0.79 ­0.07 SHQZ HC 0.72 0.41 0.83 ­0.04 TDSSM ­0.39 0.64 0.01 0.75 TDSPO ­0.53 0.68 ­0.09 0.86 TDSAA ­0.52 0.39 ­0.23 0.61 Temperament P 0.25*** 0.37*** 0.02 ­0.45*** E 0.52*** ­0.01 0.44*** ­0.27*** N ­0.04 0.11 ­0.09 ­0.07 L ­0.26*** ­0.30*** ­0.06 0.39*** Age ­0.30*** ­0.16* ­0.17* 0.29*** Sex 0.11 0.03 0.08 ­0.09

*P<0.05, **P<0.01, ***P<0.001.

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Discussion

The presen t stud y attempte d t o stud y bot h temperamen t an d humor ­ related trait s withi n th e framewor k of th e Eysenckia n PE N mode l o f Personality. It was hypothesized that the fundamental dimensions under­ lying temperament are also able to account for habitual individual differ ­ ences in the domain of humor.

The PEN system and temperament

The joint factor analysis clearly supported the view that th e Eysenckian PEN mode l provide s a taxonomi c basi s fo r th e temperamen t trait s studied. Onl y three factors needed to be extracted from th e present pool of temperamen t an d humo r scale s an d the y ar e interpretabl e ä s E , N , and P. Most of the temperament traits yielded factor patterns which were expectable from prior studies with the English versions of these scales .

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There were a few anomalies in the loadin g patterns which shoul d be noted, however . As expected , impulsivenes s loade d positivel y o n P , E , and N . However , i t wa s mor e aligne d wit h E rathe r tha n wit h P . Conversely, bot h Venturesomenes s an d Thril l an d Adventur e Seekin g loaded positivel y on E and P , bu t mor e highly s o with P than with E. This might be partly due to the fact that the Psychoticism axis was shifted slightly towards Extraversion.4 Variables located in the P + E + diagona l (all SS scales, 1.7 Vent, DOTS­R A/W) are overrepresented in the present study and might have forced this location of the axes.5 Similarly, it should be kept in mind that the many sense of humor scales yielded an overrepre­ sentation of the surgency component i n the present Extraversio n factor . The present study also provided Information regarding the relationship between th e DOTS­ R scale s an d Psychoticism . Whil e th e patter n o f loadings of the DOTS­R scale s on the E and N factors were remarkably similar t o th e result s found i n the stud y by Windle (1989), th e present study showed that P can account for parts of the Variation in the DOTS­ scales, too. Psychoticism was loaded positively by Approach/Withdrawal and Flexibility/Rigidit y and negativel y by the three Rhythmicity­scales. The location o f Rhythmicity in the P dimension of the PEN Syste m is a noteworthy finding, since Rhythmicity can not b e accounted fo r by the 5­factor mode l (Angleitner and Ostendorf, in press).

The PEN System and humor-related traits

With regard t o the humor­related traits, th e results of the present study confirmed the basic assumption that certain facets of the sense of humor­ construct can be discussed within the realm of temperament. As a matter of fact , mos t o f th e reliabl e varianc e o f th e humo r inventorie s studie d could be accounted for b y the tw o gcnera l temperamen t dimension s of Extraversion and Psychoticism. More than that, it appears that onl y one dimension, namely Extraversion/Introversion, is needed for the locatio n of th e presen t sens e of humor­scales (a t leas t fo r th e one s in th e more narrow sense).

Extraversion/Introversion

The Extraverts ' greate r (ä s compare d t o Introverts ) susceptibilit y fo r positive affect , smilin g an d laughter , enjoymen t of entertainin g others ,

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Psychoticism

While E was sufficient fo r the sense of humor scales in the narrow sense, P was needed additionally to account for the other humor­related scales . The tendency t o freel y expres s one' s emotions (SH Q EE ) loade d posi ­ tively on P (and als o slightly so on N) an d the tendencies to plan ahea d (TDS PO ) an d t o avoi d arousa l (TD S AA ) wen t alon g wit h lo w Psychoticism. Thes e relationships can be predicted fro m th e concep t o f Psychoticism. On e has to bear i n mind, however, that these scale s were not considere d t o be sense of humor­scales in the narrow sense . Nevertheless, Psychoticis m i s relevan t fo r th e stud y o f humor . Th e results of the present study suggest that P relates to individual difference s in th e degre e t o whic h a n individua l i s prepare d fo r a humor­relate d Stimulus or not. Th e low P scorer seem s to be prone t o protect himsel f from suc h Stimulation , especiall y whe n it i s intense o r unconventiona l while th e hig h score r doe s not . Whil e th e E­dimensio n determine s th e threshold of the positive affectiv e respons e t o a humor Stimulu s (covert amusement, smiling , o r laughter) , th e P­dimensio n migh t relat e t o th e ease o r difficult y wit h whic h a humor­relate d Stimulu s gain s attentio n and i s processed adequately , tha t is , i n a playfu l fram e o f mind . Thi s

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Neuroticism

Neuroticism wa s no t involve d i n th e predictio n o f th e humor­relate d traits studie d i n the presen t sampl e ä s it was not i n the prior stud y by Ruch and Hehl (1985). 6 Only CHS7 (r= ­.19, P<.05) and SHQ MMS (r =—.23, P<.01) had significan t zero­orde r correlations . However , N might relate to the aspects of losing ones sense of humor under stressfu l conditions (ä s exemplified i n some CHS items), or being habitually pre ­ dominantly ill­humored or sad. Suc h facets, however , were not include d in the questionnaires studied .

Sense of humor: Surgency and seriousness?

What are the dimensions underlying sense of humor? The analysis of the internal structur e o f th e humor­relate d trait s employe d i n th e presen t study suggested that they are quite redundant, that is, the questionnaire s primarily varied along only two dimensions. Thus, there is an overdiffer ­ entiation o f certain aspects and differentl y labelle d questionnaires in fact measure highly similar traits. While the low to medium sized intercorrela­ tions among the relevant scale s see m to sugges t a relative independenc e of these traits, th e low reliabilities do not allo w such a conclusion . The mor e importan t o f thes e tw o dimension s i s compose d o f scale s located o n the E­axi s (CHS , SH Q MMS, SHQ Z HA , SHQ Z HC ) an d can b e regarde d ä s representin g th e well­know n surgency subfacto r o f Extraversion (se e also Cattell' s 16PF­ F scale) . A more domain specifi c label for this factor would be cheerfulness. The second factor was more heterogeneous and bipolar. Thi s factor of restraint vs . expressive (tentativ e label ) resemble s genera l temperamen t

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covered wel l o r no t a t all . Undoubtedl y ther e ar e severa l element s o f humor which are orthogonal to the factors studied here. Appreciation of humor (äs measured b y the 3 WD humor test) is such an example. The 3 W D humo r tes t (Ruc h 1992 ) doe s no t correlat e wit h th e SHR Q (Deckers and Ruch 1992) , nor with seif perceived sense of humor (Ruch and Hehl 1985 ) or Extraversion (Ruch 1992) . The discussio n o f the dimensionality of the sens e of humor­construct deserves a more thorough discussio n tha n ca n be undertaken here . The present stud y ca n no t contribut e t o th e questio n o f th e numbe r an d nature of the components of the sense of humor since only a few Segments of humor were represented i n th e questionnaire s studied . However , for the Segment s analyzed it ca n b e claimed that th e 1 0 inventories studied can be reduced to two dimensions without much loss of Information.

Are Introverts really lacking a sense of humor?

The curren t sens e o f humo r questionnaire s d o see m t o sugges t tha t Introverts ar e lacking a sense of humor. Quiet, less talkative people will all scor e lo w i n thes e questionnaires . However , ther e ar e man y wel l known introverted humorists. How to explain this discrepancy? First of all, on e ha s t o bea r i n mind tha t th e questionnaire s studie d d o cove r some bu t no t all aspects o f humor. A s alread y stated , aspect s suc h ä s susceptibility to positive emotions or the enjoyment of entertaining others are mos t strongl y represented. Ther e ar e definition s o f sens e of humor which do not emphasize these aspects at all. For example, sense of humor was conceptualized to be "the attitude of not taking oneself too seriously" or " a cheerfu l compose d fram e o f mind i n th e mids t o f the adversitie s and insufficiencies o f life" (Ruch 1993) . In this view, a low threshold for laughter would not indicate a sense of humor. Rather, it would depict a person bein g ver y immature . Othe r aspects , suc h ä s th e (nonsocial ) creation o f humor, might also be independent from Extraversion . Ther e is evidence that individuals who are creative in general produce funnie r captions whe n asked to complet e humorous stories. Thus, Introverts , if they are creative, migh t have an elaborated sens e of humor. The crucia l questio n is , however, whether ther e ar e area s o f humor­ related behavio r wher e Introverts outperfor m th e Extraverts . I n othe r words: is there a typica l sens e of humor o f Introverts? Ther e ar e more quiet, non­social, deeper­going and subtl e forms o f humor which might

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A brief appraisal of the humor-related scales

This report is not aime d a t a comprehensive discussio n o f the sens e of humor scales. However, the results of the present study allowed to draw several conclusions for the humor­related scales (at least for their German versions). In general, the internal consistency of the German translations o f the humor­related scale s is lower than the ones for the temperamental scales . This is surprising since they are supposed to measure more narrow traits. The internal consistency of the SHQ Emotional Expressivenes s and TDS Seriousmindedness scales is not acceptable . Th e low internal consistency was als o foun d fo r th e Englis h version o f th e SH Q E E (Lefcour t an d Martin 1986) . The scale s o f Humo r Appreciatio n an d Humo r Creativit y ar e no t orthogonal (Zi v 1984 : 111 ) bu t highl y positivel y intercorrelated . Thi s might b e due t o th e fac t tha t som e of the item s of both scale s do no t match th e definitio n o f the scale s (that is, they lack content validity). I f orthogonality betwee n th e tw o concept s i s o f theoretica l importance , these scales need a revision. However, both scales are very good markers of surgency and Extraversion . Liking of humor (SHQ LH) i s the scale containing the highest portion of variance that is independent of the PEN System . Also the recent study by Deaner and McConatha (1993 ) did find a positive but nonsignifican t correlation betwee n Extraversion an d SH Q LH . Thi s i s not surprisin g since studies of humor appreciation an d personality show that the PEN System is of little importance i n the predictio n o f responses to Cartoons and jokes (Ruc h 1992) . Likewise , th e SHR Q doe s no t correlat e wit h appreciation o f humor (Deckers an d Ruch 1992) . Individual difference s in thi s real m appea r t o b e more highl y related t o attitude s an d value s (Ruch 1992) . However, humor appreciation i s not unidimensional itself. Thus, i t woul d b e o f interes t t o investigat e whethe r ther e ar e positiv e correlations betwee n th e questionnair e measur e o f likin g o f humo r (SHQ LH) and behavioral measures of humor appreciation.

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Murgatroyd, e t al . (1978 ) di d no t fin d relationship s betwee n teile dominance and the Eysenckian personality System . This might be due to the fact tha t their stud y did not includ e the P­dimension and employed only a short scal e of E which is of course less reliable than a füll scale . Thus, the results o f the present stud y allowed to locat e teile dominance in the P­E­quadrant .

Other personality dlmenslons neededfor the locatlon of the sense of humor?

There ar e alternativ e System s o f personalit y description , suc h ä s th e models by Guilford, Cattell, or the five factor model (Costa and McCrae 1985). The y might serv e ä s fram e o f referenc e ä s well . Als o th e latte r model (alternativel y calle d th e "bi g five " o r th e "Norma n five" ) o f personality contain s factor s o f Extraversio n (o r Surgency ) an d Neuroticism (or Emotionality, Emotional Stability) which are considered to be equivalent with the Eysenckian superfactors E and N. The remaining three factors are Conscientiousness (or Will to Achieve), Agreeableness, and Openness (or Culture, Intellect). The former two define the negative pole of Psychoticism. These personalit y dimension s ma y b e relevan t fo r humo r ä s well . Agreeableness (or low P) might relate to the warmth, Philanthropie aspect of som e conceptualizations of the "sens e o f humor." This aspect, how­ ever, wa s missing i n th e presen t inventorie s studied . Conscientiousnes s might be needed (like low P, but no t Agreeableness ) for the location of seriousmindedness. Th e rol e o f Opennes s to Experienc e ca n b e see n i n the appreciation o f structural properties o f humor Stimuli, such äs jokes or cartoons . While incongruity i s a necessar y ingredien t i n al l kinds of humor, jokes and cartoons diffe r wit h respect to whether the incongruity is fully resolvable or not, how complex they are, andsoforth. Such differ ­ ences in humor structure preference might be accounted for by Openness. Indeed, Opennes s correlate d positivel y wit h appreciatio n o f nonsens e (that is , incongruity ) base d humo r an d negativel y wit h incongruity ­ resolution base d humor (Ruch, unpublished data). Thes e findings are in line wit h th e result s foun d fo r correlate s o f Openness , Conservatis m (low O) and Experience Seeking (high O) (for a review of studies relating to appreciatio n o f structure an d content in humor, see Ruch 1992) . There are stil l othe r domain s o f humor­related behavior left , suc h äs the comprehension o r creatlon o f humor . Lik e appreciatio n o f humo r

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Stimuli, these aspects will be located outsid e the PEN space . Ther e is no doubt tha t the y wil l touc h th e domai n o f ability , fo r example , genera l intelligence, verbal intelligence, o r creativity (see reviews by Feingold an d Mazzella 1991 ; O'Quin and Derks, i n press; Ruch 1980) . All in all, we are onl y beginning to understan d th e multidimensional nature o f th e sens e o f humor­construct . What i s neede d i s th e precis e identification an d definition o f all the facets, the construction of psycho­ metrically soun d measuremen t Instruments , an d studie s identifyin g th e interrelations among them äs well äs their location i n general models of Personality. University of Düsseldorf

Notes

* Thi s paper is based on data presented at the first workshop of the European Association o f Personality Psychology (EAPP) on Cross-Cultural Research on Temperament, Nieborow , Poland , Septembe r 199 1 and th e Eleventh International Conference on Humour and Laughter, Luxembourg, September 29­October 3 , 1993 . The preparation o f this manuscript was facilitated b y a Heisenberg grant (Ru 480/1­1) from the German Research Council (DFG) to the author. Correspondence and requests for reprints should be addressed to Willibal d Ruch , Departmen t o f Physiologica l Psychology , Heinrich ­ Heine­University o f Düsseldorf , Universitätsstraß e l , 4022 5 Düsseldorf , Gennany. 1. Despit e th e fac t tha t th e phenomenon o f coping with humor is not estab ­ lished ver y wel l a t th e behavioral leve l ther e alread y exis t thre e scale s t o measure it at the habitual level. 2. Whil e the present author doe s not shar e the vie w that th e term "sens e o f humor" is appropriate in all cases, this expression will be used in accordance with the authors of the respective questionnaires. 3. Strictl y speaking , TD S PO and TD S AA (but also SH Q EE) ca n not b e regarded ä s humor scale s but represen t genera l temperamen t dimensions. Although these characteristics are relevant for humor, the content o f these scales doe s no t genuinel y reflec t humor­relate d behavior . Thus , whil e TDS S M will b e counte d ä s belongin g t o th e lis t o f humor scale s i n th e narrow sense, TDS PO, TDS AA, and SHQ EE will not. Nevertheless, these constructs represen t theorie s develope d i n th e contex t o f humor researc h and the y wer e also use d in th e predictio n o f humor­induced laughte r (fo r example, Sveba k an d Apte r 1987) . Hence , the y ar e stil l liste d unde r th e humor­related scale s (that is , in the broader sense ) rather than put t o the temperament traits. 4. A s an effect, EPQ­ R E had a slight positive loading on the P­axis.

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5. Th e accumulation of scales located in the P+E+ quadran t in the studies by Zuckerman, Kuhlman , Thornquist, an d Kier s (1991 ) and Zuckerman , Kuhlman, and Camac (1988) might have been responsible fo r the appear ­ ance o f a stron g facto r o f P­Impulsive­Unsocialize d Sensatio n Seekin g (P­ImpUSS) which was loaded b y P, but also , to a lower extent, by E. 6. Deane r an d McConath a (1993 ) foun d als o negativ e correlations between Neuroticism an d th e humo r scale s (includin g SH Q LH) . However , thi s might reflec t th e fac t tha t E and N wer e negatively correlated (instea d of being orthogonal) in their sample rather than indicating an involvement of N in the prediction o f the selecte d list of humor scales. 7. Zillmann , Rockwell, Schweitzer, and Sundar (1993) did not find their mea­ sure of coping humor to be correlated wit h Neuroticism. 8. Thorso n an d Powel l (1991) may have largely overestimated the number of meaningful factor s derivable from thes e scales . A n analysi s o f the presen t data performe d unde r conditions comparabl e t o their s (principa l compo ­ nents analysis , Eigenvalu e greate r tha n l , Varimax­rotation ) yielded 8 , 8, and 2 factors for th e SHQ , SHRQ , an d CH S items sets, respectively. The scree test , however , suggeste d th e retentio n o f onl y 3 , 2 , an d 2 factors , respectively. While there were 1 8 eigenvalues in excess of unity for the total item pool (15 in the Thorson an d Powel l study), the root curv e suggested the extractio n o f onl y three factor s (which were not instrument­specific) . The eigenvalue greater one rule can clearly not be recommended for principal components analyse s (whic h doe s no t estimat e communalitie s an d thu s carries variance due to specifi c factors) . Furthermore, while a n extractio n of a larger number of factors may make sense, it is unlikely that they will be orthogonal. 9. Th e other factors related, for example, to appreciation of sexual, aggressive, complex vs . simple , an d nonsens e forms o f humor . Thes e self­evaluatio n scales, however, correlated wit h the actua l performance rathe r lo w (albei t significantly so), and hence the questionnaire­approach to these phenomena was discarded . Fo r example , self­reporte d appreciatio n o f sexua l humor correlated .45 (P < .001) with rated funniness of sexual humor. The respective coefficient fo r nonsense humor was .26 (P<.01). 10. Thorso n and Powell (1993a, 1993b ) do not provide the eigenvalues and the factor patter n fo r th e unrotated Solutions . Hence it ca n no t b e evaluate d whether there is a general factor underlying all items or not. Th e fact tha t their four orthogonally rotated factors are combined to form one total score Supports the assumption o f such a general factor combining several aspect s of humor, such äs production o r coping .

References

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