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Jainism by Dr

Jainism by Dr

By Dr. Subhash Jainism traditionally known as Jain , is an ancient, non-theistic, Indian , founded by Jina in the 5th century BCE. Followers of Jainism are called "Jains", a word derived from the word jina (victor) and connoting the path of victory in crossing over life's stream of rebirths through an ethical and spiritual life. Jains trace their history through a succession of 24 victorious saviours and teachers known as , with the first , who according to Jain tradition lived millions of years ago, twenty-third being in 8th century BC and twenty-fourth being the Mahāvīra around 500 BCE. Jains believe that Jainism is an eternal dharma with the tirthankaras guiding every cycle of the Jain . The main religious premises of Jainism are ahiṃsā (non-violence), anekāntavāda (many-sidedness), aparigraha (non-attachment) and . Devout Jains take five main vows: ahiṃsā (non-violence), (), asteya (not stealing), brahmacharya ( or ), and aparigraha (non-attachment). These principles have impacted Jain culture in many ways, such as leading to a predominantly vegetarian that avoids harm to animals and their life cycles. Parasparopagraho Jīvānām (the function of is to help one another) is the motto of Jainism. Ṇamōkāra is the most common and basic in Jainism. The origins of Jainism are obscure. The Jains claim their religion to be eternal, and consider Rishabhanatha to be the founder in the present cycle, the first of 24 Jain tirthankaras in Jain , and someone who lived for 8,400,000 purva years. According to one hypothesis, such as one by , the first vice president of , Jainism was in before the were composed. According to historians, the first 22 of the 24 tirthankaras were mythical figures. These figures were supposed to have lived more than 85,000 years ago. They were 5 to 100 taller than average human and lived for thousands of years. The 23rd , Parshvanatha, is generally accepted to be based on an ancient historic human being of uncertain dates, possibly the eighth–sixth century BCE. Some confessional Jain scholars such as Parikh have argued that some images such as those of the bull in Indus Valley seal may be related to Jainism, but such claims are highly speculative and a subjective interpretation. This theory has not been accepted by most scholars because very little is known about the Indus Valley and script. Jainism, like , is one of the Śramaṇa traditions of ancient India, those that rejected the Vedas and developed their own scriptures. There is inscriptional evidence for the presence of Jain in by the second or first centuries BC, and archaeological evidence of Jain monks in in by the second century CE. Statues of Jain tirthankara have been found dating back to the second century BC. Jainism has two major ancient sub-traditions, and Śvētāmbaras; and several smaller sub-traditions that emerged in the 2nd millennium CE. The Digambaras and Śvētāmbaras have different views on ascetic practices, gender and which Jain texts can be considered

1 canonical. Jain are found in all Jain sub-traditions except Kanji Panth sub-tradition, with laypersons (śrāvakas) supporting the mendicants' spiritual pursuits with resources. Jainism has between four and five million followers, with most Jains residing in India. Outside India, some of the largest are present in Canada, Europe, Kenya, the United Kingdom, Hong Kong, Suriname, Fiji, and the United States. Major include and Daslakshana, Mahavir Jayanti, and .

Main Principles

1. Non-violence () The principle of ahimsa (non-violence or non-injury) is a fundamental tenet of Jainism. It that one must abandon all violent activity, and without such a commitment to non- violence all religious behavior is worthless. In Jain , it does not how correct or defensible the violence may be, one must not kill any being, and "non-violence is one's highest religious duty". Jain texts such as Acaranga Sūtra and Tattvarthasūtra state that one must renounce all killing of living beings, whether tiny or large, movable or immovable. Its theology teaches that one must neither kill another living being, nor cause another to kill, nor to any killing directly or indirectly. Furthermore, Jainism emphasizes non-violence against all beings not only in action but also in speech and in thought. It states that instead of hate or violence against anyone, "all living creatures must help each other". Violence negatively affects and destroys one's , particularly when the violence is done with intent, hate or carelessness, or when one indirectly causes or to the killing of a human or non-human living being. The idea of reverence for non-violence (ahiṃsā) is founded in Hindu and Buddhist canonical texts, and it may have origins in more ancient Brahmanical Vedic thoughts. However, no other Indian religion has developed the non-violence and its implications on everyday life as has Jainism. The theological basis of non-violence as the highest religious duty has been interpreted by some Jain scholars not to "be driven by merit from giving or to other creatures, nor a duty to rescue all creatures", but resulting from "continual self-discipline", a cleansing of the soul that leads to one's own spiritual development which ultimately affects one's and release from rebirths. Causing injury to any being in any form creates bad which affects one's , future well being and suffering. Late medieval Jain scholars re-examined the Ahiṃsā doctrine when one is faced with external threat or violence. For example, they justified violence by monks to protect . According to Dundas, the Jain scholar Jinadatta Suri wrote during a time of Muslim destruction of and persecution that "anybody engaged in a religious activity who was forced to fight and kill somebody would not lose any spiritual merit but instead attain deliverance". However, such examples in Jain texts that condone fighting and killing under certain circumstances are relatively rare.

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2. Many-sided (anekāntavāda) The second main principle of Jainism is anekāntavāda or anekantatva, a word derived from anekānta ("not one ended, sided", "many-sidedness" or "manifoldness") and vada ("doctrine", "way"). The anekāntavāda doctrine states that truth and reality is complex and always has multiple aspects. Reality can be experienced, but it is not possible to totally express it with language. Human attempts to communicate is Naya, explained as "partial expression of the truth". Language is not Truth, but a means and attempt to express Truth. From Truth, according to Mahāvīra, language returns and not the other way round. One can the truth of a taste, but cannot fully express that taste through language. Any attempts to express the experience is syāt, or valid "in some respect" but it remains a "perhaps, just one perspective, incomplete". In the same way, spiritual are complex, they have multiple aspects, and language cannot express their plurality, yet through effort and appropriate karma they can be experienced. Since reality is many-sided the great error, according to Jainism, is ekānta (one- sidedness) where some relative truth is treated as an truth to the exclusion of others. The anekāntavāda premise of the Jains is ancient, as evidenced by its mention in such as the Samaññaphala Sutta. The Jain Agamas suggest that Mahāvīra's approach to answering all metaphysical philosophical questions was a "qualified yes" (syāt). These texts identify anekāntavāda doctrine to be one of the key differences between the teachings of the Mahāvīra and those of the Buddha. The Buddha taught the , rejecting extremes of the answer "it is" or "it is not" to metaphysical questions. The Mahāvīra, in contrast, taught his followers to accept both "it is", and "it is not", with "perhaps" qualification and with reconciliation to understand the Absolute Reality. Syādvāda (predication ) and nayavāda (perspective ) of Jainism expand on the concept of anekāntavāda. Syādvāda recommends the expression of anekānta by prefixing the epithet syād to every phrase or expression describing the "permanent being". There is no creator in Jainism; existence has neither beginning nor end, and the permanent being is conceptualized as (soul) and (matter) within a dualistic anekāntavāda framework. According to , in contemporary times the anekāntavāda doctrine has been interpreted by some Jains as intending to "promote a universal ", and a teaching of "plurality" and "benign attitude to other positions". Dundas states this is problematic and a misreading of Jain historical texts and Mahāvīra's teachings. The "many pointedness, multiple perspective" teachings of the Mahāvīra is a doctrine about the of absolute reality and human existence, and it is sometimes called "non-absolutism" doctrine. However, it is not a doctrine about tolerating or condoning activities such as sacrificing or killing animals for food, nor violence against disbelievers or any other living being as "perhaps right". The five vows for Jain monks and nuns, for example, are strict requirements and there is no "perhaps" or "that is just one perspective" about them. Similarly, since ancient times, Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and according to Dundas, but Jainism was highly critical of the systems and of its rivals, and vice versa.

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3. Non-attachment (aparigraha) The third main principle in Jainism is aparigraha which means non-attachment to worldly possessions. For ascetics, Jainism requires a vow of complete non-possession of any property. For Jain laypersons, it recommends limited possession of property that has been honestly earned, and giving excess property to charity. According to Natubhai , aparigraha applies to both the material and the psychic. Material possessions refer to various forms of property. Psychic possessions refer to emotions, likes and dislikes, and attachments of any form. Unchecked attachment to possessions is said to result in direct harm to one's personality. Jainism views attachments to material or emotional possessions as what leads to passions, which in turn leads to violence. According to the aparigraha principle, a Jain or is expected to be homeless and family-less with no emotional longings or attachments. The ascetic is a wandering in the tradition, or a resident mendicant in the Śvētāmbara tradition.

In addition, Jain texts mention that "attachment to possessions" (parigraha) is of two kinds: attachment to internal possessions (ābhyantara parigraha), and attachment to external possessions (bāhya parigraha). For internal possessions, Jainism identifies four key passions of the mind (): anger, pride (ego), deceitfulness, and greed. In addition to the four passions of the mind, the remaining ten internal passions are: wrong belief, the three sex-passions (male sex- passion, female sex-passion, neuter sex-passion), and the six defects (laughter, like, dislike, sorrow, fear, disgust).

Jain and five vows Jainism teaches five ethical duties, which it calls five vows. These are called anuvratas (small vows) for Jain laypersons, and mahavratas (great vows) for Jain mendicants. For both, its moral precepts preface that the Jain has access to a (teacher", "counsellor), (Jina", "god), doctrine, and that the individual is free from five offences: doubts about the , indecisiveness about the truths of Jainism, sincere desire for Jain teachings, recognition of fellow Jains, and admiration for their spiritual pursuits. Such a person undertakes the following Five vows of Jainism: 1. Ahiṃsā: intentional non-violence or noninjury: The first major vow taken by Jains is to cause no harm to other human beings, as well as all living beings (particularly animals). This is the highest ethical duty in Jainism, and it applies not only to one's actions, but demands that one be non-violent in one's speech and thoughts.

2. Satya (truth): This vow is to always speak the truth. Neither lie, nor speak what is not true, and do not encourage others or approve anyone who speaks an untruth.

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3. Asteya (not stealing): A Jain layperson should not take anything that is not willingly given. Additionally, a Jain mendicant should ask for permission to take it if something is being given.

4. Brahmacharya (celibacy): from sex and sensual pleasures is prescribed for Jain monks and nuns. For laypersons, the vow means chastity, faithfulness to one's partner.

5. Aparigraha (non-possessiveness): This includes non-attachment to material and psychological possessions, avoiding craving and greed. Jain monks and nuns completely renounce property and social relations, own nothing and are attached to no one.

Traditions and Digambaras and Śvētāmbaras The Jain community is divided into two major denominations, Digambara and Śvētāmbara. Monks of the Digambara (sky-clad) tradition do not wear clothes. Female monastics of the Digambara wear unstitched plain white sarees and are referred to as . Śvētāmbara (white-clad) monastics, on the other hand, wear seamless white clothes.

During 's reign, Jain tradition states that predicted a twelve-year-long famine and moved to with his disciples. , a pupil of Acharya Bhadrabahu, stayed in . Later, when followers of Acharya Bhadrabahu returned, they found those who had remained at Magadha had started wearing white clothes, which was unacceptable to the others who remained naked. This is how Jains believe the Digambara and Śvētāmbara began, with the former being naked while the latter wore white clothes. Digambara saw this as being opposed to the Jain tenet of aparigraha which, according to them, required not even possession of clothes, i.e. complete . In the 5th- century CE, the Council of Valabhi was organized by Śvētāmbara, which Digambara did not attend. At the council, the Śvētāmbara adopted the texts they had preserved as canonical scriptures, which Digambara have ever since rejected. This council solidified the historic schism between these two major traditions of Jainism. The earliest record of Digambara beliefs is contained in the Suttapahuda of . Other than rejecting or accepting different ancient Jain texts, Digambaras and Śvētāmbara differ in other significant ways such as: 1. Śvētāmbaras trace their practices and dress code to the teachings of Parshvanatha, the 23rd tirthankara, which they believe taught only Four restraints (a claim, scholars say are confirmed by the ancient Buddhist texts that discuss Jaina monastic life). Mahāvīra taught Five vows, which Digambara follow. The Digambara sect disagrees with the

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Śvētāmbara interpretations, and reject the theory of in Parshvanatha and Mahāvīra's teachings. 2. Digambaras believe that both Parshvanatha and Mahāvīra remained unmarried, whereas Śvētāmbara believe the 23rd and 24th did indeed marry. According to the Śvētāmbara version, Parshva married Prabhavati, and Mahāvīra married who bore him a daughter named Priyadarshana. The two sects also differ on the origin of , Mahāvīra's mother, as well as the details of Tirthankara's biographies such as how many auspicious dreams their mothers had when they were in the wombs. 3. Digambara believe , and were the three tirthankaras who reached while in sitting posture and other tirthankaras were in standing ascetic posture. In contrast, Śvētāmbaras believe it was Rishabha, Nemi and Mahāvīra who were the three in sitting posture. 4. Digambara rules are more rigid. 5. Digambara iconography are plain, Śvētāmbara icons are decorated and colored to be more lifelike. Excavations at revealed Jain statues from the time of the (c. 1st century CE). Tirthankara represented without clothes, and monks with cloth wrapped around the left arm, are identified as the Ardhaphalaka (half-clothed) mentioned in texts. The Yapaniyas, believed to have originated from the Ardhaphalaka, followed Digambara nudity along with several Śvētāmbara beliefs. Beliefs and philosophy 1. (Substance) The dravya in Jainism are fundamental entities, called astikaya (literally, 'collection that exists'). They are believed to be eternal, and the ontological building blocks that constitute and explain all existence, whether perceived or not. According to the Śvētāmbara tradition of Jainism, there are five eternal substances in existence: Soul (jiva), Matter (), (), motion (Dharma) and rest (). To this list of five, the Digambara Jain tradition adds "Time" (kala) as the sixth eternal substance. In both traditions, the substance of space is conceptualized as "world space" (lokakasha) and "non-world space" (alokiakasha). Further, both soul and matter are considered as active ontological substances, while the rest are inactive. Another categorization found in is jiva and ajiva, the latter being all dravya that is not jiva. 2. Jīva (Soul), Ajīva (Non-Soul) Jiva means "soul" in Jainism, and is also called jivatman. It is a core concept and the fundamental focus of the Jain theology. The soul is believed to be eternal, and a substance that undergoes constant modifications, in every life, after every rebirth of a living being. Jiva consists of pure in the Jain thought, has innate "free " that causes it to act but is believed to be intangible and formless. It is the soul that existence and gains knowledge, not mind nor body both believed to a heap of matter. Jain philosophy further

6 believes that the soul is the mechanism of rebirth, and karma accumulation. It is the same size in all living beings, such as a human being, a tiny insect and a large elephant. Jiva is everywhere, filling and infused in every minuscule part of the entire (realm of existence), according to Jainism. The soul has the potential to reach omniscience and eternal bliss, and end the cycles of rebirth and associated suffering, which is the goal of Jain . The jiva is believed to rely on other dravya to function. The Jain philosophy completely separates body (matter) from the soul (consciousness). Souls reside in bodies and journey endlessly through saṃsāra (that is, realms of existence through cycles of rebirths and redeaths). are believed to be of two types: stationary and mobile. Illustration of the former are plants, while moving jivas include examples such as human beings, animals, , beings and insects. Jivas are further classified in Jain philosophy by an assigned number of senses which range from one to five sensory organs. Inert world such as , or clod of dirt, considered non-sensate in contemporary science, are asserted in historic texts of Jainism to be living and with sensory powers. Ajiva consists of everything other than jiva. Life processes such as breath, means of knowledge such as language, all emotional and biological experiences such as pleasure and are all believed in Jainism to be made of pudgala (matter). These interact with or reality to create, bind, destroy or unbind karma particles to the soul. According to Dundas, Dharma as a metaphysical substance in Jain philosophy may be understood as "that which carries" instead of the literal sense of ordinary physical motion. Thus, dharma includes all verbal and mental activity that contributes to karma and purification of the soul.

3. Tattva (Reality) Tattva connotes "Reality, Truth" in Jain philosophy, and is the framework for salvation. According to Digambara Jains, there are seven , while Śvētāmbaras believe in nine tattvas: 1. The sentient (jiva, soul) 2. The insentient (ajiva) 3. The karmic influx (Āsrava) to the soul 4. Good karma (, merits), found in the tattva theory of Śvētāmbara, but not of Digambaras 5. Bad karma (papa, negatives), found in the tattva theory of Śvētāmbara, but not of Digambaras 6. The bondage () of karmic particles to the soul, thereby causing its change, which cumulatively determines the future rebirths 7. The stoppage (Saṃvara) of karmic influx 8. The dissociation and wiping away of past karmic particles (Nirjarā) from the soul 9. The liberation ()

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The true insight in Jain philosophy is considered as "faith in the tattvas". The spiritual goal in Jainism is to reach moksha for ascetics, but for most Jain laypersons and ascetics it is to accumulate good karma that leads to better rebirth and a step closer to liberation. Soul and Karma According to Jainism, the existence of "a bound and ever changing soul" is a self-evident truth, an axiom which does not need to be proven. There are numerous souls, but every one of them has three qualities (Guṇa): consciousness (caitanya, the most important), bliss (sukha) and vibrational energy (virya). The vibration draws karmic particles to the soul and creates bondages, but is also what adds merit or demerit to the soul. Karma, like in other Indian , connotes in Jainism the universal cause and effect law. However, it is envisioned as a material substance (subtle matter) that can bind to the soul, travel with the soul substance in bound form between rebirths, and affect the suffering and experienced by the jiva in the . Karma is also believed to obscure and obstruct the innate nature and striving of the soul, as well as its spiritual potential in the next rebirth. The relationship between the soul and karma, states , can be explained with the analogy of . Like gold is always found mixed with impurities in its original state, Jainism holds that the soul is not pure at its origin but is always impure and defiled like natural gold. One can exert effort and purify gold, similarly, Jainism states that the defiled soul can be purified by proper refining . Karma either defiles the soul further, or refines it to a cleaner state, and this affects future rebirths. Karma is thus an efficient cause (nimitta) in Jain philosophy, but not the material cause (upadana). The soul is believed to be the material cause. Tirthankara-nama-karma is a special type of karma, bondage of which raises a soul to the supreme status of a tirthankara. Jain texts state that souls exist as "clothed with material bodies", where it entirely fills up the body. There are five types of bodies in the Jaina thought: earthly (e.g. most humans, animals and plants), metamorphic (e.g. gods, hell beings, fine matter, some animals and a few humans who can morph because of their perfections), transference type (e.g. good and pure substances realized by ascetics), fiery (e.g. heat that transforms or digests food), and karmic (the substrate where the karmic particles reside and which make the soul ever changing). Jain philosophy further divides the earthly body by symmetry, number of sensory organs, vitalities (ayus), functional capabilities and whether one body hosts one soul or one body hosts many. Every living being has one to five senses, three balas (power of body, language and mind), respiration (inhalation and exhalation), and life-duration. All living beings, in every realm including the gods and hell beings, accrue and destroy eight types

8 of karma according to the elaborate theories in Jain texts. Elaborate descriptions of the shape and function of the physical and metaphysical , and its constituents, are also provided in the Jain texts. All of these elaborate theories attempt to illustrate and consistently explain the Jain karma theory in a deeply moral framework, much like but with significant differences in the details and assumptions. Saṃsāra The of the Saṃsāra doctrine differs between the Jainism traditions and other . For instance, in Jaina traditions, soul (jiva) is accepted as a truth, as is assumed in traditions. It is not assumed in the Buddhist traditions. However, Saṃsāra or the cycle of rebirths, has a definite beginning and end in Jainism. The Jaina , unlike Hindu and Buddhist theosophies, asserts that each soul passes through 8,400,000 birth-situations, as they circle through Saṃsāra. As the soul cycles, states Padmanabh Jaini, Jainism traditions believe that it goes through five types of bodies: bodies, bodies, fire bodies, air bodies and lives. With all human and non-human activities, such as rainfall, agriculture, eating and even breathing, minuscule living beings are taking birth or dying, their souls are believed to be constantly changing bodies. Perturbing, harming or killing any life form, including any human being, is considered a in Jainism, with negative karmic effects. Souls begin their journey in a primordial state, and exist in a state of consciousness continuum that is constantly evolving through Saṃsāra. Some evolve to a higher state; some regress asserts the Jaina theory, a movement that is driven by the karma. Further, Jaina traditions believe that there exist Abhavya (incapable), or a class of souls that can never attain moksha (liberation). The Abhavya state of soul is entered after an intentional and shockingly evil act. Jainism considers souls as pluralistic each in a karma-samsara cycle, and does not subscribe to Advaita-style (not two) of Hinduism, or Advaya-style nondualism of Buddhism. A liberated soul in Jainism is one who has gone beyond Saṃsāra, is at the apex, is omniscient, remains there eternally, and is known as a .

Cosmology Jain texts propound that the universe consists of many eternal lokas (realms of existence). As in Buddhism and Hinduism, believes both time and the universe are eternal without beginning and end, and that the universe is transient (impermanent in attributes) at the same time. The universe, body, matter and time are considered in Jain philosophy as separate from the soul (jiva or jivatman). Their interaction explains life, living, death and rebirth. According to the Jain texts, the universe is divided into three parts, the upper, middle, and lower worlds, called respectively urdhva loka, madhya loka, and adho loka. As with the realms of existences, Kāla (time) is without beginning and eternal the cosmic , called kālachakra, rotates ceaselessly. According to Jain texts, in this part of the universe, there are six periods of time within two aeons (ara), and in the first aeon the universe generates, and in the next it degenerates. Thus, the worldly cycle of time is divided into two parts or half-cycles, utsarpiṇī (ascending) and avasarpiṇī (descending). Utsarpiṇī is a period of progressive prosperity, where happiness increases, while avasarpiṇī is a period of increasing sorrow and immorality. According to Jain cosmology, it is currently the fifth ara of avasarpiṇī (half time cycle of degeneration). The present age is one of sorrow and misery, of religious decline, where

9 the height and shape of living beings shrink. Jain thought holds that after the sixth ara, the universe will be reawakened in the new cycle and the start of utsarpiṇī aras. According to Jain texts, sixty-three illustrious beings, called śalākāpuruṣas, are born on this earth in every Dukhama-sukhamā ara. The Jain universal history is a compilation of the deeds of these illustrious persons. They comprise twenty-four Tīrthaṅkaras, twelve chakravartins, nine , nine , and nine pratinarayana. A chakravartī is an emperor of the world and of the material realm. Though he possesses worldly power, he often finds his ambitions dwarfed by the vastness of the . Jain give a list of twelve chakravartins (universal monarchs). They are golden in complexion. One of the chakravartins mentioned in Jain scriptures is Chakravartin. Jain texts like Purana and like Purana state that Indian subcontinent came to be known as Bharata varsha in his memory. There are nine sets of balabhadra, narayana, and pratinarayana. The balabhadra and narayana are brothers. Balabhadra are nonviolent heroes, narayana are violent heroes, and pratinarayana the villains. According to the legends, the narayana ultimately kill the pratinarayana. Of the nine balabhadra, eight attain liberation and the last goes to . On death, the narayana go to hell because of their violent exploits, even if these were intended to uphold righteousness. Jain cosmology divides the worldly cycle of time into two parts (avasarpiṇī and utsarpiṇī). According to Jain belief, in every half-cycle of time, twenty-four tīrthaṅkaras are born in the human realm to discover and teach the Jain doctrine appropriate for that era. The word tīrthankara signifies the founder of a , which means a fordable passage across a sea. The tīrthaṅkaras show the 'fordable path' across the sea of interminable births and deaths. Rishabhanatha is said to be the first tīrthankara of the present half-cycle (avasarpiṇī). Mahāvīra (6th century BC) is revered as the twenty fourth tīrthankara of avasarpiṇī. Jain texts explain that Jainism has always existed and will always exist. In Jainism, perfect souls with the body are called (victors) and perfect souls without the body are called (liberated souls).

God According to Jainism, the universe was never created, nor will it ever cease to exist. It is independent and self-sufficient, does not require a creator nor any superior power to govern it, nor a judge nor destroyer. In this belief, it is distinct from the monotheistic ; it is similar to Buddhism. It shares premises with the non-theistic part of the spectrum of diverse beliefs found in different traditions within and distinct from theistic Hindu traditions. Jain texts reject the idea of a creator, ruler or destroyer god and postulate an eternal universe. However, Jainism believes in the world of gods and hell beings who are born, and who die to be reborn like living beings in the earthly realm of existence. Those souls who live in the body of a god do so because of their positive karma. They have a metamorphic body, that is they are believed in Jain thought to be able to change their body at will. The gods live a life of happiness, fun and frolic, whose are automatically fulfilled. They also possess a more transcendent knowledge about material things and can anticipate events in the human realms. However, once their past karmic merit is exhausted, the souls leave the "god body" and are reborn again as humans, animals or other beings.

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Salvation, liberation According to Jainism, purification of soul and liberation can be achieved through the path of three jewels: Samyak darśana (Correct View) – Faith in basic tenets of Jainism, acceptance of the self- evident truth of soul (jīva) Samyak (Correct Knowledge) – Knowledge of the tattvas without any doubt or misapprehension Samyak charitra (Correct Conduct) – behavior consistent with the Five vows Jain texts often add samyak tap (Correct Asceticism) as the fourth jewel, thereby emphasizing their belief in ascetic practices as the means to liberation (moksha). The four jewels of orthodox Jain are called moksha marg. According to Jain texts, the liberated pure soul (Siddha) goes up to the summit of universe () and dwells there in eternal bliss.

Scriptures and texts Jain scriptures are called Agamas. They are believed to have been verbally transmitted by the from one generation to the next, much like the ancient Buddhist and Hindu texts. The Jain tradition believes that their religion is eternal, and the teachings of their first Tirthankara Rishabhanatha were their scriptures millions of years ago. The mythology states that the tirthankara taught in a divine preaching hall called samavasarana, which were heard by the gods, the ascetics and laypersons. The discourse delivered is called Śhrut Jnāna and comprises eleven and fourteen . The discourse is remembered and transmitted by the (chief disciples), and is composed of twelve angas (departments). It is symbolically represented by a tree with twelve branches. According to the Jain tradition, an araha (worthy one) speaks meaning that is then converted into sūtra (sutta) by his disciples, and from such sūtras emerge the doctrine. The creation and transmission of the Agama is the work of disciples in Jainism. These texts, historically for Jains, have represented the truths uttered by their tirthankaras, particularly the Mahāvīra. In every cycle of Jain cosmology, twenty-four tirthankaras appear and so do the Jain scriptures for that ara. The spoken scriptural language is believed to be Ardhamagadhi by the Śvētāmbara Jains, and a form of sonic resonance by the Digambara Jains. These then become coded into duvala samgagani pidaga (twelve limbed baskets by disciples), but transmitted orally. In the 980th year after Mahāvīra's death (~5th century CE), the texts were written down for the first time by the Council of Valabhi. The Śvētāmbaras believe that they have the original Jain scriptures. The Śvētāmbara belief is denied by the Digambaras, who instead believe the scriptures were lost. The Śvētāmbaras state that their collection of 45 works represent a continuous tradition, though they accept that their collection is also incomplete because of a lost text and four lost Purva texts. The Digambara sect of Jainism believes that Āchārya was the last ascetic who had partial knowledge of the original canon. According to them, Digambara Āchāryas recreated the oldest- known Digambara Jain texts, including the four anuyoga. According to von Glasenapp, the Digambara texts partially agree with the enumerations and works of older Śvētāmbara texts, but in many cases there are also gross differences between the texts of the two major Jain traditions.

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The Śvētāmbara consider their 45 text collection as canonical. The Digambaras created a secondary canon between 600 and 900 CE, compiling it into four groups: history, cosmography, philosophy and ethics. This four- collection is called the "four Vedas" by the Digambaras. The most popular and influential texts of Jainism have been its non-canonical literature. Of these, the Sūtras are particularly popular among Śvētāmbaras, which they attribute to Bhadrabahu (c. 300 BCE). This ancient scholar is revered in the Digambara tradition, and they believe he led their migration into the ancient south Karnataka region, and created their tradition. Śvētāmbaras disagree, and they believe that Bhadrabahu moved to , not into peninsular India. Both traditions, however, consider his Niryuktis and as important texts. The earliest surviving Sanskrit text by called the Tattvarthasūtra is considered authoritative Jain philosophy text by all traditions of Jainism. His text has the same importance in Jainism as Sūtras and Yogasūtras have in Hinduism. In the Digambara tradition, the texts written by Kundakunda are highly revered and have been historically influential. Other important Jain texts include: Samayasara, Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra, and .

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