© Tommy Miles © Tommy Miles

PREPARED BY: CHIEF MATTHEW KAKEKASPAN & TOMMY MILES, BAND COUNCILOR FOR THE WASHAHO NATION AT FORT SEVERN, DRS. R. HARVEY LEMELIN, MARTHA DOWSLEY, & MICHEL BEAULIEU, CENTRE FOR NORTHERN STUDIES, LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY & DR. MITCH TAYLOR FRANZ SIEBEL, PROJECT MANAGER & BRIAN WALMARK, DIRECTOR, KEEWAYTINOOK OKIMAKANAK RESEARCH INSTITUTE (KORI)

WITH THE SUPPORT OF THE WASHAHO CREE NATION AT FORT SEVEN, ENVIRONMENT , HEALTH CANADA, AND THE SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES RESEARCH COUNCIL OF CANADA Giving Voice to Bear: Cree Observations and Documentation of Wabusk in : Research 2010 Report

Prepared by:

Chief Matthew Kakekaspan & Tommy Miles, Washaho Cree Nation at Fort Severn,

Drs. R. Harvey Lemelin, Martha Dowsley & Michel Beaulieu, Centre for Northern Studies, Lakehead University, & Dr. Mitch Taylor

Franz Siebel & Brian Walmark, Keewaytinook Okimakanak Research Institute (KORI)

With the support of:

The Washaho Cree Nation at Fort Severn, Environment Canada, Health Canada, & The Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada

June 2010

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Giving Voice to Bear: Cree Observations and Documentation of Wabusk in Ontario: Research 2010 Report

Table of Contents

Page Number List of Tables and Figures 3 Chief’s Address 4-6 Introduction 6-10 Research Goals 7 Wabusk in Ontario 8 Wabusk and Fort Severn: An Historical Overview 10-11 1685-1779 10 1780-1814 10 1815-and onward 10 The Management of Wabusk in Ontario 11-15 Socio-Cultural Dimensions 15-18 Wabusk movement and habitat use 16 Wabusk feeding behaviour 16 Educational Perspectives 18 Recommendations 19-22 References 23-24

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List of Tables and Figures Page Number

Tables

Table 1 -Polar Bear Hides Traded at Fort Severn 1761-1814 11

Table 2 – A Chronology of Polar Bear Management in Ontario 12

Table 3 – Reporting Various Polar Bear Population Numbers in 13 Ontario Figures

Figure 1: Washaho Traditional Lands 7

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Giving Voice to Bear: Cree Observations and Documentation of Wabusk in Ontario: Research 2010 Report

Chief’s Address In the summer of 2008 a research partnership between the Washaho Cree Nation at Fort Severn (hereafter Washaho), the Keewaytinook Okimakanak Research Institute (KORI), and researchers affiliated with the Centre of Northern Studies at Lakehead University and Lakehead University, was established in order to: (i) examine wabusk (polar bear, Ursus maritimus) movements and behaviours in Cree traditional territory; and, (ii) to begin community discussions in regards to the management of this species. Right from the project’s onset we indicated that we wanted to be fully integrated in all phases of the research process, since then, every attempt including the hiring of community research assistants and translators has been made to address this. Further, transparency and information-sharing continues with various presentations in the community, presentations to professional groups, and reporting mechanisms like this report which is also available as a PDF document on our web-site. For many centuries the northern Cree have harvested wabusk for food, for medicine, for tools, for spiritual purposes and for crafts. The cultural and economical importance of wabusk in our society has been recognized in park management plans (see the Polar Bear Provincial Park Management Plan, 1980), the proposed Wabusk Co-Management Agreement by the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources (OMNR) (1980s), Canada’s Species at Risk Act (SARA), Ontario’s Endangered Species Act (ESA), and by international law (e.g., 2010 the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) decision not to ban the trade of polar bear parts). While Canada continues to list polar bears as a species of Special Concern (defined as a wildlife species that may become threatened or endangered due to a number of threats) under SARA, Manitoba with no consultation with us, up-listed polar bears as threatened under the provincial Endangered Species Act in 2008, the Americans soon followed-suit. In 2009, the Committee on the Status of Species at Risk in Ontario (COSSARO) reclassified polar bears as threatened under the ESA. 4 Washaho Cree Nation/Centre for Northern Studies/KORI

Giving Voice to Bear: Cree Observations and Documentation of Wabusk in Ontario: Research 2010 Report

Because the ESA requires that a management plan for threatened species (i.e., polar bear) be developed within two years (by 2011), the duty to consult with the people that will bear the brunt of these policies has so far, been overlooked by the provincial government. Since the Southern polar bear population is also a shared population between Ontario, Quebec and Nunavut this unilateral decision by Ontario overlooks the numerous international and inter-jurisdictional agreements regarding the management of this particular polar bear sub-population. Despite these setbacks, we the people most affected by human-polar bear interactions are attempting to deal with these challenges by monitoring and documenting polar bear behaviours in our territory. This report illustrates the importance and value of recognizing, documenting, and incorporating Cree Kiskayndamowin/knowledge into interdisciplinary approaches to wildlife management through a participatory approach. Since we have started this research, we have documented that polar bears use the boreal forest much more so than scientists have documented, and the diet of polar bears in Ontario is more variable than it is further north. Our historic research looks at the fur trade records for trading posts around Hudson Bay and so far, provides documentation that Cree were trading polar bear skins for several centuries prior to the establishment of the province of Ontario and the creation of the OMNR. Our preliminary biological review of existing scientific data collected by the OMNR and other researchers on the biology of polar bears in Ontario identified some apparent inconsistencies. From our understanding it does not appear that wabusk populations have declined, and uncertainties regarding the scientific information have not been clearly stated.

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This research report is to serve notice that we will no longer be kept silent or marginalized in these discussions and that our knowledge must be recognized and incorporated in co-management strategies in this province. To facilitate that participation we have begun to document and map polar bear-human encounters in our territory and we are establishing protocols for recording polar bear human encounters. This report is our first step in this process, and we now look forward to being involved in these decisions, as well as contributing our information to the development of a polar bear management plan in this province. We are thankful for the support from our funding partners including the Aboriginal Critical Habitat Protection Fund and the Aboriginal Capacity Building Fund through Environment Canada, the Climate Change and Health Adaptation Program through Health Canada, and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.

Matthew Kakekaspan Chief of the Washaho Cree Nation

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INTRODUCTION The Washaho (the Cree designation for the Severn River) Cree Nation at Fort Severn is the most northerly community in the province of Ontario. This small (3,959 hectares), remote Cree reserve of approximately 578 people (449 living on the reserve, and 129 living off the reserve) is situated in the , on the Severn River 9km from its mouth where it Platform for storing items out of drains into Hudson Bay. Rich in fishing resources, the area reach of dogs (polar bear skin, snowshoes, tubs of seal meat), Fort was a traditional gathering place, and like many traditional Severn, ca. 1955 Source: Archives of Ontario C 330-14 gathering places along the shores of Hudson Bay, a fort (Fort Severn) was established by the Hudson Bay Company in the 17th century. As Cree lore and historical documentation attest, the Cree people have been interacting with wabusk for several millennia. This report is a brief summary of these interactions, since European colonization.

Research Goals The goal of this research and this report is to highlight Cree knowledge of polar bears. The research objectives are to: I. Document Cree Kiskayetumoowin-Knowledge (CK) of wabusk in the Washaho Cree Nation at Fort Severn; II. Conduct a historical analysis of fur trade records of polar bear skins in the Fort Severn area; III. Review existing scientific information on the polar bears of the Southern Bay sub-population; IV. Develop and implement a management strategy for human-wabusk encounters.

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This information has been shared with and reviewed by the citizens of Washaho. The community wants its voice heard and we will be examining various other forms of information sharing, especially with the ONMR and other Cree Nations located in Northern Ontario.

Wabusk in Ontario The Southern Hudson Bay (SHB) sub-population of polar bears is located in the James and Hudson Bays of Ontario, Quebec and Nunavut) and is found in the traditional territory of the Cree people in Northern Canada. Current research indicates that the SHB population is stable (around 1,000 polar bears).

Figure 2 – Washaho Traditional Lands

The importance of wabusk to Cree livelihood continues today. The aboriginal harvest of polar bears by the Cree in Ontario and Quebec is limited only by conservation limits in Ontario ( 9) and Quebec (James Bay Agreement). Since the late 1960’s the government of Ontario has imposed a limit on the number of hides

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Giving Voice to Bear: Cree Observations and Documentation of Wabusk in Ontario: Research 2010 Report that can be sold and have told Cree people that there is an annual number of ‘permissible kills’ on polar bears. However, the permissible kills were established with minimum consultation with Cree communities, and with very little recognition that these regulations contravene and Aboriginal rights to livelihood. Reports indicate that Northern Cree communities in Ontario harvest around 13 polar bears annually (note there are no Inuit communities in Ontario), while in Quebec, approximately 17 polar bears are harvested each year by aboriginal peoples. In Quebec, no distinction is made between Cree and Inuit harvests. Nunavut has identified an Inuit quota of 25 polar bears on the Belcher Islands, which are also part of the Southern Hudson Bay population. While concerns over the status of polar bears and harvesting practices have been expressed, no enforcement action has been taken against Cree hunters for harvesting polar bears, so there are no cases before the court to clarify Cree polar bear harvesting rights. Let us be clear, however, the Province of Ontario does not have the authority to disregard Case law (duty to consult), limit Treaty 9 beneficiaries harvesting activities which were granted federal treaty and which are specifically recognized in article 35 of the Canadian Constitution. While concerns over consumptive activities, whether they be traditional harvest or conservation hunting (sustainable hunting that contributes to the social and economic well-being of local communities) dominate policy discussions on polar bears, two in northern Ontario (Washaho, and the at ) also offer visitors opportunities to view polar bears in their natural environments. The omission of non-consumptive forms of wildlife tourism (i.e. polar bear viewing) in management debates highlights yet another limitation of current policy discussions and the agency’s expertise.

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WABUSK AND FORT SEVERN: AN HISTORICAL OVERVIEW This historical overview focuses on the trade of polar bear skins in the Fort Severn area during the fur trade era. As a result, the research and analysis has had to rely on the records from the HBC’s Northern Department, York Factory District (comprising the posts York Factory, Churchill, Severn, and Trout Lake) from 1685 onward. While we overview several "epoch" in trading at Severn (1685-1779; 1780-1814; 1815- onward), each has its own characteristics and events that shaped the nature of the trade.

1685-1779 Fur Trading with Europeans and Euro-Canadian has occurred in and around the current location of Fort Severn since 1685 when Samuel Missenden established the first HBC post. The Fort was located at the mouth of the Severn River and was primarily intended to provide an extra level of security against the French for HBC activities in James and Hudson’s Bay. Starting from the firm establishment of the post in 1759, evidence indicates that polar bears were in fact hunted and traded.

1780-1814 Even during periods of intense competition with the North West Company, available statistics from the Fort Severn District Reports for the period revealed that polar bear hides were in fact traded in numbers relatively consistent with the previous period.

1815-and onward Between 1880 and 1890, 97 “white” bear hides were recorded (although from 1886 and 1889 only). Between 1890 and 1899, 994 (99 average per year) polar hides were traded. From 1900 to 1911 over 1062 (97 average per year) were traded across Canada by Aboriginal peoples. These figures are not however, specific to Fort Severn.

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Table 1 - Polar Bear Hides Traded at Fort Severn 1761-1814 Year Beaver Value Skins Type 1761 8 4 Old White Bears 7 7 Cub White Bears 1762 28 14 Old white bears 4 4 Cub White Bears

1763 78 39 Old White Bears 3 3 Cub White Bears 1764 32 Old White Bears 1 Cub White Bear

1810 28 White Bears 1811 No reported harvest 1812 No reported harvest 1813 6 White Bears 1814 12 White Bears Source Michel Beaulieu & Associates, 2010 During the twentieth century Cree hunters in Northern Ontario harvested polar bears for personal consumption, medicinal uses, to feed their dog teams, process the oils, to trade as furs, and create crafts. Due to the replacement of dog teams by snowmobiles in the mid 20th century, and the decline of the fur industry in the region (Krech, 1984), the economic role of polar bears as a resource declined. That said the importance of the polar bear to the Cree was discussed in the Royal Commission on the Northern Environment (1983), and as one member of Fort Severn explained, the hides could sell for up to $2,000. Despite decreasing harvests, the polar bear ayoowin (fur/hide) is still cherished and widely used in Washaho for polar bear mitts, hats, and mukluks that are used locally or sold for several hundred dollars each to visitors. Teeth, claws and even skulls are decorated and then sold to visitors.

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THE MANAGEMENT OF POLAR BEARS IN ONTARIO The Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources (OMNR), the agency responsible

for wildlife management in the province has conducted aerial census of polar bears

along the Ontario coasts of Hudson and James Bays since 1963 (Prevett and

Kolenosky 1982; Kolenosky and Prevett 1983; Kolenosky et al. 1992).

Table 2 – A Chronology of Polar Bear Management in Ontario

1960s OMNR conducts aerial surveys of polar bears in the Hudson and James Bay Lowlands 1970s Establishment of Polar Bear Provincial Park The International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears 1980s Proposed Wabusk Co-Management Agreement (never ratified) 2007 Establishment of the Ontario Endangered Species Act 2009 Polar bear listed as “threatened” under the Ontario Endangered Species Act I. Draft recovery strategy is required II. Species-specific habitat regulations that describe an area to be protected are developed one year after that. III. Outlining ongoing population monitoring as well as future recovery and research goals. 2010 CITES decision – polar bear parts are not excluded from international trade 2010-11 Draft recover strategy is to be reviewed by general public – public comments can be provided 2011 Polar bear management plan in Ontario must be completed and implemented

The background document for Polar Bear Provincial Park (PBPP) (OMNR 1977) estimated that in the 1970s, there were about 10 to 30 polar bears harvested annually by Cree hunters from Washaho, Weenusk and Attawapiskat from a total estimated population of 300 bears. It is also obvious that the SH polar bear population was larger than 300 because polar bears can only sustain a kill of 4.5% or 12 Washaho Cree Nation/Centre for Northern Studies/KORI

Giving Voice to Bear: Cree Observations and Documentation of Wabusk in Ontario: Research 2010 Report less of total numbers. The citizens of Washaho were however, discouraged from exploiting the species in various ways, such as through OMNR pronouncements that polar bears should be taken in defence only (Stirling and MacPherson 1972), or according to Elders, that the meat was contaminated and thus unfit for human consumption. Cree hunters were also limited to annual sale of up to 30 hides per year at the provincial fur trade auction (Stirling and MacPherson 1972), but this number was not based on any agreement with the Cree. According to depositions provided in the Royal Commission on the Northern Environment (1983), the “allowable take” for Fort Severn alone was twelve. These numbers, termed ‘permissible kill’ was based on harvest records reported to the Federal/Provincial Polar Bear Administrative Committee (PBAC). Cree communities in Ontario have been selling, on average, fewer than 10 polar bear hides annually (Aars et al. 2006). What all of this reveals is that in effect then, self-regulation by Ontario Cree has been a significant factor in SH polar bear conservation for many centuries. The current population of the Southern Hudson Bay polar bear population (shared between Ontario, Québec and Nunavut) is 684-1116 (95% CI) with the population trend given as stable (Aars et al. 2006). Although, inconsistencies in the reported populations have also been noted: Table 3 – Reporting Various Polar Bear Population Numbers in Ontario 1992 Either 763 (+ or – 323) or 530 (+ or 90) in Kolonosky, 1992 1986 from different methods 2006 684-1116 (95% CI) Aars et al. 2006 2007 1058 (+ or – 220) in 1986 and 1025 (+ or – Obbard personal 230) in 2005 communication and PBTC status reports cited in McLoughlin et al. 2008. 2007 641 (401-881) in 1986 and 771 (421-981) in Obbard et al. 2007 2005

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Despite these contradictory and biased estimates, COSSARO apparently decided that recent studies on the Southern Hudson Bay polar bear sub-population show that the health and distribution of these animals and their habitat (e.g., dens, staging areas) are being negatively affected by climate warming (i.e., declining sea ice and longer periods of open water), melting permafrost, and increasing precipitation such as springtime rains (Stirling and Parkinson 2006; Obbard et al. 2007). The status change in Ontario builds on the document “State of resource reporting for polar bears in Ontario” (OMNR, 2008). Based entirely on scientific data, the report indicates that the southern Hudson Bay polar bear population is currently stable, but that the potential impacts from climate change are an immediate concern (OMNR, 2009). In other words, although the species has increased, then stabilized at a level that is at minimum capable of sustaining the current harvest, Ontario has decided it is threatened with extinction because the average weight has declined since the last study in the mid-1980. The decision is predicated on the assumption that access to sea ice will decline progressively, and that will decrease feeding periods, reduce fat stores, and increase fasting periods. The necessity to use increasing amounts of stored fat, will also reduce the number of pregnant females that are able to successfully produce and rear young. A number of concerns have arisen from these conclusions including basing population estimates that comes from limited mark-recapture studies (1984-86 and 2003-05) and nutritional comparisons that include only two sample inervals. The capture work was restricted to certain sections of the Hudson Bay coastline of Ontario, and entirely excluded the James Bay and Hudson Bay coastline of Quebec, and the Belcher Island of Nunavut. Evidence for declines in survival in some age classes was not signifcant, and there has been no change in population size 1984-86 vs. 2003-05. This may therefore, be more illustrative of a population reaching its

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Giving Voice to Bear: Cree Observations and Documentation of Wabusk in Ontario: Research 2010 Report maximum number and the declines in condition may be density dependent population regulation at carrying capacity. Our preliminary analyses suggest that: 1. The population estimates from 1984-1986 are too low to have sustained the harvest from then until now … but both surveys and Cree knowledge agree that the population has increased. 2. The current population estimate is too low to sustain the current kill, especially if SH communities harvested at historical levels, yet management agencies in Ontario, Quebec, and Nunavut have made no attempt to reduce the quotas. Polar bears have been listed on a "precautionary" principle due to climate concerns over sea ice. While it is unclear as to how this decision will impact the Cree harvest of polar bears, this decision, lacking in consultation, according to several members from Washaho, disregards treaty and Aboriginal rights, overlooks the province’s duty to consult, and ignores Cree Kiskayndamowin/knowledge of Wabusk. We feel that COSSARO listing should reflect Cree Knowledge and the actual population demography of Ontario species, not anticipated climate change scenarios derived from computer models.

SOCIO-CULTURAL DIMENSIONS Over 24 individuals participated in the interviews and focus groups held in the community in the fall of 2009 and the winter of 2010, many of these individuals belong to families that have worked local trap lines for several generations, and pass on information about wildlife in the area as part of oral traditions. Questions focused on various aspects of socio-environmental relations and on people’s relationship to wildlife and resource use. The following section highlights some of the key findings from this on-going socio-cultural study including: polar bear movements and habitat use, feeding 15 Washaho Cree Nation/Centre for Northern Studies/KORI

Giving Voice to Bear: Cree Observations and Documentation of Wabusk in Ontario: Research 2010 Report behaviour, polar bear-black bear interactions, human-polar bear interactions, and cultural significance of wabusk to the Cree people.

Wabusk movement and habitat use Wabusk it was noted, typically move along the Hudson Bay shoreline through the Fort Severn area from east to west starting in late July or early August as part of their annual movement which maximizes their time on the sea ice. Summer retreat sites, populated by large males, can be found at East Pen Island and West Pen Island. Two interviewees estimated that approximately 30 males congregate at East Pen Island each year. A majority of harvesters noted that sub-adult males and females with cubs often travel inland, into the muskeg and remained there until the ice completely formed on the bay. One hunter reported seeing tracks of a female with two new cubs of the year that had emerged from a den located 65 km inland in the spring of 2008. While such reports are typical, participants noted increasing observations of polar bears further inland during the months of March and April. Wabusk use of the inland muskeg and the pipoonemaskunow (winter road) through Polar Bear Provincial Park were reported by half of the participants. Another participant reported that he had found tracks of a female and cubs of the year approximately 200 km inland in late March/early April.

Wabusk feeding behaviour Interviewees noted that “polar bears eat kinoosa (fish), penasew (birds), wawa (eggs), pisiskew (animals), uske (moss), usinne-wakoonuk (lichens), muskosea (grasses) and menisa (berries)” they also use “the tidal pools near river mouths in the bay to fish, and hunt akikoos (seals)”. Wabusk was reported stealing kinoosa (fish) from coastal tide nets in the Severn River. Some Elders also discussed how wabusk often predated on Akikoos (seals) in the Severn Rivers, and another reported a polar bear catching a seal on land. 16 Washaho Cree Nation/Centre for Northern Studies/KORI

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Participants also highlighted how, after coming off the ice (late July/early August), wabusk will visit niska (Canada goose, Branta canadensis) and waywayo (snow goose, Chen caerulescens) colonies located along the Hudson Bay coastline and consume wawa (eggs) and nishkishses (goslings). Reported sightings of wabusk and muskwa (black bear, Ursus americanus) in near proximity and sharing feeding areas such as goose colonies, and feeding on nishkishses (goslings) was mentioned by one Elder in the summer of 2008. Several participants reported seeing polar bears and black bears in near proximity to one another along the coastline. None mentioned any encounters between the two types of bears. Four participants spoke of polar bears preying on amisk (beavers, Castor canadensis), nékik (otters, Lontra canadensis), and sakwasew (mink, Mustela vison) feeding behaviours not mentioned in the published literature. Three different amisk hunting methods were reportedly employed by wabusk. The first was ripping open amisk-weste (beaver lodges) to attack the inhabitants. The second was breaking apart ooskwutim (beaver dam) and preying on amisk that come to make repairs. The third, perhaps representing an adaptation from seal hunting, was for wabusk to make a hole in the ice of a ooskuwutim (pond) and wait for the amisk to surface there. This method was observed in tukwakin (autumn), when the ice was forming on lakes. Interview participants indicated that this latter method was the one most preferred by wabusk. Concerns regarding perceived increases in polar bear-human encounters and the use of aggressive and lethal deterrents were expressed. The preferred method of dealing with polar bears was to allow them free access near the community, as long as the animals did not disturb or threatened the children or Elders.

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EDUCATIONAL PERSPECTIVES Keewaytinook Okimakanak is a tribal council that works with Fort Severn First Nation and partnered in the research project in order to ensure culturally appropriate research methods were applied. Washaho embraced the research team and its approach to allowing the community to direct the research and include the community in various discussions and activities. The research team has spent over four years visiting and building relationships with community members, this resulted in an overwhelming enthusiasm of community members to share their stories and learn more about the government policy changes and biological collection processes. SSHRC, Environment Canada and Health Canada provided support in-part for community engagement, training and research. Washaho began by raising awareness of polar bear health, population and migration and the biased information from OMNR was basing its policy changes upon. The community leadership directed the research team to collect and present the information that the OMNR was using in the community. Washaho began to collect its own data through maps, a sightings database and oral history in order to build their own data of the health, migration and population of the polar bear that they live with every day. Elders and guides worked with the research team to collect data in a respectful manner and in keeping with the OCAP (Ownership, Control, Access and Possession) Principals. Through community collaboration, the research team visited the school to share with students, participated in community-wide meetings, hosted a Women Elders’ gathering, conducted interviews and had the honour of visiting with Elders in their homes. An online database and map was used including large laminated maps. The community guide received training in database management, GIS and community facilitation. Video conferencing was used to ensure ongoing, open 18 Washaho Cree Nation/Centre for Northern Studies/KORI

Giving Voice to Bear: Cree Observations and Documentation of Wabusk in Ontario: Research 2010 Report communication under budget limitations and poster was produced and distributed throughout Northern Ontario. The research project is successful due to key components of the community- owned and directed approach including; relationship building, mutual respect and trust, youth involvement, leadership support and a holistic approach.

RECOMMENDATIONS The findings of this study are timely considering the recent re-classification of polar bears in Ontario from special concern to “threatened” under the Ontario Endangered Species Act (OMNR, 2009). The status upgrade in Ontario builds on the document “State of resource reporting for polar bears in Ontario” (OMNR, 2008). While based on scientific approaches to polar bear management, the report does however highlight the importance of Cree kiskayndamowin/knowledge, habitat protection, and monitoring of human-polar bear interactions to polar bear management in this region of the province. The government of Ontario recognizes the importance of Aboriginal traditional knowledge in planning and the management of polar bears. The government will work in partnership with Aboriginal communities to ensure that Aboriginal and western knowledge are considered together in the future management actions (OMNR, 2008:6).

Furthermore, the provincial government of Ontario is reporting an increasing sensitivity and respect for Aboriginal treaty rights in the revision to the Endangered Species Act and the Far North Initiative. This acceptance can be implemented in the development of a co-management strategy on polar bears and dispel some of the doubts and concerns regarding decision-making process in the province of Ontario.

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Without interdisciplinary approaches to wildlife management, Cree communities cannot develop or participate in management plans for polar bear or any other wildlife, nor can they develop economic strategies to make use of polar bears (through tourism, hunting and sale of furs, or sport hunting). Further, the OMNR has not worked in cooperation with Cree communities to conduct research or develop co- management plans, although both these activities are part of Treaty and Aboriginal rights. This collaborative study is one of the first to document Cree observations of polar bears in the transitional zone of the muskeg and tundra in Northern Canada. From this particular example, Cree Kiskayndamowin/knowledge provides additional information regarding wabusk movements in the muskeg, their interaction with muskwa (black bears), predation on amisk (beavers). Of particular interests is the observation that polar bears are increasingly raiding traplines, destroying property, and aggressive encounters (requiring the use of negative deterrents). If the projected scenarios of climate change are accurate, then the interactions between these two bear species and humans could increase, and these types of aggressive encounters may increase in the future if the open water season is extended (Durner et al. 2009). In order to address some of these scenarios, a number of recommendations are outlined: 1. Consultation with Cree Nations in Ontario is based on case law. Case law in

Canada confirms “the federal and provincial governments’ responsibility to

meaningfully consult First Nations” (Bann et al., 2008, p. 1), and accommodate

treaty and Aboriginal rights when making resource management decisions

(Bann et al., 2008). Since the listing of polar bears under the Endangered

Species Act in Ontario will affect Cree livelihood, the OMNR is urged to

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outline what these impacts will be, and engaged the Cree Nations of Northern

Ontario proactively as stipulated by case law.

2. The recognition of TEK in the co-management of wildlife has gained increased acceptance as an effective means by which First Nations can participate in the management of their natural resources elsewhere in Canada (moose and caribou management). This principle includes an awareness of the value of traditional ecological knowledge and an understanding of aboriginal self-governance. The proposed Wabusk Co-Management Agreement drafted in the early 1980s provides an ideal platform to build and expand upon these ideas which were originally envisioned twenty years ago by some provincial representatives and Cree leaders. The document should be re-examined, updated, and ratified. 3. Washaho is documenting polar bear-human interactions in our territory, and the subsequent recourse (if any) of passive and aggressive use of deterrents. We would also like to develop a comprehensive Wabusk management strategy, which would recognize the human-dimensions of polar bear-human interactions in this area, and develop a co-managed trust fund, created through the establishment of polar bear management plans by provincial and federal agencies. This trust fund would be used to provide restitution for property damage and, in worst case scenarios, injury or death resulting from polar bear encounters and attacks. Funds from this trust could also support community economic and infrastructure development, as well as social, cultural and educational initiatives.

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4. The creation of Polar Bear Provincial Park was partly justified because it would not compromise traditional livelihood, and it would provide economic opportunities. While the park does attract a small number of visitors, including specialized polar bear tourists, it still lacks a comprehensive tourism strategy. One suggestion to overcome the current limited economic opportunities in PBPP was that the management of PBPP could be leased to Washaho. Individuals from the communities could be trained to respond to polar bear incidents and become guides in the tourism industry, thus benefiting economically from the bears while gaining more training in dealing with them. Engaging local people in the management and tourism is particularly important because the provision of direct economic opportunities to and the active involvement of rural people in management can help to foster and sustain a high level of trust, cooperation, and understanding between natural resource managers and local residents. 5. Base the status of Ontario polar bears on their actual population numbers and dynamics derived from Cree Knowledge and applied approaches to sciences, not their anticipated population dynamics. The status of polar bears should be identified based on their actual population demography acquired through science and Cree Knowledge.

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Giving Voice to Bear: Cree Observations and Documentation of Wabusk in Ontario: Research 2010 Report

REFERENCES

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Giving Voice to Bear: Cree Observations and Documentation of Wabusk in Ontario: Research 2010 Report

Prevett, J. P. and Kolenosky, G. B. (1982). The status of polar bears in Ontario. Le Naturaliste Canadien 109: 933-939. Royal Commission on the Northern Environment. (1983). Hearings: Fort Severn, June 2, 1983. Stirling, I. and Macpherson, A. (1972). Polar bear management changes in Canada. Paper presented at the Third Working Meeting of Polar Bear Specialists, Morges, Switzerland. Stirling I., and Parkinson, C. L. (2006). Possible effects of climate warming on selected populations of polar bears (Ursus maritimus) in the Canadian arctic. Arctic 59: 261-275.

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