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Introduction and overview

B. C. SCHREIBER1,M.BA˛BEL2 & S. LUGLI3 1University of Washington, USA (e-mail: [email protected]) 2Institute of Geology, Warsaw University, Al. Zwirki i Wigury 93, PL-02-089 Warszawa, Poland 3Dipartimento di Scienze Della Terra, Universita` degli Studi di Modena e Reggio Emilia, Largo S. Eufemia 19, 41100 Modena, Italy

This volume grew out of the various oral and poster an opportunity to become acquainted with those presentations given during the ‘Evaporite’ session evaporites. The second additional paper is also a at the International Geological Union conference review, taken from tectonically stable interior (2004) in Florence, Italy. It was clear that only a basins of North America (the Permian deposits of few of the participants or attendees, coming from Texas and New Mexico). This study is in contrast many countries and various distant parts of the to many other deposits described in this volume as world, were well informed about evaporites it contains a well-developed, undisturbed basin-fill. outside their immediate area of study, apart from As a group, this set of 18 papers gives a good intro- data from the most commonly available literature. duction to many diverse environments and styles of Diversity in the languages of publication and the deposition and preservation to be found in varied logistical difficulty of making first-hand compari- evaporite basins. sons acts as a major barrier to study. As a result, In order to make the volume more approachable, the basic concept of evaporites that most geologists we divided the book into five parts: (1) Tectonics, have is that deposits are the product of simple, Basin Evolution and Evaporites, (2) Working deposi- chemically controlled environments and, if evapori- tional Models, (3) Post-depositional Evolution of tic compounds are chemically the same, then it Sediments, (4) Ancient Basins, and (5) Regional follows that their lithology and origin are also the Reviews. The first section (five papers) places the same. Based on many studies over the past 30 formation of evaporite basins and the mechanical years, it is now clear that this long-held impression behaviour of some evaporites into an observed struc- is manifestly untrue. The disparities were very tural/stratigraphic framework. Karner & Gamboa evident in the photographic presentations and present the creation and early infilling of the South descriptions at the 2004 International Geological Atlantic rift basin, while Bertoni & Cartwright Congress: the same evaporitic compounds can address the destabilization and massive reworking have distinct and diverse lithology, depositional of evaporitic sediments into an adjacent ocean sources and geological history. They cannot be con- basin. Specific tectonic settings with associated sidered to arise solely from simple, direct chemical depositional styles and stratigraphy are presented in origins as explained by a single universal model! the other three papers in part one, and links tectonics This is the same paradigm of sedimentation that to sedimentary styles. The early and middle Miocene functions with other deposits, such as siliciclastics evaporites of Iraq, by Ismail Al-Juboury, Mehdi Al- and carbonates, and should also apply to evaporites. Tarif & Al-Eisa, and Iran by Rahimpour-Bonab, In putting this volume together, we realized Shariatinia & Siemann are strongly tied to their there were many questions about evaporites from rapid geologic evolution. Turner & Sherif, describe parts of the world not discussed in Florence, a large Triassic–Jurassic basin that stretches across despite the large number of participants. Thus, in North Africa from Libya to Morocco and its order to broaden and balance the topics already in evolution. our Congress program, we added two additional The second part of the book (two papers) presents review papers. One paper that we have added is a a fairly rigorous treatment of evaporitic water-body chapter covering the many evaporites in the behaviour with associated sedimentation. The first former Soviet Union territory: Russia, Ukraine, paper, by Ba˛bel, is based on the observed sedimen- Belarus and Moldova. This area contains many tary section from the middle Miocene of the deposits of different ages but is poorly represented Carpathian foredeep, and addresses the problem of in Western literature due to language barriers. how evaporite deposition is controlled by water This review paper gives those scientists who do stratification, circulation and mixing. The second not read languages written in the Cyrillic alphabet paper, by Lopez & Mandado, deals with an observed

From:SCHREIBER, B. C., LUGLI,S.&BA˛BEL, M. (eds) Evaporites Through Space and Time. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 285, 1–13. DOI: 10.1144/SP285.1 0305-8719/07/$15.00 # The Geological Society of London 2007. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

2 B. C. SCHREIBER ET AL. example of modern evolution of water in several An overview of evaporite puzzles saline lakes from north-central Spain. Part three contains only two papers both of Elucidating the geological history of evaporites is which deal with unusual aspects of synsedimentary never straight-forward because evaporite deposits deformation and then diagenesis within two very record information in many different ways. Some different basins. The first is a study by Alberto, of the most difficult problems encountered by geol- Carraro, Giardino & Tiranti that addressess an ogists studying evaporities include realistic assess- unusual form of gypsum diagenesis present within ments of the time intervals of evaporite formation some tectonized Triassic evaporites that rsults in a and accumulation, the necessary climatic controls, much altered facies (rauhwacke or ‘pseudo- and the rates of water evaporation/ionic concen- carnioles’) developed within the original evaporite tration required for evaporite formation. These con- rocks. These truly reveal the complexity caused by straints are presented below, followed by a review both the tectonics and burial/exhumational history of the styles of sedimentation imposed on evaporite of the deposits. The second paper in this section, formation by differing synsedimentary tectonic by Lugli, Dominici, Barone, Costa & Cavozzi, is a histories within the formative basins. It seems that geochemical study of the late Miocene (Messinian) tectonically active and passive basins develop Apennine gypsum deposits that considers their significantly different facies assemblages, as with deposition in basins which are initially marine- other types of deposits. sourced but change over to a largely nonmarine (but concentrated) evolution higher in the strati- Depositional time intervals in evaporite graphic section. This observation appears to be formation valid throughout the late Miocene (Messinian) in many areas of the Mediterranean and may well A feature most evaporites share is that the total hold true in other evaporite sequences. depositional time-period for formation and accumu- The fourth and largest section of the book (seven lation is very short (even in very thick deposits), so papers), presents a series of observation of diverse short that the entire deposit may be represented by evaporites ranging in age from the late Miocene to only one or two biozones in the surrounding area. the Neoarchean. The first, another paper on the late This means that standard biostratigraphical Miocene of Italy by Lugli, Bassetti, Manzi, methods cannot date the evaporite formations pre- Barbieri, Longinelli & Roveri, discusses isotopic cisely and some other high-resolution methods are composition and organic matter in the evaporites of more useful. For example, Anderson et al. (1972), the Northern Apennines. Late Miocene geology and Richter-Bernburg (1963) and Kirkland (2003), stratigraphy of the Southern Apennines is addressed based on isochronous correlation of particular by Matano. Next presented are the middle Miocene sequences of varves in laminated evaporites, esti- gypsum evaporites of the Carpathian region mated that the late Permian evaporites of both addressed first by Ba˛bel & Boguckiand then by West Texas and the European Zechstein represent Bukowski, Czapowski & Karoli. The isotopic com- deposition over a period of only c. 275,000– position of the K–Mg sulphates of the same age in 300,000 years. Based on the detailed magnetostrati- one of the Carpathian basins is addressed Hryniv, graphic study by Krijgsman et al. (1999), we also Parafiniuk & Peryt. The next topic treats the origins know that the late Miocene (Messinian) of the of some of the Upper Permian (Zechstein) salts of Mediterranean took no more than 600,000 years, SW Poland as discussed by Vovnyuk & Czapowski. and sections of it (0.75–2 km thick) probably took The last paper in this section, by Gandin & Wright, far less time. In many other evaporite basins it is examines deposits from the Neoarchean and much more difficult to estimate the total time inter- addresses the elusive products of extreme evaporite val precisely due to the lack of significant stratigra- diagenesis, where only morphological remnants of phical markers (like ash beds) and, consequently, evaporites are left. applicable methodology. It seems that the internal Finally, in part five of this volume, there are the stratigraphy of evaporite formations with well- two regional review papers, describing two amaz- preserved primary features can be resolved by ingly evaporite-rich areas of the world. The first, by event stratigraphical techniques, based on key Hryniv, Dolishniy, Khmelevska, Poberezhskyy & beds that can be correlated over long distances Vovnyuk, covers a broad overview of the evaporites (e.g. Ba˛bel 2005 a, b). Particularly in shallow-water of Ukraine (Devonian, Permian, Jurassic and evaporite settings, event or key beds represent Miocence ages). The second, by Hovorka, Holt & extremely short time intervals, and it seems Powers, reviews the Permian evaporites of West that the life time of many shallow-water Texas (Palo Duro, Midland and Delaware basins). evaporite basins is relatively short (evaporite Together, these five sections give a fair introduction deposition . accommodation). to the problems faced in evaporite study and some Modern depositional rates in shallow water of the necessary answers. are up to 10 m per 1000 years for halite and Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW 3

1–2 m per 1000 years for CaSO4 (Schreiber & Hsu¨ This delicate balance, for both air and water, is 1980). For ancient, major deep-basin evaporites, we not readily maintained for geologically prolonged can only estimate their somewhat slower accumu- periods of time (only a few hundreds of thousands lation rates from biostratigraphic estimates because of years), except within substantial orographic there is no modern working analogue to be taken shadows and deep depressions, where evaporites as a model. In contrast to their marine counterparts, may form for millions of years. In areas at or near evaporite deposits forming within non-marine sea level (Brutsaert 1982), as well as above moun- basins, particularly those lying within orographic tainous areas (Nullet & Juvik 1994), evaporation rain shadows (Roe 2005), and in areas of rapid rates have been studied extensively. However, in and uninterrupted subsidence may persist for much areas that lie in depressions, well below sea longer intervals. Their total thickness is largely gov- level (possibly like the late Miocene in the Mediter- erned by available accommodation as well as ionic ranean), comparatively little is known. Because the source rates. These very short depositional intervals lapse-rate for the atmosphere is 6–10 8C per for thick sediment packages can only take place kilometre of depression (Brutsaert 1982), the temp- under strictly constrained environmental conditions, eratures in deep depressions can become consider- as outlined in the next section. ably warmer than at sea level or above. The result of this heating is demonstrated in observations of Controls on rates of evaporation and ionic the Dead Sea by Steinhorn (1997), where evapor- concentration ation proceeds rapidly, forming highly concentrated brines. If, in the past, isolation and drawdown of Kinsman (1976) pointed out that, in order to some large basins such as the late Miocene in the accumulate thick halite deposits, the regional rela- Mediterranean, were even deeper below mean sea tive humidity must be low. Kinsman also noted level than is the Dead Sea, the temperature and that there is a need for regionally lowered water evaporation rates would be higher, despite vapour input, causing a low average relative humid- increased atmospheric pressure. Theoretical calcu- ity [less than 76% relative humidity (RH) is needed lations by Hay (1996) suggest that descending air for halite formation], although this value is only a could be warmed to more than 50–60 8C at the rough estimate (see Walton 1978). For example, if 2 km-deep, near-dry bottom of the Mediterranean humidity rises either during the night or seasonally, depression, highly increasing the evaporation most of the halite that has been formed will go back potential, and if this is true, the deposition of K– into solution and there will be no net accumulation. Mg salts in such an area is quite possible. Less-soluble mineral precipitates, such as gypsum and anhydrite, commonly can persist and accumu- late, but at less than optimum rates. The pycnocline and its effect Another problem that requires consideration is the decrease in rate of evaporation as ionic concen- The behaviour of water bodies, particularly those tration (salinity) rises. The evaporation rate of water with elevated salinity, is fairly complex. In the approaching near-saturation for halite commonly paper of Ba˛bel (2007; also Ba˛bel 2005a, b), the fol- slows, thus it is necessary to have and maintain lowing concepts are clearly developed: (1) evapor- elevated water temperatures to promote evaporation ite deposition and its morphology reflect the (particularly to replace energy lost due to evapor- stratification in the formative brine column; and ation). For example, commercial salt works opti- (2) evaporative crystallization of various salts is mize evaporation conditions by adding a thin commonly associated with mixing periods in the layer of new surface water of lower salinity on basin. Ba˛bel (2007) has shown that evaporite saline ponds, which insulates the more saline facies are linked to the particular stratified water water and also has the effect of heating the water zones in which they form. These zones are separ- by refracting the infrared (heat) radiation from ated by a pycnocline (or a boundary between a incoming sunlight back down into the dense less saline, diluted and lighter upper water mass, bottom waters (heliothermal effect; e.g. Kirkland with low ionic concentrations (occasionally under- et al. 1983). By raising the temperature of the saturated), and more saline denser bottom brine water and increasing evaporation, the surface (permanently oversaturated). In a simplified way, water soon reaches saturation, adding to the original Figure 1 demonstrates the physical conditions mix. The salt works also keep the surface clear of potentially established in a water body with elev- floating salt that slows down evaporation and they ated salinity. Another major control over deposition make certain that vigorous phytoplankton blooms is exerted by the pycnocline position and perma- of halophylic microorganisms are maintained as nence. The known depositional facies within a their red colour helps to increase water temperature modern salt works reported by Busson et al. by several degrees (Sammy 1985). (1982) and Ortı´ Cabo et al. (1984) yielded enough Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

4 B. C. SCHREIBER ET AL.

Simplified Nomenclature information to permit Peryt (1996) to realistically For A Stratified Water Body interpret some of the Ukranian gypsum of the Badenian (facies shown in Fig. 2a & b), which EPILIMNION has now been refined and described more fully by (also mixolimnion) PYCNOCLINE Ba˛bel (2007). (~ thermocline) Even the bedding morphology of thick gypsum layers is controlled by the position of the pycnocline HYPOLIMNION MONOLIMNION (seasonal (permanent (Fig. 3). Massive selenite beds appear ‘truncated’ or stratification) stratification) flattened when they grow to the level of the pycno- cline. Truncation is not caused by mechanical Fig. 1. Simplified view of the key points of stratification in a saline water body. erosion or chemical dissolution, but rather the

Fig. 2. Scheme showing the typical Badenian selenite and gypsum environments and facies in the Carpathian Foredeep Basin as interpreted by Peryt (1996) and Ba˛bel (2005b, with references). (a) Sketch for the ‘dry shore’ model, present mostly in Ukraine. (b) Sketch for the ‘wet shore’ model, in the Polish part of the basin. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW 5

limiting planation surface (developed suba- queously). This pycnocline boundary is not limited to modern evaporite formation in salinas and saline lakes, but it is readily noted in flattened selenite domes in the primary Messinian gypsum of Sicily (Fig. 3a & b), as well as in the secondary anhydrite (after selenitic gypsum) of the late Silur- ian in the Michigan Basin (Fig. 3c) and in the Bade- nian of the Carpathian foreland (Ba˛bel 2005a, pp. 18–19, and Pl. 5, fig. 1, marker bed h1).

Styles of deposition in evaporite basins It is possible to subdivide evaporite-bearing basins according to the stability of the underlying crust because this governs the development of sedimen- tary facies. There are basins which are developed on the vast continental platforms, showing rigid consolidated crust (tectonically passive basins) characterized by very slow subsidence or uplift with a paucity of seismic shocks, and those which are developed on a mobile substrate with unconso- lidated rocks or a dense network of moving tectonic blocks (tectonically active basins) which are characterized by high levels of tectonic activity and rapidity of tectonic movements (faulting, folding and overthrusting). It has become evident that evaporite deposits forming in tectonically calm basins (as in continental interior basins, or failed arms of rifts) may receive a significantly different overall assemblage of depositional facies than those formed in tectonically active basins (as in foredeep portions of foreland basins). Deposits within tectonically calm or passive basins may remain comparatively undeformed (unfolded, undomed or otherwise contorted) after formation. However, those in foredeep or active rift basins are normally both mechanically reworked during Fig. 3. Control of crystal growth by the position of a deposition and deformed afterwards, so that many pycnocline recorded in flattened tops of many gypsum of their component parts are distorted and even sub- domes. (a) Primary selenite domes (flattened) in Sicily jected to low-temperature metamorphism relatively (late Miocene, Eraclea Minoa). (b) Secondary early in their histories. Commonly these deposits alabastrine gypsum after primary selenite (flattened also act as the de´collement for thrust sheets. domes) in Sicily (late Miocene, Cinciana-Rafffadali These factors make accurate depositional interpret- road). NB. loss of detail is due to replacement of primary ation of evaporites very difficult, but possible with selenite by massive alabastrine gypsum, but much of the care. In both types of basins the halokinetic original structure is still retained. (c) Late Silurian, effects of uneven loads on salt deposits can flattened secondary alabastrine gypsum domes, overlain by bedded, intertidal to subtidal dolomudstone with obliterate and disturb the primary features, but displacive Ca sulphate nodules: Celotex quarry such tectonic effects are apparently more drastic (Gypsum, IN, USA). in active basins. Evaporites deposited in tectonically active regions (for example, the northern margins of the late water is less concentrated (undersaturated) above Miocene Mediterranean; the middle Miocene Car- the pycnocline so that the crystals are unable to con- pathian foredeep) vary greatly in facies development tinue growth above that level. Because a pycnocline both vertically and laterally across the basin, and even is normally horizontal, such flattened surfaces at the along strike. Added to this complexity is the fact that tops of selenite beds can be treated as a kind of evaporites are readily slumped, and mechanically Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

6 B. C. SCHREIBER ET AL. reworked relatively early in their history. Because therefore we are obliged to apply the physical con- many evaporites are lithified as they are deposited, ditions known from deeper lakes to model the con- they produce large deposits that are solely composed ditions for many of the other subaqueous facies of mechanically reworked materials (Hardie & (Ba˛bel, this volume; Ba˛bel & Bogucki, this Eugster 1971; Parea & Ricci Lucchi 1972; Ricci volume). Naturally, without a good and tested Lucchi 1973; Schreiber et al. 1976; Manzi et al. working model, this projection may provide a 2006; Roveri et al. 1998, 2003, 2006a, b). major source of error. The only certainty is that, In contrast to foredeep areas, large-scale synde- once the physical conditions become suitable for positional or early postdepositional mechanical evaporite formation, very rapid sediment reworking and deformation is rare within most accumulation results. basins developed on stable continental platforms and within abandoned rifts. These evaporites can Tectonically passive basins remain scarcely altered or deformed even over prolonged periods of time (over hundreds of Many thick evaporites (for example, the Michigan millions of years), unless deeply buried. Because Basin and Delaware Basin; see Hovorka et al. this of this, they can retain most of their primary fea- volume) developed in basins located in continental tures and morphologies, and commonly their orig- sags or failed arms of ancient rifts, and, based on inal fluid inclusions (for example, from the USA, their chemistry, were largely marine-fed. They Michigan Basin, late Silurian and the Delaware were enclosed within a gradually subsiding Basin, middle and late Permian). The facies that portion of the continental plate providing acco- developed within these deposits vary little laterally, mmodation for rapid sediment accumulation under even over considerable distances. Facies diversity is tectonically stable conditions. While the general relatively limited throughout most of the section. pattern of pre-evaporite sedimentation is normal Examination of very thick evaporite sections in these basins, marked by fauna indicative of (Anderson et al. 1972) or in some basin margins, open but gradually deepening marine water, the a well-developed facies multiplicity may be time interval necessary for the evaporite sedimen- recognizable (Peryt 1996). These latter variations tation is commonly so short that palaeontologists appear to develop in and fill localized sags and may not even find a ‘break’ in the faunal record irregularities. between the under- and overlying deposits. This In areas where burial of evaporites has been observation has led to the idea that reefs could greater than 2–3 km, evaporites may become con- grow freely in a Silurian sea in which thick evapor- siderably altered. Gypsum dehydrates to anhydrite ites also were forming (Droste & Shaver 1977). commonly by about 1km depth (0.4 km to more There are also reliable sedimentological records than 4 km depending on many local conditions; that demonstrate intervals of evaporite formation Jowett et al. 1993). Below a depth of 3 km halite between periods of normal reef growth (pers. also may develop significant secondary porosity comm. 2006, Wm B. Harrison), perhaps precursors and permeability (Lewis & Holness 1996). Such sec- to the short and dramatic main interval of evaporite ondary porosity was first recognized by Land et al. deposition. In more recent sediments (for example (1988), especially in halite, fostering alteration. the late Miocene of the Mediterranean), establish- This does not necessarily occur in areas that are ing stratigraphic controls seems easier, using absol- tectonically stable but is well developed in regions ute age dating provided by ash layers and of elevated fluid pressure due to tectonics or increas- magnetostratigraphy of unaltered sediments, and ing hydrothermal gradient (Hovland et al. 2006a, b). fossil biostratigraphy. It is evident that the interval of extremely restricted climate is very short. Simi- larly short time intervals appear to have controlled Facies diversity evaporite deposition for major portions of the thick evaporites in the late Permian Zechstein and The sedimentation within evaporite environments, the Delaware basins. as observed in deposits from settings such as There are few facies variations within these marine-marginal (sabkha), salina or a relatively passive basins. Within the basin centres, sediments shallow subaqueous marine-marginal (1 to are largely laminar, present as singlets (thin carbon- perhaps 10 m water), usually serves as a reasonable ate, admixed with or alternating with a very thin representation of most of the evaporite facies layer of organic matter), couplets (composed of assemblage found in the rock record (Busson carbonate alternating with anhydrite and/or et al. 1982; Ortı´ Cabo et al. 1984). However, for gypsum at the surface) and triplets (made up of car- most large subaqueous basinal deposits, salinas rep- bonate, anhydrite and then a thin layer of halite). An resent only a partial working model because they excellent review of the Castile Formation of the late are restricted to very shallow water bodies; Permian of the Delaware Basin and its facies Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW 7 development may be obtained from Kirkland occur adjacent to some reefs and shallow margins. (2003) and Hovorka (2000), but studies in the late However, most of the deposits in such stable Silurian Michigan Basin (Budros 1974; Nurmi & basins are made up of laminites (forming a Friedman 1975; Budros & Briggs 1977; Nurmi ‘poker-chip’ facies), sometimes intercalated with a 1977) and the late Permian of the Zechstein few thicker nodular anhydrite beds that are the (Richter-Bernburg 1963) also point out this lithol- relics of layers of selenitic gypsum (Richter- ogy as well. Lit-par-lit correlation in such basins Bernburg 1985, figures 12 & 23; Kendall & is very distinct and extends across most of the Harwood 1989). deposit. In all of these basins sporadic thicker A totally different type of facies modification, beds are present, especially in the upper portions noted in some basinal evaporites, may come about of the section. These thicker beds contain pseudo- through seismic effects from very distant regional morphic relics of selenitic gypsum, indicative of tectonism, with no evidence of local disruption. shallower water facies (Richter-Bernburg 1985; Earthquakes or even tsunamis otherwise may have Kendall & Harwood 1989), shown in Figure 4a & little directly to do with the areas of deposition. b. Some of the shelfal (marginal) deposits also Seilacher (1969) and then Bachmann & Aref contain these shallow-water facies. This general (2005) have demonstrated that seismic shocks assemblage of facies is shown in Figure 5. have disrupted thin-bedded soft sediments produ- In limited areas of these basins, at some margins cing ‘seismites’ in bottom deposits of otherwise and also in their upper sections, there is a greater calm basins, far from mass-flows, turbidites and variation in facies. This is probably due to inequi- other active downslope mechanisms. Comparable ties in subsidence and/or filling, as well as sea-level deformation and localized brecciation is also fluctuation. In such non-tectonic areas there are few noted locally in the Lisan Formation of the Dead proximal indicators (such as reworked, downslope Sea (Agnon et al. 2006) and possibly in the breccias), but localized buildups of anhydrite do Castile Formation of West Texas (Permian).

Tectonically active basins The distinctly broader facies assemblage found within many active basins is readily seen in the exposed portions of the late Miocene (Messinian) Mediterranean, largely because the evaporites are relatively young and have not undergone burial dia- genesis. This basin contains many areas composed of clearly developed, shallow-water evaporite facies, largely formed just below the pycnocline of the basin. There are also a number of large areas with definite deeper-water facies. The 200–250 m thick cyclic gypsum section, correlata- ble between Spain, Sicily and the Apennines (Italy), required less than 300,000 years for deposition. The climatic/water inflow mechanisms for such rapid deposition have been discussed in numerous papers but most recently Meijer (2006) and Meijer & Krijgsman (2005) have presented interest- ing and useful models for their formation. The bios- tratigraphy of the under- and/or overlying sediments are from well-dated, open marine facies, hence the time intervals are well constrained. Associated with these shallow-water evaporitive sediments are areas that are a conglomeration of reworked fragments and blocks of primary, shallow water sediments. A comparison of reworked Fig. 4. Development of relic selenite structures within sections between basins shows that these facies are anhydrite. (a) Primary selenite layers (late Messinian, Sicily): note ‘grasslike’ orientation of gypsum crystals in controlled by source areas and the rate and style of rows separated by thin layers of gypsified, bacterial reworking. Many sub-basins are partially filled by carbonate. (b) Relic structures in anhydrite, reflecting huge reworked blocks (kilometres in size) that grasslike gypsum structure, Castile Formation (late have slid down into basinal muds. Others were Permian) ERDC 9 WIPP core, W. Texas, USA. broken, slumped and reduced to sands and silts, Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

8 B. C. SCHREIBER ET AL. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW 9 reworked as mass flows and well-developed turbi- beds become unrecognizable petrologically, or at dites (Roveri et al. 1998, 2003; Roveri & Manzi least very difficult to decipher (Schle´der & Urai 2006). In some areas, such large volumes of 2005). In this way, almost nothing remains recorded reworked materials were deposited onto the floors in the salt to reveal its depositional history. In other of adjacent deep basins that most of the marginal parts of a rift, where the evaporitive filling is source areas became virtually denuded of their eva- largely confined to the relatively stable rift basin porite sections, as in the eastern Apennines and parts floor or the marginal satellite basins, the basin of Sicily (Fig. 6a–f). In the Granada Basin and in remains relatively stable, although subsiding western Sicily (Gibellina), reworking creates ele- rapidly, and the evaporites may remain undeformed gantly formed turbidite sections, replete with and continuous. graded beds having classical scour surfaces and load and prod casts. It has been suggested that many parts of the deep-basin deposits originate as slumps and turbidites fed from the tectonized Evaporite deposits: what do the lithologic margins ( Roveri et al. 1998, 2003; Roveri & groupings mean? Manzi 2006; Bertoni & Cartwright 2007). Similar reworked facies are known in the middle Miocene With the accumulated observations of evaporites of the Carpathian foredeep (e.g. Kolasa & S´la˛czka available to sedimentologists, there is now enough 1985). In parts of the late Permian of the Zechstein data available to sort evaporites into meaningful Basin, Schlager & Bolz (1977), Meier (1977, 1981) lithological groupings. These groupings are not and Richter-Bernburg (1985) also describe some- just based on compositions, trace elements and iso- what similar aspects of reworking, but their topes, but also on lithology and stratigraphy. The general analysis remains somewhat unclear. paper presented by Ba˛bel & Bogucki (2007, and In some early stages of rift development basin, the references therein) demonstrates the product margins have a rapidly changing slope due to of the controls exerted by composition, environ- crustal thinning and rapid subsidence. If there is mental conditions and behaviour of the water that early salt formation on rapidly subsiding margins, flowed in the Badenian basin(s) more than 11.1 they commonly deform as a result of tilting and million years ago. These observations are clear increasing slope development, not commonly enough to draw a realistic model of formation. from any other type of tectonics. These deposits, The general concepts presented step beyond the particularly the chloride facies, readily deform plas- observations made in modern salinas were reported tically on slopes in response to gravity (see Kehle in Busson et al. (1982) and Ortı´ Cabo et al. (1984). 1988; Jackson 1995, 1997). The entire overlying While Schreiber et al. (1976, 1977) attempted a non-evaporitive section becomes destabilized, simplistic environmental reconstruction, the exerting an uneven load, generating diapirs in the papers in this volume have put primary subaqueous salt or allowing the salt simply to flow out from evaporite facies into a stronger and more realistic under its irregular burden. Such uneven loading framework and have pointed the direction of along continental margins commonly controls the many tectonic and diagenetic changes that are part position of subsequent deltaic buildups, especially of the evaporite story. Building on this framework, in failed rift arms, exacerbating the regional defor- extending from the clearly understood into the mation, and further destabilizing the halite. Having hypothetical, must be done stepwise, incorporating undergone many phases of plastic deformation, the data from other basins. Sedimentation in continen- original halite facies that composed the deformed tal sag-basins, here specifically addressed in

Fig. 5. Facies commonly developed in passive basins such as continental ‘sags’ and/or failed rift-arms. A similar facies assemblage may be present on the stable, marginal portions of tectonically active basins. In both cases lateral facies changes are commonly gradual in this setting and have considerable lateral and vertical persistence. Mechanically reworked evaporites are shallow-water in origin and usually uncommon in this setting. (a) Outcrop view of M. Banco (late Miocene, Messinian; near Raffadali, Sicily). Note relative continuity of layers, all composed of relatively shallow-water facies, formed below a somewhat variable regional pycnocline. Total thickness c. 250 m. (b) ‘Grass-like’ selenitic gypsum alternating with very thin microbial carbonate interbeds (late Miocene, Messinian; Passo Funnuto, Sicily). Upon burial this facies becomes regular anhydrite beds alternating with thin CaSO4 cemented carbonate. (c) Microbially contolled stromatolite structures composed of carbonate, pervasively cemented and partially replaced by gypsum that is synsedimentary in origin (middle Miocene, Badenian, near Gartwice, Poland). (d) Basin-centre anhydrite–carbonate couplets from a cored sample. Small amounts of argillite on bedding planes may cause parting into thin ‘poker-chips’. Castile Formation, late Permian, Texas, USA. (e) Basin-centre anhydrite– carbonate–halite triplets, with some additional anhydrite cementation of porosity in carbonate layers (grey patches, at arrows). Michigan Basin, A1E; Shell Kalkaska no. 1–2 well (Michigan, USA). Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

10 B. C. SCHREIBER ET AL.

Fig. 6. Facies developed in a tectonically active basin, here in late Miocene evaporite deposits (Tortonian and Messinian), showing mechanically reworked evaporites in an active tectonic setting. (a) Turbidite section (Highway 118, above the ruins of old Gibellina, Sicily), about 40 m in height. Sediment is composed of reworked, shallow-water, primary selenitic gypsum clasts (varying from silts to cobble-sized fragments) plus evaporitic carbonates in an organic-rich matrix (up to 7% organic TOC). Many beds are well sorted and monomineralic while others are very mixed in composition. Outcrop covered by a mesh of protective netting. (b) Sequence of gypsum turbidite beds, containing a considerable siliciclastic, sand component (late Miocene, near la Malaha, Spain (Granada). (c) Irregularly tipped and slid gypsum deposits (shallow-water in origin) in mountain-sized blocks, central Sicily. Bedding is clearly preserved; part of a synsedimentary phase of large-scale downslope reworking, involving the lower beds in the sequence. Messinian, near Raffadali, Sicily (Roveri et al. 2006b). Lines point up the bedding orientation of adjacent blocks. (d) Mass flow at the margin of a long turbidite section near Gibellina, Sicily (Messinan). Composed of evaporative carbonate clasts, large shallow water selenite fragments, and fine sand-size selenite in a gypsiferous argillitic matrix. (e) Coarse, selenite sandstone, part of a turbidite sequence. Crystal fragments contain filamentous, bacterial outlines, indicative of original photic zone growth. Near old Gibellina, Sicily. (f) Close-up of a bedding-plane marked by load casts, at the base of a turbidite layer. Messinan, near old Gibellina, Sicily. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW 11

Hovorka et al. 2007 review of the Permian of west 9–29. On-Line Appendix www.geo.uw.edu.pl/agp/ Texas, adds to this depositional framework. table/appendixes/55-1/ BA˛BEL, M. 2005b. Selenite-gypsum microbialite facies and sedimentary evolution of the Badenian evaporite Future investigation basin of the northern Carpathian Foredeep. Acta Geologica Polonica, 55, 187–210. In the past 10 years a number of new concepts have BA˛BEL, M. 2007. Depositional environments of a salina- been proposed concerning the evolution of seawater type evaporite basin recorded in the Badenian composition that may change our view on some of gypsum facies in northern Carpathian Foredeep. In: the sources and modes of deposition of evaporite SCHREIBER, B. C., LUGLI,S.&BA˛BEL, M. (eds) deposits. The idea that mid-ocean ridges can Evaporites Through Space and Time. Geological process and modify circulating seawater as it Society, London, Special Publications, 285, 107–142. moves through spreading centre magmas and BA˛BEL,M.&BOGUCKI, A. 2007. The Badenian evaporite basalts is key to this. Such circulation can change basin of the northern Carpathian Foredeep as a model of the meromictic selenite basin. In:SCHREIBER, the composition of the world’s oceans over time, B. C., LUGLI,S.&BA˛BEL, M. (eds) Evaporites but the suggestion is a comparatively new one Through Space and Time. Geological Society, (Hardie 1996). In addition, a suggestion, presented London, Special Publications, 285, 219–246. since the Florence Conference, proposes that large BERTONI,C.&CARTWRIGHT, J. A. 2006. Controls on volumes of ‘evaporites’ may actually be due to the basinwide architecture of Messinian evaporites and form from rift-sourced and hydrothermal on the Levant margin (Eastern Mediterranean). fluids (Hovland et al. 2006a, b). This concept Sedimentary Geology, 188/189, 93–114. certainly must be addressed in the future. Evapor- BERTONI,C.&CARTWRIGHT, J. A. 2007. Clastic deposi- ites still represent an uncertain narrative, with tional systems at the base of the late Miocene evapor- ites of the Levant region, Eastern Mediterranean. In: further clarity coming slowly as we gain additional SCHREIBER, B. C., LUGLI,S.&BA˛BEL, M. (eds) information as we learn more about old and Evaporites Through Space and Time. Geological new deposits. Society, London, Special Publications, 285, 37–52. In the future, Martian evaporites will increas- BRUTSAERT, W. 1982. Evaporation into the Atmosphere: ingly captivate our thoughts, but we will not be Theory, History, and Applications. Reidel, Hingham, able to address those alien deposits until we have MA. a better hold on our Earthly, comparatively BUDROS, R. 1974. The stratigraphy and petrogenesis modern deposits. Further, if we can make a stab at of the Ruff Formation, Salina Group in northeast the meaning of and controls for those evaporites Michigasn. Masters thesis, University of Michigan. BUDROS,R.Y.&BRIGGS, L. I. 1977. Depositional formed on Earth in the Archean, we will be in a environment of Ruff Formation (Upper Silurian) in far better position to understand off-Earth deposits. Southeastern Michigan. In:FISHER, J. H. (ed.) Reefs This volume about Earth-bound deposits, is a and Evaporites – Concepts and Depositional collection of observations, concepts and ideas Models. American Association of Petroleum that can point us toward a fuller understanding of Geologists, Studies in Geology 5, AAPG, 53–72. our own world and the many others waiting to BUSSON, G., CORNE´ E,A. ET AL. 1982. Donne´es hydro- be explored. chimiques, biologiques, isotopiques, se´dimentologi- ques et diage´ne´tiques sur les marais salants de Salin-de-Giraud (Sud de la France). 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