CH^PTCH I
INTt^0T3OCTI0N j
In teg ration Through H ealth/ Social Change t
Under the ausplcles of the United Nations' organisation! efforts are being made to minimise the tensions In the world. It Is pretty clear that the tension Is due to social and political prej^dlcesf long borne by various groups and nations of the world, 3e It castelsmy communallsm, aparthled or class-atruggle, are a l l due to certain preconceived notions. These gain ground In the absence of uniform liberal education. Lnter on It becomes very difficult, even for the world organisation to settle nuch differences. If we look to the teachings of Mah"?»vlra from an unbiased view, we are led to understand and ev^iluate the phllosoohy of life, he lived and preached others to live. H^was not merely a world view at a theoretical level, but he wns positive in Its apallcatlon to the day-to-day life of an Individual In society. His life was an emblem of Integration and stability of society. His mission was a healthy revolt against the existing patterns of - traditional social conduct. His personal life Is an Instance of gradual evolution towards perfection. He stood for change, he skillfully planned It and worked It out before his own eyes. The goal of the whole 2
proce»s of change was e stable and progressing society. The means adopted, was the education of masses through popular langunge. What Mahavlra thought and did In respect of a society, long ago, can possibly put to use, even today, If problems to be f^ced are similar. Certain alternations due to the changed circumstances are however, unavoidable,
2. oyipft_B£ t^S-Vfllk *
On account of scientific researches In various fields of life and spread of Industry attitudes of aen have - undergone consldsrabls change, human relations are affected and c r is is , in tern al and external, Is on the Increase, Man to-day Is not sa tisfie d nnd has lo s t the peace of ralnd. He Is searching for it, somewhere out side and seeks to have It from without. Can the lost peace of mind bo restored ? Can the lost dignity of man be regained 7 Tensions today are not only so cial, but economic and political too. Social and religious prejudices are sesn let losse every where. Struggle among political ldeologl€w Is also there strong enough. Colour crisis and - untouchablllty have equally tarred the social Im'^ge of man today. Attention Is thus Invited to e;^lore the possibility of guidance from the philosophers of who have devoted their lives to the cause of humanity. 3
TSfforta are being ojadle to aolldlty rolatlona between group and group, w^tlon and nation, and among the so cieties of the world. What would be the underlying principles of audi auch efforts ? The principle must be very broad and all Inclusive. Syat Va^da and Anakanta Vada declare th at no view of iieallty Is conpletely valid} It Is only an aspect of the reality, Ihls attitude of ralnd fis very useful to minimise the Intensity of various prejudices, rhe principle of the dignity of the soul teaches us to resnect, not only the life of a being, but also the views of others. Values today have become Instrumental and, as far Intrinsic and the ultim ate values, nobody pays any heed to. Truth (purity of speech), Non-Injury (Ahlmsa or settle?aent of problQws by peaceful nteans), Jtespect for property
/ (Aparlgraha) and Purity of Conduct (Saucara) and the control of lower propensities are the needs of the day.^ These are particularly Indlspenslble In countries, where ^ny - religions and societies live side by side. The problem of niitlon=»l integration Is of v ita l Importance In India. Prejudices due to the sense of Ineqaallty, caste Isa and religion are Important obstacles In the way of national Integration. The systatn of Education la the only means to remova such obstacles, ^ t unfortunately, the present system of aducntlon and Its orgqnlsRtlon has not proved to be fruitful In thts r#»«n»»et. Secular tty of the state need not aean the Absence of values In Its policies. Positive efforts are necessary for the planned Infusion of these principles In the younger generation. There should be perfect uniformity as regards the process of education throughout the - subcontinent. The purpose ofJtbis i*eseareh Is to study the philosophy of MahSivlra as reflected In the Kalpa .'^utra, A6arairiga Sutra and the Tatvarthadhlgama Sutras and to examine and avaluate the teachings of the prophet, so as to ascertain the applicability of his teaching to present probloffls, that our nation Is facing. Accordingly, It should be clear, that much more can bt learnt and put to use from the teachings of Mahsvlra, even though he belonged to an f=ig9 of 2^00 years ago. The teachings of the prophet are to a pretty extent, not only useful but indlsnenslble for a harmonious social life In India and even for the countries abroad.
SH^tga 1. la) S arty U Va. f
Tho LlcctKiVls vfas a powerful democratic clan in anclot ancient India of 600 B.C.cetaka was Its ruler or Raja. He was well established at Valsall and had matrimonial - 5 relationships with the then princes such as Blmbtsara Canada PrjJyota and Udayana. Hta s is te r T r iv ia was m^irried to iJlddhartha of Kundagrama nearby V alsall. All of them balongod to the DnatrlkriS namely the KsJSiatrlyas of the fourfold system.
ihe hei’o of the present discussion was the second son of Slddharthand Trlsala, Nandlvardhan was his elder brother and he had a younger s la te r naaialy Sudarshana. Mahavlra then Vardhnmana, along with his father and elder brother loved stytnnaatlcs very much] All the Dre^trlkas followed the teachings of Pars'vanath, the 3"^rd Tlrthan>:ar of Jain tradition. Dlgh N lk a jrs mentions the word 'Nlgganth 2 Natputta* several lin e s . This refers to Mrihsvlr only, and makes It clear that Mahavlr^was considerable senior to Buddha, Jain works do not mention Budc^t^
1. Kalpto Sutra of Bhardra-bahu Trans.by H.Jacobi Vol. XXII 2. DlghaSlkay-c? - SarLputta - ’Nlgganth Nataputta, friends, has Just died at Pawa.(Nlrgrantho Dnatrlputrah) 3. • Addhag?»,to '^ayo* 'Buddha Garya 'NavvapavaJ.iIta* Pp665 6 we can fix the birth date of Mahavlra as 599 B.C.and the Jf date of h is death a t Pawa, as 527 B.C.
,44asa^,ig.B i
AS mentioned before his parents strictly followed the creed of Srainanas as led down by Parsvanatha and Vardharaann was brou?!ht up in this tradition. In his childhood he showed curiosity and regard for the religious 'practices. He was intellftgent and courageous. He was healthy and sturdy as regards his nhyslque, and had a sound mind In a sound body. His parents arranged for his education under the able guidance of learned teachers. He must have learned froa them Logic, Bthlc. and the Science of Yoga. By the tra d itio n of his family he completed the study of the teachings of Pansnraniathaf His love of meditation and discussion gave him deep Insight as regards various problems, social and philosophical. He had env^rlable rastralnt of speech, that never hurt anybody in any way. rhus while enjoying a healthy and mentally sound life under the kind and loving guidance of his parents and elder brother, Vardliafflana crossed his teenage. if. See.Sources of Indian history - J.P.Jaln - T)ate of MahTjvlrit.
See.Kalpa Sutra : Life of Mahavlra. 7 (e) Marriage :
Tradltlonr^lly sneaking the problem of Vardharaana*s matrimony Is controvertlal. Sooe devout Jalna still hold that he was a bachelor throughout hla life, and that his mission was that of a perfect Brahmacarl n. It Is difficult to believe In this view. Both Acarar^^a and Kalpa Sutras, unequivocally state that Vardhamana was married and that i he had a daugh^vr. According to above Satras he was oarrled to Y^oda of Kaundlnya Gotra?' He had a very brief 0K*rrled l i f e , fo r about eight years or se. Vardhamana’ s daughter named Anoggu was later married to Jamali. Sutras state that /ardhamana also had a gxaonid grand daughter named iaesavatl. ^
Vardharaana was an ardent and devout follower of the creed of Parsvanath. A close study of his teachings together with the strict observation of vows and ffests night have promoted him towards the decision of renouncing
Acaranga Sutra Chap.XV and Kalpa Sutra Chaot
Le) N.iryinaj:}.ni ^ftgr i.
Having renounced all his belonging, Vardhamana set out for s tr ic t penance. He gave up food, nay^ en tire garments and became a naked monk.(Dlgambara). He got very much emaciated due to vows and penance. (Vratakarsltahgh)
%, Acaranga Sutra 15-17 3L« Jyotlprasada Jain Sources of Ind.Hlatory Chap - II For tvelva years he wanderedy saadltatdd, came In contact with ▼arLous peoploy discussed with then as regards the principles of conduct, and human values. He also practiced Yoga to secure perfect concentration of h is Blind. Both Acaranga and Kalpa Sutras describe the event of his Nlrwan very nicely. "The Venerable ascetic MahGvlra, during the I'^th year of his this way of life In the second month of Suranier, In the light fortnight of ValMkh, on Its 10th day, when shadow has turned to the e ast, outside the town Tr}(bhllw graisi, on the northern bank of the river Hljupallka, In thf> flold of Saroaga, In a sqaittlng position, with joined h«?el, In deep m editation, he reached Nlrvan, the best knowledge and Intuition called Keimla.^
Having obtained the Kevala Jnana, Vardhaoan becane Hahavlra ( a great hero) and started his career as a ciplrtual teacher. He practically stayed in the major towns of Vldeha, Magadha and v^nga, during the rainy season ; and In rest of the period of the year he undertook long tours for the pronagatlon of the tenates of Jalnlsa. He took no rest and soent his time in discussions and oreachings. Even then he did not refrnln from m editations and Yoglc p ra c tice s. His
1 , Acaranga Sutra XV - 2^ Kaloa Sutra 120 10 swQc't words were always wet with cmapasslon and Intense regard for the suffering humanity, i^lncerlty and > simplicity enabled hlra to win the nasses over* Mahivlra QOTed in all the strata of soolety and was able to secure converts from a ll of thea.
( f) Organisation of Sangha (order)
Valsoll beoriirie the centre of the Nirgranthas (fbllowera of Mahavlra), His relatives were the first convsrts. loyal houses at Pataliputra, ^aaoa, U^jain, KausSnbi, and Hravasthi accer^ted his teachings and becam® royal o'ltrons* He himself did not at all discriminate his followers because of their casta, creed, gendsr or the place of residence. M ajority of them, however were from his own K^triya fold (Dnatrikas) and the classes down trodden from the society, a s the big powers of Northern India backed his mission the creed naturally gained in gradual influence, and organisation of the Ja in Sangha became easier. Ihe majestic and magnetic personality of Mahavira, his seal persistence, traquility and extreme endurance, along were resnonslble to reat) the best advrintage of the situation at hand. His selfless and ceaseless efforts towards ttie service of humanity without any distinction, can also be cited as one of the important causes of his sucress. He strived In this mission, ceaselessly for about thirty years. Thousands of d iscip les gathered around him. Mahavlra organised 11 them la a systeinatlc ordar. Promtnant towns became the centres of his order, well equipped with tx^lned monks - and mostarlds fo r th e ir residence. Tetaples were b u ilt for prayers, meditations and Informal dlscusslDns. The monks visited adjoining villages and rested In raonastavlas during the rainy season. Mahavlra himself occasionally visited these units and personally guided his dlaolpl^js. He addressed his lay followers as well. Saoh centre conducted a snell school as an organ of education. *Tlgher education, was hotrever given In these schools. Subjects like Logic, phllosotihy, Yoga and grannar were taught In these schools. The alra was natumlly to create able hands for the jealous working of the order. Members of other fa ith s were also vrelcomed to th is Sangh - working was free, open and Impartial. For laany years atleast these centres continued to tho places of attraction and Interest for aspirants from various places, fUr and near. Indrabhutl Qautaia, Arya Sudhartnan were foreaost disciples of Mahivlra, whwa he personally Instructed regarding the principles of Jainism and the organisation of the order. Both of than secured thousands of disciples and a big team of active workers. 3oth of the© lad a very active, chr.ste and jealous ktud kind of life, worthy of their nnster.
1 . Kaloa Sutra - List of Sthavlras. We very keenly note the Influence of Makl^ltputra Uosalst vho flrat cam® In contact with Mahavlra, during the days of his penance. Gosala and Mahavlr were Iteei?* together for six years. They meditated and discussed together. According to the oriental scholar Harmann Jacobi, the two aspirants might haye Intended to secure unity of the two sects, the Ajlvalc?s and the TTlr^ranthaS the follow^?rs nf Gosala were also called Ac^elakaa t (without clothes) along with the ^ 31vak?»s. Mahavlr - Improved unon the tenets given by h is prrtlcessors pairsvjtiath, by adding and emphasising one more vow namely chas:lty. The s^rae might have been done with and Intention to assimilate the creed of Gosala to his fo ld . ^
Cg> tioQd-bya to tha World t-
Mahavlra was now too old to face the incessant and labourlous sulaslon of his life. As a matter of usual practice h« travelled and preached for eight months at Various places and stayed In soa® major town during the rainy season. In his old age he was at Pawa for a rainy
4. Sacred books of the Sast Vol.II Introduction X. TJttaridhyavij Sutra XXI - II o. 121 Verses 12 ^ 13- 3 season. King Hastlpala was ruler of this region. He tfas a parton king of Mahavlra. Unfortunataly this was to tha last rainy season of his Xlfe full of activities. His prominent disciples like Indrabhutl Gautam were akw away from him; well busy In th e ir mission duly planned by their master. Kalpa Sutra gives us the account of this last events as follows
Tin the fourth month of that rainy season In the soventh fortnight,In the dark fortnight of Kirtlka, on Its fifteenth day, In the town of Pana, In King - Hastlpal's office of the writers * the venerable a scetic Mahavlra died, went off, quitted the world, cut as under the ties of birth, old age and death, became a Slddha, Buddha and Mukta.** The date of his death from the account given above Is the I5th day of Kartlka I.e. Tuesday the 1 - l5th October of the year 527 3.C.
This was morning time quite calm and pleasant for spiritual practices. He then meditated deep, and was In a usual posture of a Yogln. This proved to be his
1. Kalpa Sutra op 26h Tr?^ns by H.Jacobi. X. Jyotl-Prasad Jain Sources of Indian History Chap.II 2. Kaloa Sutra 1U? np 269 14 la s t ™<3dlt«tlon. The event of h is death was celebrat«d by eighteen contederate Kln^s, l»icludlng those of Kail, Kosala, Mallas and the Llochavls of Vasa 1 1 , On the succeedIng day i.e. on the day ^f the new moon; they Instituted an lILumlnation In the glorious memory of the departed light. Pa\^ has become a place of •> plllgrlnage for the aspirants on the path of spirituality. k) ^^-olntloa of Mafaavl ra »s P ersonal 1 tv s
Personality Is not a result of a single dajr»s effort;^ or efforts for few days, here or there; but It is a continuous prooeaa of evolution of Inter actional beh*iTlour of an Individual, Keen comorehenslon and promotness and aceuracy of resttonse are the chief Ingredltnl^i of oerson?illty. 3uch a process of evolution contlnu/»s to res'ilt Into universal personalIty. ’’iraotlons when they evolve Into oowerful altruistic sentiments, become Invincible motive force In a prophet, that enables him to transform th« n^iture of the society at large, Persontillty of Mahavlr, thus Implies continuity of Interaction and conflict of the rival forces In the sjclety, and the ultimate victory of the good ovor evil.
Life of Mahavlr was full of constant labour In service of the downtrodden. He had first of all to combat with h is own In firm itie s or the six enemies. 1 K ■X. O
Having successfully ovorcooe them, ^le turned his attention to the external ones. He successfully fought with all kinds of rival forces In a peaceful fashion, and brought them under the Influence of his order. Really he became a hero In the Strife. Various phases of evolution clearly show »r us that MahRVlra*s oersonallty ultimately culminated Into that of a proohet. His Inherent noble qualities, tofitether with the femlly and social set-uo of his time, brought about the Drocess of evolution in a hamjonloua way, as If r) re established by destiny.
Sndur&nco Is an, Indlsoenslble quality of gr^at prophets. They are bound to ne t calam ities in th e ir lives. They are as If put to test by these. Through such ordeals, they com out with full lustre like gold. The sound ailnd and physique of Mahavlra, were rather - en^elllshed by exceptional endurance and forbearance. Tri»nqulllty of his mind hras newer disturbed. A keen sense wit and lm.i^enoe love for the a fflic te d oade his task easy. He never complained against the situations he came accross.
In Mahavlra we find exea^lary wisdom and tact. Both these were the oroduct of his wide jrange of deen study and exnerlence. He did not lose any opportunity to participate discussions on social and religious subjects. Infact his IG participation enlivened auch dlscuaslon*. Hla Interest In those was genuine. His approach was rational and enalytlc. ’Events aa these naturolly gave him tho best tr opportunity/nress his own view. His Incosaent travels far and wide, brought him Int® contact with peoole - belonging to different sects and denominations. Hs did not dlscrltnlnate between a cltl:»n and a villager. His speech was full of sympathy and compassion towards their problems* He had to gain nothing for himself exceot the peacc of mind out of public uplift. His wisdom and tact enabled him to organise an order of his followers - throughout the lend. Ha judged persons quickly, attracted them and allotted than suitable jobs In his order. This could save his time and energy In his mission. His apneoach always proved to be fruitful.
5) Mahavlra»s Aspirations i
Mah^ivlrfi was a child of his clrcianstances, and ha wf^s bmmd to, either adjust with his environment, social or solrltual, or to mould the environment itself to adjust with the tyoe he conceived in his mind. He preferred the Ijitter for action. It was Impossible for him to remain qul^t and see what was going on, as a passive onlooker. Having fully digested the spiritual teachings of Parsvanath, he wanted not only to curse the society of certain defects, but to purify and stabilize It. IV
Pirst of all, he wanted to completely change the prevailing modes of thinking. He disapproved of any authority such aa scriptures. He e3q)ected man tt? think Independently. Free and rational thinking was the first and foremost thing in life, iiecondly, he wished to build up empirical attitude in his disciples, iiftiatever is to be achieved, is here and now. Thirdly, he wanted to - su b stitu te the ideal of Arhjjtshln that Wfss commensurate with the existing Ideal of Nlrvan or Moksa. The essence of such an Ideal was to be the right knowledge, 1 faith und rl*^t conduct. He felt It vital to exn^lne faith Itself fro® time to time. Lastly, it was his conviction that purity of thought and conduct, can be an Ideal for all times and In all walks of life.
^ HAfl...worIl.y iftw.aiv!L M ag WttrLLjOawA'iJi' *
The world for hla Is perfectly real and is subject to constant chiange. Things are composed of atoms and aggregates. The world is a home of Jivas (souls) and Jiva or the soul which is characterised by consciousness extend the body of an animal. Jiva although all powerful Is constantly overpowered by subtle matter t>artlcles ^ust as the clouds eclipse the sun- when the soul Is able to do away with all such material ebst—acles, it can be-corae
j , , , I.Hanyak Onan D^jfsana Carlti^nl Koksaoargnh (Tat,Sutra.1.?.^. 18 a Kevaiin, an omonlsclent bolng. Man liavlng five sanses Is an Important being. He is the home of possibilities, ile can, if hie ciioDS^s, attain sapreme state of exlstance in tills world before h is own ejres. Man with h is supreme position, shares every responsibility towards the betteraet betterment of the world. Sei?ard for the self is a regard for life in general. There is a kind of identity between one soul and tttra* another; and hence the regard for others. All beings and things in the wo*'ld are In a state of evolution. The nrooess Is that of gradual betterm ent. Pesslralsra and n^^ssivtsui hr^s no p l’^ce. One flsust undertake discipline and control to ensuva tranquilItv and happiness In life. No god can help a man who Is ld« idie and hopeless. Inf^c*; one need not look to God for help, but b e tte r rely upon him self. Thus his view and approach to problems of life was realistic. Man alone with his deeds ou.ke heaven or hell of what he has In this k^rld. His teaching caaie aa a direct revolt against the existing system of religion.
2) TxanacfiLadgnca pI.KalaaYirag*^ >-
Transcendance of t>er3onallty Is the culralnfttlon of gradually widening nrocess of the dlfflenslnna of personality. In the es^st not only philosophy «nd psychology aim at this goal, ethics and religion also 13 have the same end In view. The Hindu, Jain and the Buddhist comeptlona of the soul, streas the universal Immanence of It, Bergson and vhlte-head are the chief thinkers of modem a?e vfho beautifully combine th e ir vision of the whole, with the apopeclatlon of T)art-s, Day-to-day life of the society and relations therein are to be Interpreted In terms of th® cosmic unity. Parts arc to be appreciated only In comnrehenslin of thf? whole. Transcendence Imolles scientific understanding of probleos of society and religion, aesthetic aporeclatloi of values whereever f e lt , togeth
Mahavlra, first of all purified himself with deep studies and nenance ani then look up the mission to purify the •«or?lety at lar»e. He becanio perfectly one with rhythyis of the society and also with th'it of the
•HAN* at large. In his days morality was bp re conforotty with traditional rl‘es and customs, religion was a lifeless formality and socUl life was a sheer - regimentation bound up by hard chains of traditional code of cunduct.MahKvlr-i's trenscendance assumed and 20 goarded tnan and his status as maii| his yaluea and ei^erlances In social life.
In the present circumstances we again specially feel the need of such spirit of self-transcendance. Trend of modem c iv ilisa tio n is essen tially mechanical and materialistic. The 1 ndlrlduality is being compressed under political and soclo-economlcal forres. Qwartug Craving for nover, money, and passive control are let loose. Spirit of scientific Inquiry, oerfert devotion and Intellectual ;}oy In discovery and Inventlon.are the re Q) Matt^vlra It Is the tendency of human beings to see divine eleEoent In whatever they find nobility, lustare, purity glory and a move towards the higher studies. Gita dt^£lares that, one should know It for certain, that 1 such a thing Is the very phase of the divine solrlt. Mahiivlr was no exception to this. He became the centre of attraction and devotion to laany. Being convinced of his sincerity and selfleas services people saw divine 1. Gita XAl 21 In him. Thoy looked apon him aa their saviour and worshipped him for lnaplrtttlon« fo r tlrae sa to cobio. 9) Impact of Heritage t- ( a) Creed of Paravanath^t- — / According to Haraann Jacobi, ParsvanattiA: %ras th« real founder of Jalnlswi, Kalr>a Sutra^of Bhadreta'ahu mentions him with great reenact. Pirivanith wa* a h is to ric a l figure and he is satd to have lived In 900 B.C. I.e. 300 years before Mahavlra. Althou / __ 1. Caturyama. 22 His Intensions we^ clear and distinct; and his approach was analytic and rational. This was clearly a reformatory stage In the field of religion and philosophy. Many of his followers existed at the tine of Mahivlra In various K^trlya clans. / Teachings of Parsvanath were prevalent and resnected with high 2 regard In the family of Mahavlra. all JL Hakkhallputta Oo^^la was a conteinporary of Mahavlm. Re was the head of A3lvska|aect. Both were tof?eth»r for six years. They discussed several tonics related to human conduct and chartlty of betwivlour. Both of then might have intended to reserve unity of the two setts, the A^lvakas and the Nlrgmnthas. Creed of Ooaala Is also called the Acelakas (without clothes). Their practices were also very hard and strict. Many rules of conduct of both of these sects resemble V:iry much. But w« sotakjhow tanowthat they differed and became bitter erltics of one another. (e) iBKjact of the path of devotion »- Looking keenly enough, we find that both Par^nnth and Mahavlra advocated right faith (Sarayak Dfsrsnna). Devotion Is 2. Kaloa f?utra - Lives of thi? Jln^s op 271-275 3. Sacred Books of the last Vol. XLV, II Jain Sutras Introduction. o aa Intenalve amotlonaltle between an aspirant and his desired deity (Ista Devata). Firstly, such a devotion should be selflass.(i»nasaJcta) • Sacondly a devotee must be free from any kind of fear. Thirdly, devotion Itself Is the end In view for a devotee* ^ch a path of devotion has Its antiquity since the beginning of human civilization. Bhaktl, having Intense love as its essence. In a groat motive force. We have thus strong reason to believe th at both Mahav4ra and Buddha were the f i r s t rank devotees of th is land, and they inculcated the solrlt of devotion among their followars who la te r d sltled them. ii) Gastelsn and Inequality 2 The fourfold system^of the Vedas had long caaseri to be. At the time of Parsavati^th and Miihavli^ caste system based on birth was prevalent. Flexibility of the fourfold system was now an old story. Caste differences and the considerations of high and low were very coaraon. Social relations were strained and there was a sort of chaos and disorder in society. Squallty of opportunity had ceased to b«. The philosopher'leaders of the society, in this event, need to have come ftamifjti forward, but they were 1 . Caturvamya 24 engaged In Tarlous rituals, nay, ttiey in a way misguided the society. They dLscussod more the benefits h&Ya after, rattier than duties to be performed here and now. '^hus the teachings of Vadas and Upanlsads were as i f extinct. L a i Katural corollary of castelaw was the soread of fatalism The neople, down-trodden socially and economically naturally because victims of this trend of thinking. Professions were also considered as high and low. The sc^allsd low castes blaraed their destiny or kanaa. The oast life said to haye oerrllessly determined the present one, and one has to acceot it unhesltfttatlngly. This trend of thinking resulted In shear loss of confldance, and social progress In various fields came to a staleo u te. (f) Posttlon of Women t in Vedlc and Upanlsadlc period women used to enjoy a dignified place In social l i f e . But In the period about 600 B.C. or 30, this position detlrlorated and woiaen were s tr ic tly confined to the household. Their education practically came to an end. Ihey were treated to bs inferior to men in all respects. Thalr position became as If commensurable to that of those down-trodden socially and economically. ^ find very few Instances of womon who were educated. N aturally society at large suffered very "luch as regards the 25 enllghtenflient of new generation, as educated mothers can alone well encoui^ge the younger generation. (g) SztrenlsiB Invites Befonsatlon i- In the history of the world we find that, whereever extreme yiews and p ractices were ado’^ted and enforced, reformation and concequent social change came In, In Iniia of 600 H.C.the cult of sacrifices was domin«jit. Animals were s/au0 tered to please gods. It was argued that such an anlnifil k ille d in a sacrifice a tta in s heaven. Heavy expenses were Incurred on sacrificial deeds. Social inequality was at Its climax; and the position of the downtrodden masses was very pitable. They could not complain but blamed their destiny. In such a helpless condition of the masses in particular and the society in general, Mahavir came in, as if their God-sent saviour. They with ooen hearts welcomed him and his teachings. They Joined his roder (sangh) in multitudes to fulfil the mission that resulted in social change. 10) Order ( Sangha) o f D isciples »•» Mahavlra attained his final liberation from this world on Tuesday, the 1?th of October 527 (i.e. Kartlka Krishna, 15), at Pawa Purl In Blhara. 3y this time his chief dis'-lple Indrabhutl Qautam was some where away on ailsslon. When he heard of the death of his Master he with utmost difficulty restrained the grief, attained equanimity, and again got 2G hlciself engaged In the fulfilment of the mission of hie 2 Haster* Out of the perfect control of passions such as leve and hatet attachment etc. Indrabhutl purified his soul from the obstacles of matter and attained perfection. He died twelve years later 1 . 9. In about B.C. H«» Itresdt lived the life of monk for fl4^ty years and In all ninety two years. At the tine of Mahavlra’s death the creed wns gaining ground raoldly and the Buddhists found it very difficult to hold roots In the same arena. Owing to the lnc I-iahnvlra inherited the cruic of his ideology from the 23rd nrthankar Parsvanath, of Kasl. This was rather the 1 . D«te of Hahavlri from Sources of Ind.Hldtory by Jyotlorasad Jain. 2. Kal-oa Sutra pp - 26? 27 g if t ©f *ils faially tr e lltlo n . He comtenrolated desnly \Don I t , exftmlnad It In a ll I ts a»D9cts and digested It t>erfsctly, Hg was determined to shaoe It, to suit to the needs of the time. It was thus Inevitable to improve upon It, in Its Inplementatlon to actual life then. Mahavlra stressed the need of chastity, as the fifth prlnclole of conduct In life. The principles had to be defended against the existing creeds, and their views. Mahavlra had to undertake the task of refuting the views of rival creeds and maintaining his own position strongly. 1!he dialogues, and the arguments were contained In the scrappy manuscripts neatly preserved at different centres of activity for the guidance and study of his disciples. These works, containing the method, and ts?^ching3 of th« Master a re called the Purvas. These were fourteen in number. The Instructions used to be oral and there were no regular text-baoks as such. The natter for study was to be conimitted to memory. This was essentially in linee with the methods of t achlngs and learning in those days. There could not be any systeroatIsatlon of Jainism and Its philosophy In regular works or treatises as such. This was bec.:.use of the practical difficulties and needs of the tin®. The prophet left behind himself a well organised order (sangha) of his disciples. There were different centres of activities in northern oart of Indie. Vaiaali, Pataliputra, Campa, UJjaln, ifejjagrlha and Srav^jrtht were th« prominent strong holds of Jainism In those days. Ihe order was controlled by 8 aleTen Gai^dhars (apostles) headed by Indrabhutl Gautaa and la te r by Arya Sudharman; very a ffle e tIv e ly . Tha word Oana(»iara lite r a lly means, one who w4llds the respo n sib ility of a centre of a c tiv ity by a group of d iscip les (Gana), These centres of activity were roguiarly visited by Mahavlra himself In h is l i f e time and la te r by the chief of the centre. He used to stay at that particular centre for a major period of the year, and used to tievote whole of the rainy seasnn at that olace. A Of^na^ar« ws exoeeted to undertake hla tours of the sub-centres under thnt nartlcular head-quar»^or during the rest of the period In the year. There were regular meetings of these apotles at valsall or Pat3llT5utrQ, ag per convenience, to bring uniformity In the working of the mission. However nothing was put to writing regarding the ejcact prop’^wie of these apostles. The followers of Hahavlra were divided In certain categories workers; who devoted theaselves to the day-to-day wsrklng of the mission. Phese monks stulded by heart the teachings of Mahavlra, and also followed him regarding the conduct of life. Ttiay exercised envaable control of senses and the mind; and lived a con»letely detached kind of l i f e . Ihe apostles and their leading disciples lived such a devoted life. Secondly, there were the spiritual teachers who of their own accord. Studies the principles of Jnlnlsmand regularly instr-icted the lay followers regarding the teachings tff Mahavlra, thirdly, there were the good nature of rae'nbers of the order (Sangha) who r-^gularly attended the 3er»aons ^nd o9 lectures of th* teachers. These saintly persons, were expected to study and understand the teachings of Mahivlra and to live a tlfe full of moral and benevolent deeds. Lastly there v#ere the lay followers who were attracted towards the activities of the order (Sangha), yet they were not so much progressed as the good naturad members of the order. They sliqply appreciated, the teachings of Mahnvlra and were Incllined to Inplement them as t hey could In their lives. However such Individuals were susceptible to erro r owing to the lack of adequate study and self-control. All these categories were in the definite stages of evolution towards perfection in life. *11 these were useful and conducive to the succeeding higher stage in life. Following the naster prophet in every respect, the apostles took the banner of the mission ahead, and Increased the spher# of Influence In all directions. The contact and conflict with the newly started Buddhist mission was enevitable, In the sub-sequant Jain works and the Buddhist are no where fflentloned, nor any instance of conflict with them is - mentioned, dut, contrary to this the Buddhist works mention such instances. The Buddhis t work Hazzin> Nikaya mentions the instance of the conversion of Upali, a disciple of Mahavira, tothe Buddhist order. Conversion of Upall Is stated as a victory to BudJha while It was a shock to Mahavira. Perhaps such instances might have been glorified to further the cause of the Buddhist mission. It was also an occasion 30 when Jamall, the son-in-law of Mahavlra exhlbltted ace^tlcal attitude towards the teachings of his father-In-law, It can only be gathered from such oecaslons that, like Incidents are quite coiiRBon with the speedy pace of every mission in Its life. As It was mentioned before, the family ties of M^havlra with the princely states In Northern India, also proved to be very helpful. The Slaunagas of Patallputra were the oatrons of the creed. AJatasatru or Kunlka, however favoured Oautam Buddha, as he wanted to annex Valsall to his entire. Gautam advised him not to undertake such a conpalgn. Later thd Handa dynusty was also In favour of Jainism. An Inscription of a later date, namely Hathlgumpha Inscription of the king Kharvela, mentions the Indldent of securing the idol of the first Jlna from the Nanda king of Patalloutr^i. Both Kharvela end the Nanda ruler In question seem to be r>atPons of Jainism, Later the Nanda dynasty was succeeded by Chandragurjta Maurya is about 32if B.C, The first two Maurya rulers naemly candragupta and Blndusara seem to have favoured Jaln’sm. In the last '5ays of the former Maurya, the enlsode of his migration with a Jain apostle Bhadrobahu is noted In the Jain scriptures. It Is mentioned that Bhadrab^hu migrated to the south with a number t of his disciples Including the Maurr^* ruler Candragupta. There was a great famine in Northern India. It is stated thati all of them se ttle d nearby Mysore. A small hill and relies nearby aem to testify the incident. Th* Third Maurya ruler Asoke, however showed his c le a r Inclination to Buddhism. I t seeias p re tty clear 31 from the above dlscasslon, that Jainism progressed considerably for about two centuries from the date of Nirvana of Mahwlra. The period of the systematlsatlon of the canon was now Inevitable, There was, now, no need of the attitude towards eontravertlal argum<3nts. The only rival faith remained was Suddhlaa, itsatstasee Heslfltance from the rest of the faiths v/as oraetlcally quelled down. The faith could stand on a very strong foothold In the country. Efforts, therefore were necessary to systematise the Jain canon In the form of various treatises. 11) The Council of PatallT^utra : A council of the Jain order w h s convened by the end of the fourth century B.C., under the leadership of Sthulabhadra to bring uniformity In the working of Jatn order. The aim was also to systeoatlso, the Canon. Aa regards the teaching of J&lnlsm the method adopted so far was oral and practically nothing was coiamltted to writing, either In the form of systematic chronicles or treatises. There was also another difficulty wltailn the order Itself. As It Is stated, before Bhadrabahu was out to Sravanbelgola (in Karnataka) with a strong group of his disciples. 'Rie credit of the spread of Jslnlsia la the South goes to Bhadrab^hu. There arose a rift between the followers of Bhadrabaha and those remained in the North Insolte of migration. The followers of Bhadrabinhu did not onrtlclpate the council of Patallputra, even though they have returned to the north, by that time, nhadmbahu bel»^ aggrieved of the situation, left for Nepal. Brfop® his deo'irture he discussed with 3thulabh«dra regarding the working of the order (3angha). He allowed uthulabftadra to teach ten Purvas out of Ite KJO f the total fourteen. The rift started out of the mlgrotlon towards the south did not stop here. Bfforta wore *mde In the council of Patallputra to bridge over the gar» cmatod between the two facttonsi of the dl9cliol»»3, hut I t did not mirce'^d. ’The council fldont«>d unanlnjously the Rlrtflhantmntin, thn t la te r became the basis of ^Svetanbairas; and the rf*at of the followara of Bhndrsbahu, who rersBlned out of the a c tiv itie s of the council were called the Dl^aipbaras. According to the monks returned from the South, the original Canon of the fourteen Purvas has bee nine extinct. German sohal^r aertnnn does'nt agrea with Barth In the view that the Jains did not c^re to preserve their trad it to^, and that they relied simply on vague recollection. Ue holds that the Jain monks did undertake efforts to presai*ve the tradition. Kalpa sttra gives a long list of the apostles and the Sthavlras who fon^d a definite systen of oreserving and strenthenlng the traditions of th« order. Although, there was the traditional system of oral instructions to the students and the aSDlratits, and th at they were exnected to consnlt the natter to neraory, there were, no doubt, Instructions written down In the forms of manuscripts. The nature of the matter to be instructed at different centres and olaccs, thus was clearly defined. Many of such ra^^nuscrlpts were la te r collected and systQoatlS'-'d in the form of treaties. It Is not possible to commit to memory such a huge canton for centuries. The taachers were expected to use these manuscripts In th e ir day -to-day instructions. Another purpose was to bring uniforraity In the order, progressing rapidly at different places. 33 It Is difficult to believe tbat the enltre view of JainiajB was revealed by first Tlrthaalcar jil^abhadeva, Sarllest Jain works 80 not refer to the knowledge of astronomy, th at bec{ua« popular In lndla« after the contact vlth the Qreeks* Names of the constellations and the asterlsms are different. These nan»s do not agree with present (Tasls), Professor Max.Muller thinks that the Slifihinta seem to have been out to wrltlnR by UOO B.C. This his opinion Is based on the language and meters used In the works. The two reseiable with the old Pall usng»s. LA2) S.^a4iaj?a!ia*.s Mur^Uaa.,? Mlgr-itlon of the famous Jain niotflc Bhadrabahu to the south is a very Important fact in the cultural history of India In general and In the history of Jalnlsra k in particular. It Is also stated that tha first Maurya King Sandra Guota accompalned him. »i return to the north the troubles started with In th® fold Itself. The monks returned with Bhadrabahy were staunch, and they refused to yield. Perhaps, due to these Internal trouble Bhadrabahu mtght have le f t for Weoal, in solitude. He did not i^turn. I t seems th at Bhtul^bahu's sacrifice and emlnance 34 brought Jainlan a wide recognition throughout the subcontinent. However the troutelea started In the event, did not subside, but resulted later, only in separation of the church, (13) The New Canon t The word Punra refers to the original works of Jain faith. Ihese were the first efforts towards the systematlcatlon of Jain philosophy as such. It Is supposed that these ?urvas are lost, these were fourteen In number. After the dooarture of - Bhadrabahu only ten out of these fourteen are seen mentioned. In new efforts at writing the texts, are called A^as (parts) th a t are twelve In number. Th« twelveth Anga refers to the discussion of the Purvas. This Is kndwn as Drjfs^lvada. Purvas are also mentioned, though not In detail, in samvayanga and Ifandlsutra. The new canon thus. Is the systea^tIsatlon and elaboration of the old sc racy literature. Formerly, the needs of time were different. In the very life of the prophet the activities such as tours, sermons, lectures, conversations were constantly undertaken and there was no stable period left, to be utilised for systematlsatlon. Later, the society considerably changed its attitude due to the growing Impact of the creed. Naturally ample leisure was at hand to undertake the systematic elaboration of the philosophy in the teachings of Mahavlra. ( 1M ‘fticcessors of Mahavlra i Msh^vlra Is supposed to be the twenty fourth and the last Tlrthankor In the Jain tradition. Tlrtha literally means a well built oassage to sacred water, a river, reservoir r\ 35 or a lake. Here Tirthankar mean* a pronhet w*io cuts a definite oath to a spiritual atate In the world h»?re and now. It Is a oosslble and positive state In human life for one who aaplres It with all ralnd and heart. A Tlrthankar Is an ideal of a perfectySi haoan being. A hunvan being is fall of powers and potenciest but these are checked by the infinaities of man himself. If he a^ires and vigouroualy tries for it, it is possible for him to see then in an e:i^llct fashion. All the Tirthankirs were omnisciant beings, (Kevallns) but there-by we cannot infer that a 11 Kevallns were Tlrthankars. Wie successors of Mahavlra were able and befitting dlscioles. i Some of them lik e Indrabhutl Qeutamand Arya Sudh^rmnni were coooetent as the Master profohet hlmi«lf. can well include the eleven anostles (Qnnadharas) In the list of such disciples. They all lived quite an active, restrained and detached kind of life. All of them lived their lives for others' good. Thsy commanded public recognition for thler faith. They with all th e ir heart spread the message of love, peace, reason and truth, addressed to them by their Master. All of them stood for the "God in man” principle, so explicit, in the teachings of Mahavlra. The Kalpa.Sutra mentions Jambu Swamin, as the follower of SudharrAan who left behind a line of descendents'. At the time of the council of Pataliputra, Sa^bhutHPiJaya and Sthulabhadra were the leaders of the sangh in the North, • in Bhadrabahu^s absence. The event took place by the end of the fourth century before the beginning of the present era. As an able raonk Bha.irabahu l e f t for Neoal, there 2 (] was no probleo of leadership in the Uorth. The new canon mentions sthulabhadra as Its originator; however we are bouni to accept the ability of both Sthulabhadra and Bhadrabahu, as both of them contributed to the spread of faith with equal vigour; and sacrifice, 15) l^e i^etaQbaras and Olgambaraa ) The differences of opinion started In the event of the council of Patallputra did not cease to bo. With the exit of Ohadrabahu, an able personality was out of sight, who could have done something constructive In case* The differences eablttered and the gan got widened gradunlly. t cl«^r - demorlfation of the two different sects became evident by the beginning of rjresent era. It Is argued that, the Digaiflbapn sect originated with Maha^lra and the Svet^mbara wns the follow up of the twenty third Tlrthankara Parasvs^natha* It Is difficult to agpsa with this view. The view is based on the nature of life of prophet himself, Mahavlra advocated ch astity or purity of conduct In lif e . He went along In a naked s ta te to do away with the feeling of ego such as 'rae' and 'mine* iiven If, this Is granted we cannot conclude the establishment of such a sect by Mahavlra. Many of the saints In India*, belonging to a ll sects, are found naked or nearly naked in their state of transcandance. 3ven the Idols of Persvanafha In the state of perfect concentration are seen without clothes on. Many of the saints belonging to vedlc tradition, cared not for clothes In their ultimate state of trance. Such 37 Instances are found aven In the present century. To conclude, we need say, that we cannot ascribe the origin of the Dlgambara creed to Mehavlra, and that of iJvetambara to Parsnraniitha. I t Is safe to say that the division came Into being, due to the dlfferencas of oolnlon, between two sects of disciples of the ordei'; and that the event took place at a later date or^ferably after at least five hundred ye?,rs, the r»rot>het Mahavlra attained Nirvana. Svetafflbarft meant white robed and Dlganbara, a nude saint. In fact, clothf»», whether white or coloured matter very little In the field of spirituality. And 'going nude* Is also not Invariable concDwltant with spirituality. What Bjattars more, is the competancy of Individual for spiritual l i f e . I t seems, therefore, plausible th a t neither Mahavlr« nor ParsvanaCha soem to have Interferred such consld*ntlons as that of 'wearing clothes'. AS trfs have seen regardli^ the sects that case Into being because of certain differences in practical life. Ihe - differences were not a t all philosophical or due to the tsKdsnr tendency to revolt. Ihe list of the Tlrthankaras is the same fo r two. Both of them ac^'ent the eleven apostles or Gandharas. The list of Sthnvlms Is more or less the sane. The foroer were more accomraodatlves to the asnlratlons of the masses. The 3V»taiBbnr?>s later accented the Idol worship as a popular mode of devotion, while latter resorted to prayers and ruedItatIons, whatever possible. Former see® to have annronched very near to the vedlc modes of devotion. In the spirit of acknowledging the popular feelings, while tj latter preferred to stick to hard practices that would suit to few. Both of the sects flourliihed In all parts of India, preferably the former In the Worth and la t t e r In south. This went on fo r about four centuries hence* In about the middle of the fifth century A.D.Cln about 1 M-5‘fA,D)l.e. after, about nine centuries an^ odd, the date of ••• Nirvana of Kahavlra, a council ruet at valabhl. The anostles (Ganlns) Devarlddhl was the president* Ihe aim of the council was to bring uniformity In the working of the order. Secondly, the council also aimed at syfjtnaatlsatlon of the canon*^ handed down to thea by tm dltlon. The theory (Slddhanta) contained In the twelve narts ( Ang?is) wag scrarrsy and sc'ittered in several ofinuscrluts at different centres of le^ihlng - (Opairayas), iifter a long toilsome efforts, the yesrs of s ta b ility have CDine. Bie monks now need not have a contlneous wandering U fa. They could settle In the homes of learning (Upa^rayas) and do their Jobs steadily. The sengha had a status of honour In the society, and they commanded due respect from th® public. Under the instructions of Devar^ddhl the work of editing the texts wus undertaken with ^reet zeal. Valabhl was c great centre of learning wh«re hundreds of students received regular Instructions In higher education. The subjects like, logic, phllosonhy find religion T^re taught there. The university was open to the students of all 1 * Kalpa Sutra of Bhadrabahu - Life of Mahavlw *PP.;»70. SJ3 religions and countries. Valabhl resentoles other conteraporai seats of learning In the prast, In matter of liberal e'lucatlon. It wns a part of a University, In the past, to undertfike the writing work of texts. Valabhl like Nafcanda InnI had similar kind of working In Library section. It was the part of study, to prepare a copy of the original teirt. Thoufjands of books were thus copied and nresenred as texts by the university stsdcts students In th^ past. We have thfas sufficient grounds to infer that Devar^ddhl must have brought out a big edition of sacred texts of Jain lore. Ihfl authors of valabhl University were prominently Jain s of tSvatambara se c t. 12) i^lterature of the Jainaa s- AS for Mahavlra himself or In case of any fca other proohet we cannot ascribe any work In the fora of book from him. Lives of Mahavlra, Oautam Buddha, Jesus c h rlst etc. were so much full of activity, that they could not any oceaston to c coomlt any tilng to writing. Ihsy were constantly en^a^ed In tours, S'»r»nons, preachings and raedltatlons. The teachings of all of these were Initially nut to wrltlni? by their devoted itsoex desclples, whenever they found any leisure to do so. Such works were e sse n tia lly screip^y and In the fonn of laeanuscrlpts. Ihay might have been copied by other disciples for their guidance and practice. This means, that original instructions were practically oral, being In the form of sermons. It has always been a fact that thalr teachings were put to writing after a considerable period of tiiie. The style used for such preservations, was either orose or poetry. 40 Some of them are found In th® form *5f dialogues. Certain quRstlon* were put to the Master himself or his le^rnefl disciple, and explanations were sought to satisfy the doubts In the nlnds of asplr^ints. Dla|ouge fona seen to have been very cooBQon In the contemporary religious and philosophical literature. Th-CGSS The scrlotures of the Jalnsa are called the Agamas (Knowledge), lillght knowledge was held to be the foremost Ideal of an aspirant. Immediately after the Nirvana of Mahavlra, his teachings sdrmons and the arguments maintaining his own position and those refuting that of others, were preserved in scraopy writings. Ihese were rewritten In the form of works called the Purvas. These are fourteen In number. %ndrabahu Is renorted to have allowed Sthulabhadw to teach t*%n out of these fourteen. Although these original works are exfn extinct now; we are told by later writers that theso are made use of, and covered In the succeeding works. Ac^’ordlng to the oractlce of ancient w riters th is se^ws to ne to be lu lte plausible. The sucoe^dlqr serles^of works ;^re the T'lese are twalvo. Jone of these arc Acara, 3tan.i, lutrakr/t, 3fimavaya e tc . The la s t, one Is Or^stlvadu, In ;/hich the knov/ledge of the purva* is oov^ared. According to Jvetambiras, this last past (Anga), n^^^aely Drlatlvada la lost and thore rifiialn only eleven Angaa; whlla 91gr*mbc.ras aatntaln that all the twelve Angas are existing even now. After the VaU-bhl Council, there wss 3 good Impetus to tha writing of the phllooophlcal and religious works In the u n iv e rsitie s of the North. Tn l»\ter period authors like TJoaswnml and Rarlbhadra wrote Tatvarthadhlgaw3 Til ■ Co S § 41 Sutra and sad-dar^ana-Samuecaya, reanectlvely, fihiwrrttt (Hinaratna wrote a connnentary on Harlbhadra* s work. Another w riter M llllsena wrote Syatvadd Manjarl, which was I s te r i corarriented unon by Hewflc^andra. There were seyeral other Jatn writers who contributed and elaborated the basic orlncltJles of Jain enlate’nology, netaohyslcs and ethics. Later Jain tei^chsrn sni w?'!ters ador^tpi Sannkrlt language 33 the lang'3Ege of lia ttu c tlo n <3nd eX:^m3sion,