Ming Qing Yanjiu 20 (2017) 94–108 brill.com/jco The Boxue Hongci 博學宏詞 Examinations, Literary Anthologies by Emperors and the Literary Circles during the Kangxi and Qianlong Periods Bing Wang Abstract As a result of political demands and imperial cultural cultivation, the Qing Dynasty reigns of Kangxi (1661–1722) and Qianlong (1736–1796) both paid great attention to the traditional Han culture. During these periods, there were two landmark events that embodied the success of their cultural policy. These were the special examinations of boxue hongci (“breadth in learning and vastness in letters”, also called boxue hongru) in 1679 and 1736, and the publishing of numerous literary anthologies by the emperors. However, scholarly discussions have often focused mainly on aspects of political and cultural domination, and have rarely discussed the impact of these two events on liter- ary circles in the early and middle Qing Dynasty. Thus, this paper examines the boxue hongci examination and the literary anthologies by Emperors as literary events and evaluate them from three perspectives. First, with regards to literary purposes, these two events fostered the link between official and elite discourses. Second, with regards to literary styles, these two events together facilitated the emergence at the height of the Qing Dynasty styles known as qingzhen yazheng (“purity, authenticity, elegance and correctness”) and wenrou dunhou (“gentleness and restraint”). Third, with regards to literary layout, the two events changed the proportion of writers’ identity and actively advanced the balance of the north and south literary circles. Keywords Boxue examinations – Kangxi – Qianlong – Qing literary circles * National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore [email protected]. © koninklijke brill nv, leiden, 2017 | doi 10.1163/24684791-12340005Downloaded from Brill.com09/27/2021 10:27:07AM via free access The Boxue Hongci 博學宏詞 Examinations, Literary Anthologies 95 Introduction In early 1678, Sanfan zhiluan 三藩之乱 (“the Revolt of the Three Feudatories”) was close to being suppressed and the land under Qing 清 (1644–1911) rule was stable. In this context, the emperor adopted the cultural policy of jigu youwen 稽古右文 (“verifying and advocating ancient culture”) to select talent, to edit various literary works, and to revitalize and strengthen domination. From the early Kangxi 康熙 period (1662–1722) to the early Qianlong 乾隆 reign (1736–1795), two public events launched by Qing officials impacted literary development. One was the boxue hongci 博學宏[鴻]詞 (“breadth in learning and vastness in letters”) examination (hereafter BHE), which was different from the traditional examinations. It revived special method of appointing scholars during the era of imperial examination, which originated in the Kaiyuan 開元 (713–741) period of the Tang 唐 Dynasty (618–907). The BHE was held twice in the early years of the Qing Dynasty, once in the 18th year of Kangxi’s reign (1679), and another in the first year of Qianlong’s reign to select the most knowledgeable and cultivated scholars who also had mas- tery of prose and poetry. In 1679, out of 154 people who participated in the examination, 50 people were selected. In 1735, out of 193 participants, 15 people were selected. In the following year’s supplementary examination, only 4 out of 26 candidates were chosen. The other event was the compilation of numer- ous Yuxuan zongji 御選總集 (Literary Anthologies by Emperors, hereafter LAE). In the section entitled Zongji 總集 (General collection) of the Siku Quanshu 四庫全書, eighteen anthologies specifically indicated yuding 御定, qinding 欽定, yuxuan 御選, yuzhi 御製 (all meaning “decreed/selected by Emperor”), such as Yuxuan guwen yuanjian 御選古文淵鑒 (Profound mirror of ancient- style prose selected by Emperor), Yuding quan Tangshi 御定全唐詩 (A complete edition of Tang poetry selected by Emperor), Yuxuan Tang Song shichun 御選 唐宋詩醇 (Essence of Tang and Song poetry selected by Emperor) and Qinding sishu wen 欽定四書文 (Anthology of four books prose authorized by Emperor), etc. In compiling these collections, emperors directly or indirectly expressed their preferences and will. In ancient China, corresponding to the social strata, literary discourse was divided into three types: official discourse, elite discourse and folk discourse. Michel Foucault’s theory of power discourse held that royal power, as the high- est level of authority, controlled the production of knowledge and culture. Furthermore, people’s values were influenced by knowledge and culture, and different cognitive styles likewise created different discourses.1 Thus, it can 1 See Foucault 1980: 78–108. Ming Qing Yanjiu 20 (2017) 94–108 Downloaded from Brill.com09/27/2021 10:27:07AM via free access 96 WaNG Power Disseminate Folk Literary Professional Literary Events Literary World Life Ocial Discourse F Elit Scholarly Literary olk Discourse BHE Reading Community e Discourse Model Literary Texts Consumption LAE Critique Literary Criteria Acceptance Figure 1 The pathways of official discourse. be concluded that the BHE and LAE were producers of official discourse in the Qing Dynasty. In addition, these two literary events representing official discourse would influence elite discourse of the professional or elite literary world, which was comprised of the scholarly community, the model texts and the critique criteria. Then, via relationships of social power, elite discourse continued on to influence ordinary folks’ literary life, including the reading of literature and the consumption and acceptance of ideas. This graph captured the influence of official discourse on elite and folk discourse. 1 Change in the Mentality of Scholars: The Coexistence of Official and Elite Discourse Since the Manchus conquered China and founded the Qing dynasty in 1644, emperors of different reigns emphasized on the appointment of Han 漢 intel- lectuals and their culture. The BHE not only attracted certain Han intellectual elites but also alleviated tension between the Manchu and the Han to a cer- tain extent. Similarly, the compilation of numerous LAEs would include many scholars at that time and highlight the ruler’s cultural policies. 1.1 The Influence of BHE on Scholars’ Career Choice as an Official or an Anchoret In January 1678, Emperor Kangxi decreed: 自古一代之興，必有博學鴻儒，振起文運，闡發經史，潤色詞章，以備顧問 著作之選。朕萬幾餘暇，遊心文翰，思得博學之士，用資典學. .凡有 學行兼優、文詞卓越之士，不論已仕未仕，令在京三品以上，及科道官員， 在外督撫布按，各舉所知，朕將親試錄用。 Ming QingDownloaded Yanjiu from 20 Brill.com09/27/2021 (2017) 94–108 10:27:07AM via free access The Boxue Hongci 博學宏詞 Examinations, Literary Anthologies 97 From ancient times, whenever a dynasty arose, of necessity there were profound scholars of vast learning who fostered the literary develop- ment, expounded the Classics and Histories, and enriched the literary style, thus preparing themselves for selection as advisers and writers. I, in my spare time after enacting the ten thousand affairs, gladden my heart with literature; and it is my wish to obtain scholars of vast learning who could be used as aides in the classical studies . With respect to whoever is equally excellent in knowledge and conduct and surpassing in prose and song styles, whether already in service or not, I herewith order, within the Capital those officials whose ranks are above the third grade and those who are in the Censorate, and outside the Capital the viceroys and governors, the provincial financial commissioners and the provincial judicial commissioners, all to recommend those of whom they know, so that I might personally submit them to an examination for appointment.2 After publishing the imperial edict, Emperor Kangxi repeatedly ordered the Ministry of Personnel to charge officials in every province and district to find and recommend talent. The edict was so severe as to appear threaten- ing. Initially, many Ming 明 (1368–1644) loyalists refused recruitment attempts using excuses such as illness or needing to care for parents. For instance, Li Yong 李顒 (1627–1705) declined seven times. Gu Yanwu 顧炎武 (1613–1682) disobeyed the order despite the perceived threat of execution. Huang Zongxi 黃宗羲 (1610–1695) declined the appointment with the excuse that his old mother needed care. However, the Qing government did not punish scholars who refused appointments. On the contrary, the government rewarded schol- ars who accepted their appointment by allocating heating materials and money every month to them. Even those who took the exam perfunctorily, such as Yan Shengsun 嚴繩孫 (1623–1702), the government still held a tolerant attitude and finally admitted them. Some scholars such as Fu Shan 傅山 (1607–1684), who refused to take the exam and had been repatriated to his place of origin, were given official positions by the Qing government, albeit lower positions. Thus, the Qing government adopted moderate policies that did not include coercion. Meanwhile, these policies had a major impact on the life choices and liter- ary perspectives of Ming loyalists. Even people such as Gu and Huang, who remained loyal to the Ming Dynasty by refusing to serve the Qing government, 2 Qing Shengzu ren huangdi shilu 清實錄:聖祖仁皇帝實錄: vol. 71, p. 910a. This translation is adapted from Hellmut 1951: 61. Ming Qing Yanjiu 20 (2017) 94–108 Downloaded from Brill.com09/27/2021 10:27:07AM via free access 98 WaNG were supportive of their students and descendants who chose to engage in Qing politics. As Dai Mingshi 戴名世 (1653–1713) said: 自明之亡,東南舊臣,多義不仕宦,而其家子弟仍習舉業、取科第,多不以非。 Since the doom of the Ming Dynasty, most scholars and officials refused to serve Qing Dynasty because of their loyalty; however, most of them did not opposed their descendants to learn how to pass the imperial exam for official positions.3 Although some early Ming loyalists reluctantly accepted Qing patronage, later scholars still remained ambivalent. An interesting example was Pan Lei 潘耒 (1646–1708), a disciple of Gu Yanwu, who vacillated at first. Before recruitment, he wrote a poem, 只合從容求放免，林泉深處好偷生。 I beg forgiveness for not wishing to be recruited, as I would like to live in seclusion instead.4 However, after recruitment he wrote, 臣幸生雍熙之代,為侍從之臣。預在末班,遭逢曠典,豈可使鴻林盛美郁而 不宣？ I am thankful to be able to live in a peaceful age, and serve the Emperor as an official.