The 2011 Banks Memorial Lecture: A history of the of New Zealand’s indigenous and the infl uence of ERMA

Lawrie Metcalf1

his Handbook of the New Zealand fl ora (Hooker, 1864). In fact, Thomas Frederic Cheeseman (the well- known New Zealand botanist) noted that Richard’s fl ora was the “fi rst Fig. 1 Lawrie Metcalf publication dealing with the fl ora delivering the 2011 of New Zealand as a whole, and Banks Memorial possesses considerable merit, so Lecture. Photo: Gil Hanly. much so that it is to be regretted that so little use of it has been made by Reading the title of this lecture New Zealand botanists” (Cheeseman, (Fig. 1), you may well ask, just what 1906). It could be suggested the has New Zealand’s Environmental reason for that was because so few Risk Management Authority got to do of them probably took the trouble to with an address on the cultivars of learn the French language. New Zealand’s indigenous fl ora? After all, ERMA is neither a horticultural By the early 18th century a greater society nor a botanical organisation. number of explorers and botanists However, the answer to that question began to visit New Zealand and will become clearer later on. some naturally commenced collecting seeds to send back to contacts in Right from the day of 9th October Britain and Europe. The Cunningham 1769 when James Cook, on his fi rst brothers, Allan and Richard, were two voyage of discovery to the southern who made many discoveries of new hemisphere, arrived in New Zealand Fig. 2 An early colour illustration of Sophora in Northland. The younger its plants and animals were a tetraptera, published in The Botanical brother, Richard Cunningham source of wonder to Europeans. Magazine; or, Flower-Garden Displayedd, by arrived in 1833 and one notable The scientists that he brought with William Curtis. v. 5–6 (1792–1793), No. 167. Image courtesy Missouri Botanical Garden, species he discovered was Hebe him, including Joseph Banks and www.botanicus.org. speciosaa growing on the south head Daniel Solander, were fascinated by of the Hokianga Harbour. It is quite Although not generally acknowledged New Zealand’s vegetation and wildlife possible he may have collected by our Anglo-centric forebears, from and, in particular, they collected seeds from those plants because, the time of Cook onwards the French numerous herbarium specimens of by the early 1840s, H. speciosa were also quite active on voyages the plants. Banks and Solander also was already being cultivated in of exploration in the south Pacifi c. In collected seeds of some plants which Britain (Fig. 3). As a result of that fact, the fi rst fl ora of New Zealand they took back to Britain. Those seeds introduction, horticulturists such as plants was published in 1832 by included the so-called North Island Isaac Anderson-Henry and John Achille Richard who published Essai ko¯whai or Sophora tetraptera and, Luscombe, would have been quick to d’une fl ore de la Nouvelle Zélande upon arrival back in England, seeds realise the possibilities this handsome (Richard, 1832). This fl ora described of that species were presented to new species of Hebe would offer 260 species of plants, based on the the Chelsea Physic Garden where them (Heenan, 1993). Therefore, collections of Dumont D’Urville and they were successfully grown and they were probably very keen to use Réne Primevère Lesson, on two of fl owered, possibly against a wall it as a parent for hybridising with D’Urville’s three voyages. It should or in a conservatory. Therefore, other species of Hebe (or Veronica be noted that Richard’s fl ora was S. tetrapteraa was very likely the fi rst of as it was known then, and according published thirty-two years before our indigenous plants to be cultivated to some molecular botanists, as it Joseph Dalton Hooker published in the northern hemisphere (Fig. 2). should be again).

1 “Greenwood”, 179 Westdale Rd, RD1 Richmond 7081; [email protected]

12 New Zealand Garden Journal, 2011, Vol. 14(1) Horticultural Society’s shows in 1849, some of the principal breeders, with and offered for sale in The Gardeners’ Victor Lemoine probably producing chronicle and agricultural gazette the greatest number of cultivars. Much (1853, p. 274), it may be assumed of the breeding in France appears to that he probably created the cross have been carried out during the latter during the mid 1840s. half of the 19th century. The next hybrid known to have It was not just hebes that were the been bred, around that time, was object of attention by gardeners what is now known as Hebe ‘Combe although, for obvious reasons, hebes Royal’, raised by John Luscombe of were relatively quick and easy to Devon. It is similar to H. ×franciscana breed which made them popular. ‘Lobelioides’ with which it has Variegated plants seem to excite frequently been confused. John the attentions of some gardeners Luscombe used to write for gardening and so it was not long before one or journals under the nom de plume two New Zealand plants produced of “A Devonian.” He was head variegated cultivars. The fi rst of them gardener for the Combe Royal estate, may have been repens Kingsbridge in Devon, UK and it was ‘Variegata’ or variegated taupata there he bred H. ‘Combe Royal.’ It which originated in England in 1866. was raised in 1856 when he crossed It has leaves margined with creamy- H. elliptica with H. speciosa. While it is white. The next one to appear seems now known as H. ‘Combe Royal’, for to have been C. repens ‘Picturata’ many years it was incorrectly known (Fig. 4) which also originated in Fig. 3 Colour illustration of Hebe speciosaa in as H. ‘Blue Gem’, and then some England, in 1876, its leaves having Curtis’s botanical magazine. v. 70 [new ser.: time later as H. ×franciscana ‘Blue a central blotch of creamy-yellow v. 17] (1844), Tab. 4057. Image courtesy Gem’. Hebe ‘Combe Royal’ is not its and yellow-green. Since that time Missouri Botanical Garden, www.botanicus.org. original given name but a more recent a number of other variations have During the mid to late 19th century, name bestowed on it by Dr Heenan, also appeared in New Zealand. The botanists such as the Cunninghams, in order to distinguish it from other variegated lemonwood, Pittosporum William Colenso, Joseph Dalton very closely related cultivars (Heenan, eugenioides ‘Variegatum’ appeared Hooker, Julius von Haast, John 1994b). Over the years the identities in William Bull’s Retail list of new, Buchanan, James Hector, and William of those cultivars had become quite beautiful and rare plantss in 1882. Travers together with his son Henry, confused and they became almost I am not certain when it and the as well as many others, obviously impossible to distinguish from each variegated cultivars of Coprosma collected seeds of our native plants. other because of a lack of suitable repenss arrived in New Zealand but it Consignments of such seeds were written descriptions and herbarium is amazing just how quickly some of regularly being sent to overseas material. those novelties were exported from correspondents. With a supply of such Britain to this country. For example, It should also be noted the material of stimulating material arriving Hebe ×franciscana ‘Lobelioides’ was H. elliptica that John Luscombe used from New Zealand, gardeners and produced by Isaac Anderson-Henry was, in all probability, the Falkland botanists in Britain and Europe would, about or prior to 1862 and there Islands form of H. elliptica which was understandably, become excited is a record of it being introduced then known as Veronica decussata. about their possibilities as garden into New Zealand, via Melbourne, Hebe ellipticaa was fi rst introduced into plants. Australia in 1868. cultivation from the Falkland Islands As far as is known the fi rst cultivar, in 1776, by a Dr John Fothergill or artifi cial hybrid, of a New Zealand (Heenan, 2001). plant was the well-known Hebe Although they were bred overseas it ×andersoniii ‘Andersonii’ (Heenan, is probably quite fi tting that these fi rst 1994a). It was produced in Scotland cultivars, known to have been bred some time during the 1840s, from a from New Zealand native plants, were cross made by Isaac Anderson-Henry from our largest of fl owering of Maryfi eld, Edinburgh. He hybridised plants, Hebee (Veronica). “Veronica ‘Lindleyana’”, then believed to be a separate species, While the early French voyagers with H. speciosa. Dr Peter Heenan, with their explorations in the south of Landcare Research, eventually Pacifi c were not too far behind James discovered that V. ‘Lindleyana’ is now Cook, so were the early French known to be a horticultural form of horticulturists not very far behind the H. stricta var. stricta (Heenan, 1994a). British in realising the possibilities for Just when Isaac Anderson-Henry hybridising Hebe. Victor Lemoine and Fig. 4 Coprosma repenss ‘Picturata’, a created his hybrid is not certain but Sons of Nancy, and Jean Chrétien variegated cultivar raised in 1876. Photo: Forest & Kim Starr. as it was exhibited at one of the Royal and Rozain-Boucharlat appear to be

New Zealand Garden Journal, 2011, Vol. 14(1) 13 At this point it is interesting to native plants in order to produce In fact, during the period 1900 to note that while we had all of the some outstanding and about 1920, the Dunedin Botanic New Zealand fl ora growing in our (Metcalf, 1972, p. 9). Whether it is Garden was responsible for the own backyard so to speak, our local true or not, I like to think that my production of a number of cultivars, gardeners and horticulturists were challenge may have inspired Jack particularly members of the genus quite blasé about the possibilities that Hobbs of Auckland to undertake Brachyglottis. Just who was New Zealand plants offered for plant his work on producing the Wiri responsible for producing those breeding. They were obviously too series of Hebee and Leptospermum cultivars does not appear to be intent upon importing novelties from cultivars during the 1980s and 1990s. known but the names of those well- overseas and later on in hybridising Therefore, Jack Hobbs became the known enthusiasts, Henry Darton exotic trees and shrubs. Instead, fi r st New Zealander to undertake and Henry Hart, and possibly even they relied on whatever chance the systematic hybridisation of our Sir George Fenwick spring to mind occurrences of native plants, such native fl ora and it is to be hoped he as possibilities. Unfortunately, the as variegated branch sports or may further inspire somebody else to names of many of those cultivars unusual seedlings, may have come do the same. I should also mention have been lost or perhaps they were to their notice and there was certainly Graeme Platt and Terry Hatch. While never given any distinguishing names. no attempt at any deliberate plant not plant breeders in the generally Also whether they were the result breeding. accepted sense of the word, between of a deliberate attempt to produce them they have done a great deal of new cultivars or whether it was just Hebe ×carnea ‘Carnea’ is a case work in selecting superior horticultural somebody casually playing around in point. It was named as a species forms of Metrosideros excelsa, or with the production of Brachyglottis (Veronica carnea) in 1881 by John po¯hutukawa (as documented by seedlings is not known. Francis Armstrong. Even then it was Dawson et al., 2010). commonly cultivated but had never One Brachyglottiss cultivar that today is been found as a wild plant. Armstrong still relatively common in the nursery suspected it may have been of hybrid trade is Brachyglottis (Dunedin origin and, according to one story, it Group) ‘Crustii’ (Fig. 6). It is a was said to have been discovered in presumed hybrid between B. laxifolia, Fiordland. However, there is no doubt B. greyi and possibly B. compacta. of its hybrid origin with H. speciosa The group epithet was bestowed by quite likely being one of its parents. the author of Bean’s Trees and shrubs hardy in the British Isless (Bean, 1980) The lack of deliberate plant breeding when the nomenclature of that group continued until 1939 when Dr W.E. of plants was being investigated2. Lammerts of California, USA, Because a number of cultivars of demonstrated what could be done those shrubs originated from a similar with some systematic breeding of the parentage in the Dunedin Botanic New Zealand fl ora (Lammerts, 1945). Garden, it was found that they needed He undertook some crossing of our to be recognised as a cultivar-group. ma¯nuka, Leptospermum scoparium, Accordingly, the collective epithet using the cultivar L. ‘Nichollsii’ with a (Dunedin Group) was assigned to it. semi-dwarf, double pink cultivar as the other parent. The results of his crossing are now well-known (Fig. 5) and most recently recounted by Dawson (2010). But even then, with Fig. 5 Leptospermum scopariumm ‘Red such an example, New Zealanders Damask’, an outstanding cultivar raised still remained quite indifferent to by Dr W.E. Lammerts from his deliberate the possibilities available to them. breeding programme. Photo: Murray Dawson. Granted, World War II had intervened Over the years, gardening in and most people’s thoughts were New Zealand has undergone various probably far away from such things. phases. Initially many gardens Later on an Australian nurseryman were modelled on what the owners by the name of Robert Jenkins and imagined were English gardens. his sons produced a further series of Then during the early part of the Leptospermum cultivars. 20th century, partly because of In 1972 when my book The cultivation the infl uence of David Tannock, Fig. 6 Brachyglottis (Dunedin Group) of New Zealand trees and shrubs was Superintendent of Parks and ‘Crustii’. Photo: ©Paul Ashford, www.NZPlantPics.com. fi rst published, I issued a challenge Reserves, Dunedin, along with a few in it for some local horticulturist to other enthusiasts, there was a brief undertake the hybridising of our resurgence in the cultivation of native plants.

2 The group was originally called Brachyglottiss Dunedin Hybrids but the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plantss (7th ed., p. 10) corrected this to Dunedin Group.

14 New Zealand Garden Journal, 2011, Vol. 14(1) Brachyglottiss (Dunedin Group) ‘Crustii’ disadvantage of such competitions gardens. As with the competition in all likelihood originated in the was that once the summer displays gardens fi lled with bedding plants, Dunedin Botanic Garden possibly were spent the gardens tended to so cottage gardens also proved to just before or after 1900. Its name be rather bare. They were also very involve a considerable amount of of “Crustii” had me puzzled for quite labour intensive. Therefore, the rules, labour. It is interesting to note that, some time until, purely by chance, I and the points awarded, were altered almost as an adjunct to the cottage discovered that it was named after in order to encourage the greater use garden, the cultivation of grasses, a Councillor Henry Crust who was of trees and shrubs. This had some particularly native species, became Chairman of the Reserves Committee effect but it still did not overcome the quite popular. Many nurseries jumped from about 1900 until 1904, problem of gardens that demanded on the band-wagon and began when he retired from the Council. lavish and labour intensive displays of offering a variety of native grasses, Although quite easily distinguished, predominantly bedding plants. Also, not all of which were desirable garden New Zealand nurseries have most of the exotic trees and shrubs forms. unfortunately confused B. ‘Crustii’ used (in Canterbury at least) were With regard to the Environmental with the United Kingdom cultivar principally exotic plants with perhaps Risk Management Authority (ERMA B. ‘Sunshine.’ Brachyglottis ‘Crustii’ an occasional Hebe to represent our New Zealand), and to slightly is easily identifi ed by its crinkled or native fl ora. paraphrase Shakespeare, I do not crisped leaf margins whereas the UK- Later in the 1960s a change began come to rail against it nor to criticise derived B. ‘Sunshine’ has an entire to appear as people demanded less it, although I must admit that in leaf margin without the crisping or labour intensive gardens. Firstly, what the past such thoughts may have crinkling. To the best of my knowledge became known as “pebble gardening” crossed my mind, but rather, on the B. ‘Sunshine’ is not grown in this came into vogue. This was regarded contrary, I come to offer some words country, although it is quite similar to as the ultimate in a labour-saving of praise. Once ERMA was created the New Zealand cultivar B. ‘Summer garden. A sheet of black polythene the importation of new garden plants Gold’. fi lm would be laid over the planting soon became very diffi cult, as well as Another Brachyglottis cultivar, but not areas, in order to suppress the growth extremely expensive. Suddenly the one of the Dunedin Group, is a larger- of weeds, and then the polythene fi lm supply of those new garden plants leaved plant that is very handsome. would be concealed with a layer of that had been quite freely imported It is a hybrid between B. greyi and largish pebbles or stones. Of course dried up. For some nursery people it B. repandaa and it probably originated the nurseries were not to be left out was seemingly the end of their world. somewhere in Dunedin, perhaps and gardeners were then encouraged ERMA was established in order to during the early 1930s or even earlier. to plant some supposedly dwarf or prevent the importation, accidental It apparently never had a cultivar slow-growing conifers in amongst or otherwise, of new or unwanted name and so several years ago the pebbles. Understandably many organisms. In order to do so ERMA the late Alastair Turnbull requested of those so-called “dwarf” conifers had to institute what appeared to be that it be given a suitable cultivar gradually showed their true natures as draconian regulations. Over a period epithet. Because of its Dunedin they slowly but surely assumed larger of several years some individuals origin the name of “Leith Gold” (after and larger dimensions. Not much and organisations had become very the Water of Leith stream that fl ows encouragement for native trees and concerned about the number of through Dunedin) was bestowed on shrubs there. newly naturalised plants that had it. Unfortunately, some nurseries not Over time, the pebble garden been appearing around the country, realising that it was named after a morphed into a hybrid style in which particularly in the Auckland region. geographical feature decided that many of the conifers were replaced In fact, it was estimated that the it was named after a person by the by a mixture of trees and shrubs number of naturalised plant species name of Leith and consequently it including perhaps an occasional had begun to exceed the number of appears in some garden centres Pittosporum, purple-leaved Berberis, indigenous native species. incorrectly as B. ‘Leith’s Gold’. maybe an occasional Hebe ochracea What many horticulturists failed to During the 1920s and 1930s various and of course, not to forget the realise was that for every positive horticultural and beautifying societies ubiquitous silver birch. action there is always an unintended began to promote different garden We then went into the 1970s and consequence. From the passing competitions. Mostly they revolved 1980s with a whole new style of of the Hazardous Substances around garden displays of bedding gardening that came to be known and New Organisms (HSNO) Act plants and other annuals. The as cottage gardening, or, according (New Zealand Government, 1996), Canterbury Horticultural Society to some, the “cottage gardening it has taken several years for one of and the Christchurch Beautifying craze”. The nurseries had a hey-day those unintended consequences to Association were particularly active as innumerable herbaceous plants become apparent, although slowly with such competitions, which were and perennials were freely imported and inexorably it has done so. even held during World War II. After from overseas. Barely a month went the war there was a great resurgence It is especially true of governments by without the latest issues of garden in such garden competitions and that when a department wishes magazines featuring some fabulous the displays of bedding plants legislation to be passed to regulate newly-imported plant to grace our became even more lavish. The main or control a particular occurrence

New Zealand Garden Journal, 2011, Vol. 14(1) 15 or problem, there is always an garden plants, so why do we not use Let’s return to the production and use unintended consequence. In the them? A recent tally of P. tenuifolium of indigenous fl oras as horticultural years following the establishment cultivars indicated there are at least material. Australia has a more of ERMA, plant nurseries, and sixty-six cultivars of this species with patriotic attitude as they do with so others, have started to pay attention that number probably increasing by many other things and are years to producing new cultivars of our one or two per annum. Surely, the ahead of us with the development native plants. Initially, there was a emphasis should be on quality not and use of cultivars derived from great deal of wailing and moaning quantity. If a selection is only just their native Australian plants. In and gnashing of teeth, from nursery slightly different and does not have contrast, until recently, New Zealand people in particular. No longer could suffi cient distinguishing qualities to nurseries have tended to largely they freely and easily import plants make it a “must have” for the garden, ignore the great possibilities of our from overseas sources. I know there is it not preferable to ignore it rather native fl ora and have often not been will be some who probably will not than add to the number of indifferent able to see beyond the exotic plants agree but, in hindsight, I think we variants in a species already to which they appear to have been should be grateful to ERMA for what overloaded with similar cultivars? so fi rmly wedded. Those few little it has inadvertently done towards grouches aside, I must say that the And that brings me to another encouraging the cultivation of our infl uence of ERMA and the HSNO pet dislike – the accuracy of the native fl ora and making it more Act really have had a quite benefi cial naming of some of those cultivars. popular and acceptable to local and unintended positive infl uence on Our New Zealand nursery people, gardeners. the general cultivation of our native unfortunately, tend to suffer from plants. This renewed interest in and Those horticulturists who a chronic disability similar to that cultivation of New Zealand native perhaps were not so loud in their which affl icts some nursery people plants may lead to the resurgence of condemnation of the establishment around the world. It is an inability to deliberate breeding programmes to of ERMA, or had a more positive spell names correctly or a failure to produce new cultivars of them. For attitude, obviously soon turned their ascertain just what the correct form these reasons, I feel that we can only attention to the production of new of the name should be. An example look forward to a much better future cultivars of native plants and I feel that I recently noticed belongs to a in which our indigenous New Zealand very much that our gardens are now variegated cultivar of the broadleaf or plants rightfully occupy a far more beginning to refl ect the infl uence of Griselinia littoralis. It was produced important place in our gardens with that change in attitude. by Duncan and Davies in 1978 more New Zealanders taking pride in and, being in the dairy province A recent inspection of the garden growing them. of Taranaki, and because of its sections, particularly of some of our creamy variegation, they gave it the Just by way of conclusion, in case large chain stores and nurseries, has cultivar name of G. littoraliss ‘Dairy some have the impression that I demonstrated they are now offering Cream’ (Fig. 7). Recently I was quite am anti-exotic plants, I must say for sale, not only greater quantities of surprised to see it offered for sale that we do like and grow a variety New Zealand native plants, but also under the cultivar name of G. littoralis of plants, both native and exotic, in far more in the way of novelty cultivars ‘Dairy Queen’. I suppose that our gardens. However, being a born of them. Some of those cultivars somebody thought that it deserved and bred New Zealander I feel all too range over a number of genera a more regal name than the rather often New Zealand gardeners tend from Coprosma, Cordyline, Hebe, down-to-earth “Dairy Cream”. How to ignore the wonderful plant material Phormiumm and Pittosporumm to various much effort does it really take to that is indigenous to this country and native grasses and grass-like genera consult a reference that will provide its so I must endeavour to tip the balance such as Arthropodium and Libertia. correct name? in favour of our native plants. In spite of that, I feel it is most unfortunate that too many nurseries References still concentrate on the selection and Bean, W.J. (1980). Trees and shrubs production ad nauseam of cultivars hardy in the British Isles, Vol. IV. of Pittosporum tenuifolium, and a 8th rev. ed. similar situation applies to cultivars Cheeseman, T.F. (1906). Manual of Phormium. I suspect the latter are of the New Zealand fl o r a. mainly being produced, factory-style, Government Printer, Wellington. from production lines of specialist Dawson, M.I. (2010). A history of growers in the North Island. Granted, Leptospermum scopariumm in the occasional variegated Phormium cultivation: Garden selections. cultivar can be quite exceptional, New Zealand Garden Journal but do we wish to see an endless 13(1): 2–9. line of so many of the “also-rans” Dawson, M.I.; Hobbs, J.; Platt, G.; being offered for sale in our garden Rumbal, J. (2010). Metrosideros centres? Our indigenous plants in cultivation: Po¯hutukawa. offer a good variety of species and New Zealand Garden Journal cultivars (not necessarily Pittosporum Fig. 7 Griselinia littoraliss ‘Dairy Cream’. 13(1): 10–22. Photo: Murray Dawson. and Phormium) that could be useful

16 New Zealand Garden Journal, 2011, Vol. 14(1) Heenan, P.B. (1993). John Luscombe Heenan, P.B. (2001). A history of Metcalf, L.J. (1972). The cultivation of – a pioneer hybridiser of Hebe Hebee as a garden plant. p. 16– New Zealand trees and shrubs. and Rhododendron. Horticulture 60. In: Metcalf, L.J. International Reed Methuen, Auckland. in New Zealand 4(2): 23–27. register of Hebee cultivars. New Zealand Government (1996). Heenan, P.B. (1994a). The origin Royal New Zealand Institute of Hazardous substances and new and identifi cation of Hebe Horticulture. organisms Act, New Zealand andersoniii and its cultivars Hooker, J.D. (1864). Handbook of the Government, Wellington, (Scrophulariaceae). Horticulture New Zealand fl o r a. Part 1. Lovell New Zealand. 252 p. in New Zealand 5(1): 21–25. Reeve & Co, London. Richard, A. (1832). Essai d’une fl ore Heenan, P.B. (1994b). The origin Lammerts, W.E. (1945). New de la Nouvelle Zélande. In J.- and identifi cation of Hebe double fl owering Leptospermum S.-C. Dumont D’Urville, Voyage ×franciscanaa and its cultivars hybrids. Journal of the Californian de Découvertes de la Corvette (Scrophulariaceae). Horticulture Horticultural Society 6(3): L’A s t r o l a b e, 3 . B o t a n i q u e. in New Zealand 5(1): 15–20. 250–257. J. Tastu, Paris.

LaL wrie Metcalff is onone oof New Zealand’s most authoritative writers on the cultivation of our native plaannts wiw th moorre than 112 books to his credit. Probably the best known is The cultivation of Newew Zeae land trees and shrubss whhich has been republished several times. His books are well-researched and illustrateedd by his own photographs and drawings. Laawrie was Assistant Director of the Christchurch Botanic Garden for more than 20 years annd tht en Director of Parks and Reccreation in Invercargill but is now “retired”. He has a particular interest in hebes and is the Innternational Registrar for cultivars of Coprosma, Hebe, Leptospermum, Phormium and Pittosporum. He was awarded the Loder Cup in 1978, ana Associate of Honour of the RNZIH in 1988, the Royal Horticuultl ururall Society (UK) Veitch Memorial Medal in 1991, and was appointed a Companion of the Queen’s Service Order (QSSO)O in 2010 foro ses rvices to hoorticulture.

Leptospermum scoparium ‘Red Damask’. Photo: Murray Dawson.

New Zealand Garden Journal, 2011, Vol. 14(1) 17