University of Huddersfield Repository Salter, Emma Raj Bhakta Marg: the path of devotion to Srimad Rajcandra. A Jain community in the twenty first century Original Citation Salter, Emma (2002) Raj Bhakta Marg: the path of devotion to Srimad Rajcandra. A Jain community in the twenty first century. Doctoral thesis, University of Wales. This version is available at http://eprints.hud.ac.uk/id/eprint/9211/ The University Repository is a digital collection of the research output of the University, available on Open Access. Copyright and Moral Rights for the items on this site are retained by the individual author and/or other copyright owners. Users may access full items free of charge; copies of full text items generally can be reproduced, displayed or performed and given to third parties in any format or medium for personal research or study, educational or not-for-profit purposes without prior permission or charge, provided: • The authors, title and full bibliographic details is credited in any copy; • A hyperlink and/or URL is included for the original metadata page; and • The content is not changed in any way. For more information, including our policy and submission procedure, please contact the Repository Team at: [email protected]. http://eprints.hud.ac.uk/ © Emma Salter. Not to be reproduced in any form without the author’s permission Rāj Bhakta Mārg The Path of Devotion to Srimad Rajcandra. A Jain Community in the Twenty First Century. By Emma Salter A thesis submitted in candidature for the degree of doctor of philosophy. University of Wales, Cardiff. September 2002. 1 © Emma Salter. Not to be reproduced in any form without the author’s permission Summary This thesis is a diachronic study of a branch of modern Jainism that was established at the beginning of the twentieth century. It makes extensive use of ethnographic data collected during field-research in Gujarat, Mumbai (India) and London (UK). Members of this branch of Jainism follow a Jain layman from Gujarat called Srimad Rajcandra (1867 to 1901 CE). Srimad was profoundly dissatisfied with contemporary Jainism. He believed that its soteriological message had been subverted by empty rituals and groundless theorizing, and that spiritual ignorance had resulted in sectarian division, something to which he vehemently opposed. Today there are numerous ashrams and temples dedicated to Srimad. Most are in Gujarat, from where the majority of his followers originate, but some are also found in other regions of India. Srimad’s following extends beyond India into diaspora Jain communities in North America and Europe, including Britain. This thesis argues that Srimad’s devotees are unified by an inclusive history and ideology that is centred in the life and teachings of Srimad Rajcandra, and so can be viewed collectively as a distinct movement within modern Jainism. Two tangible factors that distinguish Srimad’s followers from other Jains are their acceptance of his writings (in Gujarati) as scripture and their veneration of his image in the form of photographs and statues. Such an argument is necessary because the structure of the Srimad Rajcandra movement is fragmentary. It is a composite of various disparate, autonomous lay communities and individuals. Each community has its own local history and independent tradition, which influence its specific beliefs and practices. This thesis discusses the internal causes for the movement’s organizational structure. These include Srimad’s lay status and anti-sectarian values, his interpretation of self realisation as a religious experience, and his teaching about guru bhakti as a means of attaining liberation. i © Emma Salter. Not to be reproduced in any form without the author’s permission Acknowledgements It would have been impossible to complete this thesis without the range of support I received in Britain and India. I would like to acknowledge the University of Wales, Cardiff and the Department of Theological and Religious Studies at Cardiff for awarding me a grant to fund this research. A further acknowledgement is due to the Department of Theological and Religious Studies at Cardiff for contributing towards fieldtrip expenses and for extending my funding into my final year. I would like to thank academic and administrative staff in the department for all their encouragement and support throughout the duration of my studies. Special thanks are offered to my supervisor, Dr. Will Johnson. The completion of this thesis is the result of his constant encouragement, enthusiasm for my work and sense of humour. The quality of the research has benefited enormously from his skilled guidance and expertise on Jainism. To all of Srimad Rajcandra’s devotees and other Jains whom I met I owe a huge thank you. This thesis was made possible only by their good grace. It is enriched by their intelligence and eagerness to discuss their religious beliefs with me. Throughout the course of this research I received a level of generosity and hospitality that cannot be rivalled and many friendships have been made along the way. I owe a special debt of gratitude to the following people: trustees and devotees at the ‘Srimad Rajcandra Ashram’, Agas; Param Pujya Sri Atmanandji and his disciples; Param Pujya Sri Nalinbhai Kothari and his disciples; Param Pujya Sri Dr. Rakeshbhai Jhaveri and his disciples; Mr. Jaysingbhai Narayandas and Mr. Dirubhai Daftari. I would like to thank Harshad Sanghrajka for his excellent translation services. Also, Belle, Ken and David for proof reading the text. Thanks also to David for scanning the photographs and for other technical assistance. My final and greatest debt of gratitude is owed to my mother. Thanks for instilling in me the value of knowledge, for bringing me up with an open and enquiring mind, and for teaching me to respect the beliefs of others. ii © Emma Salter. Not to be reproduced in any form without the author’s permission Note to Readers Throughout this thesis book titles are italicised, for example The Jains. Gujarati words are also italicised, for example bhakti, and diacritics have been added. Where a Gujarati word appears in direct quotes the style adoped by the original author is maintained. The English meaning is given the first time the word is used and there is a selective glossary at the end of the thesis. Words that are commonly used in English, such as ‘guru’ and ‘karma’, have been anglicised. Proper names are neither italicised nor given diacritics. They are written in their full honorific form at their first mention, thereafter they are usually reduced to a respectful shortened form. For example, Sri Maharaj Lalluji Svami is shortened to Lalluji. The reasons for this are explained in the section on methodology in the Introduction. I have opted for the plural forms of pronouns to indicate non-specific gender, rather than the more cumbersome her/his format. Place names are written in their modern form without diacritics. For consistency, Mumbai, rather than Bombay, is written. Unless otherwise specified the dates given throughout the thesis are CE. Fifty six is subtracted from Gujarati vikram samvat (VS) dates to convert them to CE dates.1 1 For an explanation of this conversion see Williams 1984, p9 footnote. iii © Emma Salter. Not to be reproduced in any form without the author’s permission Contents Summary Acknowledgements Note to Readers Page. Chapter One: Introduction 1 - 56. Chapter Two: Devoted Communities 56 - 122. How Srimad Rajcandra’s followers are organised. Chapter Three: From Householder to Saint 123 - 179. A biographical outline of Srimad Rajcandra and his influence on the Srimad Rajcandra movement. Chapter Four: The Path of Self Realisation 180 - 235. The impact of Srimad’s philosophy of self realisation and his religious instruction of guru bhakti on the Srimad Rajcandra movement. Chapter Five: Legacies of a Saint 236 - 279. Devotees’ use of Srimad’s writing and image and their influence on the Srimad Rajcandra movement. Conclusions 278 - 308. Appendices: One. Aspirant’s vows from Srimad Rajcandra Ashram, Agas. Two. Srimad Rajcandra reference 680. Three. ‘What is the Seed of Omniscience?’ Plates Glossary Bibliography iv © Emma Salter. Not to be reproduced in any form without the author’s permission Chapter One: Introduction Chapter One Introduction 1 © Emma Salter. Not to be reproduced in any form without the author’s permission Chapter One: Introduction Chapter One Introduction 1. Objectives This thesis is about a contemporary Jain movement the members of which are devotees of a Jain layman from Gujarat called Srimad Rajcandra (1867 to 1901). It aims to contribute to a broader general understanding of Jainism through a focused study of this specific branch of Jains. The Srimad Rajcandra movement is relatively recent and so this thesis offers an important perspective on modem Jainism1. Wilson has observed that the structure of any organisation is influenced by its origins, historical development and ideological outlook2. In response to that observation, this thesis makes a diachronic analysis of the evolution of the Srimad Rajcandra movement. It approaches this analysis by discussing the internal causes for the movement’s inception and for its development as a lay organisation with a fragmentary and multifarious social structure. The thesis shows that Shrimad’s followers are united by an inclusive history and ideology, which justifies their being described collectively as a ‘movement’, and one that is distinct from other forms of Jainism. It also shows that the movement as a whole is composed of various autonomous communities, each 1 There is some tension surrounding the term ‘Srimad Rajcandra movement’. This is discussed further in Chapter Two 2 Wilson 1967, p8 2 © Emma Salter. Not to be reproduced in any form without the author’s permission Chapter One: Introduction with its own local history and each with its own specific beliefs and practices.