Ashdin Publishing Journal of Drug and Alcohol Research ASHDIN Vol. 9 (2020), Article ID 236105, 16 pages publishing doi:10.4303/jdar/236105 Research Article

Sexting among University Students: Links to Internet Addiction and Psychological Variables

Gerardo Gómez-García1, José-María Romero-Rodríguez1,2*, Carmen Rodríguez-Jiménez1 and Magdalena Ramos Navas-Parejo1

1Department of Didactics and School Organization, University of Granada, Granada, Spain 2Association for Research and Promotion of Education in the Digital Society-PROMOEDUCA, Granada, Spain *Address Correspondence to José-María Romero-Rodríguez, [email protected]

Received 16 September, 2020 ; Accepted 29 October, 2020; Published 05 November, 2020 Copyright © 2020 José-María Romero-Rodríguez, et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract Internet use has increased to such an extent that it has Sexting is increasingly common among university students, while become excessive for many people [9], leading to levels of Internet addiction are rising in this population. This has the emergence of new types of addictions related to caused students to present certain risk behaviors that are linked to the development of psychological variables that affect health such inappropriate behaviour, such as nomophobia or fear of as low self-control, depression, anxiety and stress. In this paper it not being connected to the mobile device continuously was proposed as objective of the study to analyze the links that are [10], Internet addiction or Problematic Internet Use established between the practice of sexting, Internet addiction, self- (PIU) [11,12]. Furthermore, DSM-V talks about internet control, depression, anxiety and stress. For this purpose, an online survey was applied to a sample of 1013 university students from a gaming disorder and defines it as "recurrent and persistent Spanish university, which collected four standardized instruments to participation for many hours in video games, usually in measure the constructs of the study. The results showed that students groups, leading to clinically significant impairment or who practiced sexting were associated with low self-control and higher levels of depression, anxiety and stress, as well as problematic Internet discomfort for a period of 12 months" [13]. use. Furthermore, gender, living with parents, and daily Internet use The youth population is especially attracted and were predictors of sexting. Finally, the main implications derived from the study in relation to the links of sexting and Internet addiction were influenced by the Internet, as they get quick answers, collected. instant rewards and have a very effective interactive mode Keywords capable of overcoming the barriers of space and time. Sexting, Computer-mediated sexual communication, Internet addiction, Through the Internet young people have found an ideal University students, Depression, anxiety means of communication, relationship and satisfaction of curiosity [14]. So much so, that they use social networks to build their social identity, as well as a relational bond, 1. Introduction tending to stay connected for long periods of time [15]. Some 30 years ago, the Internet began to spread around For this reason, it is also the youngest who are most the world and has today become a fundamental element exposed to the risks involved in this phenomenon [16], in the lives of young people [1]. Today, there is a great becoming classified as at risk [17,18]. diversity of devices that have revolutionized the way of Young people also use ICT to provide each other with working, relating, having fun [2-4], and learning [5], intimate information by exchanging sexual content and through the use of communicative applications such messages, making use of the practice known as sexting as chats, online games or social networks [6]. There is [18]. This practice has increased in recent years due to no doubt about the many advantages that Information the ease of access to cameras and the Internet through and Communication Technologies (ICT) have brought mobile devices [19] and the need to get more attention to society [7], highlighting the speed, accessibility, among friends [20]. The experience itself would not overcoming of barriers and real-time intercommunication be a problem if it were not used to damage the image from anywhere in the world [8]. of the agents involved [21], and as long as no adults 2 Journal of Drug and Alcohol Research are involved with minors, which would become child of resources to control stress and communication skills, pornography [22]. tendency to depression, cognitive distortions, feeling of loneliness and propensity to isolation [42-44]. From these Therefore, this work carried out an analysis on the aspects, it can be deduced that the problems arising from phenomenon of sexting and Internet abuse in the the PIU are similar to those that push youth to express university student population. It was also of interest to themselves. Concern about this phenomenon has even check the influence of certain socio-demographic factors led to the need to design prevention programmes [45]. on the practice of sexting, Internet addiction and on psychological variables such as self-control, depression, A study conducted by Necmi-Uçar [46], showed that anxiety and stress. adolescents with depression, had significantly higher scores for bullying and cyber-victimization, as well as 2. Literature review addictions to digital games and the Internet, also used The results of the Spanish Observatory of Drugs and chat and social networks more than the control group. Drug Addiction (2017), indicate that 18% of Spanish On the other hand, parents in the group with depression adolescents use social networks in an addictive way, spent more hours on social networking than those who 3.7% more than those who consume illegal drugs in didn't. Like depression, negative family environment is Spain (14.3%). Despite these data, there are no diagnostic associated with problematic Internet use and time spent criteria to define this problem and there is a confusion online by young people (Sela, 2020). Likewise, Faghani between considering this fact as an addictive pathology [47] found that the emotional and cognitive model or as an environmental, psychological, sociological and/ explains 57% of PIU variance. or socio-political explanation [23]. Sexting is defined as the intimate exchange of sexually Therefore, these technological advances bring many explicit nude or semi-nude images, text messages or advantages, but they are also accompanied by a series videos via mobile phones or other communication of dangers derived from misuse, possible addiction devices [20, 48]. and other risks such as cyberbullying, grooming and The problem arises when information is misunderstood or identity theft among many others [8]. Kożybska [24] used. These facts often lead to harmful experiences with define dysfunctional use of the Internet or PIU as online negative psychological effects [18]. Therefore, sexting activity that, instead of providing benefits, degenerates is a potential risk, which starts as a fun and opportunity into disruptive behaviour, which can lead to physical and for sexual exploration, but can end up in a serious, psychological health and social problems. out-of-control situation with serious social, physical, Excessive use of the Internet, reflected in the amount psychological and even legal consequences [48]. of time spent on online activities, especially for leisure According to Skenarova [49] women and adolescents and social communication purposes, is associated are the groups most at risk of being victims of this type with problems of [25-31], obesity [32] and other of non-consensual sexual practices through the Internet. eating disorders [33]. Aznar-Díaz [34] add obsessive- Authors such as Gámez-Guadix [50] to study and prevent compulsive disorder, alcohol abuse, sleep disorders, this problem, developed a tool to measure online sexual and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder to this set of victimization, which covers three dimensions: sex- problems linked to PIU. Numerous studies support this related insistence, threats and coercion, and unwanted negative relationship between PIU and mental health dissemination of intimate content. These same authors [35,36]. A relationship has also been found between PIU have noted that this practice is increasingly widespread and declining academic self-efficacy [37], lack of self- among minors and young people, being more frequent esteem and verbal fluency problems [38]. in young adults, and even stating that two out of three Hurwitz and Schmitt [39] highlight the risks involved adults have participated in sexting practices. Van in making inappropriate content accessible, reducing Ouytsel [51] found a relationship between sexting and time spent on other more educational or enriching psychological factors such as depression, anxiety, activities, the danger of contacting strangers, addiction emotional disturbance and substance use. In contrast, to online gambling, sexting, loss of privacy, encouraging Van Oosten and Vandenbosch [52] concluded their study narcissistic behaviour, feelings of loneliness and even by stating that young adolescents are more willing to distortions of reality [40]. engage in non-consensual sending of sexually explicit images than are more adult youth. And within this group, According to Happ, Melzer and Steffgen [41], young those with high instrumental attitudes towards sex have people say they are aware of the dangers of the Internet a higher level. and how to avoid them, but in practice they are often exposed to its risks. There is a profile among young Along the same lines, the results of the study carried people who are more likely to suffer from PIU, related out by Marganski and Melander [53] showed that to personality traits such as difficulty in coping with victimization by this type of cybernetic aggression in the problems, impulsivity, seeking strong sensations, lack couple is quite common, since almost three quarters of the Journal of the International Drug Abuse Research Society and the International Narcotics Research Conference 3 university students surveyed stated that they had suffered established by the University of Granada itself was used this experience to a greater or lesser extent in the last year. for the grouping into knowledge areas. Table 1 shows the This is related to a wider range of psychological, sexual different variables studied in the sample. and physical violence within the couple. Gámez-Guadix 3.2 Measures [50] indicated that participation in sexting increases the probability of being a victim of sexual harassment and 3.2.1 Sexting Behaviors Scale (SBS) with a greater proportion if the recipient has met through The Sexting Behaviors Scale (SBS) aims to identify the network, participation is also greater among people subjects' behavioral habits and disposition toward of the same sex. sexting [55]. Specifically, we used the existing validated On the other hand, Gassó [22] place sexting among adaptation in Spanish [56], being a five-level Likert one of the three phenomena considered to be youth type scale, from 1 (Never) to 5 (Frequently). In total, cybercrime, along with cyberbullying and grooming. nine items were applied that measured the subjects' And they highlight the fact that it can seriously affect the active disposition towards sexting. So the scores ranged psychopathological assessment of the participants and from 9 to 45, with higher scores indicating a greater produce great moral damage to both the victim and his predisposition to sexting. The reliability for the present or her family. data sample was optimal (α = 0.897). Based on this context, the objective of the study was to 3.2.2 Internet Addiction Test (IAT) analyze the links between the practice of sexting, Internet Internet Addiction Test (IAT) is the most recognized addiction, self-control, depression, anxiety and stress. It instrument for measuring Internet addiction [57]. It was from this objective that the research questions arose: consists of 20 items and measures the degree of Internet RQ1. Are there significant relationships between sexting addiction of an individual with the electronic device. and Internet addiction, self-control, and suffering from Response mode features a six-level Likert scale, from 0 anxiety, stress or depressive disorders? (rarely) to 5 (always). The scores ranged from 0 to 100 points, indicating a higher score for a higher degree of RQ2. What factors significantly influence and can Internet addiction. This instrument gathers adequate therefore be predictive of sexting, Internet addiction, psychometric properties [58] and has been validated in the self-control, and having more or less stress, anxiety or Spanish context [59]. The reliability in this investigation depression? was good (α = 0.895). 3. Materials and Methods 3.2.3 Brief Self-Control Scale (BSCS-SV) To carry out the study, we advocated a quantitative Through the Brief Self-Control Scale (BSCS-SV) the methodological design of cross-sectional nature, which evaluation of the self-control was carried out. This scale analyzed through the descriptive and inferential approach is made up of 13 items on a five-level Likert scale, from the realities of the responses obtained by the participating 1 (not at all) to 5 (totally). Thus, scores ranged from 13 subjects by Hernández, Fernández, & Baptista,. To this to 65, where a higher score was associated with less end, an online survey based on standardized instruments self-control. The instrument has optimal psychometric was implemented and distributed through the official properties and internal consistency [60]. It was also student channel of the University of Granada (Spain) validated in the Spanish context [61]. The reliability in during January and February 2020 before the effects of this case was acceptable (α= 0.761) the COVID-19 pandemic in Spain. 3.2.4 Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS-21) 3.1 Participants DASS-21 has 21 items, collected on a Likert-type scale The sample of participants was composed by Spanish with four response options, from 0 (didn't happen to me) students of Higher Education of the University of to 3 (happened to me a lot). It is in charge of measuring Granada (n = 1013). For its scrutiny, a convenience the level of frequency in which the subjects have sampling was used, because the instrument was applied suffered some situation close to depression, anxiety or to the whole student body of the University, where stress [62]. Each of these constructs is made up of seven students freely decided whether to participate in the items, with the scores distributed between 0 and 21 in research. The overall sample consisted of 252 men and each of them. A higher score indicates the presence of 761 women between the ages of 17 and 35 (M = 22.23; these constructions. The instrument has been validated in SD = 3.88). The decompensation observed in the sample Spanish [63,64]. The reliability of this work was optimal around the gender variable is evident, and is due to (α = 0.950). the number of enrolments in university degrees in the social sciences, the majority of whom are women by 3.3 Data analysis Navarro & Casero, in 2012. The division established by The statistical software Rstudio v.1.3.5 was used to the World Health Organization (WHO, 2017) [54] was process the data. Firstly, a descriptive analysis was carried used for the grouping of age ranges and the division out which made it possible to ascertain the responses 4 Journal of Drug and Alcohol Research

Table 1: Socio-demographic characteristics of the study simple. n % Gender Male 256 25.3 Female 757 74.7 Age ≤ 20 417 41.2 21-35 596 58.8 Civil Status Single 605 59.7 Couple 408 40.3 Parents´marital status Married (Parental St 1) 738 72.9 Separated (Parental St 2) 181 17.8 One of them has died (Parental St 3) 61 6.02 Both of them have died (Parental St 4) 13 1.3 Unmarried Couple (Parental St 5) 20 1.9 Have siblings? Yes 918 90.6 No 95 9.4 Live with parents Yes 473 46.7 No 540 53.3 Number of social networks ≤5 383 37.8 ≥6 630 62.2 Internet daily use for leisure < 1 hour 47 4.6 1-2 hours 195 19.2 2-3 hours 355 35 3-4 hours 245 24.2 >4 hours 171 16.9 collected by the university students. Consequently, the Wilk test verified the character and trend of the results Pearson correlation test was applied, prior to calculating obtained (p >0.05). On the other hand, the focus was the characteristics of the data distribution (normality, established on knowing the independence of the residues homocedasticity and residue independence). After this, from the data collected through the Durbin-Watson test, the multiple linear regression models were configured, which confirmed this premise, allowing this research to taking into account the socio-demographic variables continue. previously explained. Finally, through the regsubset Regarding the relationship between the study variables, algorithm and with the Bayesian Information Criterion the results of Pearson's correlation test showed some (BIC), the weight and statistical significance of each links between the different constructs of the research. of the variables included in the predictive power of The results do not show strong relationships between the the model and, therefore, in the development of the dependent constructs was studied in depth. variables that make up the study. In this case, there is a slight relationship between daily Internet use and Internet 4. Results addiction and a moderate relationship between Internet In the first instance, the descriptive statistics allowed to addiction and self-control (Figure 1). establish a first approach about the reality observed by Multiple linear regression models are shown below. the students participating in the research (Table 2). Thus, Those factors marked with an asterisk (*) are those that we observed how self-control (AC) was the construct present an incidence relationship with the protagonist that obtained the highest scores, followed by Internet dimension. In the first place, the multiple linear regression addiction (IAD), depression, anxiety, stress (DAE) and, model of the sexting practice allowed to know the socio- finally, sexting (SEXT). demographic factors that have a direct influence with its The normality and homocedasticity of the variances development, these were: gender, living with the parents, were analysed in accordance with the characteristics of daily use of the Internet and the dependent constructs, the data distribution. Thus, through Levene's test it was especially IAD (Figure 2). The model developed found that the distribution showed similar variances (p responded to the conditions of significance (F = 9.862; >0.05). Similarly, in the case of normality, the Shapiro- p <0.05), but with a low adjustment factor (R2 = 0.1161). Journal of the International Drug Abuse Research Society and the International Narcotics Research Conference 5

Table 2: Descriptive statistics. Dimension M SD IQR HIST Sexting 16.1 6.58 9 ▇▃▂▁_ Internet addiction 30.8 15 22 ▃▇▆▂_ Autocontrol 36.9 5.68 8 ▂▇▇▂▁ Depression, anxiety, stress 16.3 10.1 16 ▇▇▆▅▂ Note: IQR = Inter-quartile range; HIST = Histogram

Figure 1: Correlation between study variables.

Figure 2: Multiple regression model for SEXT.

In the case of Internet addiction, the model presented significance of each socio-demographic factor with the several significant predictors, such as marital status, living dependent constructs presented in the previous models. with parents and daily Internet use (Figure 3). Similarly, Thus, different results were found according to the four the rest of the constructions dependent on the study (CA, previously configured models. In the case of the model SEXT, DAE) were also identified as incidents. On the for SEXT, the most incident variable in its development other hand, the significance of the (F = 48.88; df = 997; was IAD. Next are Gender, Age, Parental St 2, p <0.05) and the adjustment explains 41% of the total LiveParents, Daily Use of Internet, AC and DAE (Figure variance of the data (R2 = 0.4151). 6). In IAD it was found that mainly, the AC construct has the most influence on the development of IAD. Then Considering the dimension about AC (Figure 4), a there is Daily use of Internet, Civil Status, and in parallel, significant model was obtained (F = 34.74; p <0.05). In "have siblings" and "live with parents" (Figure 7). As for the this model the influence of gender factors, the marital status results of the algorithm in AC, they allowed elucidating the of the parents, as well as the dependent constructs were influence of multiple variables to a greater extent, as is the shown to be incidents in the development of AC. Similarly, case of Parental St 2, Parental St 3, Parental St 5 Live with the model fit is less than the previous (R2 = 0.3334). parents, IAD (to a greater extent), SEXT and DAE (Figure Finally, in the case of the DAE construct (Figure 5), 8). Finally, with respect to DAE, the results show that the the development of the regression model determined variables that statistically show the greatest influence on its the influence of Gender, Age, Parental State and the empowerment are IAD, Gender, Age, Parental St 2, Parental dependent constructs IAD, AC and SEXT. The model St 3, Parental St 5, AC and SEXT (Figure 9). was found to be significant (F = 17.13;p <0.05) and with In summary, Table 3 shows a summary of the different an adjustment coefficient of almost a quarter of the total relationships of influence that socio-demographic (R2 = 0.1929) variables have obtained in each of the linear regression Finally, the algorithm regsubset and with BIC was models configured for each construct analyzed in the calculated in order to investigate the degree of statistical research. 6 Journal of Drug and Alcohol Research

Figure 3: Multiple regression model for IAD.

Figure 4: Multiple regression model for AC.

Figure 5: Multiple regression model for DAE.

Figure 6: Weight and influence of variables in SEXT. Journal of the International Drug Abuse Research Society and the International Narcotics Research Conference 7

Figure 7: Weight and influence of variables in IAD.

Figure 8: Weight and influence of variables in AC.

Figure 9: Weight and influence of variables in DAE.

Table 3: Summary of the relationships of influence between socio-demographic factors and research constructs Socio-Demographic Factor Construct SEXT IAD AC DAE Gender X X X Age X Civil Status X Marital status of parents X X Do you have any siblings? Lives at home with his parents X X Nº social networks Daily use of the Internet for leisure X X 8 Journal of Drug and Alcohol Research

5. Discussion the Internet and its management [17,18]. Not only are young people a risk group in themselves when it comes The data obtained show significant relationships between to perceiving these disorders, but it is within this group socio-demographic variables and dependent constructs. that there is an even more vulnerable figure due to age Some of these variables, therefore, being influential in and personal characteristics, thus generating the need for the development of the practices or phenomena discussed refuge in the use of the Internet [44]. here serve as predictors of them. The data also confirmed that university students are a population at risk of With regard to the dependent variables and the suffering at some point from any of the above-mentioned predictability between them, it was observed how the problems [18]. self-control or the lack of it is the most influential factor when it comes to knowing an excessive and harmful On the other hand, the differences between the variables use of the Internet [9], what is presented as a lack of indicated that socio-demographic factors could explain awareness of the problems associated with this misuse the problems addressed such as self-control, Internet [41]. In the rest of the variables, it is the addiction to the addiction, sexting, stress, anxiety or depression. In this Internet that appears in all of them as a factor of influence respect, the existence of notable relationships between and predictor of its appearance or development [47]. some of the study variables such as daily Internet use and the probability of suffering from Internet addiction In short, in today's society, the Internet is a tool for young is highlighted, confirmed by the correlations between the people that has a double aspect, since on the one hand it study variables in line with previous studies [9,11,15]. is fundamental in the development of multiple facets of life, as is stated in previous studies [2, 3, 5]. Similarly, In the same way, the marital status and living with the this is a tool that contributes to overcoming the barriers parents suppose for the population some factors of greater of the context in which we find ourselves, so following risk at the time of being susceptible to suffer addiction to Apridar [7] the speed, accessibility and quantity of Internet, which indicates that the fact of not having own information provided are its main characteristics and responsibilities of the juvenile and adult stages of the life advantages. However, the relationship of this population generates climates where the use of Internet acquires a with the Internet and everything that derives from it does great importance being able to derive in addiction by a not always have positive characteristics or consequences, little responsible and inappropriate use, like the exposed since they have come to monopolize the lives of young thing by Sela which in its investigation indicates that people, generating dependency and a series of problems to live in family and that in this there are problematic on an emotional, psychological and physical level [24]. atmospheres it favors situations of addiction to Internet. Along the same lines, the fact of being a woman and 6. Conclusions living with one's parents or their marital status has a great It can be concluded that the practice of sexting and influence on self-control, or specifically on their lack of abusive use of the Internet are issues related to other it and on being a victim of practices such as sexting [49]. current phenomena derived from ICT as well as to In the same vein as the previous question, young people, various socio-demographic factors, both inherent to the especially women, who also have problems controlling individual and external. Thus, using them as predictors impulsivity, are more likely to have problematic use helps to prevent or identify these behaviours or problems. of the Internet and to experience depression, anxiety Age, marital status, gender and characteristics of the and stress. This may be a symptom of the fact that by family environment are elements to be taken into account seeking refuge on the web, not only do they not manage in order to know how it affects or may affect the use of previous problems better, but they generate new ones and the Internet in all its aspects, as shown in this paper. aggravate existing ones [44]. The prospective of this study is to extend the sample to On the other hand, the multiple linear regression model more degrees, in the same way as to do the same with the confirmed that in relation to Internet addiction the daily sociodemographic factors to a wider range of possibilities use of the Internet by students was a predictive factor for the evaluation of the greatest possible number of [16]. Furthermore, in all cases the gender of the student elements that intervene in the practice of sexting and the is a decisive factor in influencing his or her own self- abuse of the Internet in the life of the students. At the control or in being problematic in his or her use of the same time, the limitations encountered in this study lie Internet or in sexting. mainly in the sampling technique, since sampling has been carried out for convenience and, for future research, Along the same lines, it was observed that the age of the it would be advisable to expand the sample at the national population was also a determining factor in predicting level and to other demographic, social and economic the occurrence of phenomena such as sexting [52] contexts in order to check whether the results presented or suffering from phenomena such as anxiety, stress here are supported by larger populations. and depression, since it is the youngest who are most vulnerable and most likely to suffer from these types Finally, from this perspective, exposing the current of ailments, which are always related to the use of situation of the phenomena and elements derived Journal of the International Drug Abuse Research Society and the International Narcotics Research Conference 9 from ICT, the Internet, its use and its advantages and 10. 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