C HAPTER 1 SEXUALITY AND PORNOGRAPHY Gert Martin Hald, Christopher Seaman, and Daniel Linz In a two-wave legalization process, Denmark, a among both scientists and the general public (Hald small Scandinavian country, became the first coun- & Malamuth, 2008). try in the world to legalize pornography. In 1967, all Traditionally, opponents of pornography have pornographic text material was legalized, followed claimed that pornography may have damaging by the legalization of all visual pornography in 1969 effects on beliefs, morals, values, attitudes, and (Hald, 2007). behaviors and hold pornography responsible for a Both before and after this legalization process, variety of adverse effects, including wrecking mar- the effects of pornography were hotly debated. Con- riages, negatively changing men’s perceptions of sequently, immediately after legalization, research women and women’s perceptions of themselves, sex- was launched to investigate the effects of pornogra- ual addiction, and unhealthy attitudes and behaviors phy predominantly on sexually aggressive behav- (e.g., Manning, 2010; P. Paul, 2005). To the con- iors. Correlational research at the aggregate level trary, proponents of pornography have claimed that connecting the circulation of pornography with little or no such effects of pornography consumption sexual aggression was used (for critique of this are evident. Rather, pornography may benefit the approach, see also Kingston & Malamuth, 2011). individual by enhancing the sex life, contributing to The results showed a decline in sexual aggression knowledge about sex, providing a recreational sex- after the legalization of pornography (Kutchinsky, ual outlet or a buffer against sexual assaults, or 1991), which was taken as an indication that por- helping to assess or cure common sexological dys- nography probably did not adversely affect sexually functions (e.g., Britton, Maguire, & Nathanson, aggressive behaviors and perhaps even worked as a 1993; M. Diamond, 2009; M. Diamond, Jozifkova, & buffer against them. Subsequently, these Danish Weiss, 2011; Kontula, 2008; Wylie & Pacey, 2011) studies were frequently used and cited in the first of Given the controversial nature of pornography, it the grand U.S. investigations of the effects of por- is important to stress that the following review is not nography, namely the President’s Commission on to be seen as an attack on or defense of pornography Obscenity and Pornography (1970), set up by Presi- but as an attempt to synthesize the most important, dent Lyndon B. Johnson. Essentially, the Report of prevailing, dominant, and influential theoretical the Commission on Obscenity and Pornography positions and empirical literature on pornography acquitted pornography on all charges. Nonetheless, available today. neither the President’s Commission on Obscenity and Pornography nor subsequent U.S. governmental DEFINING PORNOGRAPHY or other international governmental reports or research on pornography have managed to lessen Originally, the term pornography referred to writings the debate on pornography that today remains hot about or depictions of harlots or prostitutes. The term http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/14194-001 APA Handbook of Sexuality and Psychology: Vol. 2. Contextual Approaches, D. L. Tolman and L. M. Diamond (Editors-in-Chief) 3 Copyright © 2014 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved. Hald, Seaman, and Linz derives from the Greek word pornographos, which imply acts of submission, coercion, or both by the again derives from the Greek words pórne, meaning positioning of the models, use of props, or display of “whore,” and graphein, meaning “to write” (Encyclo- unequal power relationships. In turn, violent pornog- paedia Britannica, 2011; Malamuth, 1999). Thus, the raphy may be defined as sexually explicit materials term originally referred to writings on whores. in which nonconsensual, coercive, or violent sexual The meaning of the term today has changed dra- relations are explicitly portrayed (see also Senn & matically from that of the 19th century, perhaps best Radtke, 1990). illustrated by a famous comment made by U.S. Supreme Court Justice Stuart Potter nearly 50 years HISTORICAL IDEOLOGICAL ago: “Pornography, I know it when I see it” (Jacobel- BACKGROUND OF PORNOGRAPHY lis v. Ohio, 1964). Justice Potter’s comment illus- RESEARCH trates quite well that the definition of pornography may vary from one person to the next. Not surpris- Throughout the years, three ideological perspectives ingly, this variation also translates into research. have emerged as primary guiding forces underlying Out of numerous studies on the effects of pornog- pornography research and much of the debate about raphy published in the past 40 years, only a few have pornography, especially in the United States: (a) the had matching definitions of pornography, which is liberal perspective, (b) the conservative–moralistic mirrored in the theoretical literature on pornography perspective, and (c) the radical feminist perspective as expressed by Fukui and Westmore (1994): (Linz & Malamuth, 1993). Each perspective is perhaps best conceptualized Despite several efforts no satisfactory as an overarching label for a variety of opinions and definition of pornography exists. While interpretations (sometimes contrasting) concerning the term is commonly used with a pejo- pornography. Moreover, each perspective makes rative meaning, the concept is subjective assertions about, for example, freedom, human and differences occur in the interpreta- nature, family values, the rights and roles of men tion of the term between different groups and women in society, and freedom of speech that of people, especially between the sexes. influence definitions of pornography, predictions (pp. 600–601) about the effects of pornography, formation of study Furthermore, Malamuth, Addison, and Koss (2000) hypotheses, selection of outcome variables, and accurately wrote, more generally interpretation of results from research on pornography (see also Malamuth, 1999). Many researchers have sought to distin- The liberal perspective holds that individuals who guish between different types of sexually are given free access to information are fully capable explicit media. They suggest that more of making rational choices and decisions about what differentiated distinctions should be made constitutes appropriate behavior in their cultural through use of specific terminology instead context and act accordingly. Pornography is consid- of blanket designations of all sex-related ered yet another source of information expressing material under an all-encompassing label, ideas about gender, sex, and intimate relations. Con- such as pornography. (p. 2) sequently, individuals (specifically adults) should be According to M. Diamond (2009) the most com- given access to this information and use pornogra- mon definition of pornography used by researchers phy as desired. According to Malamuth (1999), four and in the U.S. courts today is “media basically con- assertions about pornography and the rights and strued as intended to entertain or arouse erotic roles of the individual, the state, and society are desire” (p. 304). According to Senn and Radtke evident in the liberal perspective: (1990), among others, nonviolent pornography may be defined as sexually explicit materials without any (1) Most pornography merely triggers overt coercive content but that may sometimes sexual thoughts that are not acted out. 4 Sexuality and Pornography Unless these thoughts result in harm- upheld (Fukui & Westmore, 1994) or, as a radical ful actions against others, pornography feminist slogan proclaims, “Pornography is the the- should be considered “harmless”. ory—rape is the practice” (R. Morgan, 1980, p. 139). (2) Pornography may even be a socially Andrea Dworkin (2000), one of the leading propo- beneficial form of communication that nents of radical feminism, described pornography as allows for self-expression of sexual inter- the graphic, sexually explicit subordina- ests. (3) The state should not restrict tion of women whether in pictures or individuals’ basic human rights to free in words that also includes one or more expression of ideas. As long as the of the following: women are presented recipient restricts his behavior to private dehumanized as sexual objects, things, or actions such as sexual arousal, fantasy commodities; or women are presented as or use of pornography with consenting sexual objects who enjoy pain or humili- partners, society has no right to interfere. ation; or women are presented as sexual (4) While pornography is generally not objects who experience sexual pleasure harmful, consumers who are particularly in being raped; or women are presented susceptible to it and cannot behave ratio- as sexual objects tied up or cut up or nally may require some form of message mutilated or bruised or physically hurt; restriction once they have acted illegally. or women are presented in postures of (p. 82) sexual submission; or women’s body parts are exhibited such that women are The conservative–moralistic perspective holds that reduced to those parts; or women are although individuals are equipped with a certain presented being penetrated by objects or degree of free will, the sociocultural environment animals; or women are presented in sce- influences their choices and decisions. Pornography narios of degradation, injury, abasement, is seen as a part of this environment with the poten- torture, shown as filthy or inferior, bleed- tial to adversely