READERS’ FORUM
Cram Schools in Japan: The Need for Research
been the subject of considerable amounts of re- Robert J. Lowe search. Studies have been carried out in these con- Rikkyo University texts regarding educational policy (see Hashimoto, 2009; Yonezawa, Akiba, & Hiouchi, 2009), teaching methodologies (see Gorsuch, 2001; Nishino & Wata- The private juku (cram school) industry is an enormously prof- nabe, 2008), classroom policies on language use itable and influential area of education in Japan, including in the specific field of English language teaching (ELT). However, (see Hashimoto, 2013; Yphantides, 2013), teaching while much research has been carried out in other areas of ELT materials (see Yamanaka, 2006; Mineshima, 2008; in Japan, juku have largely escaped the attention of research- Sano, Iida, & Harvey, 2009), teacher and student ers. This paper attempts to argue the need for more research perspectives (see O’Donnell, 2008; McKenzie, 2008; into English language education as it is practiced in juku. The article first situates juku within the Japanese education sys- Rudolph and Igarashi, 2012), teacher identities (see tem, and then illustrates the extent to which juku have been Butler, 2007; Nagatomo, 2012) and many other under-researched when compared to other ELT contexts in areas. As a result, much is known about English Japan. The author advocates the need for more research into education in these settings, providing views on each ELT to be carried out in juku, and finally suggests some areas context at different magnifications, from the overall into which this research could be conducted. structure of the institution to the details of class- 学習塾産業は大きなビジネスであり、日本の英語教育に大きな影響を room teaching and interaction. The eikaiwa sector 与えている。ところが、高校や大学などでの英語教育に関する研究は多く has not drawn as much academic interest, but still なされているが、学習塾での英語教育の研究はされていない。本論では、 初めに、学習塾の現状を説明し、次に、どれだけ学習塾の英語教育の研 a substantial body of research exists concerning 究が不足しているか説明する。最後に、学習塾の英語教育の研究の必要 the motivations of eikaiwa students (Seargeant, 性を訴え、より多くの研究がこの分野で行われるべきであると論じる。 2009; Kubota, 2011), the professionalism of schools (Bossaer, 2003), the professional lives of teachers nglish language teaching in Japan is carried out (Nagatomo, 2013) and the ideologies surrounding in many different contexts. Mandatory English the industry (Seargeant, 2009). education takes place for all children from ele- Despite the intense interest in English language Ementary school to the end of high school, and in ad- education in Japan, however, the private juku sector dition, students who continue to study at the tertiary has not been subject to nearly the same level of level are often expected to complete courses of for- scrutiny as either the state school, tertiary sector, eign language education. Alongside the state school or the private eikaiwa industry. In this article, I and tertiary educational systems, there is also a large will attempt to make the case that more research private market for English language education, which needs to be carried out into ELT in juku schools. I manifests in many different types of institutions; two will discuss the prevalence and importance of juku of the most common being eikaiwa (English conver- schools, analyse the amount of research carried out sation schools) and juku (cram schools). English is when compared to other sectors of ELT in Japan, not the only subject taught in juku, as they are cram and discuss some of the possible reasons for juku schools designed to help students cram for exams being under-researched. Finally, I will suggest some and get into universities, and so they teach many areas in which research could be conducted. different subjects (maths, Japanese, etc.) However, as I shall demonstrate below, English is a very common- Juku: Context, Prevalence, and Importance ly taught subject. Bray (2007) uses the term shadow education to English education in Japanese elementary schools, describe the unregulated global industry of private high schools, junior colleges, and universities has
26 THE LANGUAGE TEACHER Online •
39.1 • January / February 2015 Of those papers which do focus on ELT, a handful on ELT, do focus Of those papers which It is not the case that no research into juku exists into that no research is not the case It there are several areas of study into juku schools juku schools into of study several areas are there in and useful. However, that could be informative very in juku are literature mentioned rarely the ELT to univer other than their relationship context any potential exams. Despite the research sity entrance data some I will provide of juku, in the next section been juku have to which the extent to highlight compared when research in ELT under-represented in Japan. contexts to other educational Roesgaard, 2006). These pieces of research have have of research These pieces 2006). Roesgaard, in terms of putting the juku system in value great its social status and utility. and analyzing context, focus which articles very are there few However, the is surprising given: a) which on ELT, directly of the level in juku, and b) taught of English amount in Japan. contexts ELT out in other carried research things exploring been published have of studies and experiences, student such as methodology, (2005) investigated teaching materials. Takigawa on grammatical tasks of communicative the effects finding evidence that in juku schools, uptake form in methodologies of communicative the adoption skills. language students’ juku could help improve English at attitudes towards (2004) looked Lieske had previously who among university students that they do not have attended juku, concluding English. on attitudes towards effect a detrimental in differ that students found (2003) O’Donnell attending juku, with some given for the reasons to pass exams, and some seeking attending purely Lowe proficiency. their overall English to improve (2013) juku teaching materials in terms analysed that they concluding of gender representations, represen and stereotypical problematic featured that this research seems from It of females. tations the language (O’Donnell, 2003). It is therefore sur is therefore It 2003). (O’Donnell, the language in the following as I shall demonstrate prising that, under-researched. generally are juku section, Juku into Research is private education (2007) notes that globally, Bray has received so far one “which business, but a huge Similarly, 18). (p. by researchers” attention little has been very of juku, there despite the prominence ELT from them, particularly into research little researchers. at all. Indeed,of papers and books a small number are these studies However, been published. have and (O’Neil as far apart as psychology fields from (Rohlen, studies and Japanese 1992) Fukumura, education on Japanese focusing with many 1980), 1997; (Harnisch, 1994; Russel, or general education
- - juku - - THE LANGUAGE TEACHER Cram Schools in Japan: The Need for Research Need Japan: The Schools in Cram Lowe: Lowe:
It is clear that there is a huge amount of students of students amount is a huge that there is clear It The juku sector is veryand very large, influential.
and sometimes just to improve their knowledge of their knowledge and sometimes just to improve studying English in juku, largely for the purpose of the purpose for in juku, largely English studying exam scores, entrance their university improving
a required subject. This makes English one of the English subject. This makes a required subjects in juku. taught most commonly the course they wish to enter, Gilfert (1999) notes (1999) Gilfert the course they wish to enter, as English include that most university faculties with studying various subject areas, depending on subject areas, various with studying attributed to the wish to perform well on university attributed to the wish to perform be concerned may students exams. While entrance increase in student attendance between elemen in student increase tary be can largely school high and senior school dramatically over the past few decades; more decades; more over the past few dramatically The 23). and 1993 (p. between 1976 than doubling their school life, and that this number has increased has increased and that this number life, their school p.403). Bray (2007) notes that roughly 70% of all (2007) notes that roughly Bray p.403). of will attend juku at some point students Japanese school, 62.5% of students are regularly attending regularly are 62.5% of students school, 2013, in Cook, (cited tutoring after school juku for juku, and the levels of attendance gradually increase increase of attendance gradually juku, and the levels high of junior year in the third where, to the point 15.9% of elementary school children in Japan attend of elementary in Japan children school 15.9% figures are explained by the large customer base to by explained are figures (2012) state that and Lykins Bray juku cater. which have both noted that the juku business brings in have high These year. each in profits of yen billions has claimed that there are roughly 50,000 juku in 50,000 roughly are has claimed that there (2006) and Roesgaard (1993) Pettersen and Japan, Dierkes (2008; 2010; Cited in Cook, 2013, in Cook, (2008; 2010; Cited 403.) p. Dierkes of juku in Japan. materials, or anything else. This is a particularly else. This is a particularly materials, or anything the prevalence considering when jarring revelation be it in terms of teaching methodology, teaching be it in terms of teaching methodology, the students are preparing. Therefore, there is no there Therefore, preparing. are the students of juku, any aspect of or external oversight official for reasons of cost-saving and because they are fa are and because they of cost-saving reasons for which exams for entrance miliar with the university teaching qualifications. Indeed, many juku teachers Indeed, many teaching qualifications. part-time hired themselves, students university are juku teachers may be postgraduate students with students be postgraduate juku teachers may no license” (p. 2). This means that juku teachers 2). This means that juku teachers (p. no license” some or qualified, not trained although usually are as schools and Iwata (2006) notes that because of notes (2006) and Iwata as schools need in juku schools [sic] teaching staffs this “the viding support for students in preparation for their for in preparation students viding support for not licensed are Juku exams. university entrance supplementing the students’ education and pro education the students’ supplementing one-to-one or in small classes. Most juku teaching juku teaching Most in small classes. or one-to-one purposes of the hours for after school out is carried this. Juku are private cram schools, in which teach in which cram schools, private are this. Juku either subjects different on many place ing takes tutoring, and notes that in the context of Japan of Japan context and notes that in the tutoring, of form common and popular by far the most are The Language Teacher • Readers’ Forum
The Scale of the Problem and a half decades, with university-based research In order to illustrate the extent to which research being by far the most prominent. Eikaiwa have into English education in juku has been neglect- received only a little attention, with three pieces of ed, this section presents some data comparing the research being carried out. Elementary schools are amount of published research on juku to the other also under-represented; however this is probably sectors discussed earlier; elementary school, high due to the fact that elementary schools only recent- school, university/junior college, and eikaiwa. ly began to feature mandatory English education. While elementary schools and eikaiwa received only This data was collected from the Japan Associ- a small percentage of research attention, they still ation of Language Teaching (JALT) publications featured more in the literature than juku, which archive. The purpose of collecting this data was to were only prominently featured in one piece of illustrate the point made in this article - that juku research, and even this research was largely about are comparatively under researched - rather than the attitudes of university students towards English to provide solid figures on the total amount of ELT (O’Donnell, 2003). The point of this analysis was research carried out in each of these sectors. As not to claim that no research into juku exists in the such, I chose to focus on one organisation which I field of ELT at all—as described earlier, a few papers felt would be most likely to represent the balance have been published on the topic—however it does of research in the field. JALT is the largest language show that juku are underrepresented when com- teaching organization in Japan, and therefore data pared to other contexts in Japan in which English taken from JALT publications is likely to be rep- education is taking place. In the next section I will resentative of the major concerns of researchers propose and discuss some of the reasons why this in the country. Similarly, I chose to focus on the may be the case. largest research publication in the organization, the JALT Journal, as I felt this would give a representa- tive sample of research that has been produced in Table 1. Papers Published in Different Contexts in the Japanese context. JALT was chosen over other the JALT Journal large language teaching organisations in Japan such Elementary High University/ Eikaiwa Juku as the Japan Association of College English Teachers School School Junior (JACET), because these organisations have a specific college institutional research focus (colleges and universi- ties in the case of JACET). 5 42 83 3 1 Papers were analysed from all issues of the JALT Journal between 1979 and 2014, and were classified Why No Research? into five categories based on the context in which There are several reasons why research may not the research was carried out: elementary school, have been carried out in juku. I shall provide some high school, university/junior college, eikaiwa (usu- of these reasons below and, where necessary, argue ally referred to as some variation of private schools why these objections are not valid. for adults in the literature), and juku. Universities and junior colleges were combined into one cate- gory as they are both post-secondary institutions. A Researchers Do Not Work in Juku paper was considered to belong to these categories It is often the case that researchers focus on con- if it focused on any of the following areas of the texts which are easily accessible to them, and most context in question: participants (either teachers or researchers are employed at universities. This seems students), materials, methodology, assessment, mo- like one likely explanation for the fact that the bal- tivation, policy, or instructional principles. Papers ance of research tilts strongly towards universities. which discussed two or more contexts (as in a com- This is certainly a good explanation for why juku parative study) were counted in both categories. In have largely escaped the attention of researchers; order to avoid ambiguity, studies were not included however this fact does not provide any reason why in the category if they took place outside of Japan, research should not be carried out in juku schools. such as university students studying abroad. The data is presented in Table 1. Juku Are Difficult to Access From this it is clear that, when compared to other areas of research interest, juku have received almost Unlike state schools and universities which are no attention from researchers in the field of ELT. often open to having research carried out in them, Universities, junior colleges, and high schools have juku are private businesses which are not licensed all been significantly researched over the past three nor subject to professional oversight. As such, they
28 THE LANGUAGE TEACHER Online •
39.1 • January / February 2015 juku, and identify some of the possible chal some of the possible identify juku, and methodology and training teacher education teaching materials and teacher perspectives student
As juku are focused largely (though not solely) on not solely) (though largely focused As juku are As research from Takigawa (2005) has hinted, (2005) Takigawa from As research most teachers working in juku As noted earlier, evidence of prob by Lowe (2013) A study found While the reasons outlined above help us to above help us to outlined the reasons While More research into this area would be needed to this area into research More discover if this kind of issue is widespread, but if to researchers be of interest it would certainly material was being used problematic potentially in juku. education during English the purposes of passing the teaching of grammar for is a possibility that exams, there university entrance negative having to students contribute this may the following section I shall suggest which would be I shall suggest which section the following some com in juku, and provide useful to research mentary that four I believe these choices. explaining are: to investigate juku research for areas key • • • • used in juku may the methodology into studies of the effectiveness in increasing be instrumental among stu of information teaching and retention may aims of these schools the learning While dents. and class methodology into be limited, research to achieve could help students instruction room be a valuable and thus successfully, these aims more of research. area not trained or licensed, approach and so their are in trends current not reflect es to teaching may on how teachers are A focus practice. classroom (if at all) would be inter by their schools prepared in-service teacher help to inform esting, and may education. gender bias in materials used in a juku. lematic understand why there is currently a lack of research a lack of research is currently there why understand into of carryinglenges do not they out such research, not carrying for rationale a serious seem to provide In the next section in the future. out such research paths future of the possible I will discuss some take. may research Research for Directions Future more made a case for above, I have In the sections out in the juku. The being carried research ELT this form of what however, remains, question this ques When considering take. may research of at the kind to look it would be instructive tion In in Japan. out in other contexts carried research I noted some areas this paper, to the introduction In on in other contexts. has focused research which - - - - - THE LANGUAGE TEACHER - Cram Schools in Japan: The Need for Research Need Japan: The Schools in Cram Lowe: Lowe: has the potential to generate has the potential juku
It is possible that research into juku would not into that research is possible It However, this ignores the possible benefits that the possible this ignores However, valuable and important insights and knowledge. insights and important valuable ter practice. However, this does not reduce the fact does not reduce this However, ter practice. into that research tion. This would not be unusual, as there is rarely a is rarely as there This would not be unusual, tion. to bet leads research path by which and direct clear necessarily lead to changes in practice or to an to changes in practice lead necessarily in ques by the schools in recommendations uptake
there may be more opportunity for improvement in improvement for opportunity be more may there apparent. than is readily teaching and learning attend juku in order to improve their English pro their English to improve attend juku in order rather than just to pass exams, and as such ficiency by O’Donnell (2003) suggested that many students students suggested that many (2003) by O’Donnell their learning goals even if their learning goals are goals are goals even if their learning their learning research In addition, limited to exam preparation. could help to improve the learning environment of environment the learning could help to improve and help them achieve students, for these schools 2004), and materials design (Lowe, 2013). More 2004), and materials design (Lowe, 2013). More of juku schools context out in the carried research ogy (Takigawa, 2005), student perceptions (Lieske, (Lieske, perceptions 2005), student ogy (Takigawa, this paper, research into juku has produced interest juku has produced into research this paper, of methodol in the areas results ing and promising such research could have. As discussed earlier in As discussed earlier could have. such research not have been heavily featured in research. featured been heavily not have research interests than in other settings. This seems than in other settings. This seems interests research have schools these as to why to be a good reason these schools would be limited and there would be would be limited and there these schools their own to pursue researchers opportunity for less regular education and aid students in passing their in passing their and aid students education regular into exams. As such, research university entrance Researchers may feel that juku have a limited that juku have feel may Researchers serve role—to as supplementaryeducational to of researchers to investigate these institutions. these institutions. investigate to of researchers cussed, a final reason for the under-researching for the under-researching cussed,reason a final on the part be a lack of motivation of juku may Juku Are Designed Only for Exam Preparationfor Exam Designed Only Are Juku dis concerns already two major practical With to conduct research in juku may provide rewarding rewarding provide in juku may to conduct research new knowledge. research, and making the effort to seek permission to seek permission and making the effort research, purposes. However, these difficulties are similar to are similar these difficulties purposes. However, of the social science in much those encountered are serious concerns, and could cause difficulties concerns, and could cause difficulties serious are research trying researchers for to access juku for research and raise concerns about privacy and about about privacy concerns and raise research strangers carrying with minors. These out research could object to their children being the subjects of children could object to their negatively represent their business. This problem This problem their business. represent negatively who of parents, in the concerns also be echoed may feel there is little benefit to doing so, or that the benefit to doing is little there feel disrupt or actively may of researchers presence may be resistant to having research carried out by carried research to having be resistant may as they may of the company, outside from people The Language Teacher • Readers’ Forum attitudes towards future language study. Negative Bray, M., & Lykins, C. (2012). Shadow education: Private experiences have been shown to influence negative supplementary tutoring and its implications for policy future attitudes towards language study (Kimu- makers in Asia (Vol.9). Philippines; Asian Development ra, Nakata, and Okumura, 2001), and therefore Bank. research into whether this was the case would be Cook, M. (2013). Expatriate parents and supplementary extremely helpful. education in Japan: Survival strategy or acculturation strategy. Asia Pacific Education Review, 14(3), 403–417. These are some possible areas that research into juku could focus on. However, it is possible that Dierkes, J. (2008). Single-sex education in the Japanese supplementary education industry. Paper presented at more avenues of research could open in the future. the Comparative and international educational society. These preliminary suggestions should at least pro- New York, NY. vide some directions for initial research and pilot Dierkes, J. (2010) Teaching in the Shadow: Operators of studies to take. small shadow education institutions in Japan. Asia-Pa- cific Educational Review, 11(1), 25–35. Conclusion Gilfert, S. (1999) Let’s write in English: Teacher, we never learned that. The Internet TESL Journal 5(1). Retrieved In this paper I have argued the need for more from
30 THE LANGUAGE TEACHER Online •
Journal Journal (1), 57–76. (2), 125–142. Bulletin of Osaka of Osaka Bulletin Bristol: Multilingual Multilingual Bristol: . JALT Journal, 28 Journal, JALT
25–31. (pp. 207–216) (pp. us know... is an English 39.1 • January / February 2015 changed? Don’t let to forget Email address Email address