Geology of the Grand Calumet River Region

Home , Calumet River, Grand Calumet River, Lake Chicago, Laurentide Ice Sheet, Valparaiso Moraine

1999/2000 . Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science 108/109 :11—1 8

GEOLOGY OF THE GRAND CALUMET RIVER REGION

Timothy G. Fisher: Department of Geosciences, Indiana University Northwest, 340 0 Broadway, Gary, Indiana 46408 US A

ABSTRACT . The geology of the Calumet River region is briefly reviewed to provide a background fo r applied research in the area . The review relies heavily upon research conducted by scientists affiliated with the Indiana and Illinois Geological Surveys . At the end of the Late Wisconsinan glacial epoch , fluctuations in the Lake Michigan Lobe of the Laurentide Ice Sheet resulted in the formation of thre e moraine systems around the south end of the Lake Michigan basin : in decreasing age, the Valparaiso, Tinley and Lake Border ridges . High stands of ancestral Lake Michigan (also known as glacial Lak e Chicago) are named the Glenwood, Calumet and Algonquin high phases that formed when the north en d of the basin was blocked by ice . Retreat of the glacier from the basin caused the lake level to drop durin g the Two Creek low phase . The Chippewa low occurred at the beginning of the Holocene when ancestra l Lake Michigan was as much as 107 m below modern levels . Lake level then rose in response to isostati c rebound of the outlet in southern Ontario until the Nipissing high was reached about 5000 years ago . At this time, the Toleston Beach in northern Indiana and Illinois was developing as a complex of sand dune s and more than 100 beach ridges . The Grand Calumet River came into existence about 2600 years ago a s spits deflected the Little Calumet River eastwards upon closure of the Sag channel . Eastward migratio n of the Grand Calumet River ceased when the coastline was modified following European settlement i n the late 19th century . Keywords : Indiana, Lake Michigan, Grand Calumet River, geolog y

The geology of the Grand Calumet River Time (radiocarbon dates) within the tex t region (hereafter referred to as `the region) i s older than 6300 ybp (years before presen t closely tied to glacial events that began about [19501) is in radiocarbon years, while date s 1,600,000 years ago . During the Pleistocene younger than 6300 ybp are reported in cal- epoch (~ 1,600,000–10,000 years ago) the re- endar ybp . gion was impacted by numerous glacial advances and retreats . Because successive gla- GLACIAL AND GLACIAL LAKE cial advances destroyed the evidence o f HISTOR Y previous advances, the number of glaciation s The region is underlain by sediment depos- is unknown . The presence of older glacial sed- ited by glaciers and glacial lakes . The Grand iment throughout the Midwest beyond th e Calumet River is located on lacustrine sedi- limit of the late Wisconsinan glaciation (Fig . ment of the Toleston Beach that is less than 1), which peaked about 20,000 years ago 6300 years old, which in turn lies upon older (Mickelson et al . 1983), is testament to earlier, glacial, and finer-grained glaciolacustrine sed- more extensive glaciations . In the region there iment. The distribution and character of this appears to be sedimentary evidence for only older sediment is best understood by linkin g the most recent glacial episode (Brown et al . h 1996), although there may be some uncertain- the history of the recessional ice margin wit ty about this . The geology of the region is by glacial lakes in the Lake Michigan basin . no means only a result of glacial erosion an d During the last ice age, known as the Wis- sedimentation . Much of the sediment in th e consinan in the Midwest, the Laurentide Ic e region was deposited as littoral sand or off- Sheet advanced across much of Indiana, Illi- shore mud from various levels of glacial Lake nois, and Ohio (Fig . 1) ; and the maximum ex- Chicago and mid-Holocene age Lake Michi- tent of ice was reached about 20,000 ybp . gan. The variable levels of these lakes devel- Across Indiana, there are series of recessional oped in response to the presence of ice in th e moraines that record stationary ice-margins Lake Michigan basin and isostatic rebound in (Gray 1989) composed of glacigenic material Ontario . (sand, gravel, and till) . By about 14,000 yb p

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extending into Michigan and Wisconsin ; and in Indiana, the moraine forms the sub-conti- nental drainage divide between the St. Lawrence and Mississippi drainage systems . Set inside the Valparaiso Moraine are two other recessional moraines known as the Tinley and Lake Border Moraines . All three ridges were likely deposited in a short period of tim e around 14,000 ybp by successive and less extensive readvances (Fig . 5). Glacial lakes formed between the ice and the ridges as the glacier receded northwards, opening up th e lake basin . Because the glaciers were in lake basins, they rested on fine-grained sedimen t well-lubricated with water, and this low-resis-

-- ,i tive state (Clarke 1987) likely aided the glaciers ability to respond quickly to variation s . IL in climatic conditions and/or glaciologic con- trols. These responses are illustrated in Figs MS \ i r- ~I, . 2—4, where four different positions of the ic e Late Wisconsinan glacial extent margin are illustrated. The dated phases are averages and simplifications . For example, the Figure 1 .-Location of the Grand Calumet River Glenwood phase has been interpreted to con- region at the southern end of Lake Michigan, and sist of two separate advances with a low-lak the extent of Late Wisconsinan glaciation in th e e Great Lakes region. phase between them (Hansel et al. 1985). Fig- ures 2—4 are designed to provide the reade r with only an overview of late-glacial events . (Hansel et al. 1985) much of the Laurentide When the Lake Michigan lobe of the Lau- Ice Sheet was confined to the Great Lake ba- rentide Ice Sheet occupied the lake basin, the sins, giving a lobate pattern to the ice margin Straits of Mackinac were blocked by ice. Gla- (e.g., Fig. 2). The Valparaiso Moraine wraps cial Lake Chicago was dammed by the glacier around the southern end of Lake Michigan, (hence the term : glacial lake) and the outlet

e lake re lake Glenwood phase -12,800 t4 C B .P. `” Chippewa phase -9800 14C B.P. ~J Two Creeks phase -11,900 14C B.P. Nipissing phase -4500 74C BP.

Figures 2-4 . Position of lake levels (phases) as controlled by ice margins . Note that lake phases are not drafted for the Lake Huron basin, other than for the Glenwood phase . Dates are averages and alon g with the figures are based on Hansel et al. (1985) and Eschman & Karrow (1985) . Note that the ice margi n fluctuated over hundreds of kilometers over relatively short periods of time.

FISHER—GEOLOGY OF THE GRAND CALUMET 13

was located on the lowest point of the drain - dicates glacigenic sediment (tills, debris flows , age divide (Leverett 1897). During the Glen- sand and gravel, and ice-contact glacial lak e wood phase (Fig . 2), the Chicago outlet wa s sediment) of the Lake Border sequence (Tin- active, with water flowing through the Sa g ley and Lake Border Moraines) and Valparai- and Des Plains channels . Once the glacier re- so Megasequence (Brown et al. 1996) . The ceded northwards enough to deglaciate th e Glenwood-age sediment consists of two main Straits of Mackinac or Indiana River low - types. First, the most obvious landforms are lands, lake level dropped and was controlled the extensive spits that built across northwes t by outlets to the northeast (Hansel et al . Indiana by the westerly transport of sand by 1985) . The Chicago outlet was abandoned a t littoral currents. Although not shown on Fig . this time, and forests grew on the newly ex - 5, Glenwood-age spits are prevalent in Illi- posed lake plain between the Glenwoo d nois; and they indicate an easterly transport shoreline and the much lower lake of the Tw o direction. The spits record migration of san d Creeks phase (Fig . 2). The northeast outlets southward along both sides of the lake, fo- were glaciated once more during a readvance cusing sediment to its southern end . The spits of the Lake Michigan lobe, causing the lake record a lake level between about 195–189 m to rise to the Calumet level . The rising lake suggesting that the Chicago outlet was slowl y buried a forest at Two Creeks, Wisconsin being eroded during Glenwood time . The sec- (Broecker Farrand 1963) and other woody ond type of Glenwood sediment is fine - material in the Chicago region (Hansel et al. grained lacustrine sediment of laminated and 1985) and northwest Indiana (Schneider massive silty-clay . This unit is mapped as part Reshkin 1982; Schneider Hansel 1990) . of the Lake Border sequence and consists o f The radiocarbon dates indicate flooding of th e approximately 16 m of laminated clay, silt , land started at about 11,800 ybp . The higher and silty clay and fine-grained till over bed- lake level is known as the Calumet phase, and rock (Bleuer and Woodfield 1993 ; Brown the Chicago outlet was reoccupied (Fig . 3). By Thompson 1995; Brown et al . 1996). about 11,200 ybp the Lake Michigan lobe had There are no sediments mapped for the Tw o begun to retreat northwards of the Straits o f Creeks phase because the region was subaer- Mackinac, and Lakes Michigan and Huron ially exposed at this time . It is during this time were confluent. This lake is called glacial and the subsequent Chippewa phase that th e Lake Algonquin, and some contend that any regions rivers carved their valleys . This in- evidence of it in the region was eroded by the cision was in response to the lower lake leve l subsequent mid-Holocene Nipissing hig h that increased the streams bed slope . Evidence phase (Karrow 1980 ; Hansel et al . 1985) . for the low lake level is now beneath the lake . However, more recently Chrzastowski For example, divers off Chicago found a bur- Thompson (1994) and Capps et al . (2000) ied forest with oak stumps rooted in place be- have described erosional scarps just below the neath 25 m of water (Chrzastowski et al . Calumet level as evidence for an Algonquin 1991) . Radiocarbon dates averaging 8300 ybp beach in the region . With continued retreat of suggest that the lake had risen to that eleva- ice in southern Ontario, the North Bay outle t tion by then and drowned the trees . was exposed around 10,300 ybp (Larse n The next youngest sequence of sediment in 1987) . Ancestral Lake Michigan dropped to a the region is affiliated with the Calumet low level known as the Chippewa low (Fig . Phase. Two map units are shown on Fig. 5. 4), which may have been as much as 107 m Sand dunes form an arc parallel to, and south below the modern lake level (Hough 1955) . of, the Little Calumet River. On either side of More recently, Coleman et al . (1994) hav e the dunes, beach, lagoon, and shallow water, suggested only an X80 m lowering . At this sand and mud is exposed at the surface today . time until the mid-Holocene, ancestral Lake The elevation of the lake was at approximate- Michigan drained through the North Bay out- ly 189 m. Spits were also formed at this time , let into the Ottawa River before entering the but are restricted to near the Illinois state lin e St. Lawrence east of Lake Ontario . and further west. The Calumet-age sediment The distribution of the sediment deposite d is grouped with the Glenwood dunes and lit- during ice recession was partly controlled by toral sediment as part of the Lake Michigan elevation . On Fig . 5, the diamond pattern in- sequence because in the subsurface it is dif-

14 PROCEEDINGS OF THE INDIANA ACADEMY OF SCIENC E

To esto p Beach sedimen t Sand dunes of Toieston Caiumet ac e alumet age lacustrine sedimen t 5(it . sf L ni.,.:ood age

.)..r,Ai _+Cl !acustrine sedimen t Lake Border glacigenic terrain (moraine) They glacigenic terrain (moraine ) Iparaiso g!acigenic terrain (moraine ) Highways

Figure 5 .-Generalized Quaternary terrain map for northwest Indiana illustrating the inset relationshi p of moraines and beaches . As a general rule, the landscape becomes progressively younger from south t o north . Modified from Brown et al . (1996) .

ficult to differentiate between Glenwood and Michigan basin . A time lag exists between de- Calumet sediment (S .E. Brown pers . commun . glaciation and when the Earths crust ha s 2002) . reached its equilibrium elevation once the ice sheet load had been removed (slow isostati c HOLOCENE CHANGES IN SOUTHERN rebound) . As mentioned earlier for the Tw o LAKE MICHIGAN Creeks phase, during the Chippewa phase, th e Previously, the fluctuations in glacial Lak e outlet for the Great Lakes was the North Bay Chicago were explained by fluctuations in th e outlet rather than the modern outlet at Por t ice margin of the Lake Michigan lobe : but in- Huron . During the Holocene, the North Bay terestingly, after the Lake Michigan lobe ha d outlet gradually rose causing Lakes Michigan retreated well north of the Great Lakes, th e and Huron to rise until they were confluent effect of the ice sheet was still felt in the Lake with Lake Superior (Larsen 1985) . Lake

FISHER—GEOLOGY OF THE GRAND CALUMET 15

Michigan continued to rise until it reached pographic gradients perpendicular to the two peaks at approximately 5300 (Larse n shoreline, 2) littoral transport of sand from the 1994) and 4700 ybp (Baedke Thompso n northwest after about 3000 ybp, and 3) fluc- 2000) known as the Nipissing I and II hig h tuations in lake level . Along the eastern part phases, respectively (Fig . 4). During the Nip- of Fig. 5 the relative slope of the land into the issing phase the North Bay, Sag channel outle t off-shore zone is steeper than at the lake plain (Chicago outlet), and Port Huron outlets were further west in the southwest corner of the simultaneously active (Lewis 1969, 1970) . lake. As a result, aeolian processes dominated , With continued isostatic rebound, the North and dunes rather than beach ridges developed Bay outlet was abandoned ; and there may on the eastern side of the Toleston Beach. Fur- have been a rapid drop in lake level that coul d ther west, the southwest corner of the lake act- be attributed to incision of the Port Huron out - ed as a depositional sink ; and beach ridges let (Baedke Thompson 2000) . At around developed with only minor sand dune devel- 2600 ybp the Sag channel was abandone d opment. (Chrzastowski Thompson 1992.leaving) the Initially, the source of sand for most of th e Port Huron outlet as the sole outlet . beach ridges in the Toleston Beach was from Since about 6300 ybp (Thompson Baed- glacial deposits along the Michigan coastline . ke 1997), when the lake rose above the mod- Bluff recession would have been particularly ern lake level from the Chippewa low to th e active during the rise in lake level from th e Nipissing high, the 700 km2 Toleston Beach Chippewa low to the Nipissing high . Recently, began forming. A lake level curve going back Loope Arbogast (2000) demonstrated tha t to 4700 ybp was reconstructed based on th e the age of perched sand dunes along the west - elevation of foreshore gravel deposits in beac h ern coast of Lower Michigan correspond s ridges from the Lake Michigan basin since the with high stands of Lake Michigan (see Fig. Nipissing high (Baedke Thompson 2000) . 6) . Therefore, during these short-lived hig h Beach ridges record the high elevation of fluc- stands, bluff recession would also increas e tuations in lake level, thus the curve (Fig . 6) sand supply for littoral transport . The paleo- is a smoothed record of high lake levels fro m geographic reconstruction of Fig . 7 corre- the last 4700 years. It is interesting to note sponds in time to about the Nipissing II peak . that Thompson (1992) and Thompson The lake has flooded the Sag Channel and th e Baedke (1995, 1997) were able to determin e Calumet lagoon formed behind the early To- three scales of lake level fluctuations . There leston beach. Since the Nipissing II high, there are 25–35, 140–160, and 500–600 yr cycles was only westerly transport of sand to the with a lake level elevation change of 0.5–0.6, southern end of the lake where beach ridges 0 .8–0 .9, and 1 .8–3 .7 m, respectively. developed. The easterly transport of the sand The Toleston Beach has prograded basin - did not reach the region until after 3000 yb p ward since the Nipissing high, and incorpo- because the Chicago outlet embayment was rates the Little and Grand Calumet Rivers . On trapping sediment (Chrzastowski Thomp- Fig. 5 the Toleston-age sediment is shown in son 1992). Figure 8 reflects a lowering of th e lightest gray . Sand dunes are stippled and lake level with continued beach and dune de- dominate the eastern side of the Tolesto n velopment. Note that by this time spits ar e Beach. The southern band of parabolic dunes building out from Stoney Island in Illinoi s had developed by 3200 ybp and point east - across the outlet embayment, and beginnin g wards, reflecting westerly air flow. The youn- to deflect the Little Calumet River eastwards . ger, northern band of dunes contain paraboli c As the Calumet River turns east, it is re- dunes that point southeast and southwards referred to as the Grand Calumet River. Thus cording a transition to more northerly air flo w the Grand Calumet River came into existence (Thompson 1992) . Westward of the sand just after 2600 ybp when the Sag Channel was dunes, the Toleston Beach widens to where i t abandoned (Chrzastowski Thompso n contains over 100 beach ridges (Thompson 1992) . At about 1500 ybp all barriers to th e Baedke 1997) . south- and eastward transport of sand were re - The evolution of the Little and Grand Cal- moved (Fig . 9); and a large baymouth bar umet Rivers is illustrated in Figs . 7–10 and formed by spit growth, trapping an embay- was the result of three factors : 1) relative to - ment of Lake Michigan to form Lake Calu-

16 PROCEEDINGS OF THE INDIANA ACADEMY OF SCIENC E

Nipissing III \ 180

Historical Record

176 Historical average (1819-1999)

175 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 Calendar years B.P. Figure 6. A Fourier-smoothed lake level curve for Lake Michigan for the last 4700 years . Actual variations in lake level (peaks and troughs) are not shown. This curve combines data sets for around th e Lake Michigan basin and illustrates the dramatic drop in lake level from the Nipissing II stage and multipl e meter variations in lake level since 4000 ybp when the Toleston Beach was forming . IGLD–International Great Lake Datum . Modified from Baedke Thompson (2000) .

met. The Grand Calumet River entered Lake veloped once every ,--30 years, while at the Calumet and was then continually deflected same time deflecting the Grand Calumet Rive r eastwards by spit growth at the mouth of th e further eastward . Development of the Toleston river. At about 1100 ybp continued spi t Beach had essentially stopped once Europea n growth had captured another part of ancestra l settlement in the area led to modification o f Lake Michigan to form Wolf Lake (Fig. 10). the shoreline during the 19th and 20th centuries, The spit growth corresponds to high stages in although occasional beach ridges are stil l Lake Michigan between 2000 and 1000 ybp forming today on the eastern side of obstacle s (Fig. 6) and presumably increased sediment to littoral drift (Hunter et al . 1990). Shoreline supply. The Toleston Beach continued to grow positions for selected dates are superimpose d northward into the lake as beach ridges de- on Fig. 10.

Figure 7–10 .–The evolution of the Grand Calumet River was initiated by closing the Sag channel an d deflection of the Little Calumet River eastwards by spit and beach ridge growth in the southwest corner of the lake. Figures modified from Chrzastowski Thompson (1992) and Thompson (1992) .

FISHER GEOLOGY OF THE GRAND CALUMET 1 7

Sediments that underlie the region hav e River was deflected eastwards by spits at been investigated by numerous researcher s about 2600 ybp . Spits and beach ridges con- (Blueur Woodfield 1993 ; Doss 1993 ; tinued to grow until the end of the 19th cen- Brown Thompson 1995 ; Brown et al . tury, which resulted in (1) capturing small em- 1996). Beneath Lakes Calumet and Wolf, an d bayments of Lake Michigan to form Calume t the Grand Calumet River are 15–18 .5 m of and Wolf Lakes, and (2) further deflecting of sand, gravel, and peat (Doss 1993) of the Lake the Grand Calumet River eastward. Michigan sequence that is in turn underlain b y finer grain sediment of the Lake Border se- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS quence (Brown et al . 1996). Sand is the pre - This review paper has relied heavily upo n dominate sediment in the Toleston Beach , the work by past researchers, in particular ge- with minor amounts of gravel in the beach ologists affiliated with the Indiana and Illinoi s ridges; and organic material (peats) is foun d Geological Surveys . The forthcoming boo k in swales between beach ridges and in th e Calumet Area Beginnings by Ken Schoon t o Calumet lagoon. be published by the Indiana University Pres s describes the history of the region since set- SUMMAR Y tlement and the affiliated changes to the land- The geology of the region is linked to th e scape . Thanks to Ken who graciously allowe d events of deglaciation and subsequent fluctu- me access to a draft of his book when I wa s ations in the levels of ancestral Lake Michi- writing this article while on sabbatical leav e gan . Glacial sediment of the Lake Border se- in New Zealand . This review paper has ben- quence and Valparaiso megasequence consist s efited from the many discussions over the last of tills and meltwater deposits from ice-mar- eight years with Steve Brown of the Indian a ginal environments in the southern part of the Geological Survey who has provided infor- region above 195 m elevation. Sometime mation and maps in an efficient and unhesi- around 14,000 ybp the glacier had recede d tating manner. An anonymous reviewer ha s northwards from Indiana and glacial Lak e improved the clarity of the manuscript . Lastly, Chicago occupied the region in which fine - I wish to acknowledge the Department of Ge- grained lacustrine sediment and spits were de - ography at the University of Canterbury i n posited during the Glenwood phase . Lake lev- New Zealand for support whilst I was writin g el dropped for about 500 years during the Tw o this paper. Creeks low phase until ice once agai n dammed the north end of the basin and the LITERATURE CITE D lake rose to the Calumet high phase, whe n Baedke, S .J. T.A . Thompson. 2000. A 4,700 - another sandy beach with dunes formed. The year record of lake level and isostasy for Lak e lake dropped to the Chippewa low after final Michigan . Journal of Great Lake Research 26 : deglaciation of the Straits of Mackinac and 416-426. North Bay outlet in Ontario . During the Chip- Bleuer, N .K. M .C. Woodfield. 1993. Glacial terrain, sequences, and aquifer sensitivity, Porte r pewa phase when the lake was from 80–107 County, Indiana. Indiana Geological Surve y m lower than today, rivers eroded their valley s Open-File Report 93-2 . 90 pp . in the region in response to steeper stream- Broecker, W.S. W.R. Farrand . 1963 . Radiocar- bed gradients . With the isostatic rise of the bon age of the Two Creeks forest bed, Wiscon- North Bay outlet, Lake Michigan became con- sin . Geological Society of America Bulletin 74 : fluent with Lakes Superior and Huron durin g 795-802. the Nipissing high ; and the Port Huron outlet Brown, S .E. T.A . Thompson . 1995. Geologic became the controlling outlet following aban- terrains of the Chicago 30 X 60-minute quadran- donment of the North Bay and Chicago out - gle in Indiana : Indiana Geological Survey Open - File Map 95-09 . lets . During the rise to the Nipissing high, the Brown, S .E., Bleuer, N .K. T.A . Thompson . 1996. Toleston Beach began developing by 6300 Geologic terrain map of the Southern Lake ybp . The beach is dominated by sand dune s Michigan Rim: Indiana Geological Survey Open - on its eastern edge and by more than 10 0 File Study 96-13, 1 :100,000-scale map plus 50 beach ridges further west where the Tolesto n page explanation . Beach is up to 10 km wide. The Grand Cal- Capps, D.K., T.A . Thompson, J .W. Johnston S .R. umet River developed once the Little Calumet Jock . 2000. An Algonquin shoreline in southern

18 PROCEEDINGS OF THE INDIANA ACADEMY OF SCIENC E

Lake Michigan . Geological Society of America , Larsen, C .E. 1985. Lake level, uplift, and outlet North-Central Section, 35th annual meeting, incision, the Nipissing and Algoma Great Lakes . Geological Society of America Abstract with Pp . 63—77, In Quaternary Evolution Of The Program 33(4) :47. Great Lakes . (RE Karrow RE . Calkin, eds .). Chrzastowski, M .J ., EA . Pranschke C .W. Shabi- Geological Association of Canada, Special Paper ca . 1991 . Discovery and preliminary investiga- 30 . tions of the remains of an early Holocene fores t Larsen, C .E. 1987. Geological history of glacia l on the floor of southern Lake Michigan. Journal Lake Algonquin and the upper Great Lakes . of Great Lakes Research 17 :543—552 . United States Geological Survey Bulletin 1801 . Chrzastowski, M.J. T.A . Thompson . 1992. The Larsen, C .E. 1994. Beach ridges as monitors of late Wisconsinan and Holocene coastal evolutio n isostatic uplift in the upper Great Lakes . Journal of the southern shore of Lake Michigan. Society of Great Lakes Research 20 :108—134. of Economic Petrology and Mineralogy Special Lewis, C.EM . 1969. Late Quaternary History o f Publication 48 :397—413 . the lake levels in the Huron and Erie basins . Pp. Chrzastowski, M.J . T.A . Thompson. 1994. Late 250—270, In Proceedings 12 th Conference On Wisconsinan and Holocene Geologic History o f Great Lakes Research, International Associatio n the Illinois-Indiana Coast of Lake Michigan . for Great Lake Research . Journal of Great Lakes Research 20 :9—26 . Lewis, C.EM . 1970. Recent uplift of Manitoulin Clarke, G .K.C . 1987 . Fast glacier flow : ice Island, Ontario . Canadian Journal of Earth Sci- streams, surging and tidewater glaciers . Journal ences 7:665—675 . of Geophysical Research 92:8835—8841 . Leverett, F 1897 . The Pleistocene features and de - Coleman, S .M ., R.M. Forester, R .L. Reynolds, D .S. posits of the Chicago area . Chicago Academy o f Sweetkind, J .W. King, P. Gangemi, G .A . Jones , Science Bulletin 2. 86 pp. L.D. Keigwin D .W. Foster. 1994. Lake-level Loope, W.L. A.E Arbogast. 2000. Dominanc e history of Lake Michigan for the past 12,000 of an ,=, 150-year cycle of sand-supply change in years : the record from deep lacustrine sediments . late Holocene dune-building along the easter n Journal of Great Lakes Research 20 :73—92. shore of Lake Michigan . Quaternary Researc h Doss, P.K. 1993. The nature of a dynamic wate r 54 :414—422 . table in a system of non-tidal, freshwater coasta l Mickelson, D .M ., L. Clayton, D.S. Fullerton wetlands . Journal of Hydrology 141 :107—126 . H .W. Borns . 1983. The late Wisconsin glacial Eschman, D .E P.F. Karrow . 1985 . Huron basin record of the Laurentide Ice Sheet in the Unite d glacial lakes : A review . Pp . 79—94, In Quater- States . Pp . 3—37, In Late-Quaternary Environ- nary Evolution Of The Great Lakes . (PE Karro w ments Of The United States, Volume 1, The Late P.E. Calkin, eds .). Geological Association of Pleistocene. (H .E. Wright S .C. Porter, eds .). Canada, Special Paper 30. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis . Gray, H .H. 1989. Quaternary Geologic Map of In- Schneider, A .F. M . Reshkin . 1982. Identification diana . Indiana Geological Survey Miscellaneou s of the Twocreekan Substage in Indiana. Proceed- Map 49, Scale 1 :500,000 . ings of the Indiana Academy of Science 91, p . Hansel, A.K., D.M . Mickelson, A .E Schneider 347 . C.E. Larsen . 1985. Late Wisconsinan and Ho- Schneider, A .F A .K. Hansel . 1990. Evidence for locene history of the Lake Michigan basin . Pp. post-Two Creeks age of the type Calumet shore - 39—54, In Quaternary Evolution Of The Grea t line of glacial Lake Chicago . Pp . 1—8, In Late Lakes . (PE Karrow P.E. Calkin, eds .). Geo- Quaternary History Of The Lake Michigan Ba- logical Association of Canada, Special Paper 30 . sin . (A.E Schneider G .S. Fraser, eds .). Geo- Hough, J.L. 1955. Lake Chippewa, a low stage o f logical Society of America Special Paper 25 . Lake Michigan indicated by bottom sediments . Thompson, T.A. 1992. Beach-ridge developmen t Geological Survey of American Bulletin 66:957— and lake-level variation in southern Lake Mich- 968 . igan. Sedimentary Geology 80 :305—318 . Hunter, R.E., T.E. Reiss, J .L. Chin R .J. Anima . Thompson, T.A . S .J . Baedke . 1995. Beach-ridge 1990 . Coastal depositional and erosional effects development in Lake Michigan : shoreline behav- of the 1985—1987 high lake levels in Lake Mich- ior in response to quasi-periodic lake-leve l igan. United States Geological Survey Open-file events. Marine Geology 129 :163—174 . Report 90-272 . 9 pp. Thompson, T.A . S .J . Baedke . 1997. Strand-plain Karrow, P.F. 1980. The Nipissing transgression evidence for late Holocene lake-level variation s around southern Lake Huron . Canadian Journal in Lake Michigan . Geological Survey of Amer- of Earth Sciences 17 :1271—1274 . ican Bulletin 109 :666—682 .