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NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY REVIEW 2012 NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY REVIEW 2012 International Atomic Energy Agency International Atomic Energy NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY REVIEW 2012 NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY REVIEW 2012 International Atomic Energy Agency www.iaea.orgAtoms for Peace International Atomic Energy Agency Vienna International Centre PO Box 100 1400 Vienna, Austria Telephone:Atoms for(+43-1) Peace 2600-0 @ Fax: (+43-1) 2600-7 Email: [email protected] NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY REVIEW 2012 The following States are Members of the International Atomic Energy Agency: AFGHANISTAN GHANA NIGERIA ALBANIA GREECE NORWAY ALGERIA GUATEMALA OMAN ANGOLA HAITI PAKISTAN ARGENTINA HOLY SEE PALAU ARMENIA HONDURAS PANAMA AUSTRALIA HUNGARY PAPUA NEW GUINEA AUSTRIA ICELAND PARAGUAY AZERBAIJAN INDIA PERU BAHRAIN INDONESIA PHILIPPINES BANGLADESH IRAN, ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF POLAND BELARUS IRAQ PORTUGAL BELGIUM IRELAND QATAR BELIZE ISRAEL REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA BENIN ITALY ROMANIA BOLIVIA JAMAICA RUSSIAN FEDERATION BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA JAPAN SAUDI ARABIA BOTSWANA JORDAN SENEGAL BRAZIL KAZAKHSTAN SERBIA BULGARIA KENYA SEYCHELLES BURKINA FASO KOREA, REPUBLIC OF SIERRA LEONE BURUNDI KUWAIT SINGAPORE CAMBODIA KYRGYZSTAN SLOVAKIA CAMEROON LAO PEOPLE’S DEMOCRATIC SLOVENIA CANADA REPUBLIC SOUTH AFRICA CENTRAL AFRICAN LATVIA SPAIN REPUBLIC LEBANON SRI LANKA CHAD LESOTHO SUDAN CHILE LIBERIA CHINA LIBYA SWEDEN COLOMBIA LIECHTENSTEIN SWITZERLAND CONGO LITHUANIA SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLIC COSTA RICA LUXEMBOURG TAJIKISTAN CÔTE D’IVOIRE MADAGASCAR THAILAND CROATIA MALAWI THE FORMER YUGOSLAV CUBA MALAYSIA REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA CYPRUS MALI TUNISIA CZECH REPUBLIC MALTA TURKEY DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC MARSHALL ISLANDS UGANDA OF THE CONGO MAURITANIA UKRAINE DENMARK MAURITIUS UNITED ARAB EMIRATES DOMINICA MEXICO UNITED KINGDOM OF DOMINICAN REPUBLIC MONACO GREAT BRITAIN AND ECUADOR MONGOLIA NORTHERN IRELAND EGYPT MONTENEGRO UNITED REPUBLIC EL SALVADOR MOROCCO OF TANZANIA ERITREA MOZAMBIQUE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA ESTONIA MYANMAR URUGUAY ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA UZBEKISTAN FINLAND NEPAL VENEZUELA FRANCE NETHERLANDS VIETNAM GABON NEW ZEALAND YEMEN GEORGIA NICARAGUA ZAMBIA GERMANY NIGER ZIMBABWE The Agency’s Statute was approved on 23 October 1956 by the Conference on the Statute of the IAEA held at United Nations Headquarters, New York; it entered into force on 29 July 1957. The Headquarters of the Agency are situated in Vienna. Its principal objective is “to accelerate and enlarge the contribution of atomic energy to peace, health and prosperity throughout the world’’. NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY REVIEW 2012 INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY VIENNA, 2012 COPYRIGHT NOTICE All IAEA scientific and technical publications are protected by the terms of the Universal Copyright Convention as adopted in 1952 (Berne) and as revised in 1972 (Paris). The copyright has since been extended by the World Intellectual Property Organization (Geneva) to include electronic and virtual intellectual property. Permission to use whole or parts of texts contained in IAEA publications in printed or electronic form must be obtained and is usually subject to royalty agreements. Proposals for non-commercial reproductions and translations are welcomed and considered on a case-by-case basis. Enquiries should be addressed to the IAEA Publishing Section at: Marketing and Sales Unit, Publishing Section International Atomic Energy Agency Vienna International Centre PO Box 100 1400 Vienna, Austria fax: +43 1 2600 29302 tel.: +43 1 2600 22417 email: [email protected] http://www.iaea.org/books © IAEA, 2012 Printed by the IAEA in Austria September 2012 IAEA/NTR/2012 EDITORIAL NOTE This report does not address questions of responsibility, legal or otherwise, for acts or omissions on the part of any person. Although great care has been taken to maintain the accuracy of information contained in this publication, neither the IAEA nor its Member States assume any responsibility for consequences which may arise from its use. The use of particular designations of countries or territories does not imply any judgement by the publisher, the IAEA, as to the legal status of such countries or territories, of their authorities and institutions or of the delimitation of their boundaries. The mention of names of specific companies or products (whether or not indicated as registered) does not imply any intention to infringe proprietary rights, nor should it be construed as an endorsement or recommendation on the part of the IAEA. CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY. 1 A. POWER APPLICATIONS . 7 A.1. Nuclear power today. 7 A.2. Projected growth for nuclear power . 13 A.3. Fuel cycle . 16 A.3.1. Uranium resources and production . 16 A.3.2. Conversion, enrichment and fuel fabrication . 19 A.3.3. Back end of the nuclear fuel cycle . 22 A.3.4. Radioactive waste management and decommissioning . 23 A.4. Safety . 29 B. ADVANCED FISSION AND FUSION . 32 B.1. Advanced fission. 32 B.1.1. Water cooled reactors . 32 B.1.2. Fast neutron systems . 33 B.1.3. Gas cooled reactors . 35 B.1.4. Small and medium sized reactors (SMRs) . 36 B.1.5. INPRO and GIF . 38 B.2. Fusion . 40 C. ACCELERATOR AND RESEARCH REACTOR APPLICATIONS . 43 C.1. Accelerators . 43 C.2. Research reactors . 44 D. FOOD AND AGRICULTURE . 49 D.1. Animal production and health. 49 D.2. Soil and water management . 50 D.2.1. Estimating water losses and their impacts on salinity under flood irrigation systems through the use of stable isotopes. 51 D.2.2. Area-wide soil moisture measurement using cosmic-ray neutrons . 51 D.2.3. Plutonium (239Pu and 240Pu) — potential use of a fallout radionuclide for soil erosion and land degradation assessment . 53 D.3. Agricultural remediation practices and technologies for mitigating the impacts of radiation contamination . 53 D.4. Alternatives to gamma irradiation for the sterile insect technique . 56 E. HUMAN HEALTH . 58 E.1. Nutrition . 58 E.1.1. Quality of growth during first 1000 days affects a person’s health later in life . 58 E.2. Advances in radiation medicine for cancer treatment. 60 E.2.1. Modern radiotherapy calls for quality data management . 60 E.2.2. Current trends in cancer management with radiotherapy . 61 E.2.3. Diagnostic imaging and treatment of breast cancer . 65 F. ENVIRONMENT . 69 F.1. Rapid radioanalytical methods can make a difference in assessing radioactive pollution in emergency situations. 69 G. WATER RESOURCES . 72 G.1. Trends in access to stable isotope data . 72 G.2. Groundwater dating . 73 H. RADIOISOTOPE PRODUCTION AND RADIATION TECHNOLOGY . 75 H.1. Radioisotopes and radiopharmaceuticals . 75 H.1.1. Recent developments in generator produced PET radionuclides. 75 H.1.2. Development of microfluidic-based synthesis systems for PET tracers. 75 H.1.3. Multi-particle cyclotrons for isotope production . 76 H.2. Radiation technology applications . 77 H.2.1. Gamma-irradiated vaccine shows potential in the battle against malaria . 77 H.2.2. Radiation-grafted membranes help to clean contaminated water in the Fukushima area. 77 H.2.3. Electron beam technology for producing bioethanol from agroindustrial residue . 79 H.3. Radiation technologies used in mining. 80 ANNEX I: DEVELOPING ALTERNATIVES TO GAMMA IRRADIATION FOR THE STERILE INSECT TECHNIQUE . 81 ANNEX II: IMAGING FOR BREAST CANCER HELPS IN DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT. 92 ANNEX III: RADIATION TECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS IN MINING AND MINERAL PROCESSING . 109 ANNEX IV: TECHNOLOGY OPTIONS FOR A COUNTRY’S FIRST NUCLEAR POWER PLANT. 123 ANNEX V: THE ROLE OF RESEARCH REACTORS IN INTRODUCING NUCLEAR POWER . 141 ANNEX VI: THE USE AND MANAGEMENT OF SEALED RADIOACTIVE SOURCES . 154 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY In 2011, nuclear energy continued to play an important role in global electricity production despite the accident at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant (NPP). Total generating nuclear power capacity was slightly lower than in previous years due to the permanent shutdown of 13 reactors in 2011, including 8 in Germany and 4 in Japan in the wake of the accident. However, there were 7 new grid connections compared to 5 in 2010, 2 in 2009 and none in 2008. Significant growth in the use of nuclear energy worldwide is still anticipated — between 35% and 100% by 2030 — although the Agency projections for 2030 are 7–8% lower than projections made in 2010. The factors that have contributed to an increased interest in nuclear power did not change: an increasing global demand for energy, concerns about climate change, energy security and uncertainty about fossil fuel supplies. Most of the growth is still expected in countries that already have operating NPPs, especially in Asia, with China and India remaining the main centres of expansion while the Russian Federation will also remain a centre of strong growth. The 7–8% drop in projected growth for 2030 reflects an accelerated phase-out of nuclear power in Germany, some immediate shutdowns and a government review of the planned expansion in Japan, as well as temporary delays in expansion in several other countries. Measures taken by countries as a result of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accident have been varied. A number of countries announced reviews of their programmes. Belgium, Germany and Switzerland took additional steps to phase out nuclear power entirely while others re-emphasized their expansion plans. Many Member States carried out national safety assessment reviews in 2011 (often called ‘stress tests’), and commitments were made to complete any remaining assessments promptly and to implement the necessary corrective action. In countries considering the introduction of nuclear power, interest remained strong. Although some countries indicated that they would delay decisions to start nuclear power programmes,
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