DOCUMRNT .118SUNN ED 031 626 AC 004 568 Training Methodology. Part 1: Background Theory and Research. An Annotated Bibliography. Public Health Service (DREW), Washington, D.C. Health Services and Administration. Pub Date May 69 Note -98p.; Public Health Service Publication No. 1862, Part I. Available from-Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 (0-334-245, $1.00). EDRS Price MF-50.50 HC Not Available frcm EDRS. Descriptors -*Annotated Bibliographies, BehaviorChange, *BehaviorTheories, Communication (Thought Transfer), *Educational Philosophy, Croup Dynamics, Human Engineer as, , , Programed Instruction The annotated bibliography, including 310 abstracts, pertains to research and theory onindividualbehavior, group behavior, and educational and training philosophy. This is the first of four publications on training methodology; its content was selected from over' 6,000 items mostly publishedfrom January 1960 to March 1968. Areas included are: human factors engineering, human behavior and behavioral change, perception, motivation, communication, the learner, learning theory and research, programed learning theory and research. and . process and structure. A subject index is included. (pt) U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION &WELFARE r OFFICE OF EDUCATION

C) THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCED EXACTLYAS RECEIVED FROM THE MI Soli 6 94 PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT.POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS Z) STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIALOFFICE OF EDUCATION-- r--I POSITION OR POLICY. Pr\ CD LIJ

0 0 0 0e 4130 0 0 0 (0 0 (9 0 (?) 0 0

PART I: BACKGROU D THEVY A D RESEARCH An Annotated Bibliography This annotated bibliography is the first of fourindicating current thoughton training methodology. Content for the fourpublications was selected fromover 6,000 items. Most were published from January 1960to March 1968. A few earlier itemsare also included because of their significance.Some useful material had to beomitted because of budgetary limitations related bothto search and final printing; the sheerscope of the field precluded complete coverage of the literature. Certain annotationswere borrowed from other publications (detailsare explained on the Credits page).

Inthe expectation that thesebibliographies will be ongoing, theproject administrators (listed in the Introduction)welcothe comments and suggestionswith respectto additions,deletions,classificationsystem,indexing, and technicalor typographical errors. ERRATA SHEET

Training Methodology Part I: Background Theory and Research

p. 5 Reference #24: second author: KURTZ, not KRUTZ

p. 6 Reference #28: editor's name: Biderman, not Bidderman

p. 8 Reference #34: issue no. 4 of vol. 25

p. 8 Reference after #34(not indexed): PAUL, BENJAMIN E. (ed.)

p.15Reference after #59(not indexed): 1st column, 3rd line from bottom:change studies to studied

p.19 Reference #82: Personnel management quarterly, not Management and personnelquarterly

p.20Reference #83: author: GENEVIEVE B. OXLEY, not GENEVIEVE G. OXLEY

p.26 Reference #111: in title: change message to massage

p.38 Reference #147: in periodical title: change English to engineering

p.39 Reference #153: 948 pp.

p.43 Reference #165: author: GROSE, ROBERT F., not GROSE, ROBERT R.

p.49 Reference #193: Review of educational research, notresources

p.49 Reference #194: 173 pp.

p.51 Reference #196: pp. 1-4, not pp. 1-3 p.51 Reference #199: 22 pp. p.55 Reference #216: pp. 370-373, not 367-370 p.56 Reference #220: periodical title:Journal of abnormal and social p.58Reference #231: pp. 2-14, not 2-13 p.62Reference #246: second author: SILLS, not STILLS p.64Reference #254: author: KELLEY, not KELLY p.73 Reference #292: 1247 pp., not 127 pp. TRAININGMETHODOLOGY

Part 1: BackgroundTheory and Research

An AnnotatedBibliography

U.S. DEPARTMENT OFHEALTH, EDUCATION. ANDWELFARE PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE HEALTH SERVICES ANDMENTAL HEALTH ADMINISTRATION NATIONAL COMMUNICABLE DISEASE CENTER ATLANTA, GEORGIA 30333 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MENTALHEALTH CHEVY CHASE, MARYLAND 20203 Public Health Service Publication No. 1862, Part I

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1969

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price $1 This bibliography pertainsto research and theoryon individual behavior, behavior, and educational group and training philosophy.It is the first ofa group of four on training methodology. Referencesin all four are arrangedin classified order, annotated, and indexed. Additionalinformation about concepts be located by references emphasized in this publicationmay to indexes of other publicationsin the group. (Insome references coverage ofa particular concept was secondary topic, but its inclusion or even peripheral to the major was noted in the indexing to emphasizerelationships.) Other titles in thegroup are:

Training MethodologyPartII: Planning and Administration

Training MethodologyPartIII: Instructional Methodsand Techniques

Training MethodologyPartIV: Audiovisual Theory,Aids, and Equip- ment

In a relatedgroup of classified, annotated, and indexed health inservice training, bibliographies on mental training conceptsare highlighted in annotations andindexing. The group consists of threepublications:

Annotated Bibliography on Inservice Training for Key Professionalsin Community Mental Health

Annotated Bibliography on Inservice Training for AlliedProfessionals in Community Mental Health

Annotated Bibliographyon Inservice Training in MentalHealth for Staff in ResidentialInstitutions These seven publications were developed as a joint effort of theNational Institute of Mental Health and the NationalCommunicable Disease Center of Mental Health Administration, the Health Services and Public Health Service,U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. The project was administered by theNational Institute of Mental Health's Community Mental Health Centers Staffing Branchof the Division of Mental Health Service Programs; the Continuing EducationBranch of its Division ofManpower and Training; and theTraining Methods DevelopmentSection of the National Communicable Disease Center'sTraining Program.

iii lf

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Due to the nature of this series of publications, theamount of coordination and cooperation required for its development, and therange of skills employed in getting it published, the following persons should be recognized:Miss Patricia Rogers, Technical Information Specialist (Education), Training MethodsDevelopment Section, Training Program, National Communicable Disease Centercompilerand project supervisor; Dr. Ross Grumet, Psychiatrist, Region IV Mental HealthServicetechnical reviewer; Mr. Alfred R. Kinney, Jr., Chief, Training Methods DevelopmentSection, Training Program, National Communicable Disease Centeradvisor; Mrs. AnneW. Morgan, Health Educator, Region IV Office of Comprehensive Health Planningtechnicalreviewer; Dr. Robert D. Quinn, Staff , Community Mental Health CentersStaffing Branch, Division of Mental Health Service Programs, NationalInstitute of Mental HealthNIMH coordinator; Dr. Dorothy Schroeder, Professor of Social Work, Universityof Michi- ganconsultant; Mrs. Betty S. Segal, Evaluation Specialist, Training Methods Develop- ment Section, Training Program, National Communicable. Disease Centertechnical reviewer; Miss Marguerite Termini, Associate Professor of Psychiatric Nursing, University of Delawareconsultant; Dr. Thomas G. Webster, Chief, Continuing EducationBranch, Division of Manpower and Training, National Institute of Mental Healthadvisor. Original annotations and abstracts were written by seven graduate students and technical assistants employed especially for the project. These individualswere: Miss Connie Benson, Miss Mary Lavinia Campbell, Miss Rosemary Franklin, Miss Sharon Grilz, Miss Gale Lawrence, Mr. Garrett McAinsh, and Mr. Stephen Von Allmen.

iv CREDITS

Permission to reprint abstracts and annotationsfrom the followingsources is gratefully acknowledged:

(ASTD): "Training Research Abstracts,"edited by Gerald H. Whitlock.IN Training and Development Journal,published by the AmericanSociety for Training and Development,January 1966 to date.Separately published by the Society beforeJanuary 1966. (ASW): Abstracts for Social Workers.Albany, N. Y.: National Associationof Social Workers. Quarterly.

(ERIC): ERIC Clearinghouseon Adult Education. Human RelationsTrainingand Research, No. 1: Current InformationSources. Syracuse, N. Y.: Syracuse University, January 1968. 17pp.

(HumRRO):Smith, Robert G., Jr. An AnnotatedBibliography on the Design of Instructional Systems (TechnicalReport 67-5). Alexandria, Va.:The George Washington University,Human Resources ResearchOffice, May 1967. 132 pp.

(USCSC 1): U. S. Civil Service CommissionLibrary. Personnel Literature.Washing- ton, D. C.: The Library. Monthly.

(USCSC 2): U. S. Civil Service CommissionLibrary. Planning, Administration,and Evaluation of Executive DevelopmentPrograms (Personnel Bibliography Series Number 4). Washington, D. C.:The Library, June 1961. 64pp.

(USCSC 3): U. S.CivilService Commission Library. Planning,Organizing and Evaluating Training Programs (PersonnelBibliography Series Number 18). Washington, D. C.: The Library,January 1966. 87pp.

(USCSC 4): U. S. Civil Service CommissionLibrary. training Methods and Tech- niques (Personnel Bibliography SeriesNumber 19). Washington, D. C.: The Library, January 1966. 53pp. CONTENTS

HUMAN FACTORS ENGINEERING 1

HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND BEHAVIORAL CHANGE (GENERAL) 4

PERCEPTION 11

MOTIVATION 13

COMMUNICATION 23

SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING 30

THE ADULT LEARNERSOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS 32

LEARNING THEORY AND RESEARCH (GENERAL) 35

LEARNING THEORY AND RESEARCH (SPECIFIC TYPES AND ASPECTS) 40

PROGRAMMED LEARNING THEORY AND RESEARCH 46

SYSTEMS THEORY AND APPLICATIONS 51

ROLE THEORY 55

GROUPSDYNAMICS, PROCESS, STRUCTURE 59

ORGANIZATIONS AND ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE 70

EDUCATIONAL AND TRAINING PHILOSOPHIES 77

INDEX (by reference numbers) 81 HUMAN FACTORS ENGINEERING

CHAPANIS, ALPHONSE. Man-machine engineering. in industrial design; they are valuable especiallyas a Belmont,Calif.:Wadsworth Publishing Com- checklist. Explanatory material is offeredon manual pany, 1965. 134 pp. controls, pedals, visual displays, auditory signals,sensory signals, anthropometric conformity, safety, illumination, A basic, non-technical introduction to human environment, and maintenance. A bibliography is in- engineering is presented. The book is intended for the cluded. (3) general reader and deals with the development of the field,as well as its current theories and practices. Chapters are: (1) Introduction; (2) Man in Man-Machine Environmental abstracts. Ann Arbor, Mich.: The Uni- Systems; (3) The Visual Presentation of Information; versity of Michigan, 1965. 768 pp. (4) Speech Communication Systems; (5) TheDesign of Controls; (6) Perspectives and Postscript. References and This volume, the first in the School Environment an index are included. Research Project; establishes the limits of knowledgeon how the environment affects human behavior in general and learning in particular. It includes some 600 reference DEESE, JAMES. Skilled performance and conditions of documents, classified as follows: (1) Environment and stress. IN Glaser, Robert (ed.). Training research the Human Senses; (2) Behavior and the Atmospheric and education. Pittsburgh: University of Pitts- Environment; (3) Behavior and the Luminous Environ- burgh Press, 1962. pp. 199-222. ment; (4) Behavior and the Sonic Environment; and (5) Behavior and the Social Environment. (4) Stress refers to a collection or class of events with common response-producing properties which elicit reports of discomfortor correlates of discomfort. It is necessary to know both the detailed Environmental analysis. Ann Arbor, Mich.: The Uni- effects of stressful stimuli upon behavior generally and versity of Michigan, 1965. 72 pp. the components of particular skills to be performed under stress todesign appropriate training. Factor Materialispresentedinthreesections: analysis of tasks is useful in understanding the variable (1) method of investigation, a suggested way of defining influence of stress upon skilled behavior. (2) various environmental relationships; (2) processing of information, a suggested way of treating the environ- mental researchdata; and (3) environmental design DREYFUSS, HENRY. The measure ofman: human implications, an appraisal of how man's own well-being factors in design. : Whitney Library of and further development is related to the control of Design, 1959. 16 pp. plus charts. environment for increasing productivity. (5) This miniature encyclopedia presents human factors data in graphic form for the industrial designer. Environmental evaluations. Ann Arbor, Mich.: The Four of the charts include "anthropometric data" , 1965. 186 pp. (human measurements) of the adult American male and female; five charts deal with applications. Data is given Drawing heavily on the volume Environmental for reach, sight lines, and placement ofcommon objects Abstracts, this volume summarizes and appraises the for maximum convenience. Another chart contains present state of knowledge with respect to various detailed measurements of the hand. A table of anthro- environmental relationships. The contents are: (1) The pometric data on children from birth to age 17 is also Interaction of Man and His Environment, by Daniel H. included on a chart. Two charts give detailed measure- Carson; (2) Architectural Space as a Component of ments of the head and feet. Three charts contain basic Environment, by Harold W. Hines; (3) The Thermally data on strength, body clearances, climbing, ingress and Related Environment and Its Effects on Man, by Joseph egress, control, and display. A chart on thresholds is on R. Akerman; (4) The Luminous Environment and Its the cover of the booklet. These diagrams are intendedas Effects on Man, by Robert A. Boyd; (5) The Sonic points of departure for the solution of specific problems Environment and Its Effects on Man, by Norman

1 Barnett; and (6) TheSocial Environment and the machine systems and Learning Situation, by RobertS. Fox. environments. Chapter titles de- (6) scribe the contents: Part One,The Human Aspects of Man-Machine Systems (1) Introduction; (2)Man- Machine Systems; (3) TheDevelopment and Use of Human Factors Informations;Part Two, The Human Organism FITTS, PAUL M. Engineering (4) Sensory and MotorProcesses; Part psychology and equip- Three, Human Processesin Man-Machine Systems ment design. IN Stevens, S. S. (ed.).Handbook (5) Human InformationProcesses; (6) InformationDis- of .New York: John plays; (7) Speech Communications; Wiley & Sons, 1951.pp. 1287-1340. (8) Human Motor Activities;(9) Man-Machine Relationships;(10) Con- trols and Related Devices; PartFour, Space Arrange- Psychological datacan help solve display prob- ment (11) Work Space andPersonal Equipment; lems (how best topresent information to the senses), (12) Arrangement of Elementsand Components; Part and problems concerningthe design of controlsystems Five, Environment (how best to utilize (13) Illumination; (14)Noise and human motor output). Theeffec- Vibration; (15) Atmospheric tiveness of displays depends Conditions; (16) Man in upon recognition of princi- Motion; Part Six, Personnel and ples concerning visual, System Integration audio, and tactual . (17) Human Factors in System Psychological datacan also be applied to the Development; (18) Sim- arrange- ulation; and (19) Summary. Nameand subject indexes ment of controls for maximumconvenience in sequen- are included. tial operations. Asa general hypothesis, the probability (9) of an error increasesdirectly with the number of separate stimulus-response operationsrequired. (7) MEISTER, DAVID and GERALDF. RABIDEAU. Hu- man factors evaluation in system development. New York: John Wiley &Sons, 1965. 307pp. FLEISHMAN, EDWIN A. Studies in personnel and Though designed primarilyfor the practicing industrial psychology. Homewood,Ill.: The Dor- human engineer, the book is sey Press, 1961. 633 pp. also intended for readers interested in examining theprocesses by which com- plex man-machine systems Useful as a reference in are developed and evaluated, industrial psychology, in how human factorsevaluation is performed during this book can also be usedas a primary textbook. Each system development, and in thelimitations and poten- of the nine key sections hasan introduction; the sections tialities inherent in the combine review and discussion system development situation. articles within particular Chapter titles describe thecontents: (1) Introduction to areas with articles emphasizing key empiricalstudies. An Human Factors Evaluation; (2) attempt has been made to give The System and System expanded treatment to Development; (3) Analysis andEvaluation; (4) Human the social-motivationalaspects without minimizing de- Engineering Evaluation of SystemProducts; (5) System velopment in the traditionalaspects of the field (such as Performance Evaluation Parameters;(6) Planning the selection, training,or work methods). Sectionsare: (1) Personnel Performance Evaluation; (7) DataCollection Methods; Selection,(2) PerformanceAppraisal, (8) Data Analysis Methods; (3) Training Employees and (9) Human Factors Evalua- Managers, (4) Motivation, tion of Production Processes;and (10) Problems and Attitudes, and Morale, (5) and Supervision, Applications. An index is included. (10) (6) Communication andOrganizational Behavior, (7) Fa- tigue, Monotony, and WorkingConditions, (8) Accidents and Safety, and (9) EngineeringPsychology. (8) MILLER, ROBERT B. Psychologicalconsiderations in the design of trainingequipment (WADC techni- cal report 54-563). Wright-PattersonAFB, Ohio: Air Research and Development McCORMICK, ERNEST J. Human Command, Devel- factors engineering opment Center, December 1954. 133pp. + (2nd edition of Human Engineering).New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964. 653pp. This is a general treatment ofdesign considera- tions for training equipment.Topics covered include This textis intended asa survey of human (1) some principal factors engineering. Materials concepts in learning and transfer of are drawn from a variety learning, (2) problems of physical of disciplines that have simulation, (3) stage relevance to the human factors of learning and degreeof physical simulation, (4) area, including physical anthropology, physiology,and knowledge of results andscoring._ (5) recordingproce- climatology, though the bulk of thematerial comes from dures, (6) proficiency the field of psychology. Much measurement, (7) the design of of the content deals with the instructor's station, (8) the results and implications of the trainer as a demonstrator research investigations of of principles. and (9)outline of steps in designing some of the practical problems of designof man- a training device. (11) 2 NATIONAL EDUCATIONASSOCIATION. DEPART- Laboratory and its contractors from April 1946 through MENT OF AUDIOVISUALINSTRUCTION. The Decembet. 1965." (ASTD) (13) design of instructional equipment:two views (Occasional paperno. 8). By Humboldt W. Leverenz and Malcolm G. Towns ley. Washington, TUFTS COLLEGE. INSTITUTE OF APPLIED EXPERI- D. C.: National EducationAssociation, 1962. 51 MENTAL PSYCHOLOGY. Handbook of human pp. engineering data. 2nd edition. Port Washington, N. Y.: Office of Naval Research, Special Devices Three problems of designinginstructional equip- Center, n.d. (no cumulative pagination). ment arerecognized: human factors, economic (and organizational) factors, and attitudinalfactors. The two The handbook attempts to reportsome of the essays included herein are papers designedto answer two results of human engineering ina concise and useful questions: How has instructional equipment been design- form. It is intended primarily for design engineersand is ed in the past, and howcan it be designed in the future? meant to serve as a comprehensive orientation to the The papers are complementary:Leverenz deals primarily field of human engineering. The book with the design is divided into process itself, and Townsley addresses nine parts: Part I has an introduction and discussesthe himself more to the problemsassociated with economics methods used to collect and evaluate the and organization data presented; as they affect the design process. A Part II lists physical dimensions ofmen and women; bibliography and some general references are included at Parts III, IV and V are concerned withvision, hearing, the end of each paper. (12) and touch and proprioception, the threesenses most often dealt with in design problems; PartVI discusses some aspects of the responses made by the individualto the stimulation of thesesenses; Part VII deals with the STEVENSON, SANDRA A. and LAVON E.TRYGG. A various physiological conditions that affect thefunction- bibliography of reports issued by the Behavioral ing of the human machine; Part 'VIII brieflyreviews Sciences Laboratory: engineering psychology, and aptitude testing; and Part IXcontains an training psychology, environmentalstress, simu- overview of learning, including sectionson basic con- lation techniques, and physical anthropology. cepts, basic processes of learning, characteristics of the Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio: BehavioralSciences individual that influence learning, and training.The basic Laboratory, June 1966. 140pp. ideas and problems of the subjects and thepertinent experimental findings are described. A bibliography,a "The Behavioral Sciences Laboratory, one of two glossary of terms, and author and subject indexesare laboratories of the Aerospace Medical Research Labora- included. (14) tories, conducts.research and development in thefields of humanengineering,training,, physical anthropology, and simulation techniques.The WAGNER, ROBERT. Design in education.The news Human Engineering Division executes researchand letter (Ohio State University, Bureau of Educa- development on human performance capabilitiesand tional Research) 27:1, October 1961. 4pp. limitations as they relate to operation andmaintenance of aircraft, missile, and manned space vehicle systems. The concept of educational designinvolving The Training Research Division accomplishesresearch human engineering isseen as the link for humanistically and technical development in theareas of training relating technology and the educationalprocess. Design techniques, psychological and engineeringaspects of defined as thoughtful, artful, organicuse and creative training equipment, personnel requirements ofnew control of necessary systems, isseen to be a necessary weapon systems, and the effects of environmental stress counterbalance to systems development which, byits on human performance. This bibliography lists, by nature, tends to dehumanize the educationalprocess. functional groupings, the technical reports,technical Technology, it is argued, must be balanced witha sense notes, contractor reports, memorandum reports, and of design, with encouragement of individualcreative journal articles prepared by the Beh4vioralSciences effort, and with spirit. (15)

3 HUMAN BEHAVIOR ANDBEHAVIORAL CHANGE (GENERAL) BENNETT, THOMAS R., II. The leader looks at BERELSON, BERNARD and GARY A.STEINER. planning for change (LookingInto Leadership Human behavior: shorter edition. New York: series). Washington, D. C.: LeadershipResources, Harcourt, Brace & World, 1964. 225pp. Inc., 1961. 15 pp. The behavioral scientist uses the scientific meth- Five questions often asked regardingthe change od to develop descriptions and explanationsupon which process are cited in the introduction to this booklet. The predictions of human behaviorcan be based. Some general importance and increasing rapidityof required generalizations from recent behavioral studiesare de- changein human behaviorisdiscussed, and some scribed. The social, anthropological, and social psycho- guidelines for the leaderare offered. Types of change, logical aspects of man's behavior in social groupings of what leaders need to give carefulattention to, reasons various sizes is followed by the psychological aspects of for resistance to change, some ineffective leader re- individual behavior. Chapter titlesare:Culture and sponses to resistance, some values of resistance, specific Society; Social Institutions; Groups and Organizations; leader functions in makingcreative use of opposition, Social Class; Ethnic Relations; Opinion and Communica- some ways of analyzing forces ina change situation, and tion; !Behavioral Development and Learning; Perceiving; three specific methods for changeare discussed. Ques- Motivation; Personality; and Intelligence. A bibliog- tions which the leader might askin self-appraisal are raphical index is included. (18) offered. A briefly annotated8-item bibliography is included. (16)

BROWN, DANIEL G. A selected bibliographyon behav- ior modificationbooks, articles, andfilms. At- BENNIS, WARREN G. The planning ofchange: readings lanta, Ga.: U.S. Public Health Service, in the applied behavioral sciences. Region IV, New York: MentalHealth Service, October 1967. 24pp. Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1962.781 pp. The bibliography is dividedinto three sections: This book consolidates some current ideas about (I) Books: a relatively comprehensivebibliography of aspects of the change process and ties themtogether books that with critical and theoretical are concerned primarily with behavior comments. It deals with the modification,conditioningapproachesin systematic and appropriate application of psycho- knowledge to therapy, behavior therapy, reinforcementtherapy, and human affairs to evoke intelligentaction and change. related subjects (several basic references Part One, The Roots of Planned that discuss Change, includes fundamentals and principles of the learningprocess with chapters on (1) The Basis of Planned Changein the a framework of Respondent [Pavlovian] and Operant Conditions of Contemporary Change; (2) The Social Conditioning are included); (II) Articles:a sample of Sciences and the I, _arming of Change; (3) Goaland Value what areconsidered some of the Dilemmas in the Planning of Change; and more significant (4) The contributions to the literature that shouldbe of general Concept of Planned Change. Part Two, Conceptual Tools interest and value throughout the mentalhealth profes- for the Change Agent: SocialSystems and Change sion, including articles concerned with Models, includes chapters behavior modifi- on: (5) Social Systems in cation, operant conditioning in ,behavior Stability, Change and Conflict; (6) TheSmall Group in therapy, reinforcement therapy, and Stabilityand Change; (7) Characteristics related topics; (III) of Other Films: a list of films concerned withdemonstrations of Client-Systems; and (8) Some Strategic LeveragePoints. principles and techniques in behavior Part Thre,t, Dynamics of the Influence modification, Process, includes operant conditioning, behavior therapy,reinforcement chapters on: (9) Three Pivotal Functionsin Planned therapy, and related subjects, Change:Training, some involving demonstra- Consulting,andResearch; and tions of basic operant conditioningphenomena in (10) The Small Group in Processes ofPlanned Change. animals, others in humans, and There are extensive references and still others in both an index. (17) animals and humans. (19) 4 FERNALD, L. DODGE and PETER S. FERNALD. behavior. This dichotomy incommunication alienates Overview of general psychology:a basic program. literate man from the developinganalysis and tech- Boston: Houghton MifflinCompany, 1966. 354 nology of behavioral control. pp. (22)

This programmedtext attempts to clarify and GRINKER, ROY R. (ed.). Toward emphasize only the a unified theory of major basic principles of general human behavior. New York: Basic Books,1956. psychology. It is meantto be a comprehensive overview. 375 pp. The major problems andachievements in psychologyare examined together with practicaland meaningful exam- Twenty-four essays originally presented ples. Chapter titles indicate at four contents: (1) The Science of annual conferences on human behaviorare included. Psychology; (2) The HumanOrganism; (3) Individual Authors representa variety of disciplinesbiology, Differences: Measurement; (4)How Individual Differ- psychology, psychiatry, and the socialsciences. Contents encesOriginate;(5) Intelligence;(6) Motivation; are: (1) The Intra-personal Organization, by Roy R. (7) Feeling and ; (8) Conflict and Adjustment; Grinker; (2) A Model for RelationshipsAmong Systems, (9) Personality; (10) The Learning Process; (11) Founda- by John P. Spiegel; (3) The PsychologicalSystem, by tions of Learning; (12) Rememberingand Forgetting; David Shakow; (4) The Observer and the (13) Thinking; Observed: (14) CommunicationandLanguage; Human Communication Theory, by JurgenRuesch; (15) Knowing Our World; (16) Attending and Perceiving; (5) The Social System: A General Theory ofAction, by (17) Social Behavior; and (18) Working Efficiently. A Talcott Parsons; (6) The Societal System,Culture and diagnostic summary, appendices containing a sample the Community, by Laura Thompson; (7) ValueOrienta- chapter outline, evaluation studies,a cross-reference tions, by Florence Kluckhohn; (8) A System of Socio- chart, and an index-glossary are included. (20) Psychiatric Invariants, by Jules Henry; (9) GeneralDis- cussionTerminatingtheFirstConference; (10) Comparisons Between Systems of Organizations, GILES, H. HARRY. Seven by strangers at the feast. Roy R. Grinker; (11) Multiple Origins of theUniqueness Educational technology 5:11, June15, 1965. pp. of Human Society, by James E. P. Toman; (12)Homeo- 1-6. stasis and Comparison of Systems, by Alfred E. Emer- son; (13) Comparison of Psychological and Group Foci, Seven ideas which could havea determining by John P. Spiegel; (14) Comparison ofPsychological educational effectare suggested: (1) Human potential is andGroup Foci (continued), by David Shakow; limitless; (2) Emotional growth isbasic to social and (15) The Relation Between the Small Groupand the intellectual growth; (3) Culturalpatterns may aid or Larger Social System, by Talcott Parsons; (16) block development; (4) Shared Social experience is the basis SystemsandCulture,byLawrenceK.Frank; for communication; (5) Man is a -seeking crea- (17) Homeostasis Reconsidered, by AnatolRapoport; ture; (6) The creative act emerges from field andfocus; (18) Stability vs. Adaptation: SomeSpeculations on the and (7) Problem-solving is the roadto learning. (21) Evolution of Dynamic Reciprocating Mechanisms,by James E. P. Toman; (19) Homeostasis ina Special Life Situation, by Jules Henry; (20) Autonomy andBound- GOLDIAMOND, ISRAEL. Justified andunjustified aries According to Communications Theories, byKarl alarm over behavioral control. IN Milton,Ohmer Deutsch; (21) Concluding Discussion of theThird Con- (ed.). Behavior disorders: perspective and trends. ference and an Outline for FutureConference Delibera- New York: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1965. pp. tions; (22) Statistical Boundaries, by AnatolRapoport; 237-262. (23) Boundary Relations BetweenSociocultural and Personality Systems, by Talcott Parsons;(24) Analysis The alarm caused by studies andexperiments of Various Boundaries, by Jurgen Ruesch. (23) with behavioral controlcomes from a misunderstanding of the science of behavior itself.Close attention to studies of certain aspects of behavioralcontrol disclose HANDY, ROLLO and PAUL KRUTZ. that much of this alarm is A current ap- not reievant to the issue of praisal of the behavioral sciences. GreatBar- scientific control of behavior. Studiesthat have been rington, Mass.:Behavioral Research Council misunderstood include those relatedto subliminal per- 1964. 154 pp. ception, operant conditioning, behavioralanalysis, cy- bernetics, freedom and behavioral analysis, self-control, Each of 16 fields surveyed is discusseduniformly and behavior technology and conformity.By applying using the following nine principaltopics: (1) Working the scientific method to behavior, man can himself Specification of the Field; (2) OtherSpecifications of become a behavioral force that might be appliedto his the Field; (3) Schools, Methods,Techniques; (4) Results own behavior and self-control. Justified alarm isocca- Achieved; (5) Contemporary Controversy; sioned by the growth of two languages (6) Problems about man's of Terminology; (7) Commentand Evaluation; (8) Se-

5 lected Bibliography; and (9) GermaneJournals. The KRAMER, BERNARD. Social contextas a determinant fields are divided into two sections: TheOlder Fields of behavior. IN Abrams, Arnold, Harry Garner Anthropology, Sociology, History, Economics,Political and James Toman (eds.). Unfinished tasks in the Science, Jurisprudence, Psychology, Education;and behavioral sciences. Baltimore: The Williams & The Newer FieldsCommunication Theory (Informa- Wilkins Company, 1964. pp. 181-194. tion Theory, Cybernetics, Linguistics, Sign-Behavior), Preferential Behavior (Game Theory, Decision-Making The most pressing need in the behavioral sciences Theory, Value Inquiry), and General Systems.An is to master the implications flowing from the context of index is included. (24) behavior. Some of the pressing social and moral prob- lems of mankind will find their solution not in the study of individual behavior, but rather in the study of the dynamic implications of broad social system character- HUBER, GEORGE P. The application of behavioral istics. We ought to consider the possibility of resuming sciencetheorytoprofessional development. the nineteenth century tradition of social experimenta- Academy of management journal 10:3, Septem- tion in order to see how in consciously planned, ber 1967. pp. 275-286. large-scale communities, particular environmentalar- rangements affect human behavior in broad terms of The author explores and categorizes basic behav- values, attitudes, belief systems, and moral fiber. The ioral science findings useful tomanagers in devising scope of behavioral science should be widened to include professional development systems, and under eachcate- fields relevant to the context of human events, suchas gory lists a set of propositions with applicable strategies history, economics, and political science. (27) and tactics. (USCSC 1, edited) (25)

KNUTSON, ANDIE L. The individual, society, and health behavior. New York: Russell Sage Foun- dation, 1965. 533 pp.

This book deals with man as a member of society KUBZANSKY, PHILIP E. The effects of reduceden- and with his concern for public health. Theory, research, vironmental stimulation on human behavior:a and practice are united for the public health practi- review. IN Bidderman, A. D. and H. Zimmerman tioner. Tht. book's parts and chapter titles are: Part I, (eds.). The manipulation of behavior. New York: General Characteristics of Man (Manas Part of Environ- John Wiley & Sons, 1961. pp. 51-96. ment; The Unity of Man; Man as a Social Animal, The Uniqueness of Man; Patterns of Individual Variation; Variously called "sensory deprivation," "sensory The Behavioral Cycle); Part II, Man in His Social isolation," or "perceptual isolation," the effectsupon Environment (Society and Culture; Placing Man in His human behavior of a reduction in either absoluteor Social Habitat; Position, Status, and Role; The Meaning. related amounts of sensory or perceptual stimulationare of Food); Part III, Perceiving the World (Man's Knowl- the subject of experimental investigations reported in this edge Comes from Experience; The Function and Process study. Resultant changes in behavior have been modifica- of Perception; Man's Private World); Part IV, Social tions in thinking, perception, and feeling states,as well as Motivation (The Search for the Sources of Man's Energy; an increase in imagery, often bizarre in content. The Motivation Research: an Elusive Challenge; Motivatio purpose of the study is threefold: (1) to examine briefly in Health Action; Patterns of Striving); Part V, Values, the sources of interest in this problem, (2) to review the Attitudes, and Beliefs (Values and Value Patterns; extant experimental literature in order toassess the Attitudes and Beliefs, by Ronald C. Dillehay); Part VI, current status of knowledge about this problem, and The Process of Socialization (Acquiring Social Behaviors; (3) to review briefly its implications forour general Perceptual Development and Deprivation); Part VII, understanding of behavior. The material is discussed Human Learning and Health Action (Learning Theories according to the following outline: background, method- and Health Action; Learning Components of Public ological considerations, empirical findings, perceptual and Health Programs; Verbal Conditioning); Part VIII, The motor abilities, cognitive and learning abilities, suggestibil- Communication Process (The Crisis in Medical Commu- ity, personality findings, feeling states, imagery, physio- nication; The Communicator for Public Health Agencies; logical findings, length of stay in experimental isolation Frames of Reference in Public Health; The Role of Mass and time perception, stimulus hunger, influence of Media in Public Health, by William Griffiths and Andie experimental setting, clinical and anecdotal reports, and Knutson; Interpersonal Communication Within Organi- interpretations and implications. A list of 81 references zations). There is a name and subject index. (26) is included. (28)

6 LAMBERT, WILLIAM W. and WALLACE E. LAMBERT. MEAD, GEORGE H. Mind, self, and society from the . Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pren- standpoint of a social behaviorist (edited, with an tice-Hall, 1964. 110 pp. introduction by Charles W. Morris).. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1934. 401 pp. An introductory text in social psychology de- signed for college level courses is presented. Chapter The book represents the larger outlines of George titles and topic headings describe the contents: (1) So- H. Mead's system of social* psychology. Though he da Psychology, Its Major Concerns and Approaches; published many papers in the field of social psychology, (2) Socialization (Resocialization, The Social Context of Mead never systematized his position and results in Personality Formation, Some Strands of the Socializa- longer form. The present volume aims to do this task of tion Process); (3) Perceiving and Judging Social Events systematization, partly by the arrangement of the (On Failure of Perception, The Problems of Perception, material and partly through references at the appropriate The Perception of the Line of Regard, The Perception of places to the published writings. Four supplementary Facial Expression, Forming Impressions of Others, Con- essays by Mead are included in the volume, along with a ditions for Judging Social Events, Perception and Con- bibliography and index. (31) ceptualization, The Perception of Social Roles); (4) The Social Significance of Attitudes (The Nature of Atti- tudes, The Measurement of Attitudes, The Function of Attitudes, The Development of Attitudes, The Modifica- MILLER, GEORGE A., EUGENE GALANTER and tion of Attitudes); (5) Social Interaction (Social Inter- KARL H. PRIBRAM. Plans and the structure of action and the Principle of Need Satisfaction, Inter- behavior. New York: Henry Holt & Company, action and Theory of Social Systems); (6) The Individual 1960. 226 pp. in Group Settings (The Psychological Effect of Participa- tion in Groups, Psychological Effects of Variations in The fundamental concern of the debate on which Group Organization, The Psychology of Intergroup this book is based was to discover whether cybernetic Conflict, The Psychological Effects of Multiple-Group ideas have any relevance for psychology. Since the Allegiances); (7) Culture and Social Psychology (A Large notion of a plan that guides behavior is quite similar to Question, Personality and Economic Development, Per- the notion of a program that guides an electronic sonality and Expressive Cultural Models, Other Sources computer, the cybernetic literature on analysis between of Personality and Culture). A list of selected readings brains and computers, minds and programs, was re- and an index are included. (29) viewed in the course of the debate. The authors state, "There must be some way to phrase the new ideas so that they contribute to and profit from the science of behavior that have created. It was the search for that favorable intersection that directed the MANN, JOHN. Changing human behavior. New York: course of our year long debate." Chapter titles are: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1965. 235 pp. (1) Images and Plans; (2) The Unit of Analysis; (3) The Simulation of Psychological Processes; (4) Values, Inten- This volume concentrates on an approach, tions,and theExecution of Plans;(5) Instincts; adopted by scientists interested in behavior changes, (6) Motor Skills and Habits; (7) The Integration of Plans; that utilizes experimental methods to study specific (8) Relinquishing the Plan; (9) Nondynamic Aspects of aspects, or components, of behavior-change processes Personality; (10) Plans for Remembering; (11) Plans for under controlled conditions. It therefore limits itself to Speaking; (12) Plans for Searching and Solving; (13) The topics about which clear, scientific evidence is avail- Formation of Plans; (14) Some Neuropsychological able. Chapter titles are: The Evaluation of Behavior- Speculations. There are name and subject indexes.(32) Change Processes; Models of Behavior-Change Systems; The Revolution; Hypnotic Sug- gestion; Learning and Conditioning; Components of Psychotherapy; The Small Group as a Behavior-Change MURPHY, GARDNER. Toward a science of indi- Medium; Change Produced by Interpersonal viduality. IN Abrams, Arnold, Harry Garner and Influence; The Mass Media as Vehicles for Attitude James Toman (eds.). Unfinished tasks in the Change; Improving ; Creativity; behavioral sciences. Baltimore: The Williams & The Extension of Human Development; Eastern Re- Wilkins Company, 1964. pp. 202-213. ligions and Philosophies; and Western Religions and Philosophies. The two appendixes are entitled "Techni- The, relationship between genetics and environ- cal and Social Difficulties in the Conduct of Evaluative ment suggests several hypotheses: There is an interaction Research" and "The Outcome of Evaluative Research." between an identifiable heredity component and a References, a glossary, suggestions for further reading, recognizable environmental determinant in perceiving, and an index are included. (30) remembering, imagining, or thinking; a science of indi-

7 viduality must be simultaneously behavioraland percep- the Community (a comprehensive healthprogram in tual, and it must be transactional, recognizingcommerce South Africa; mental health education ina Canadian between the inside and the outsidecomponents; ecologi- community; water boiling in a Peruvian town); Part cal variables, biological variables, and therelationships II, Reaction to Crises (medicine and faith in Rajasthan;a between them need to be measured. Thescience of cholera epidemic in a Chinese town; diphtheria immuni- individuality is ultimately the science ofbiography; and zation in a Thai community); Part III, Sex Patterns and its development will call formore use of programming Population Problems (birth control in Puerto Rico; and teaching machines and sensitive, personalclinical abortion on a Pacific Island); Part IV, Effects of Social devices for studying individuals. (33) Segmentation (Western medicine in an Indian village;an Alabama town health needs survey; a mental health project in Boston); Part V, Vehicles of Health Admin- NIEHOFF, ARTHUR H. and J. CHARNELANDER- istration (the clinical team in a Chilean health center;a SON. Peasant fatalism and socioeconomic inno- community improvement project in Brazil; a medical vation. Human organization, vol. 25, Winter care program in Colorado); Part VI, Combining Service 1966. pp. 273-283. and Research (medicine and politics in a Mexican village; a nutritional research program in Guatemala). A final Fatalism as discussed is a type of negativism section, Review of Concepts and Contents, discusses which isconsidered by many social scientists and concepts of society and culture, race and culture, culture technical assistance workers to bea barrier to change in and perception, the patterning of culture, and inno- peasant societies. Fifty-seven case histories of the intro- vation. References and an index are included. [Located duction of new ideasor techniques into social units of too late for indexing.] developing nations in which traditional beliefsystems were in conflict with the innovations were analyzed to reveal more exactly the nature of fatalistic attitudesand PIAGET, JEAN. The origins of intelligence in children, beliefs (those which imply that conditionscannot be translated by Margaret Cook. New York: Inter- changed through practical, mundane effort). Threetypes national Universities Press, 1952. 419 pp. of fatalism are isolated: supernatural,situational (real understanding of limited possibilities for improvement), This work is the first of three studies dedicated and project negativism (apathy resulting fromprevious to the beginnings of intelligence, that is, to the various project failures). It is concluded that fatalistic forcesare manifestations of sensorimotor intelligence and to the significant but do not constitutea critical influence most elementary forms of expression. Part and chapter nearlyas often as do other characteristics of the titles indicate contents: Introduction: The Biological traditional society or of change agent behavior. Negativ- Problem of Intelligence; PartI, Elementary Sensori- ism alone is not considered a tenable explanation for motor Adaptations(1) The First Stage: The Use of rejection of an innovation. Project negativismseems to Reflexes, (2) The Second Stage: The First Acquired be increasing. This kind of fatalismcan be prevented by Adaptations and the Primary Circular Reaction; Part change agents, for "past and present changeagents are II, The Intentional Sensorimotor Adaptations(3) The themselves generating this negative force throughbadly Third Stage: The "Secondary Circular Reactions" and planned and executed projects." Socioculturalawareness the Procedures Destined to Make Interesting Sights Last; in sociotechnical change projects is neededso that the (4) The Fourth Stage: The Coordination of the. Secon- projects will not only be technically sound, butinte- dary Schemata and Their Application to New Situations; grated with the lives of people concerned. (34) (5) The Fifth Stage: The "Tertiary Circular Reaction" and the "Discovery of New Means Through Active Experimentation"; (6) The Sixth Stage: The Invention PAUL, BENJAMIN E. Health, culture andcommunity; of New Means Through Mental Combinations; Conclu- case studies of public reactions to health pro- sions: "Sensorimotor" or "Practical" Intelligence and grams. New York:Russell Sage Foundation, the Theories of Intelligence.[Located too late for 1955. 493 pp. indexing.]

The major purpose of the collectionisto demonstrate the importance to the health worker of RUSSELL, CLAIRE and W. M. S. RUSSELL. Human clearly understanding the people whom heserves, and to behavior: a new approach. Boston: Little, Brown illustrate the contribution which the behavioralor social & Company, 1961. 532 pp. scientist with his special concepts, tools, and method- ology can make to this understanding. "The threads of. The new approach explicitly stated in the preface health and illness arewoven into the sociocultural fabric involves: (a) classification of behavioras "instinctive " and assume full significance only when perceivedas part or automatic (as in lower animals), or as "intelligent" (as of the total design. Each study in this bookis a case in in fully-human, self-conscious, civilized beings); (b) the point." Parts and case subjectsare: Part I, Reeducating suggestion that Freud accepted too readily the symbols

8 of infantile rationalizationas being of universal validity psychological mechanisms, growth and development, that these really derive from theneurotic fantasies of motivation, learning and adjustment, sensory processes, parents who, in exploiting their children,ensure the and human performance. The last unit has several perpetuation of these fantasies in them; and (c)the chapters relevant to training. Each essay hasa list of ref- claim that recognition of (a)and (b) could lead to a erences. (37) continually evolving and progressivestate of mind in the individual, witha corresponding state of society. The chapters are: (1) Introduction;(2) Intelligence, Instinct, and Rationalization; (3) SocialRelations and the Uses of STRAUSS, ANSELM L. Mirrors and masksthe search Speech; (4) Behavioral Inheritance;(5) Threefold and for identity. Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1959. Fourfold Relationships; (6)Pseudosex; (7) Phases of 186 pp. Personality; (8) Sophoclesand the King of Thebes; (9) Shakespeareandthe Princeof Denmark; and The book is an extended essay divided into six (10) Cultural Evolution. Appendiceson '17 related sub- chapters: (1) Language and Identity; (2) Self-Appraisals jects are included,as well as references, a source index, and the Course of Action; (3) Interaction; (4) Trans- and a subject index. (35) formations of Identity; (5) Change and Community; (6) Memberships and History. The author attempts "to bring together an emphasisupon symbolic behavior SKINNER, B. F. Science and humanbehavior. New and another emphasis upon social organizationand by York: Macmillan, 1953. 461pp. doing so to suggest a fruitful, systematic perspective from which the traditional problems of socialpsy- The basic questions of the scientific analysis of chology might be viewed." References andan index human behavior are explored against traditionalconcep- are included. (38) tions of human nature and traditionalways of observing, classifying, and judging human behavior. Some ofthe underlying, basic questions that the authorexamines are: In what way can the behavior of the individualor of THOMAS, EDWIN J.and ESTHER GOODMAN groups of individuals be predicted or controlled?, What (eds.).Socio-behavioraltheoryandinter- are laws of behavior like?, What overall conception of personal helping in social work; lectures and the human organism as a behaving system emerges? institute proceedings. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Campus Section and chapter titles describe the contents: Section Publishers, 1965. 65 pp. I, The Possibility of a Science of Human Behavior (1) Can Science Help?, (2) A Science of Behavior, Lectures, summaries of classification sessions and (3) Why Organisms Behave; Section II, The Analysisof discussions, and the list of readings for an institute B e h av ior (4) ReflexesandConditionedReflexes, designed to introduce some of the key notions of (5) Operant Behavior, (6) Shaping and Maintaining Oper- socio-behavioral theory to selected field instructors of ant Behavior, (7) Operant Discrimination, (8) The Con- the University of Michigan School of Social Workare trolling Environment, (9) Deprivation and Satiation, presented. Readers are urged to coordinate the reading (10) Emotion,(11) Aversion,Avoidance,Anxiety, of references listedor analogous writingswith the (12) Punishment,(13) FunctionversusAspect, lecture content presented. Subjects of lectures which (14) The Analysis of Cases; Section III, The were presented by Edwin J. Thomas with the assistance Individual as a Whole(15) "Self-Control," (16) Think- of Esther Goodman. are: objectives of the institute; ing, (17) Private Events in a Natural Science, (18) The relevance of the socio-behavioral approach; the socio- Self; Section IV, The Behavior of People in Groups behavioral approach; reinforcement; maintaining behav- (19) Social Behavior, (20) Personal Control, (21) Group ior; extinction; punishment; discrimination; imitation; Control;SectionV,ControllingAgencies implications for social work practice; and some limita- (22) Government and Law, (23) Religion, (24) Psycho- tions of socio-behavioral theory. Objectives of the therapy, (25) Economic Control, (26) Education; Sec- institute were: to prepare the field instructors to delve tion VI, The Control of Human Behavior(27) Culture into the growing literature on the subject; to help them and Control, (28) Designing a Culture, (29) The Prob- relatethe ideas to more familiar conceptions and lems of Control. An index is included. (36) practices; to supplement and sharpen currentconcep- tions and helping activities; to familiarize them with another technical language; to help them understand STEVENS, S. S. (ed.). Handbook of experimental psy- what others were talking about in thisarea; and to help chology. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1951. them begin the thinking, experimentation, and appraisal 1436 pp. of the innovations that must necessarilyaccompany the introduction of important scientific knowledge ina This indexed collection of 36 essays by special- profession such as social work. Six required readings and istsin experimental psychology includes units on nine optional readings are listed. (39)

9 ULRICH, ROGER, THOMAS STOCHNIK and JOHN YOUNG, MARJORIE A. C. and JEANNETTE J.SIM- MABRY. Control of human behavior. Glenview, MONS. Review of research and studies relatedto Ill.:Scott, Foresman & Company, 1966. 349 health education practice (1961 -1966)psycho- pp. logical and cultural factors related to health educationpractice.Health education mono- Thisisa compilation of papers by various graphs, no. 24, 1967. 64 pp. specialists arranged under the followingparts and sub- parts: (I) The Scientific Analysis of Behavior (assump- The study is the second in a series of monographs tionsunderlying behavioral control; principles and on review of research and studies related to health methods in the experimental analysis of behavior; education practice (1961-1966). The chapter titles indi- early examples of the analysis of human behavior); cate the contents: Introduction and General Orienta- (II) Applications of Behavior Control (behaviormodi- tion; Dynamics of Behavior (Motivation and Percep- fication in educational settings; principles andcontrol tion); Role Theory and Analysis; Small Group Re- of socialbehavior; modification of disordered be- search andStudies; Studies of Organizations and havior;modificationof severebehaviordisorders; Organizational Change; Community Studies; Studies psychological and chemical modification of behavior Related to Social Change; Summary. Referencesare in industry and advertising; theuse of animals to included at the end of each chapter. (41) perform typically human tasks); (III) Fallaciesin the Interpretation and Control of Behavior (fallaciesin interpretation; fallacies in control); and (IV) Implica- ZANDER, ALVIN. Resistance to changeits analysis tions of Behavior Control (concernover the control and prevention. Advanced management 15:1, of human behavior; the future of behaviorcontrol). January 1950. pp. 9-11. There are 11 pages of references. (40) Obvious improvements have sometimes caused intense resistance. Research shows that any changemay be resented unless intelligent planning is done in advance to help the "changees" understand their own feelings. The nature of resistance, the conditions thatappear to be associated with its development, andsome means whereby resistance may be preventedor decreased are discussed. (42)

10 PERCEPTION

BROADBENT, D. E. Perception and communication. EPSTEIN, WILLIAM. Varieties of perceptual learning. New York: Pergamon Press, 1958. 338pp. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967. 323 pp.

Chaptertitlesindicatecontents:(1) Intro- Perceptual learning refers to the broad range of duction: Healing and Behavior; (2) Selective Listening modifications of perception that have been attributed to Speech; (3) Verbal and Bodily Response; (4) The to learning. Intended for an audience of varying levels Assessment of Communications Channels for Ease of of sophistication in the field of perceptual learning, the Listening;(5) TheEffectof Noise onBehavior; book has three primary goals: (1) a critical review of (6) The General Nature of Vigilance; (7) Some Data the diverse literature pertaining to the question of on Individual Differences; (8) The Nature of Extinc- perceptuallearning; (2) a delineation of important tion; (9) Immediate Memory and the Shifting of At- unresolved questions related to perceptual learning; tention;(10) TheSelectiveNatureofLearning; (3) a determination of the possibilities for deriving (11) Recent Views of Skill; (12) Retrospect and Pros- empirically based descriptive generalizations aboutper- pect. Thereisa16-page bibliography. Name and ceptual learning. The contents are: (1) Varieties of subject indexes are provided. (43) Perceptual Learning; (2) The Assumptive Context: I, The Perception of Size and Distance; (3) The Assump- tive Context: II, The Perception of Shape, Slant, and Motion; (4) The Assumptive Context: III, The Percep- tion of Color; (5) Controlled Practice of Training: I, The Role of Practice and Prior Exposure; (6) Control- DEMBER, WILLIAM N. The psychology of perception. led Practice or Training: II, The Acquired Distinctive- New York: Henry Holt & Company, 1960. 402 ness of Cues; (7) Controlled Practice of Training: III, pp. The Effect of Reward and Punishment; (8) Perceptual Conflict; (9) Adaptation to Transformed Stimulation; Thisisa basic text on the psychology of (10) Developmental Studies of Perception; (11) General perception designed for use in a one-semester laboratory Conclusions and Proposals. A glossary and a name and course (undergraduate level). Chapter titles and topic subject index are included. (45) headings describe the contents: (1) Introduction (The Study of Perception, The Basic Perceptual Processes); (2) Threshold Measurement Techniques (Two Basic As- FORGUS, RONALD H. Perception: the basic process in pects of Threshold Measurement, Detection; Discrimina- cognitive development. New York: McGraw-Hill, tion,Recognition and Identification); (3) Similarity 1966. 402 pp. Measurement and Stimulus Scaling (What Is an At- tribute?, Stimulus Scaling); (4) Visual The basic thesis of the book, set forth in the (Detection, Discrimination); (5) The Organization of beginning chapter, is that perception is the superset of Visual Perception (Figure Formation and Stability, information extraction, with learning and thinking as Two-DimensionalSpatialOrganization,Three- subsets. In connection with this theory, it is argued, on Dimensional Spatial Organization); (6) The Influence of logical and experimental grounds, that an exclusively Context (Intramodal Manipulations, Intermodal Manipu- nativistic or empirical theory of perception is untenable. lations); (7) Effects of Learning on Perception (Learning Rather, as argued in Chapter 2, perception is organized in Perceptual Development, Discrimination Training, in an ordinal hierarchy, beginning with built-in programs Learning in Complex Human Perception); (8) Set and and developing by increasing degrees to modified pro- Perception (Recognition, Attributive Judgments and grams. Chapters 3 and 4 deal with some basic psycho- Figure-Ground); (9) Motivation Effects on Perception physical functions and problems of methodology, and (Motivation and Stimulus Thresholds, Motivation and theprinciples organized around each level of the Suprathreshold Phenomena); (10) Stimulus Complexity, hierarchy are analyzed from brightness through form to Motivation, and Emotion (Curiosity and Exploratory social perception and conceptualization. Since the con- Behavior, Stimulus Complexity, Learning, and Emo- cept of information extraction was used to analyze and tion). References, an author index, and a subject index conceptualize the process of perception, this analysis is are included. (44) extended to the area of thinking in the last four

11 chapters, although technical language is heldto a that part of the process of living by which each of us, minimum. A bibliography and indexare included.(46) from his own particular point of view, creates for himself the world within which he has his life's experiences and through which he strives to gain his GIBSON, JAMES J. Thesenses considered as perceptual satisfactions....Without taking any metaphysical posi- systems. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, tion regarding the existence of a real world, independent 1966. 335 pp. of experience, we can nevertheless assert that the world-as experienced has no meaning and cannot be The chief aim of the book is to explain how the defined independent of the experience. The worldas we senses, as active interrelated systems, provide continu- experience it is the product of perception, notthe cause ous, stable information that alone makes adaptive living of it." The nature of perception, how it is studied, its possible. Successive chapters embrace the contribution development, and perception in operation are reviewed. made by each of the main receptor systems thatare Suggestions for further reading are included. (48) basic to the adjustment of the organism to its world. The author introduces the concept of "ecological optics," and in terms of this point of view the book examines TAYLOR, JAMES G. The behavioral basis of percep- some fundamental questions in psychology: What is tion. New Haven, Conn.: Press, innate and what is ad'quired in perception?, What is the 1962. 379 pp. role of learning in establishing adult perception?, How is perceiving related to expectancy?, What is the effect of The thesis of the book is that all conscious language on perceiving?, What are perceptual illusions? A experience is a function of learned behavior, although bibliography and index are included. (47) the detailed expositionis confined to a relatively restricted sector of experience, the visual perception of the material environment. Chapter titles are: (1) Intro- ITTELSON, WILLIAM H. and HADLEY CANTRIL. duction; (2) The Beginning of Adaptation to the En- Perception: a transactional approach. Garden vironment; (3) The Beginnings of Space Perception; City, New York: Doubleday & Company, 1954. (4) Further Development of Space Perception; (5) Grav- 33 pp. ity; (6) Expanding the Visual Field; (7) Parallax; (8) Ex- perimental Evidence (Mathematical Appendix, by Sey- The transactional approach,a scientific philoso- mour Paper); (9) Three Experiments; (10) The Percep- phy, is applied to human perception. Illustrating the tion of Color; (11) The Modalities; (12) Other Theories; perspective offered is the summary of the major charac- (13) Philosophical Implications. References andan index teristics of perception in the statement: "Perceiving is are included. (49)

12 MOTIVATION

ATKINSON, JOHN W. An introductionto motivation. matory Behavior (The Sensory Incentive System, The Princeton, N. J.: D. Van NostrandCompany, Curiosity Incentive System, The Achievement Incentive 1964. 335 pp. System, The Affiliative Incentive System, The Aggressive Incentive System, The Power Incentive System, The Designed for both beginning andadvanced stu- Independence Incentive System). References andan dents of the subject, the bookis intended as a basic index are included. (52) introduction to and identification of theconcepts of the psychology of motivation. Chapter titlesdescribe the contents: (1) Introduction: The Viewpoint of Common BRETHOWER, DALE M. and GEARY A. RUMMLER. Sense; (2) Introspective Analysis of ConsciousVolition; For improved work performance: accentuate the (3) Indirect Analysis of UnconsciousMotives; (4) Con- positive.Personnel 43:5, September-October, ceptual Analysis of Motivation and Conflict;(5) Experi- 1966. pp. 40-49. mental Analysis of Purposive Behavior; (6)The Founda- tion of S-R Behavior Theory; (7) The Evaluationof S-R Examples are cited of common situations which Behavior Theory; (8) Systematic Study of HumanMoti- require a manager to attempt to change employees' vation; (9) A Theory of Achievement Motivation; (10)A behavior to a specified goal, and the value of applying Speculative Review and Prospectus. Referencesand behavioral technology as a management technique in name and subject indexes are included. (50) these situations is discussed. How behavioral technology may be used to identify, train, and maintain relevant job behavior is discussed under the topic headings: Carrots ATKINSON, JOHN and NORMAN T.FEATHER (eds.). and Sticks, Analyzing Problems, Job Behavior, Designing A theory of achievement motivation. New York. Learning Systems, The Nature of Reinforcers, Schedules John Wiley & Sons, 1966. 392pp. of Reinforcement, Time Between Act and Consequence, Motivation and Behavior, Theory and Practice, and The "This book is a report of research growingout of Whole Job. (53) a project on personality dynamics sponsored by the Ford Foundation at the University of Michigan from 1956 to 1962. It is also a progress report ofa program BRUNING, JAMES L. and DAVID R. METTEE. The studying achievement motivation whichwas initiated in effects of various social factorson motivation in experiments on projective expression of needs by Mc- a competitive situation. Journal of social psy- Clelland and coworkers (McClelland and Atkinson, chology, vol. 70, second half, December 1966. 1948)." Thisisa collection of papers with overall pp. 295-297. emphasis on "contemporaneous determinants of achieve- ment-oriented activities." (USCSCedited) (51) This is a report of two experiments. One investi- gated the effects of opponent proximityon per- formance; the other, performanceas it was affected by BIRCH, DAVID and JOSEPH VEROFF. Motivation:a the proportion of wins and losses experienced by the study of action. Belmont, Calif.: Brooks Cole subjects. (USCSC 1, edited) (54) Publishing Company, 1966.98 pp.

Theories of motivation based ona behavioral BUCHANAN, PAUL C. The leader looks at individual approach arepresented. Motivational principlesare motivation (Looking Into Leadership series). formulated on the basis of experimental observations of Washington, D. C.: Leadership Resources, Inc., animal and human actions in a variety of contexts. 1961.11 pp. Chapter titles are: (1) A Theoretical Context for the Study of Motivation (The Principles of Action, Deter- Six questions which leaders often ask about minants of Tendencies); (2) The Experimental Approach motivation are cited as evidence of the importince of to Motivation (Activities Studies in the Laboratory, understanding this factor in human behavior. rive forces Incentive, Motive, Consummatory Value, Drive); (3) Ex- in human behavior are examined: (1) behavior depends planations of Recurrent Instrumental and Consum- on both the person and his environment; (2) each

13 individual behaves in ways which makesense to him; (3) that behavior. Some contributors make this point in an individual's perception of a situation influences his comprehensive reviews of the entire area; some, in behavior in that situation; (4) an individual's view of detailed analysis of that single issue, or in reviews of himself influences what he does; (5) an individual's studies highlighting that issue; and some, in careful behavior is influenced by his needs, which vary from consideration of the behavioral implications of motiva- person to person and from time to time. Hierarchy of tional assumptions. Nine studies are included, along with needs from physiological to self-actualizing is discussed. author and subject indexes. (57) The importance of past learning and its integrative effect on behavior are stressed. Guidelines and specific ques- tions for self-appraisal are offered. Six references are FESTINGER, LEON. A theory of . suggested for further reading. (55) Stanford, Calif.: Press, 1957. 291 pp.

COFER, C. N. and M. H. APPLEY. Motivation: theory The two basic hypotheses underlying the theory and research. New York: John Wiley & Sons, of motivation developed in the book are:(1) The 1967. 958 pp. existence of dissonance (inconsistencyi.e., inconsistent behavior), being psychologically uncomfortable, will The major purpose of this volume is to examine motivate the person to try to reduce the dissonance and some of the main forms that motivational concepts achieve consonance (consistencyi.e., consistent behav- have assumed in the major theoretical systems current ior); and (2) when dissonance is present, in addition to in contemporary psychology. To increase the compre- trying to reduce it, the person will actively avoid hensiveness of the authors' own views, critical reviews situations and information which would likely increase are presented not only of the major theoretical systems the dissonance. The theory isset forth in chapters: of motivation, but also of fundamental research in the (1) An Introduction tothe Theory of Dissonance; field that is not part of any one systematic outlook. (2) The Consequences of Decisions: Theory; (3) The The authors are concerned throughout the book pri- Consequences of Decisions: Data; (4) The Effects of marily with concepts and evidence pertinent to motiva- Forced Compliance: Data; (5) The Effects of Forced tional construction themselves, rather than motivation Compliance: Theory; (6) Voluntary and Involuntary concepts secondary to principles of learning, percep- Exposure to Information: Theory; (7) Voluntary and tion, or personality organization. Chapter titles further Involuntary Exposure to Information: Data; (8) The describe the contents: (1) The Concept of Motivation; Role of Social Support: Theory; (9) The Role of Social (2) Motivation in Historical Perspective; (3) The Con- Support: Data on Influence Process; (10) The Role of cept Instinct: Ethological Position; (4) Bodily Condi- Social Support: Data on Mass Phenomena; (11) Recapit- tions:I; (5) Bodily Conditions:II; (6) Activity and ulation and Further Suggestions. References and an Exploration; (7) HomeOstatic Concepts and Motivation; index are included. (58) (8) Hedonic andActivationTheoriesof Emotion; (9) Frustration, Conflict, and Stress; (10) Motivation in Learning Theory: Drive and Incentive; (11) Learning, FRANKL, VIKTOR E. Man's search for meaning; an Performance, Reinforcement, and Acquired Motivation introduction to . New York: Wash- Theory;( 1 2) PsychoanalyticMotivationTheory; ington Square Press, 1963. 220 pp. (13) Self-ActualizationandRelatedConcepts; (14) Some Aspects of Human Motivation; (15) Social The basic tenet of logotherapy is that man's Motivation; (16) Toward a Unified Theory of Motiva- deepest motivation is to find meaning and a sense of tion. A bibliography and author and subject indexes responsibility in his existence. In the author's words, are included. (56) "Logotherapy...makes the concept of man into a whole...and focuses its attention upon mankind's groping for a higher meaning in life." This school of FELDMAN, SHEL (ed.). Cognitive consistency: motiva- therapy has been called the Third Viennese School of tional antecedents and behavioral consequences. Psychotherapy (the predecessors being the Freudian and New York: Academic Press, 1966. 312 pp. Adlerian Schools). It stresses frustration in the will-to- meaning. This theory developed as the author survived The contributors to this volume represent a the experience of life in a concentration camp. The number of different viewpoints on the consistency major part of the book is an autobiographical descrip- theories and their relationshipto other aspects of tion of these experiences in which the author attempts, psychology. Despite their differences, however, they to answer the question: "How was everyday life in a seem to agree that the motivational issue is the most concentration camp reflected in the mind of the average pressing problem for each of the theories: each theory prisoner?" The author gradually introduces his philoso- must clarify its stand on the nature of the consistency- phy of logotherapy within the narrative. This book is a seeking motivation and the motivational determinants of revised and enlarged version of From Death Camp to

14 Existentialism. Part Twocontains a discussion of basic FRYER, FORREST W. An evaluation of level of concepts of logotherapy,among which is emphasis on aspiration as a training procedure (The Ford man's freedom of decision(as opposed to absolute Foundation doctoral dissertation series). Engle- conditioning of choice).As Dr. Frankl states: "Ap- wood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1964. 92 pp. parently pan-determinism isan infectious disease with which educators havebeen innoculated; and this iseven An experiment concerned with the following true of many adherants of religion whoare seemingly specific questions is reported: "(1) Does the procedure not aware that theyare thereby undermining the very of level of aspiration, consisting of knowledge of results basis of theirown convictions. For either man's freedom plusgoal - setting,possessamotivationalprop- of decision for or against God, as well as for or against erty...above that of knowledge of results alone ?; (2) Is man, must be recognized, or else religion is a. delusion, this procedure...differentially effective with training and educationan illusion." There is an English bibliog- of varying difficulty levels?; (3) Do the instructional raphy of books, book chapters,articles, and miscel- variationsof soliciting'expectations' compared to laneous sources on logotherapy andexistential analysis. `hopes'differentiallyinfluencesubsequentperfor- The preface is by Gordon W. Allport,who describes the mance?; (4) Does the method of expressing the level of book as having literary and philosophicalmerit and aspiration, private or public, influence subsequent per- providing "a compelling introductionto the most formance?" (USCSC 3, edited) (60) significant psychological movement ofour day." (59)

GALBRAITH, JAY and L. L. CUMMINGS. An empirical investigation of the motivational determinants of task performance: interactive effects between instrumentalityvalence and motivationability. FREUD, ANNA. The bearing of the psychoanalytic and human performance theory of instinctual driveson certain aspects of 2:3, August 1967. pp. 237-257. human behavior. IN Loewenstein, RudolphM. (ed.). Drives, affects, behavior. New York:Inter- This is a study of the relationship between ability national Universities Press, 1953.pp. 259-277. and motivation as related to performance. Consideration is given to the impact of the supervisor on performance This paper amplifies the main points ofa lecture within the scope of this study. (USCSC 1, edited) (61) delivered to the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization in 1948. It containssugges- tions on how to apply psychoanalytic principles toa GEHMAN, W. S. Application of motivational theory to theoretical discussion of techniques for changing mental the teaching process. The educational forum attitudes affecting international understanding andcon- 28:3, March 1964. pp. 347-354. sequently how to use psychoanalytic knowledge practi- cally to further the aims of a World Organization This article looks into the possibility of using interested in spreading insight into the basic nature ofa motivational theory in the instruction process. The child'sinstinctualdrives and their bearing on the motivational theory is a dynamic approach to under- socialization and character formation of human individ- standing human behavior which involves a number of uals. Part I is a discussion of the theories of conflict and basic assumptions which in conjunction with human tension in terms of early emotional dependenceon needs can create a more effective instruction. The parents, sex development, early aggressive development, assumptions about human behavior are: (1) All behavior of feeling as a source of tension, displace- is caused; (2) All behavior is purposive; (3) All behavior ment of hate onto strangers, projection of aggressionas a results from multiple causation; (4) Unconscious pro- source of tension, and persistence of established atti- cesses can and often do operate in determining behavior; tudes. Part II, Difficulties of Verification and Practical (5) Behavior is a continuing process; and (6) Behavior Application, discusses acceptance by the general public. involves the total organism. Examples are given which Part III is entitled, Wartime Demonstrations and Experi- show how the above assumptions and human needscan ments. Part IV, Conclusions and Recommendations, combine to give more effective training. (ASTD) (62) contains a summary of 18 specific conclusions from the data. It is suggested that in order to achieve noticeable alterations in the attitudes of a new generation of GELLERMAN, SAUL W. Motivation and productivity. children, current educational methods will have to be New York: American Management Association, revised. A program of research with children in various 1963. 304 pp. parts of the world is suggested and 5 specific problems which might be studies as a way to demonstrate the The three main purposes of the book are: (1) to effects of childhood experience on adult behaviorare draw together the most significant achievements in the outlined. [Located too late for indexing.] study of work motivation; (2) to presenta theory that

15 puts most of this research intoa single, understandable GORHAM, WILLIAM A. and JAMES P. JADLOS. The perspective; and (3) to show the practicalimplication to be trained. Washington, D.C.: of all this research and theory formanagement policy. U.S. Civil Service Commission, 1963. 11pp. The selected materialsrepresent either older studies (10 years old or more) that have lastingsignificance or A study made to determine conditions that recent material that makesan important contribution caused satisfaction or dissatisfaction witha training to the understanding of work motivation. The bookis program is reported. Herzberg's "Movitation to Work" divided into three parts. The first dealswith motiva- was used as a model for the project. 1USCSC 3, ed- tion from the standpoint of the environment, thatis, ited) (65) the various kinds of rewards andpressures within which people operate at work. Thesecond part con- siders motivation from the standpoint of theindividual HABER, RALPH N. (ed). Current research in motiva- himself, his needs andpurpose and how he acquires tion. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, them. In the third partan attempt is made to show 1967. 800 pp. how the environment and the individualinteract, and how most of the studies considered inparts one and A compilation of 76 research papers (using two can be integrated by a set of linked ideas that both humans and animals as subjects) and theoretical accommodates most of what is presently (1963) under- essays on motivationispresented. The papers are stood about work motivation. In the final chaptera arranged innine chapters:(1) Instinctive Behavior; number of major managerial problemsare analyzed in (2) Primary and SecondaryDrives; (3) Punishment_ the light of the theory. Titles ofparts and chapters Frustration,andStress;(4) Arousal of Activation; are: Part I, The Motivating Environment (1) Mayo (5) Exploratory Behavior; (6) Rewards and Incentives; and the Harvard Studies; (2) The MichiganStudies; (7) Conflict;(8) AnxietyandGuilt;(9) Fantasy, (3) ThePittsburghStudies;(4) FurtherHarvard Dreams, and Unconscious Processes. References andan Studies; (5) The Impact of Money, by WilliamF. index are included. (66) Whyte; (6) The Impact of Organization, byChris Argyris; (7) The Import of Management Philosophy, by Douglas McGregor; (8) Implications; Part II, The Moti- HAYWOOD, WILLIAM T. Two critical C's in academe. vatedIndividual Introduction;(9) The Classical Journal of the College and University Personnel Theories; (10) The Competence Motive, by Robert W. Association 18:1, November 1966. pp. 41-45. White; (11) The Affiliation Motive, by Stanley Schac- ter; (12) The Achievement Motive, by David C. McClel- The author maintains that the morale and effec- land; (13) Biographical Studies: The Achievement, Pres- tiveness of nonacademic personnel reston four corner- tige, and Security Motives; (14) The Money Motive; stones: "proper classification... ,full and adequate job PartIII, Motivation in Perspective Introduction; descriptions, competitive and just compensation for (15) Dynamics of Motive; (16) The Concept of Self; services rendered, and due recognition important to the (17) The Environment; (18) Psychological Advantage; ego. .."(USCSC 1, edited) (67) (19) Determinants of Advantage; (20) Leadership; (21) Recruitment; (22) Morale; (23) Change; (24) Labor Un- ions; and (25) The Meaning of Motivation. An index is HECKHAUSEN, HEINZ. The anatomy of achievement included. (63) motivation (Translated from the German by Kay F.Butler, Robert C. Birney, and David C. McClelland). New York: Academic Press, 1967. 215 pp.

The author presents a comprehensive account of the empirical investigations that have been conductedon Gellerman motivation and productivity series (films). achievement motivation in many parts of the world. He Rockville, Md.: BNA Films Division of Bureau of also presents an integrated account of the theoretical National Affairs, Inc. implications of the data both fora theory of achieve- ment motivation inparticular and for theories of This is a series of five films: "Understanding motivation in general. Chaptersare: (1) Introduction; Motivation"; "Human Nature and Organizational Reali- (2) ; (3) Evaluation Dispositions(Value ties"; "The Self-Motivated Achiever"; "The Management Attitudes); (4) Important Dimensions of Experience; of Human Assets"; and "Motivation ThroughJob (5) Conflict; (6) The General Structureof Goals and Enrichment." In these films the informal-interviewer Performance;(7) Foreperiod:ValenceandMotive formatis used; thus, complicated theories become Arousal; (8) Goal Settings and Level ofAspiration; understandable, believable, and applicable to the reality (9) The Performance Period; (10) ThePostperformance of modern organizations (industry-oriented). (64) Period; (11) Accomplishments; (12) Originand Develop-

16 ment of Achievement Motivation; (13) Concluding final chapter, Perspective, the theory is discussed in Remarks. References and author andsubject indexes relation to the topics indicated by the fallowing head- are included. (68) ings: The Meaning of Work in a Primitive Society, Transition to the Machine Age, Work in the Con- temporary World, The Consequences of Bureaucracy, HERZBERG, FREDERICK. Work and thenature of The Search for Motivation, The Managerial and Profes- man. New York: World Publishing Company, sional World, The Consequences for the Individual and 1966. 203 pp. for Society, Suggestions, The Structure of Jobs, Should Jobs Be Made More Interesting?, The Problem of This is the third book of a trilogy concerning job Selection, Supervision, What Then Becomes of the attitudes and industrial mental health, the firsttwo Conceptof Participation?, A PrograminMental being Job Attitudes: Review of Research and The Health, The Final Goal. Appendices contain a job Motivation to Work (1959). The threerepresent the attitude interview pattern and a categorized list of job three stages of scientific inquiry: knowledge of what has attitude factors. There are 61 references and a name gone before, new research, and finally a theory. This and subject index. (70) third study is a specific product ofmore than four years of participation ina multitude of management programs all over the nation and inmany parts of Europe in which HOMME, L. E. and D. T. TOSTI. Contingency manage- the author attempted to explain and apply results of his ment and motivation. National Society for Pro- research. In this volume followup studiesare reported, grammed Instruction journal 4:7, September and some obscure points in the motivation-hygiene 1965. pp. 14-16. theory are clarified. Chapters are entitled: (1) Business Dominant Institution of Modern Times; (2) Adam and The primary aspect of the practical application Abraham; (3) Industry's Concepts of Man; (4) The Basic of the laws of behavior is motivation, and to control Needs of Man; (5) Psychological Growth; (6) The Moti- reinforcing events is to control motivation. The nature vation-Hygiene Theory; (7) Verification of the Theory of reinforcement is discussed, and the reinforcing stimu- of Motivation-Hygiene; (8) Further Verification of the lus and the reinforcing response are examined and Motivation-Hygiene Theory; and (9) What Do We Do? integrated into a single concept, the "reinforcing event." The appendix contains descriptions of criteria for each The control of the reinforcing event is termed contin- of 16 categories in the coding scheme of objective gency management. In using this technique of motiva- elements in job situations leading to goodor bad tional control, "one simply takes notice of which feelings. References are cited for each chapter. (69) behaviors are reinforcing responses, then permits this behavior to occur only after behavior one wishes to reinforce." Specific illustrations of the method are HERZBERG, FREDERICK, BERNARD MAUSNER offered and discussed, and the practical difficulties and BARBARA BLOCH SNYDERMAN. The involved are noted. (71) motivation to work. 2nd edition. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1959. 157 pp. HOUSE, ROBERT J. and LAWRENCE A. WIGDOR. A theory of job motivation, job satisfaction, and Herzberg's dual-factor theory of job satisfaction job attitude derived from results of more than 200 and motivation: a review of the evidence and a studies of reports by management personnel of their criticism. Personnel psychology 20:4, Winter feelings about their jobs is presented. The following 1967. pp. 369-389. basic problems are discussed: assessing an individual's feelings about his job, occurrences on jobs that change "The purpose of this paper is to review the people's feelings about them, and the effects of these theory, the criticisms, and the empiric investigations changes. The motivation-hygiene theory suggests that reported to date, in an effort to assess the validity of the job factors leading to recognition, achievement, and a theory." (USCSC 1, edited) (72) sense of personal growth in responsibility are the true motivators and that environmental factors usually used to motivate (i.e., facilities, interpersonal factors, certain HUGHES, CHARLES L. Goal setting, key to individual fringe benefits) are hygiene factorsnecessary to avoid and organizational effectiveness. New York: dissatisfaction but not related to real job motivation. It American Management Association, 1965. 159 is suggested that current practices are not meeting the pp. needs of employees. Methods are discussed for avoiding harmful employee behavior and increasing employee "Today there are many good theories of motiva- performance, effectiveness, and personal satisfaction. tion, many potentially useful concepts about increasing The major sections of the book contain background and employee commitment to company objectives and goals. procedure of the study, results, and implications. In the This book is an attempt to synthesize these many

17 eclectic ideas and translate them into terms meaningful considers the most important concepts andtheories of to the business manager. To doso we must look not motivation. There are 20 chapters, divided only at the theories themselves, into three but at company prac- sections: (1) Meta-; (2)Analysis tices and management attitudes. Thisprocess will bring of Theories (20 theories to light numerous conflicts between are covered); (3) Comparison of theory and ap- Theories. A bibliography andan index are included. (76) plication and inevitably pointup obsolete thinking and inadequate management behavior."Part and chapter titlesare:Part One, Motivation andManagement MASLOW, A. H. Motivation and (1) ConflictInevitable personality. New York: or Not?; (2) Needs, Purpose, Harper & Brothers, 1954. 411pp. and Organization; (3) CorporatePlanning and Indi- vidual Achievement; (4) Theories ofMotivation and The concept that "basic human needs Management; (5) Goal-Oriented People; [physiolog- (6) Increasing ical, safety, belongingness and love,esteem, and self- Goal-Oriented Action; Part Two, TheGoal Achieve- actualization needs] are organized intoa hierarchy of ment Process(7) Conditions for Motivation; (8) Moti- relative prepotency" is the focus of thisbook. Applica- vation Opportunities; (9) Motivation Media; Part Three, tionstotheories of science,personality, psycho- Goal-Setting Systems; (10) A Systems Approach to pathology, psychotherapy, and generalpsychology are Motivation; (11) A General Modelfor Goal-Setting suggested. Chapter titlesfurther indicate Systems;(12) Organizational contents: Goal-SettingSystems; (1) Elements of a PsychologicalApproach to Science; (13) Individual Goal-SettingSystems; (14) Individual (2) Problem Centering and Organizational Goal Interaction; vs. Means Centering in Science; (15) Abilities and (3) Holistic-Dynamic Theoryin the Study of Personal- Performance; (16) A Total System forMotivation; Part ity; (4) Preface to Motivation Theory; Four, Final Thoughts(17) The (5) A Theory of Role of Maintenance Human Motivation; (6) The Role ofBasic Need Gratifi- Needs; (18) Personal and PrivateGoals. References are cited in footnotes. cation in Psychological Theory; (7) TheInstinctoid (73) Nature of Basic Needs; (8) Higher andLower Needs; (9) Psychopathogensisandthe Theory of Threat; (10) Is Destructiveness Instinctoid?; INDIK, BERNARD P. Measuring (11) The Expres- motivation to work. siveComponent ofBehavior; (12) Self-Actualizing Personneladminstration 29:6,November- People: A Study of PsychologicalHealth; (13) Love in December 1966. pp. 39-44. Self-Actualizing People; (14) Cognition ofthe Indi- vidual and of the Generic; (15) Unmotivatedand Pur- The author reports informationobtained as a poseless Reactions; (16) Psychotherapy, Health, by-product of a study and on the selection process for the Motivation;(17) Normality,Health,andValues; manpower training program under the Manpower Devel- (18) Toward a . Anappendix con- opment and Training Act. He applies thetheory of tains brief discussions of questions generated David McClelland and John Atkinson by a on achievement, positive approach to psychology in theareas of learn- power, and affiliation motivation to workmotivation. ing; perception; ; motivation; intelligence; (USCSC 1, edited) cog- (74) nition and thinking; clinical, animal, andsocial psy- chology; and personality. There isa 331-item bibliog- raphy. Name and subject indexesare included. (77) LAWRIE, JOHN W. Motivationand organization. Per- sonnel journal 46:1, January 1967.pp. 4249. McCLELLAND, DAVID C. The achievingsociety. "People need organizations andorganizations Princeton, NJ.: D. Van Nostrand Company, need people....Yet we find that the mutual facilitation 1961. 512 pp. of the satisfaction of these needshas been hindered by incomplete or simplified notions ofhuman motivation This study isolates certain psychological factors on the one hand, and organizational inertiaon the and demonstrates rigorously, by quantitative other." The author discusses various scientific theories of motiva- methods, that these factorsare generally important in tion. (USCSC 1, edited) (75) economic development. The primarypurpose of the book is to contribute toan understanding of why some men concentrate on economic activities and MADSEN, K. B. Theories of motivation: are conspic- a comparative uously successful at them. Chaptersare: (1) Explaining study of modern theories of motivation. 2nd Economic Growth; (2) The Achievement Motive:How' It edition. Cleveland, Ohio: Howard Allen, Inc., Is Measured and Its Economic Effects; (3) 1961. 356 pp. Achieving Societies in the Modern World; (4) AchievingSocieties in the Past; (5) Other Psychological Factors inEconomic The book deals with psychological concepts and Development; (6) Entrepreneurial Behavior; (7) Chvac- theories of motivation of the past 30years, and is a teristics of Entrepreneurs; (8) The Spirit of Hermes; systematic analysis and comparison of what the author (9) Sources of Need for Achievement; and (10)Acceler-

18 ating Economic Growth. Tenpages of references are MYERS, M. SCOTT. Who are your motivated workers? included. Appendicesare:(1) Representative Stories Harvard business review 42:1, January-February from Children's Readers in Various Countries;(2) Mo- 1964. pp. 73-88. tive Scores and Other-Directedness Rank by Country Based on Children's Stories; (3) Values Coding System A 1961-1962 study at Texas Instruments clearly for Children's Stories; (4) Comparative Validityof Ver- points out that the factors in the work situation which bal and Graphic Measures of Need for Achievementin motivate are different from the factors that dissatisfy. Four Countries; (5) Codes and Scores from the Cross- Motivation stems from the challenge of the job through Cultural Study of Preliterate Tribes; (6) Questionnaire such factors as achievement, responsibility, growth, used in the Four-Country Study of Adolescent Boys and advancement, work itself, and earned recognition. Dis- Their Mothers; and (7) Questionnaire and Motive Scores satisfactions spring from factors peripheral to the task in the Cross-Cultural Study of Businessmen and Profes- (such as work rules, titles, and fringe benefits). Effective sionals. The book is indexed. (78) job performance depends on the fulfilment of both motivation and maintenance needs. Maintenance needs involve physical environment, social relationships, status, orientation,security, and economic provisions. The McCLELLAND, DAVID C., JOHN W. ATKINSON, supervisor's role is (1) to provide conditions of motiva- RUSSEL A. CLARK and EDGAR L. LOWELL. tion, and (2) to satisfy maintenance needs. The motiva- The achievement motive. New York: Appleton- tion-maintenance theory helps the company achieve its Century-Crofts, 1953. 384 pp. goals by providing opportunities for employees to achieve personal goals. (81) ` This book contains a summary of research on the achievement motive conducted mainly at during the period January1,1947, to January1,1952, under the continuous moral and MYERS, M. SCOTT and EARL D. WEED, JR. Behav- financial support of the Office of Naval Research." It ioral change agents: a . Management attempts to summarize the results of five years of and personnel quarterly 6:3, Fall 1967. pp. intensive research into the nature of achievement moti- 12 -19. vation. Its purpose is twofold: (1) to bring together the many diverse findings accumulated in an attempt to A 1962 motivation research project at Texas develop some kind of a theory that would at least begin Instruments concluded that the integration of involve- to put them in order; and (2) to make available to other ment and personal commitment resulted in produc- investigators an instrument for measuring human motiva- tivity increase. Employees benefited immediately from tion. Chapter titles are: Toward a Theory of Motivation; more meaningful work and, furthermore, earned more Arousing the Achievement Motives and Obtaining Imagi- in profit-sharing funds as productivity increased. Job native Stories; Analysis of Imaginative Stories for Moti- satisfaction, in terms of more interest in the work vational Content; Effects on Fantasy of Arousing itself, achievement,,and fewer personnel problems, was Achievement Movitation; General Applicability of the N noted by operating;imanagers as a direct consequence (need for) Achievement Scoring System; The Measuring of employee involvement in the management of their Instrument; Relation of N Achievement Score to Behav- work. One condition favoring positive change isa ior; Origins of Achievement Motivation; and Review. corporate goal-setting system which enables managers The three appendices are: (1) Illustrative Four-Story to support company goals through a hierarchy of Records from Thirty Subjects; (2) Scoring for the objectives,strategies,andtacticalaction programs Illustrative Stories; and (3) Pictures and Verbal Cues used which, when properly implemented, provide employees to Elicit Stories. A bibliography of N achievement titles at every organizational level with a meaningful respon- and a reference and author index are included. (79) sibility. A second condition is the application ofa management philosophy which includes respect for the individual, high performance expectations, opportunity to influence and set goals, freedom to act, encourage- McINTOSH, ROBERT W. Employee motivation and ment of technical and managerial innovation, and a work incentives in the service industries (Exten- merit compensation system. Ingredients for behavioral sion bulletin 483, recreation and tourism series). change in any organization include: (1) a clear-cut, East Lansing: Michigan State University, Cooper- workable theory of motivation; (2) a climate that ative Extension Service, 1966.6 pp. encourages management innovation; (3) managers willing and able to act aggressively and experimentally in testing Practical guides for developing more productive the improvement possibilities defined by behavioral and better satisfied employees include use of the team theory; and (4) a personnel staff psychologically ori- approach and specific incentive awards systems. (USCSC ented to provide the direction, stimulation, and buffer 1, edited) (80) needed in the change process. (82)

19 OXLEY, G. M. and GENEVIEVE G. OXLEY. Expecta- by Sybil K. Richardson; Some Reflections tions of excellence. California management re- on the Problem of Discipline, by George view 6:1, Fall 1963. pp. 13-22. Sheviakov; Managementof Discipline Problems in Normal Students, byFritz The use of expectationsas a motivational device Redl. and as a means of settingstandards within the top management group of organizationsis discussed. Proper- Vol. 3:1 ly communicated expectations, Introduction, by Rudolf Ekstein and Roc- itis maintained, will Spring 1966co L. Motto; Three Great Psychoanalytic influence the behavior of production and clerical work- Educators, by Edith Buxbaum; J. C. ers as well as of vice-presidents and staff Hill's experts who Psychoanalytic Contributionsto Teach- maintain professional independence.Methods of com- ing, by Rudolf Ekstein; The Unconscious municating expectations, fromexplicit statement to Mind in Teaching, by J. C. Hill; Psycho- communication by example,are reviewed. Twenty-eight analytic Notes on the Function of references are included. the (83) Curriculum, by Rudolf Ekstein.

Vol. 4 Introduction, by Rudolf Ekstein and Roc- PATTON, ARCH. Executivemotivation; how itis Spring 1967co L. Motto; Lili E. Peller's Psycho- changing. Management review57:1, January analytic Contributions .to Teaching, 1968. pp. 4-20. by Rudolf Ekstein; Psychoanalysis andPub- lic Education, by Lili E. Peller; Who Owns The author sees keycomponents in changing the School in Our Changing motivation programs Society?, as including changing the physical Albert J. Solnit; Task and Conflict,by and psychological environment,increasing job excite- Rudolf Ekstein; Further Thoughts ment through setting high goals, on the frequent changes in Unconscious Mind in Teaching, by J. C. assignment, better use of performanceappraisal, and Hill; Play and Mastery, by Maria Piers. application of a new three- track, compensation system. (USCSC 1, edited) (84) Vol. 5 Introduction, by Rocco L. Motto and Spring 1968Rudolf Ekstein; Willi Hoffer's Contribu- tionto Teaching and Education, by Psychoanalysis and education. TheReiss-Davis Clinic Rudolf Ekstein; How Can the Educational Bulletin. Los Angeles: Reiss-Davis Clinic for Process Become a Behavioral Science?,by . Annualissue. Lawrence S. Kubie; The Influence of the Curriculum and Teachingon the Develop- Each year a special issue ofthe Bulletin, edited ment of Creativity, by Ralph Tyler; The by Rudolf Ekstein, Ph.D.,and Rocco L. Motto, M.D., is devoted to the relationship Unconscious Mind in Teaching, III, by J. between psychoanalysis and C. Hill; Psychoanalysis and Education: education. Contents of issuespublished to dateare: From Prevention of Emotional Disorders Vol. 1:1 to Creative Learning and Teaching, by Foreword, by Fritz Redl;Introduction, Rudolf Ekstein. Spring 1964by R. L. Motto; Psychoanalysisand Edu- cationAn Historical Account, by Rudolf [Located too late for indexing.] Ekstein and R. L. Motto; TheBoundary Line Between Education andPsycho- therapy, by Rudolf Ekstein; TheLearning Process: From Learning for Love to Love RUSH, HAROLD M. F. The language ofmotivation. of Learning, by Rudolf Ekstein;Psycho- Suggestion system quarterly 3:4, Winter 1967. analysis and EducationTheEmergence pp. 14-15, 24-28. of a New Collaboration, byR. L. Motto, Bernard Bail, Rudolf Ekstein, andArthur The author offers a shorthand definition of Malin. motivation: "Individual, internally generated behavior designed to fill a purposethe individual's purpose."He Vol. 2:1 Foreword, by G. H. J. Pearson;Introduc- discusses its various facets: the hierarchy of Spring 1965 needs, tion, by Rudolf Ekstein and RoccoL. belongingness and identification, commitment andin- Motto; "It Hurts Me More Than It Hurts volvement, self-actualization, supportive relationship.He You"An Approach toDiscipline as a believes that behavioral scientists wouldmaintain that Two-Way Process, by E. JamesAnthony; the aggregate of these concepts is whatmanagement is A Tribute to Anne SullivanMacy, A seeking when it speaks of creating theclimate for Great Teacher of Discipline, by Rudolf individual growth: the climate formotivation. (USCSC Ekstein; The School's Rolein Discipline, 1, edited) (85) 20 SHOSTROM, EVERETT L. Man, the manipulator; the TEEVAN, RICHARD C. and ROBERTC. BIRNEY inner journey from manipulation to actualiza- (eds.). Theories of motivation in personalityand tion. Nashville, Tenn.:Abingdon Press, 1967. social 256 pp. psychology: an enduring problem in psychology. Princeton, N. J.: D. Van Nostrand Company, 1964. 186 pp. "A manipulatormay be defined as a person who exploits, uses, and/or controlshimself and othersas Eight selections by various psychologists things in certain self-defeating are ways. While every man is included in this book andwere chosen (1) to reveal the to some degree a manipulator...,modern humanistic manner in which motivational questions are subject to psychology suggests that out of these manipulationswe conception from disparate points of view, and (2)to can develop the positive potential whichAbraham serve as a brief but comprehensive overview of the Maslow and Kurt Goldsteincall 'self-actualizing.' The literature on motivation theory. The opposite of the manipulator essays are: (1) In- is the actualizor (a rare bird stincts and Their Viscissitudes, by SigmundFreud; in pure form) whomay be defined as a person who (2) The Hormic Psychology, by appreciates himself and his fellow William McDougall; man as peisons Of (3) The Functional Autonomy ofMotives, by Gordon subjects with unique potentialanexpresser of his actual W. Allport; (4) Facts Which Support self. The paradox is the Concept of that each of us is partlyan Need or Drive, by Henry A.Murray; (5) Toward a actualizor, but wecan continually become more actual- Theory of Motivation, by D. C. izing" (from author's preface). McClelland, J. W. The development and Atkinson, R. A. Clark, and E. L. Lowell;(6) Deficiency application of these concepts isindicated by part and MotivationandGrowth. chapter titles: Part I, The Human Motivation, by Abraham ChoiceManipulation Maslow; (7) Motivation Leadingto Social Behavior, by or Actualization(1) The Problem; (2) The Manipulator; ; (8) The Role of the (3) The Actualizor; Part II, The Psychological Goals of Actualization Situation in Determining the Directionof Human (4) Contactvs. Manipulation; (5) Honestly Being Your Behavior, by J. B. Rotter. (88) Feelings; (6) Trusting Yourselfin the Here and Now; (7) Freedom and Awareness; (8)Personal Control; Part III,Examples of Manipulation andActualization (9) Children and Parents; (10)Teen-Agers; (11) Lovers; Part IV, The Process ofActualization(12) Husbands and Wives; (13) Profitvs. Persons; (14) Actualization Therapy; (15) From Manipulation to Actualization. UGELOW, ALVIN. Motivation and theautomation of There is a bibliography of books and articles and sources training: a literature review (Technicaldocumen- of further help through workshops andfilms. A name tary report MRL-TDR-62-15). Wright-Patterson and subject index concludes the book. (86) AFB, Ohio: Air Force Systems Command,Aero- space Medical Division, Behavioral Sciences Lab- oratory, March 1962. 30 pp.

A review is presented of the literaturecon- sidered relevant to motivating studentsto participate in automated training. Topics reviewed include(1) teach- ing machines and the motivation problem, (2) TEEVAN, RICHARD C. and BARRY knowl- D. SMITH. edge of results, (3) praise and reproof, (4)competition, Motivation. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967.172 (5) task interruption, and (6) pp. some contextual factors. (HumRRO) (89) A programmed text on the subjectat an elemen- tary level is presented. Three specific questions form the underlying theme of the text: (1) Canmost motives be classified into broad categories? That is, docertain kinds of motives have properties in common? (2) How do WEISER, HERBERT J. Motivatingpersonnel. MSU motives operate? (3) Are motives innateor are they business topics (Michigan State University) 15:4, acquired through experience? Chapters discussin detail Autumn 1967. pp. 21-32. the partial answers that have been offeredto these and other questions concerning motivation. The classifica- tion and operation of motives The author presents an overview of such theories arefirstdiscussed, of motivation as Theory X, Theory Y,Basic Needs, followed by a discussion of specific motives,moving Self-Actualization, and the Scanlon Plan. Hepoints out from the relatively simple to the more complex motives. steps that an accounting firm or any otherorganization Research and various theories relatedto the problems can take to develop achievement motivation in employ- covered are discussed. (87) ees. (USCSC 1, edited) (90)

21 WHITSETT, DAVID A. and ERIK K. WINSLOW. An WISPE, LAUREN G. A psychologist looksat motiva- analysis of studies critical of the motivator- tional problems in training. Occupational out- hygiene theory. Personnel psychology 20:4, Win- look quarterly 9:3, September 1965.pp. 13-15. ter 1967. pp. 391415. A Manpower Administration psychologist de- "The purpose of this article will be to review the clares that motivational factorsmay be completely history of the theory, to presentan oversimplified different in people from culturally impoverished child- version of the complex Motivator-Hygiene theoretical hood homes than from those with middle-class upbring- formulation, and to evaluate studies reporting results ing. Especially significant is the absence or presence ofa which are in apparent disagreement with the theory." father. This points up a tremendous need for training in (USCSC 1, edited) (91) motivation-changing. (USCSC 3, edited) (92)

22 COMMUNICATION

BORDEN, RICHARD. How tocommunicate ideas. DUKER, SAM. Listening bibliography. NewYork: The Montclair, N.J.: The Economic Press.20 pp. Scarecrow Press, 1964. 211pp. (revised edition, 1968, now available) This booklet is condensed froma book by the author published in 1935. Itcontains his four-point The increasing amount of expository formula for communication. writing and Originally intended pri- research on listening and its potentialimprovement marily for public speakers, itis considered applicable through proper teaching prompted the to every form of communication. development of The four steps this annotated bibliography. Its boundariesare indicated discussed center around getting attention, appealing to by areas not included: speech, audition,hearing, infor- interests of listeners, orderly presentation of concrete mation theory, communication andcommunication cases or examples as illustration, and solicitingsome theory, music listening, unavailable items,chapters on specific action response within thepower of the listen- listening in textbooks and curriculum bulletins,and radio er to give. (93) and television.All items included were personally examined by the compiler. It is emphasizedthat the annotations are not abstracts. (96)

CAMPBELL, JAMES H. and HAL W.HEPLER (eds.). Dimensions in communication; readings.Bel- mont, Calif.: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1965. 230 pp. EISENSON, JON, J. JEFFREY AUERand JOHN V. IRWIN. The psychology of communication.New Readings are divided into four sections:concep- York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1963.394 pp. tual frames, , language, andwriting. All are directed toward an understanding ofcommunication This illustrated text presentsa comprehensive goals and techniques. (USCSC 1, edited) (94) treatment of the subject. Part and chapter titlesdescribe the contents:I, The Nature, Origin, and Purpose of Speech(1) The Nature of Speech; (2)The Oral Speech Code and its Origin; (3) The Functionsand Levels of Speech; II, Basic Psychological Principles(4)The Ner- vous Mechanism and Speech; (5) Affective Behavior CHERRY, COLIN. On human communication; a review, (Emotion) and Speech; (6) The Psychologyof Language a survey, and a criticism. New York: John Wiley Learning; (7) How Linguistic FormsAcquire Meaning; & Sons, 1957. 333 pp. (8) Speech and Thought; III, TheCommunicative Pro- cess(9) The Communicative Process:Scheme and De- This book was writtenas an introduction to the sign; (10) Communication Among Animals,by William series "Studies in Communication" publishedjointly by Etkin; (11) Information Theory andthe Psychology of the Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology and the Speech, by Milton Valentine; IV,Applications: The publisher. It consists ofa series of simple essays written Individual(12) The Development ofSpeech in the in nontechnical language and intended foran audience Child:First Sounds to First Words; (13)Language with no specialized background in thesubject. Chapter Development in the Child; V, Applications:Group Com- titles indicate contents: (1) Communicationand Organi- munication(14) Basic Psychological zationan Essay; Factors in Group (2) Evaluationof Communicative Communication; (15) Psychology of GroupDiscussion; Sciencean Historical Review; (3) On Signs,Language, (16) Psychology of Public Address; (17)Psychology of and Communication; (4) An Analysis ofSignals, Espe- Radio and Television; (18) Psychologyof Stage Fright; cially Speech; (5) On the Statistical Theory ofCommu- VI, Personality and Speech(19)Concepts of Personal- nication; (6) On the Logic of Communication (syntac- ity; (20) Verbal Behavior of Not-So-Well-AdjustedPer- tics, semantics, and pragmatics); (7) On Cognitionand sonalities; (21) Personality Disturbancesand Spee, h. An Recognition. References and an index are included. (95) index is included. (97) 23 GIBB, JACK R. Defensive communication. ETC: A Communication." The model describes communication review of general semantics 22:2,June 1965. pp. as a serial process involvingthe phases of encoding, 221-229. sending, medium, receiving, and decoding. Eachchapter inPartIIIdeals with one or more "patterns of Reducing defensiveness in interpersonal relation- miscommunication" that arise in the encodingand/or shipsis necessary for fundamental improvements in decoding phases. The usual chapter format inPart III communication. Defensive behavioristhat behavior includes a definition of the miscommunicationpattern which occurs when an individual perceives or anticipates or patterns, the rangeand types of their consequences, threatinthe group. The ways in which aroused some of their probable causes,and, finally, the sugges- defensiveness interferes with communication, thus mak- tion of techniques for correcting themand preventing ing it difficult and sometimes impossible for anyone to their recurrence. Part IV presents 'Inoverview of the convey ideas clearly and to move effectively towardthe material covered and an extensive bibliography. (100) solution of therapeutic, educational, or managerial prob- lems are discussed. Categories of communicative behav- ior characteristic of supportive and defensive climates in HARRIS, JEROME J. Survey of medicalcommunication small groups are discussed in the main body of the paper sources available forcontinuing physicians' edu- underthefollowingheadings:(1) Evaluation cation.Journal of medical education 41:8, Description; (2) ControlProblem Orientation; (3) Strat- August 1966. pp. 737-755. egySpontaneity; (4) NeutralityEmpathy; (5) Superi- orityEquality; and (6) Certainty Provisionalism.(98) The study surveys the communication services or sources available tophysicians for continuing medical education, and it evaluates their worth orshortcomings. GREENHILL, LESLIE P. Communication research and A review of studies alreadyconducted concludes that the teaching-learning process. Journal of medical very little formal orinformal training is obtained by education 38:6, June 1963. pp. 495-502. most physicians after they have goneinto practice. Major studies reveal that physicians acquire mostof their The highlights of recent research in communica- information from detailmen, journals, direct mail,and tion are reviewed, and the implications for medical colleagues,in that order, rather than fromformal education, both undergraduate and postgraduate, are education sources. A discussion of the various sourcesis discussed. Categories of research discussed are: Instruc- presented along with lists of books and periodicalswhere tional Film Research; Instructional Television; Combina- appropriate. The categories discussed are:Reading as a tion of Media; New Areas for Research (Course Develop- Source of Information; Periodicals (typesof journals, ment; The Systems Approach to the Management of national journals, utilization of material);Commercial Learning; The Assessment of Learning; Learning Re- Sources (direct mail, detailing); Pharmacistsand Col- sources Centers; Interaction of theLearning Process; leagues; Meetings, Conventions, andExhibits; Formal Faculty Development; Learning Research Centers). (99) Post - GraduateEducation;InformalMiscellaneous Sources; Recordings by Subscription;Additional Audio- visual Services; and NoncommerciallySponsored Educa- HANEY, WILLIAM V. Communication and organiza- tional Programs. References areincluded. (101) tional behavior: tent and cases. Revised edition. Homewood, Ill.: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1967. approach to 533 pp. HARTMAN, FRANK R. A behavioristic communication: a selective reviewof learning This text was designed for use in college courses, theory and a derivation of postulates.AV com- management-development seminars, supervisory training municationreview11:5,September-October programs, adult education classes,and individual self- 1963. pp. 155-190. study. The book does not deal with business and professional speaking and writing but, rather, focuses on The theory and research of behavior sm,includ- what happens inside a communicator before and as he ing Skinner's theory of verbalbehavior, the verbal talks, writes, or otherwise communicates, and after he learning theory of interference andfacilitation, and the listens or reads. Organizational behavior is also discussed, meditation process, are reviewed, and principlesappli- and that it and communication are inextricably inter- cable to communications are discussed.The available woven is a major thesis of the openingchapters. There empirical evidence o: , consistingprimarily are four major parts: Part I deals withthe organizational of conditioning experiments on lower animalsand verbal setting in which communication occurs. Part II discusses learning experiments on human subjects, isalso re- the behavioral basis of the communicative act with viewed. An attempt is made to extrapolate thefindings special reference to the roles that perception and of behaviorism lo applied communication,using the motivation play in communication. A basic model of followingargumentstojustifytheextrapolation: communication is detailed in Chapter 5, "The Process of (1) learning problems translate easily into communica-

24 tionproblems; (2) learning researchhas been very KAISER ALUMINUM AND CHEMICAL CORPORA- extensive, resulting ina large body of empirical find- TION. Communications (entireissue). Kaiser ings and in procedural refinementsand sophistication Aluminum news 23:3,1965.39 pp. inthe kind of question posed;itwould be time- consuming and expensive for communication research "The cooperation that makes human society to plow the same ground; (3) main issues whichcan be possible is almost wholly dependent on the skill with explained through learning researchcannot be dupli- which we communicate." This issue is intended to cated in communication research becausethere are no stimulate thinking about how we communicate and how techniques sufficient for controlling the relevantvari- we might try to improve the way we do it. A variety of ables at the more complex level; and (4)many of the colorillustrations demonstrate pointsinthetext. principles derived from behavioristic learning research (Drawings by Saul Steinberg for the New Yorker are find confirmation in the rules of thumb of applied included.) Multiple copies of the booklet are available communications. The article concludes withan outline from the International Society for General Semantics, of 28 "Tentative Findings for Communication"extra- San Francisco, along with a bibliography of sources used polated from the discussion of behaviorism. A list of by the editor of Kaiser News in preparing this issue. 104 references is included. (102) Section headings indicate content and organization: How IsIt We Know Something to Communicate? (perception); How Do We Create Symbols?; In Search of the Meaning of Meaning (semantics); The Human Trans- action (communication process or system); As a Matter of Fact (facts vs. inferences); The Trouble with Is, Is Is HEAVISIDE, G. C. The principles of communication. (problems in unqualified use of the word "is"); It's a Personnel management 48:377, September 1966. Mad, Mad Maze (importance of listening to people, not pp. 144,147-148,150-151. just words); The Big Rock Candy Mountain (problems of non-differentiation and oversimplification in categoriz- The author identifies and discusses several yard- ing and judging); and This Is the BeginningNot the End sticks for designing and measuring effective communi- (a re-emphasis on need to understand the communica- cations: intention, attention, perception, retention, and tion process and some suggestions for improving indi- participation. (USCSC 1, edited) (103) vidual skill). (105)

KNAPP, MARK L. and CARL E. LARSON. Manage- ment and labor speech communication; some' HOWE, REUEL L. The miracle of dialogue. New York: comparisons of training and research studies. The Seabury Press, 1963.154 pp. Training and development journal 21:12, Decem- ber 1967. pp. 28-32. The contents of the author's lectures at the Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge, Massachu- This report of three studies of management and setts, have been revised and expanded and are presented union officials focuses on five areas: research involve- here "with the end in view of making them available and ment in speech communication, needed research, types of interest to anyone who is concerned with communica- of training offered, perceived importance of this train- tion. All of us, in one way or another, are trying to ing, and sources of instructors. (USCSC1, edited) (106) communicate with (`get into significant touch with') someone, and all of us, to some degree, are baffled by the failure of our attempts" (from the author's preface). The miracle of dialogue is that "it can bring relationship into being, and it can bring into being once again a relationship that has died." This thesis, with examples, is LIPPITT, GORDON L. Quest for dialogue (1966 Rufus discussed in chapters entitled: (1) The Importance of Jones lecture).Philadelphia:Friends General Dialogue; (2) The Barriers to Communication; (3) From Conference,ReligiousEducation Committee, Monologue to Dialogue; (4) The Purpose of Dialogue; 1966.46 pp. (5) The Participantsin Dialogue; (6) The Dialogical Crisis; (7) The Fruits of Dialogue; (8) Dialogue and the The author explores the many factors involved in Tasks Ahead. Implications for education, religious insti- the quest for dialogue and examines what each individ- tutions, and international relations are discussed in the ual can do to improve his understanding and communi- finalchapter, as are qualities that characterize the cations. The booklet contains a study guide and a dialogical teacher. There is an index. (104) selected bibliography. (USCSC 1, edited) (107)

25 LIVINGSTON, HOWARD. Can the effects of general theCrowd;(12) Clothing:OurExtendedSkin; semantics be measured? ETC: a review of general (13) Housing:NewLookandNewOutlook; semantics 23:2, June 1966. pp. 254-258. (14) Money: The Poor Man's Credit Card; (15) Clocks: The Scent of Time; (16) The Print: How to Dig It; The procedures and results of an investigation of (17) Comics: Mad Vestibule to TV; (18) The Printed the effects of lessons in general semantics on the critical Word: Architect of Nationalism; (19) Wheel, Bicycle, reading competence of secondary school studentsare andAirplane;(20) The Photograph: TheBrothel- reported. The purpose of the investigationwas to Without-Walls; (21) Press: Government by News Leak; compare the changes in critical reading of a group of (22) Motorcar: The Mechanical Bride; (23) Ads: Keeping students who received instruction in general semantics up with the Joneses; (24) Games: The Extensions of with a similar group of students who did not. The Man; (25) Telegraph: The Social Hormone; (26) The Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisalwas used to Typewriter; Into the Age of the Iron Whim; (27) The measurecriticalreading abilityin a developmental Telephone:SoundingBrassorTinkling Symbol?; reading course. Results showed that the group receiving (28) The Phonograph: The Toy that Shrank the National instruction in general semantics made a significantly Chest; (29) Movies: The Reel World; (30) Radio: The greater gain than did the control group, and itis TribalDrum;(31) Television:TheTimidGiant; concluded that the gain was attributable to the experi- (32) Weapons: War of the Icons; (33) Automation: mental factor the lessons in general semantics rather Learning a Living. Thereisa 47-item bibliography than to any other factor. (108) entitled Further Readings for Media Study. (110)

McLAUGHLIN, TED J., LAWRENCE P. BLUM and DAVID M. ROBINSON. Communication. Colum- bus, Ohio:Charles E. Merrill Books, 1964. McLUHAN, MARSHALL and QUINTIN FIORE. The 499 pp. medium is the message, an inventory of effects (Coordinated by Jerome Agel). New York: Ban- The book emphasizes the unity of communica- tam Books, 1967. 160 pp. tive elements within a diversity of forms. It considers how man uses communication to satisfyhis basic "The medium, or process, of our time electric psychological needs, explains the need for proficiency in technology is reshaping and restructuring patterns of person-to-person communications in both speaking and social interdependence and every aspect of our personal writing, and discusses special management problems of life. ... Electric technology fosters and encourages communicating with groups outside the management unification and involvement. It is impossible to under- group itself. (USCSC 1, edited) (109) stand social and cultural changes without a knowledge of the workings of media." This thesis is examined in the text and illustrated with numerous accompanying photo- McLUHAN, MARSHALL. Understanding media: the graphs, drawings, and print variations. (111) extensions of man. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964. 364 pp.

During the mechanical ages the western world extended the human body in space. Today, through MILLER, GEORGE A. The psychology of communica- electric technology, we have extended man's central tion:seven essays. New York: Basic Books, nervous system, abolishing both time and space on earth. 1967. 197 pp. Such extensions affect man's whole psychic and social complex. Today action and reaction "occur almost at Though the essays in this book treat a variety of the same time...but we continue to think in the old, topics from cybernetics and automation to psychical fragmented space and time patterns of the pre-electric research and the supernatural their larger concern is age." This thesis is developed in Part I which contains with the problems of scientific psychology and com- chaptersentitled:(1) The Medium isthe Message; munication theory and with an attempt to formulate a (2) Media Hot and Cold; (3) Reversal of the Overheated psychological conception of man as an information-gath- Medium; (4) The Gadget Lover: Narcissus as Narcosis; ering, information-processing system. The essay titles (5) Hybrid Energy: Les Liaisons Dangereuses; (6) Media are: (1) Information and Memory; (2) The Magical Num- as Translators; (7) Challenge and Collapse: The Nemesis ber Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Ca- of Creativity. Part II contains chapters discussing the pacity for Processing Information; (3) The Human Link extension media indicated by titles and their psychic and in Communication Systems; (4) Concerning Psychical social consequences: (8) The Spoken Word: Flower of Research; (5) The Psycholinguists; (6) Computers, Com- Evil? (9) The Written Word: An Eye for an Ear; munication, and Cognition; (7) Project Grammarama. (10) Roads and Paper Routes; (11) Number: Profile of An index is included. (112)

26 NICHOLS, RALPH G. Listeningis a 10-part skill ContrOl through Material Things; (13) The Organization (Reprinted fromNation's Business,July 1957). of the Material Environment as Personal Expression; Part Washington, D.C.: Nation's Business. 4pp. IV, The Language of Disturbed Interaction(15) Social ConflictandStress;(16) LanguageandPsycho- Many businesses now include listening training in pathology; (17) Disturbances of Emotion and Their their regular trainingprograms with good results. A Communicative Effects; (18) Disturbances of Perception study of 100 best and 100 worst listeners ina University and Evaluation; (19) Art, Communication, and Mental of Minnesota freshman class revealed10 guides to Illness; and Part V, Summary(20) Toward a Theory improved listening whichcan be used to analyze of Nonverbal Communication. References and an index personal strengths and weaknesses. Specificsuggestions are included. (115) for capitalizingon the difference in thought speed and speech speed are emphasized. (113) SCHRAMM, WILBUR. The science of human communi- cation: new directions and new findings in PIERCE, J. R. Symbols, signals, and noise: thenature communicationresearch.New York:Basic and process of communication. New York: Books, 1963. 158 pp. Harper & Brothers, 1961. 305pp. Originally broadcast in a special series by the This book on communication theory presentsa Voice' of America radio network, the eleven essays comprehensive review of the field. Mathematical illus- presented here are meant to serve as rin introduction to trations are used widely in explanation of themore the problems, the findings, and some of the scholars in complex aspects of communication theory. The chap- research on human communication. The contents are: ters are: (1) The World and Theories; (2) The Origins (1) Communication Research in the , by of Information Theory; (3) A Mathematical Model; Wilbur Schramm; (2) The Theory of Cognitive Disso- (4) Encoding and Binary Digits; (5) Entropy; (6) Lan- nance, by Leon Festinger; (3) An Exploration into guage and Meaning; (7) Efficient Encoding; (8) The Semantic Space, by Charles E. Osgood; (4) The New Noisy Channel; (9) Many Dimensions; (10) Information "Scientific" Rhetoric, by Nathan Maccoby; (5) Personal- Theory and Physics; (11) Cybernetics; (12) Information ity as a Factor in Susceptibility to Persuasion, by Irving Theory and Psychology; (13) Information Theory and L. Janis; (6) The Social Effects of Mass Communication, Art; (14) Back to Communication Theory. Anap- by Joseph T. Klapper; (7) The Diffusion of New Ideas pendix on mathematical notation, a glossary, andan and Practices, by Elihu Katz; (8) Mass Media and index are included. (114) Personal Influence, by Paul Lazarsfeld and Herbert Menzel; (9) The Effects of Television on Children, by Eleanor E. Maccoby; (10) The Effect of Communication RUESCH, JURGEN and WELDON KEES. Nonverbal on Voting Behavior, by Ithiel de Sola Pool; (11) Teach- communication. Berkeley and Los Angeles: Uni- ing Machines and Programmed Instruction, by Arthur A. versity of California Press, 1959. 205 pp. Lumsdaine. (116) The theoretical and systematic study of commu- nication has serious limitations inasmuch as scientific THAYER, LEE. Communication and communication thinking and reporting are dependent upon verbal and systems in organization, management, and inter- digital language systems, whereas human interaction, in personal relations. Homewood, Ill.: Richard D. contrast, is much more related to nonverbal systems of Irwin, Inc., 1968. 375 pp. codification. A number of nonverbal ways in which people attempt to communicate with one anotherare The scope of the book, as indicated by the title, explored. With the aid of still photography, the informal is comprehensive and broadly based. The purpose is to and often spontaneous methods of communication are bring into focus significant recent changes in ideas, presented here. Part and chapter titles indicate contents: concepts, and perspectives regarding the subject. Due to Part I, The Frame of Reference (1) Modern Theories the nature of these changes, an attempt has been made and Methods; (2) Biology and Culture as Two Determi- to completely reformulate the conceptual framework of nants of Nonverbal Communication; (3) The Varieties of communication and communication systems in the Nonverbal Languages; Part II, Message Through Non- indicated areas. Suggestions for further readingare verbalAction (4) Nonverbal Expression; (5) The included in each chapter. Chapter 19 also has bibliog- Informative Value Movement; (6) People Alone; (7) The raphies and commentaries on contributions froma wide Role of Context intheInterpretation of Action; variety of specialized fields on communication theory (8) People Together; Part III, Message Through Object and research. Author and subject indexes are included. and Picture (9) Codification inMaterial Terms; Part and chapter titles describe the contents: Part I, On (10) Object, Word, and Number; (11) The Language of the Nature and Dynamics of Human Communication Identification and Recognition; (12) Appeal and Social (1) The Study of Communication: Some Basic Premises;

27 (2) People, Communication, andOrganization: Some WAGNER, ROBERT W. A galaxy of motion picture Basic Perspectives; (3) On the Nature of Communica- documents on communication theory and thenew tion: I; (4) People, Behavior, and Communication:On educational media (Produced for the Department Being Communicated With; (5) People, Behavior,and of Health, Education, and Welfare, U.S. Office of Communication: On the Motivation and Controlof Education). Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State Uni- Human Behavior; (6) People, Behavior, and Communica- versity Department of Photography, 1966.82pp. tion: Some Interpersonal Factors; (7) People,Behavior, and Communication: Some Organizationaland "Manage- This manual is an integrated part ofa filmed ment" Factors; (8) On the Nature ofCommunication: instructional program designed fora wide audience with II; Part II, Communication, Message, andCommunica- interest in communication theory, educational technol- tion System: Qualities and Characteristics (9) Com- ogy, perception, and the new educational media. Usinga munication: Effectiveness; (10) Communication: Econ- space-age analogy, the films are viewed as forminga omy; (11) Messages: Comprehensibility, Validity, and galaxy of documents at the heart of whichare 4 basic Utility; (12) Communication System: Efficacy; PartIII, "planetary films" I. The Information Explosion; II. The Functions of Communication (13) The Informa- Perception and Communication; III. TheProcess of tion Function; (14) Command and Instructive Func- Communication; and IV. The Teacher and Technology. tions;( 15 ) Influenceand PersuasiveFunction ,; These move from the simple to the complex,concrete to (16) Integrative Functions; Part IV, Technologyand abstract, and each is composed ofsequences designated Techniques (17) The Technology of Communication; as "Asteroid Films." These may be detached, used (18) On Communication Methods and Techniques;Part separately, and returned to originalsequence. The V, Theory and Research: Problemsand Issues segments for each of the 4 major films aboveare: I. [The (19) Communication Theory and Research:Tributaries Information Explosion] Communication Revolution; and Trends; (20) Problems and Issues. (117) Information Storage, Retrieval, Control; Communication in Government; Communication in Industry;Communi- cation inthe Professions; Media and Children; II. [Perception and Communication] Sensory Learning; Theories of Perception; Perception Training; Intercul- tural Perception; Perception & Deprivation;Perception & Education; III. [The Process of Communication] A Model of Communication; Theory ofCommunication; Industry Model; Military Model; Administration Model; Teacher Training Model; Computer Model; The Teacher as a Model of Communication; IV. [The Teacher and THIS, LESLIE E. The leader lc aksat communication Technology] Learning as Self Learning; History of (Looking Into Leadership series). Washington, Instructional Technology; Media & the Military; Media& D.C.: Leadership Resources, Inc., 1961. 11pp. the Humanities; Media & the ContinuousProgress School; The Computerized School; Media & theCurric- Six questions which leaders often ask about ulum; Media & the Masses; The InstructionalResource communication are cited as evidence of its importance to Center; The School of Tomorrow; The Teacher ofTo- groups and organizations. Problems with three morrow. Four supplementary in-depth films calledsat- widely accepted theories of communicationare briefly ellites are also available. The Communication discussed: Revolu- the "decibel" theory (loudness and fre- tion; Communications Conference; TeachingMachines quency as key factors in communication); the "sell" and Sidney Pressey; and Music Research. Among those theory (the total burden ison the communicator or participating in the films are Edgar Dale, I. Keith Tyler, sender); and the "minimal information" theory(the James D. Finn, George Gerbner, and Kenneth Norberg. receiver isn't too interested in what the leaderis Part I of the manual describes the galaxy of filmsconcept; communicating anyway). The complexity of thecom- Part II suggests patterns ofuse and includes examples of munication process is discussed in terms of filtersand the broad range of use of films designed in this barriers which distort messages: verbal and manner; nonverbal Part III is a background monographon communication factors, selective inattention, the nature of theorgani- theory by Dr. Harbans Singh Bhola of India. zation, defects in the formal network of communica- (119) tion, status and role ambiguities, language, personality, misunderstanding, and emotions and feelings. Results WIENER, NORBERT. The human of research on use of human beings; one-way and two-way communication cybernetics and society. 2nd edition, revised. are summarized and some guidelines for improving Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday Anchor Books communication are offered with respect to recognizing (paperbound), 1954. 199pp. levels of interaction, dealing with specificbarriers, and making self-appraisals. A briefly annotated6-item bibli- ography is included. This is an updated reprinting of the author's (118) original book for laymenon the science of communica-

28 tion and control (cybernetics is theterm coined by the their planning, production and author). Chapters utilization." Bibliog- are: (I) Cybernetics in History; (II) raphies of references formore detailed information on Progress and Entropy; (III)Rigidity and Learning: Two each subject follow each chapter. Chapters Patterns of Communicative and selected Behavior; (IV) The Mecha- topics are: (1) Introduction (the nature ofcommunica- nism and History of Language; (V)Organization as the tion, what audiovisual materials Message; (VI) Law and Communication; are, results of research (VII) Communi- on their use in education, specific applicationsto cation, Secrecy, and Social Policy; (VIII)Role of the business communication, types of audiovisual Intellectual and the Scientist; (IX) tools); The First and the (2) Employee Recruitment and Training;(3) Employee Second Industrial Revolution; (X) Some Communication Relations; (4) Public Relations; (5) Sales andPromotion; Machines and Their Future; (XI)Language, Confusion, (6) Reporting to Management; (7) Reporting and Jam. The book is indexed. to Stock- (120) holders; (8) Visualization of Information; (9)Photo- graphy; (10) Motion Pictures; (11) Slides andFilmstrips; (12) OverheadProjection;(13) OpaqueProjection; (14) Flipsheets; (15) Audio Recording; (16)Exhibits; (17) Television; (18) Teaching Machines; (19)Facilities for Audio-Visual Utlization (need forproper facilities, location of the room, specific suggested facilities). There WILEY, J. BARRON. Communication for modern man- is a name and subject index. (121) agement. Elmhurst,Ill.:The Business Press, 1966. 327 pp. Wiley series on human communication. New York:John "Today's educatedperson must know how to Wiley & Sons. Continuing. communicate in many different media andhow to choose the most effectiveone for the particular situa- Published volumes in this series include: The tion. ... A company may want to makeuse of Speech Writing Guide, Professional Techniques forRegu- the knowledge possessed by itsown employees with regard to its products and lar and Occasional Speakers, by James J. Welsh;Graphic company policies. These Communication, by WilliamJ.Bowman; Personal people may have only limited familiaritywith the use of Resume Preparation, by Michael P. Jaquish; Presenting audio-visual materials in communication.They need Technical Ideas, a Guide to Audience Communication, information as to the medium that will best solve their by W. A. Mambert; Writing for Technicaland Profes- communication problem and how to make thebest use sional Journals, by John H. Mitchell ;Managerial of that medium" (from author's Control foreword). This book Through Communication, Systems forOrganizational attempts to cover the wholerange of industrial commu- Diagnosis and Design, by George T. Vardaman and nication using the audiovisual media and "isintended to Carroll C. Halterman; Technical Correspondence,a serve as a guideline to the college studentor the person Handbook and Reference Source for the Technical just entering the audio-visual field. it will indicateto him Professional, by Herman M. Weisman. Additional titles the areas of communication which couldtake advantage in the series are planned to cover catalogs; annual of the increased efficiency which ismade possible reports, house organs, technical proposals, technical through the wise use of these media, andthe various manuals, microdocumentation, speed reading, communi- tools and techniques of communication, includingthe cations in research, engineering shorthand, audiovisual advantages, disadvantages, and problems involvedin techniques, and other areas. (122)

29 SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING*

BECKER, HOWARD S., BLANCHE GEER, EVERETT BLOOM, SAMUEL W. The sociology of medical educa- C. HUGHES, and ANSELM L. STRAUSS. Boys tion: some comments on the state of a field. in white; student culture in medical school. Milbank memorial quarterly 43:2, 1965. pp. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961. 456 143-184. pp. The objective of this review is to seek a broader The research of a team of sociologists reported and more complete view of the trends and issues that are here attempted to answer such questions as: How do discernible in the sociological study of medical educa- medical students feel about their training, their doctor- tion in the U.S. First, some of the origins of such teachers, and the profession they are entering? Daily research, both in medicine and sociology, are reviewed interviews and observations in classes, wards, labora- and a brief historical account is given of the major tories, and operating theaters were conducted in search examples. Second, in the theoretical and empirical of answers. Part and chapter titles indicate organization findings of the various researchers, it is asked what lines of the publication. Part One, Background and Methods of convergence and disparity can be charted. Whatare (1) Boys in White; (2) Design of the Study; (3) Perspec- the implications and guidelines for future research in the tive, Culture, and Organization; (4) The University of field? Kansas Medical School: A Brief Description; Part Two, Student Culture in the Freshman Year(5) The Long- Range Perspective: "The Best of All Professions"; HOROWITZ, MILTON J. Educating tomorrow's doc- (6) The Work of the Freshman Year; (7) The Initial tors. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1964. Perspective: An Effort to "Learn It Mr; (8) The 264 pp. Provisional Perspective: "You Can't Do It All"; (9) In- teraction and Consensus: The Provisional and Final Though research in medical education has been Perspectives; (10) The Final Perspective: "What They in the vanguard of professional-education developments Want Us to Know"; A Note on the Sophomore Year; in the areas of educational objectives and the teaching- Part Three, Student Culture in the Clinical Years learning process, much still needs to be learned about (11) The Work of the Clinical Years; (12) The Respon- how any student becomes a physician and about how sibility and Experience Perspectives: The Problem and specific individuals develop. Experiences of about 20 Its Setting; (13) The Assimilation of Medical Values by students in the Western Reserve University School of Students: The Responsibility and Experience Perspec- Medicine were studied in light of this need. Though the tives; (14) The Academic Perspective: Dealing with the number of students studied issmall, the problems Faculty; (15) Student Co-operation; (16) Students and considered transcend the responses of a small number of Patients; (17) Student Autonomy; Part Four, Perspec- individuals to a particular medical school, and the tives on the Future(18) Student Perspectives on Styles questions raised in regard to the case studies are relevant of Practice: The Dilemma of Independence and Respon- not only to this one school and to medical education, sibility;(19) StudentPerspectivesonInternships; but also to all graduate and professional education. (20) Student Views of Specialties; (21) The Develop- Some of the major questions raised and discussed are: ment of the Medical Student. The Appendix contains a Can different patterns of development be identified in reproduction of an interview guide used in the study. students during the four years of medical school? What There is a name and subject index. are they? How do medical students change? What change

* This section was developed after the original indexingwas done and too close to the publication deadline to be added to the index. The category was considered too important to omit.

30 do they see in themselves? How do others see them? work is a systematic application of the concepts of How can differences among students be described to sociology and social psychology to the social phenomena include change associated with personal as well as of school life. The method employed in gathering and professional growth? To what extent may students in a interpreting material was empirical and observational, medical school be held responsiblefor their own the style is non-technical. There are 25 chapters divided learning? What are the specific challenges of medical into 6 major topics: I. Introduction; II. The School and education? Are they different from the challenges of the Community; III. Some Interpretations of Life in the other fields of study? School; IV. The Teacher-Pupil Relationship; V. What Teaching Does to Teachers; VI. Summary and Recom- mendations.

MERTON, ROBERT K., GEORGE G. READER and PATRICIA L. KENDALL (eds.). The student WEBSTER, THOMAS G. Career decisions and profes- physicianintroductory studies in the sociology sional self-images of medical students. Working of medical education. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard paper, Conference on Psychiatry and Medical University Press, 1957. 360 pp. Education, March 6-10, 1967, Atlanta, Georgia. To be published in Background papers for the The focus of this selection of studies is on the 1967 Conference. Washington, D.C.: American educative process in the medical school, on the ways Psychiatric Association, 1969. 70 pp. that its social structure, like that of other organizations, largely forms the behavior of its members and affects the This working paper reviews relevant information making of the medical man. No attempt is made to and research on career decisions and points up the areas appraisecurrentmedical curricula or to advocate which should be of special interest to psychiatry and changes in them. In the studies reported, the medical behavioral science faculties in medical schools. Since the school is conceived as a social environment in which the paper could not refer to all the data available in the professional culture of medicine is variously transmitted literature relevant to career decisions of medical stu- to novices through distinctive social and psychological dents, an effort was made to give at least one example of processes. It is the aim of these studies to find out in the many different types of relevant contributions: detail how theaspiring medical student. with his (1) statistical data on students and medical manpower characteristic anticipation, fears, hopes and abilities, which does not include direct responses from student emerges as a socially certified physician, outfitted with a informants regarding career decisions and related matters definition of his professional status, with attitudes other than a statement of current occupational status, toward that status, with a self-image, and with a set of age, sex, geographic location, etc.; (2) surveys of career professional values. preferences, sociological data, MCAT and other measures of academic ability and performance, psychological and vocational tests and other data correlated with career preference and self-image; (3) personal interviews and direct observation of students with clinical type assess- WALLER, WILLARD. The sociology of teaching. New ments relevant to the dynamics of career, student York: Russell & Russell, 1961. 467 pp. culture, professional identity, self-image and learning process; biography and fiction; (4) textbooks, theory, Originally published in 1932, this book is one of summaries, recruiting literature on careers, etc., usually the pioneer textbooks in educational sociology. The without new data.

31 THE ADULT LEARNERSOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS

HAND, SAMUEL E. A review of physiological and which maximize the probabilities of achieving stipulated psychological changes in aging and their implica- instructional objectives. (125) tions for teachers of (Bulletin .71G-2). Tallahassee, Fla.: Florida State Department of Education, Division of Vocational, Technical, KIDD, J. R. How adults learn. New York: Association and Adult Education, April 1968. 31 pp. Press, 1959. 324 pp.

Based on an examination of literature on aging,a Adult education has become extensive, but composite review of the significant physiological and little has been done to apply psychological theories of psychological changes that take place as a part of the learning to the teaching of adults. This book isa normal aging process is presented, and the implications synthesis of theory of and experience in adult educa- these changes have for adult education are discussed. tion.Chapters are: (1)Learning Throughout Life; The material is extensively supported by illustrative (2) The Adult Learner; (3) Physical and Sensory Capac- graphs and tables. A bibliography is included. (123) ity; (4) Intellectual Capacities; (5) Feelings and Emo- tions;(6) Motivation;(7) TheoriesofLearning; (8) Some Fields of Practice; (9) The Environment for HAVIGHURST, ROBERT J. and BETTY ORR. Adult LearningFormsandDevices;(10) TheTeaching- education and adult needs. Chicago: Center for Learning Transaction; (11) The Teacher in the Learning the Study of Liberal Education for Adults, 1956. Transaction. Each chapter includes asummary, a list of 79 pp. references, and a list of suggested readings. The book is indexed. (126) The report is a part of the Kansas City Study of Adult Life conducted by the University of, Chicago Committee on Human Development and Cominunity LITTLE, LAWRENCE C. (ed). A bibliography of doc- Studies, Inc., a Kansas City social agency. Chapter titles toral dissertations on adults and adult education. indicatecontents:(1) The Wisdomof Maturity; Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, Department (2) Adult Needs and Developmental Tasks; (3) Personal of Religious Education, 1962. 82pp. Motivationfor the Achievement of Developmental Tasks; (4) Implications for Adult Education; (5) Quali- This bibliography was prepared fora research ties of an Effective Adult Education Program. A seminar in adult education at the University of Pitts- supplemental essay entitled "Adult Education for Our burgh. It contains titles of over 1,000 doctoral disserta- Time," by Robert Havighurst, is also included. (124) tions dealing with the experiences and needs of adults and with various types and patterns oT adult educa- tion. (127) JENSEN, GALE E. Socio-psychological foundations of adult learning. IN Hallenbeck, Wilbur C. (ed.). Psychology of adults (Adult Education Theory LORGE, IRVING. The Adult learner. IN Hallenbeck, and Method). Washington, D.C.: Adult Educa- Wilbur C. (ed.). Psychology of adults (Adult tion Association of the U.S.A., May 1963.pp. Education Theory and Method). Washington, 20-30. D.C.: Adult Education Association of the U.S.A., May 1963. pp. 1-9. Three objectives are pursued in this paper: (1) to present an account of the basic dynamics of socio- The learning characteristics peculair to the adult psychological forces present in all formal adult instruc- learner are discussed. Pursuing concepts set forth by tional situations; (2) to providean identification and Edward L. Thorndike in his Adult Learning, the study definition of the socio-psychological interactions which points up the distinction between learning rateas take place between adults during formal instruction and performance and learning ability as poweror potential. which determine the kind of learning that will result; It is agreed that though learning rate declines withage, and (3) to present a set of principles for guidingor learning ability does not necessarily decline. Factors managing these socio-psychological interactions inways affecting learningrate, such as speed of reaction,

32 hearing, and seeing are analyzed and discussed. Based on Trainers). Each section begins with an exposition of the statistics drawn from specialized intelligence testing, it is subject, then presents the design, results, and conclusion agreed that intelligence, as measured in terms of learning in tabular and graphic formats of experiments conducted ability, does not regress with the age of the individual. on the subject, and concludes with a bibliography of Problems stemming from stereotypes about aging, studies in the area. (131) crystallized attitudes, weak and meager interests, and the question of learning new interests are discussed in relation to adult learning and the teaching of adults. The VERNER, COOLIE and JOHN S. NEWBERRY, JR. The conditions necessary for adult learningthe crucial point nature of adult participation. Adult education being that the learner himself sees that he is moving 8:4, Summer 1958. pp. 208-222. toward his goalare posited and illustrated. A discussion on planning for adult learningthe primary premise Since participation in any one activity is related being the fact of individual differencesand a brief view to participation inall other social relationships, the of prospects for adults conclude the article. (128) problem of participation in adult education is considered here in conjunction with other phases of organized social lifein the community. Of particular concern here is POWELL, JOHN W. Learning comes of age. New York: participation in formally organized structures whose Adult Education Association of the U.S.A., patterns approximate thecharacteristicpatterns of 1956. 235 pp. organized adult education. The study is divided into four main sections. After the introduction, the second section This is a valuable contribution to theories of deals with participation in general, the primary aim adult learning. "The adult seeking understanding does being to help adult education to identify the character- not want a classroom.. He wants companions in the istics of those who participate, which will enable them search for greater wisdom." (USCSC 2, edited) (129) to find significant clues to the kinds of people not now involved in adult education who might become involved if conditions were favorable. Factors related to an PROCTOR, ROBERT A. Too old to learn? Nashville, individual's participation in formal organizations are Tenn.: Broadman Press, 1967. 126 pp. investigated: static factors of socio-economic status; age and sex; family stage; differences in residence; influence Adult education is discussed in its broad appli- of religion, race, and ethnic groups; and dynamic factors, cation to the spiritual development of the Christian or those which describe the relationship of the individual individual. Brief backgro ad material on the psychol- to the group. The third section relates the results of ogy of learningis presented and the connection studies of participants in several different forms of adult tween education and the Christian way of life is the education to data on general social participation given in primary theme developed. Key points are illustrated by the preceding chapter, including data on age, sex, case stories. Each chapter includes a selected reading educational levels, socio-economic status, educational list. The chapters are: (1) Learning Through the Ages; groups, and residence. The programs discussed are the (2) Adults Can Learn; (3) Christian GrowthAn Im- Cooperative Extension Service,public school adult perative;(4) The ObstacleCourse; (5) Learning to education, junior college adult education, university Learn; (6) The Fellowship of Learning; (7) Commit- education, university extension, correspondence study, ment to Action; (8) Resources are Available; (9) The and packaged programs. A final section is devoted to a Challenge of Change. (130) discussion of the need to attract a more representative segment of the population to adult education and '..he concomitant need for new and different programs to TUFTS COLLEGE. INSTITUTE OF APPLIED EXPERI- meet their need. A bibliography is included. (132) MENTAL PSYCHOLOGY. Learning. IN ITS Handbook of human engineering data. 2nd edi- tion. Port Washington, N.Y.: Office of Naval WELFORD, A. T. Aging and human skill. London: Research, Special Devices Center, n.d. Part IX, Oxford University Press, 1958. 300 pp. n.p. The final report of the Nuffield Unit for Re- A review of learning theory and research using search into Problems of Aging which was attached to the college students and naval personnel as subjectsis Psychological Laboratory at Cambridge University from presented. The material is divided into chapters and 1946 to 1956 is presented. The research unit attempted sections:(I) Basic Concepts (Introduction); (II) Basic to study changes in performance from young adulthood Processes of Learning (Acquisition, Retention, Transfer); to the middle years, to the sixties and seventies, and was (III) Characteristics of the Subject That Influence Learn- thus concerned with aging rather than solely with old ing (Motivation, The Learner); (IV) Training (Introduc- age. The results have shown that it is in the middle years tion, The Instructor, Methods of Training, Synthetic that some of the most important age changes become

33 noticeable and that it is oftenat the earlier ages that Age Changes; (IV) Speedand Accuracy of Movement; practical measures to dealwith problems of oldage (V) Some Implications may best be taken. Chapter titles of Slowing; (VI) Translation indicate contents: Processes;(VII) Perception; (I) On the Nature ofAge Changes in Performance; (VIII) ProblemSolving; (IX) Learning and Memory;(X) Adaptibility; (XI) (II) On the Nature or Skill;(III) Methods of Studying Con- cluding Remarks. (133)

34 LEARNING THEORY AND RESEARCH (GENERAL) BORGER, ROBERT and A. E. M. SEABORNE. The to various questions related to the learning process. psychologyof learning.Baltimore:Penguin (USCSC 2, edited) (136) Books, 1966. 249 pp.

The various theories of learning, along witha sampling of supportive experiments,are reviewed in language understandable by students of psychology, teachers, and readers with little background in the study DEESE, JAMES and STEWART E. HULSE. The psy- of psychology. The chapter titles describe the contents: chology of learning. 3rd edition. New York: (1) Introduction; (2) An Analysis of Simple Learning McGraw-Hifi, 1967. 514 pp. Situations;(3) ReinforcementandMotivation; (4) Theories of Learning; (5) The Development of Learn- This edition has been reorganized to bring ing Capacity; (6) Behavior and Perceptual Organization; together into individual chapters processes rather than (7) Skill;(8) TheRetentionof LearnedMaterial; topics. Designed for undergraduate and graduate stu- (9) Concepts and the Use of Language; (10) Learning dents in psychology, the text is also useful to those with TheoryandAbnormal Behavior; (11) Programmed no particular background in psychology. Early chapters Learning; (12) Learning and Education. Recommended stress the basic process of conditioning in learning, readings and an index are included. (134) relying heavily upon information derived from the animal laboratory. Chapter 1 presents an introduction to the psychology of learning, the beginning sections offering review and the latter new material. Chapters 2 and 3 deal with reinforcement, the former emphasizing data and definition of basic concepts, the latter showing in a selective way how data have been handled by BRUNER, JEROME S. On knowing: essays for the left theory. Chapters 4-7 treat extinction, patterns of rein- hand. Cambridge, Mass.: The Belknap Press of forcement, generalization and discrimination in the Press, 1962. 165 pp. learning process, and the roles of emotion and motiva- tion in that process. Chapter 5, on patterns of reinforce- This collection of 10 occasional essays is divided ment, fits the traditional topics of partial reinforcement into three parts. Essays in the first part deal with the act and schedules of reinforcement into a broader view of of knowing itself and how it is shaped and in turn gives the effects of changing conditions of reward upon form to language, science, literature, and art. Those in learning. Topics of specific concern to human learning the second part deal with the nature of teaching and are treated beginning with Chapter 8. Verbal learning learning. Essays in the final part examine how one's and the learning of skills provide the major topics. conception of realityinfluencesaction and commit? Chapter 8 introduces problems and methods in the study ment. (135) of acquisition. Succeeding chapters deal with special theoretical problems such as mediation, transfer, reten- tion, and concept learning. A final chapter built around the topic of learning skills introduces some matters of basic theoretical importance in the study of perceptual- motorskills.Chapterstitlesare:(1) Introduction; (2) Reinforcement and Learning; (3) Some Theoretical BUGELSKI, B. R. The psychology of learning. New Issues; (4) Extinction; (5) Patterns of Reinforcement; York: Henry Holt and Company, 1956. 523 pp. (6) Generalization and Discrimination; (7) Learning and the Concepts of Emotion and Motivation; (8) The The author attempts to clarify the major issues in Experimental Analysis of Verbal Learning; (9) Theoreti- the controversial fields of learning and 1..otivation. The cal Problems in Verbal Learning; (10) Transfer and contributions of individual theorists are presented in a Training; (11) Retention and Forgetting; (12) Concept manner comprehensible to the unsophisticated student, Learning; (13) Problems in the Acquisition of Skill. and major premises of each are considered as thy apply References and an index are included. (137)

35 DEWEY, JOHN. How we think; a restatement of the and (8) problem solving. Eachtype begins with a different relation of reflective thinking to the educative state of the organism and ends witha different capabil- process. Boston: D. C. Heath & Company,1933. ity for performance. Each variety 301 pp. depends on learning of the preceding type(s). The ideasof some earlier theorists are briefly discussed in relation to the author's "No one can tell another theory. person in any definite (139) way how he should think, anymore than how he ought to breathe or to have his bloodcirculate. But the various ways in which men do think can be told and can be GINSBERG, ROSE, JOHN C. McCULLERS,JOHN J. described in their generalfeatures. Some of theseways are better than others MERYMAN, CALVIN W. THOMSONand ....The better way of thinking ROBERT S. WITTE. A reviewof efforts to that is to be considered in thisbook is called reflective organize information about thinking.... human learning, " Part and chapter headings (andselected transfer,andretention section topics) further indicate (AMRL-TR-66-23). content and organiza- Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio: tion: Part I, The Problem of Training Air Force Thought(1) What Systems Command, Aerospace Medical Is Thinking? (different meanings Division, of thought, the central Aerospace Medical ResearchLaboratories, March factorinthinking,phases of reflectivethinking); 1966. (2) Why Reflective ThinkingMust Be an Educational Aim; (3) Native Resources in Training Thought (curios- "In this report, 14 effortspertaining to organi- ity, suggestion, orderliness); (4)School Conditions and zing available information the Training of Thought (methods on human learning, transfer, and conditions, the and retention are summarizedand evaluatedon six influence of the habits of others,the influence of the criteria: nature of studies, the influence of behavioral significance ofcategories, scope, current aims and objectivity and reliability of categories,prognosis for the ideals); Part II, LogicalConsiderations(5) The Process and Product of Reflective system, logical structures, and heuristicvalue of the Activity: Psychological Pro- system. Attention is also given cess and Logical Form; (6) Examples of to several other sources Inference and of guidance for organizinginformation on human Testing; (7) Analysis of ReflectiveThinking; (8) The Place of Judgment in learning. The review indicatesat least six majorap- Reflective Activity; (9) Under- proaches to a taxonomy of human standing: Ideas and Meanings; (10) learning. The bases Understanding: Con- for these different approachesare: (1) general or limited ception and Definition; (11)Systematic Method: Con- trol of Data and Evidence; theoretical factors, (2) conditions oflearning including (12) Systematic Method: the learner, (3) individualdifferences, (4) physical char- Control of geasoning ancKoncepts;(13)Tmpirical, and acteristics of learning tasks, (5) taskcharacteristics in Scientific Thought; Part III, TheTraining of Thought relation to empirical variables, (15) From the Concrete and (6) task character- to the Abstract; (16) Language istics in relation to learning and the Training of Thought principles. In somecases the (language as the tool of approaches are combined. Themajor conclusion is that thinking, the abuse of linguisticmethods in education, although some contributions theuseof language have been made toa initseducational bearings); general organization of information (17) Observatioa andInformation in the Training of on human learning, intense and detailed efforts towarda comprehensive Mind (the nature and valueof observation, methods and taxonomy are only ina preliminary formative phase. An materials of observation in theschools, communication empirically grounded and logicallysound taxonomy ofa of information); (18) TheRecitation and the Training of wide range of learning situations Thought (false ideas aboutthe recitationreciting will contribute substan- versus tially to the use of existinginformation and to the reflecting, the evils ofpassivity, the function of the guidance of future research."(ASTD) (140) recitation, the conduct of therecitation, the function of the teacher, appreciation);(19) Some General Conclu- sions (the unconscious andthe conscious,process and product). There isan index. (138) HILGARD, ERNEST R. Abasic reference shelfon learning theory (SeriesI. Using Educational Media: Guides to the GAGNE,ROBERT M. Varieties of learning. Literature). Stanford, IN HIS The Calif.: Stanford University,Institute for Com- conditions of learning. New York:Holt, Rinehart munication Research, ERIC & Winston, 1965. pp.31-61. Clearninghouse on Educational Media and Technology,September 1967. 17 pp. Eight types of learningare presently distinguish- able: (1) signal learning (classical conditioning); (2) stim- The paper is divided intotwo main sections: I, ulus-response learning (operantconditioning); (3) chain- Some "Principles" ing(two PotentiallyUseful in Practice or more stimulus-responseconnections); (1) Principles Emphasized (4) verbal association (verbal Within the S-R Theory; chains); (5) multiple dis- (2) Principles Emphasized crimination; (6) concept learning; (7) Within Cognitive Theory; and principle learning; (3) Principles from Motivationand Personality Theory; 36 II,ApproachestoPractical Problems Via Unified tioning; (5) Skinner's Operant Conditioning; (6) Hull's Theories(1) Applications of Gutherie's Contiguous Systematic Behavior Theory; (7) Tolman's Sign Learn- Conditioning; (2) Applications of Skinner's Operant ing; (8) Gestalt Theory; (9) Freud's Psychodynamics; Conditioning; (3) Drive-Reinforcement Theory Applied (10) Functionalism; (11) Mathematical Learning Theory; in the Miller-Dollard Version; and (4) The Applicability (12) InformationProcessingModels;(13) Neuro- of Gagne's Hierarchical Model. A short bibliographyon physiology of Learning; (14) Recent Developments: I, learning theory and its applications is included. (141) The Basic Conditions of Learning and Retention; (15) Recent Developments: II, Discrimination Learning and Attention; and (16) Learning and the Technology of HILGARD, ERNEST R. Methods and procedures in the Instruction. References and subject and author indexes study of learning. IN Stevens, S. S. (ed.). Hand- are included. (143) book of experimental psychology. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1951. pp. 517-567.

The chapter deals primarily with the problem of HILL, WINFRED F. Learning: a survey of psychological making learning situations quantifiable and presents interpretations. San Francisco: Chandler Publish- experiments designed to measure learning behavior. An ing Company, 1963. 227 pp. attempt is made to demonstrate that a single experiment can provide information about only limited aspects of This introductory survey of contemporary learn- learning and that an integrated plan of attack is needed ing theories is designed to provide a fairly elementary to obtain comprehensive answers about learning. The but solid account of interpretations of learning for relevance of the experiments to generalizations about students in the psychology of learning and in educa- learning is of secondary concern, that subject being more tional psychology. Chapter 1, Understanding and Ex- fully treated in other sections of the book in which the plaining Learning, provides an introduction to learning chapter appears. The eight main sections of the chapter theory and its uses. Chapter 2, Contiguity Theories in are: (1) Typical Experiments: Situations Used with Both the Connectionist Tradition, Chapter 3, Reinforcement Lower Animals and Human Subjects (negative adapta- Theories in the Connectionist Tradition, and Chapter 4, tion or habituation, classical conditioning, instrumental Cognitive Interpretations of Learning, deal with relative- or operant conditioning, the puzzle box or problem box, ly nontechnical interpretations of learning oriented delayed-reaction experiments, the discrimination experi- toward educational and other applications. Chapter 5, A ment, the alley maze, the temporal maze, multiple Major Formal Connectionist Theory, and Chapter 6, choice, detour (insight) problems, reasoning problems, Compromise and Emergent Theories, treat more techni- social learning); Situations Used Primarily or Exclusively cal interpretations. Chapter 7, Recent Developments, in the Study of Human Learning (rote memorization and and Chapter 8, Learning Theory Present and Future, retention, verbal reasoning and concept formation, explore variousaspects of current learning theory, motor skills); (2) Classical Conditioned Response Experi- highlighting unsettled issues and attempting to predict ments; (3) Experiments on Operant or Instrumental future trends. References, suggestions for further read- Conditioning;(4) Maze and DiscriminationExperi- ings, an index of names, an index of topics, and a partial ments? (5) Experiments on Motor Skills; (6) Experi- glossary are included. (144) ments on Memorization and Retention; (7) Learning Curves as Analytic Devices; and (8) Next Steps in the Study of Learning. A list of references is included. (142) LAWSON, REED. Learning and behavior. New York: Macmillan, 1960: 447 pp. HILGARD, ERNEST R. and GORDON H. BOWER. Theories of learning. 3rd edition. New York: This is a psychological study of the basis of Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1966. 661 pp. learning, from simple habit formation to interactions of habits, and the acquisition of habits in complex situa- This book provides an orientation to the main tions. (USCSC 2, edited) (145) influences on learning theory prominent in the first half of this century and rates how they are represented in contemporary experimentation and theorizing. Note is also taken of the newer developments not well coordi- Learning. National Educational Association journal, nated with these by now "classical" theories, and in view March 1963. pp. 20-32. of the importance of new technologies of instruction, attentionisalso given to them. The chapter titles This is a special feature by the National Educa- indicatethe contents:(1) The Nature of Learning tion Association magazine covering various aspects of Theories; (2) Thorndike's Connectionism; (3) Pavlov's learning. Articles are as follows: "What do We Know Classical Conditioning; (4) Guthrie's Contiguous Condi- About Learning," by Goodwin Watson; "Roadblocks to

37 Learning," by Bruno Bettelheim; "Structurein Learn- NIBLETT, W. R. (ed.). How and why dowe learn? ing," by Jerome S. Bruner; "Learningto be Free," by London: Faber and Faber, 1965. 196pp. Carl R. Rogers; and "Learning Through Inquiry,"by J. Richard S. Suchman. (ASTD) (146) Originally presented in a series of public lectures at the University of London Institite of Education, the nine essays included in the book are divided intotwo main parts. The six essays of Part Oneare by psychol- McKEACHIE, W. J. Understanding the learningprocess. ogists and stress the importance of environmental factors Journal of English education 51:5,February in learning: The remaining three essays of Part Two deal 1961. pp. 405-408. with aspects of informal or non-academic learning. Contents are: (1) Learning versus Teaching, by Stephen This is a discussion of several principles and Wiseman; (2) Perception, Intuition, and Insight, by Doris aspects of effective learning: practice, knowledge of M. Lee; (3) Learning to Think, by W. D. Wall; (4) Pro- results, activity, organization, and transfer. (HumRRO) grammed Learning, by Harry Kay; (5) How Doesa (147) Group Learn. to Work Together, by BenMorris; (6) Learning to Deal with Mass Persuasion, by Richard Hoggart; (8) Learning to Enjoy, by Stephen Potter; MEDNICK, 3ARNOFF A. Learning. Englewood Cliffs, (9) Learning to Live in a Heterogeneous World, by Sir NJ.: Prentice-Hall, 1964. 118 pp. Hugh Foot. (150) The book is designed as a text for introductory college-level courses in the psychology of learning. THORNDIKE, EDWARD L. Human learning.Cam- Chapter titles and topic headings indicate the contents: bridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 1931. 206pp. (1) Some Examples of Researchon Learning (How Learning Is Studied, Motivation, Learning and Higher This book contains a series of 12 lectures. Their Mental Processes); (2) The Language and Methods of titles are: (1) Introduction: The Influence of the Fre- Learning (The Use of Animals, What Is Learning?, The quency of Occurrence of a Situation; (2) The Influence Language of Learning, The Importance of Reward); of the Frequency of Occurrence ofa Connection: The (3) Simple Learning:Classical Operant Conditioning; Principle of Belonging; (3) The Influence of the After- (4) Complex Habits (Serial Learning, The Major Phe- Effects of a Connection; (5) New Experimental Datais nomena of Serial Learning, The Learning of Concepts, the After-Effects of a Connection; (6) Identifiability, The Acquisition of Skill); (5) Motivation and Learning Availability, Trial, and System; (7) Other Facts Concern- (Motivation as an Energizer, Motivationas a Stimulus, ing Mental Connections: Conditioned Reflexes and Motivation as Something to Be Reinforced, The Need Learning;(8) PurposivenessandLearning:Gestalt for Change and Rest); (6) Transfer of Training (What TheoryandLearning;(9) IdeationalLearning; Transfer Is, Learning How to Learn); (7) Remembering (10) Thinking and Reasoning; (11) The Evaluation of and Forgetting (Measuring Memory, The Nature of Learning in General; and (12) The Evaluation of Learn- Forgetting, Short-Term Memory). A list of selected ing in Recent Times: Future Possibilities. A bibliography readings and an index are included. (148) of references in the text and an index are included. (151) MELTON, ARTHUR W. (ed.). Categories of human learning. New York: Academic Press, 1964.356 TRAVERS, ROBERT M. W. Essentials of learning:an pp. overview for students of education. 2nd edition. New York: Macmillan, 1967. 560pp. A 1962 symposium studied the interrelationships of seven different categories of human learning.Seven This text on the psychology of learning isa papers were presented; each was discussed. Titles were: comprehensive overview of current knowledge, with Classical and Operant Conditioning, by David A. Grant; some emphasis on theoretical issues and problems to be The It, lresentativeness of Rote Verbal Learning,by solved. Some implications of research resultsare given Brentol J. Underwood; Probability Learning, by William but no specific classroom proceduresare suggested. Each K. Estes; Short-Term Memory and Incidental Learning, chapter has a summary. An epilogue lists 66 generaliza- by Leo Postman; The Concept of the Concept, by tions useful in the management of learning, and suggests Howard H. Kelidler; Perceptual-Motor Skill Learning, by problems in the design of teaching methods. A 26-item Paul M. Fitts; and Problem Solving, by Robert M. Gagne. bibliography and an index are included. Chaptersare: Included also is Arthur W. Melton's "The Taxonomy of (1) Some Approaches to Learning; (2) Fundamental Human Learning: Overview." Eachpaper and discussion Concepts in Research on Learning; (3) Reinforcement has a list of references, and the entire collection is and Learning; (4) Generalization, Discrimination, and indexed by names and subjects. (149) the Development of Stimulus Control; (5) Concept

38 Learning and Verbal Learning; (6) Motivation; (7)The WOODWORTH, ROBERT S. and HAROLD SCHLOS- Nervous System and Learning; (8) TheTransfer of BERG. Experimental psychology. Revised edition. Training; (9) Developmental Processes in Relationto New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1954. Learning; (10) Some Acquisition and RetentionPhe- nomena; (11) Problem Solving and Decision Making; This book covers experimental psychology in (12) SocialFactorsInfluencingLearning; (13) The general. Chapters on learning include the following Learning of Attitudes; (14) Perceptual and Phenomenol- titles:(1) Learning: Introductory Survey, (2) Condi- ogical Approaches to Learning; (15) The Measurement tioning, (3) Discrimination Learning, (4) Maze Learning, of Some Mediating Processes Involved in Learning: (5) Motivation in Learning and Performance, (6) Trans- Aptitudes; (16) Learning Theory and the Mechanization fer and Interference, and (7) Economy in Learning and of the Classroom. (152) Performance. (HumRRO) (153)

39 LEARNING THEORYAND RESEARCHSPECIFIC TYPESAND ASPECTS

AUSUBEL, DAVID P. The psychologyof meaningful meaningful learning materialisattributable to two verbal learning: an introductionto school learn- factors:(1) theselectivemobilization of the most ing. New York: Grune & Stratton,1963. 255 pp. relevant existing concepts inthe learner's cognitive structure for integrative use as part of the subsuming This indexed volumeon the major cognitive focus for the new learning task; and (2) the provision of learning activitiesin schools organizes the relatively optimal anchorage for the learning material in the form sparse research on the subject according toa unified of relevant and appropriate subsuming concepts ata theory of verbal "reception" learning andits retention. proximate level of inclusiveness. Greater use of appropri- This theory distinguishes between"rote-meaningful" ate advance organizers in the teaching of meaningful and "reception-discovery" learning andsuggests a con- verbal material leads to more effective retention andcan cept of "meaning" based on nonarbitrary, substantive render unnecessary much of the rote memorization to relatability to cognitive structure. It distinguishesbe- which students resort because they are required to learn

tween logical and psychological meaning and between thedetails of a discipline.before having available a rote and meaningful learning processes. Atwo-stage sufficient number of key subsuming concepts. (155) subsumption process is suggested wherebynew material is meaningfully incorporated into and retained within cognitive structure. Dissociability strength isseen as a BANDURA, ALBERT and RICHARD H. WALTERS. criterion of meaningful retention. The centrality of Social learning and personality development. properties of relevance, stability, clarity, and discrimin- New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1963. 329 ability in the efficient learning and retention ofnew pp. materialareincluded inthis concept. A cognitive structure concept of transfer is proposed and derivative A set of social-learning principles that emphasize versus correlative subsumption is discussed. Principles of the role of social, variables to a greater extent than progressive differentiation and integrative reconciliation, currentlearningtheoriesareoutlined. The socio- both with respectto the organization of cognitive behavioristic approach used integrates the authors' own structure and as ways of programming new material,are research findings with findings obtained from controlled discussed. The cognitive "organizer" technique of didac- investigations in child development and social psychol- tic exposition, the psychological and educational signifi- ogy, as well as traditional experimental psychology. The cance of the concrete-abstract dimension of cognitive chapter titles describe the contents: (1) The Socio- development, and the psychological and educational Behavioristic Approach (principles of social learning, limitations of learning by discoveryare explained. methodological problems); (2) The Role of Imitation; Practice and instructional materialsare reinterpreted in (3) Reinforcement Patterns and Social Behavior (aggres- terms of their influence on cognitive structure, and in sion, dependency, sex behavior); (4) The Development terms of the mediational effects of cognitive structure of Self-Control; (5) The Modification of Behavior (meth- on their actions. References follow each chapter.(154) ods of producting behavioral change, some theoretical issues). A list of references and author and subject indexes are included. (156) AUSUBEL, DAVID P. The use of advance organizers in the learning and retention of meaningful verbal material.Journalof BRADFORD, LELAND P.(ed.). Forces in learning 51:5, 1960. pp. 267-272. (Selected Reading Series no. 3). Washington, D.C.: National Training Laboratory and National The learning and retention of unfamiliar but Education Association, 1961. 102 pp. meaningful verbal material can be facilitated by the advance introduction of relevant subsumingconcepts Articles under the following titles support the (organizers), because cognitive structure is hierarchically idea that tradition in education has prevented major organized in terms of highly inclusive concepts under changes in the practice of teaching, but must give way to which are subsumed lessinclusive subconcepts and recognition of group, social, and emotional forces and informational data. The facilitating influence of advance their influence on learning: The Teaching-Learning organizers on the incomparability and longevity of Transaction, by Leland P Bradford; Teacher-Pupil Con-

40 tacts and Mental Hygiene, by Ned A. Flanders; The essays by various authorities. The book is interdisciplin- Learner and the Classroom Group, by Ronald Lippitt; ary in nature and has borrowed theory and fact from Developing Potentialities Through Class Groups, by such fields as linguistics, , the psychol- Leland P. Bradford; Sociopsychological Processes of ogy of cognition and verbal learning, developmental Group Instruction, by Jack R. Gibb; Classroom Social psychology, anthropology, sociology, and education. Structure as a Mental Health Problem, by Ronald Lippitt The book represents each discipline within the frame- and Martin Gold; Power Conflict in Classrooms and work of the general objectivegreater knowledge and Motivation for Learning, by David H. Jenkins; The understanding of instruction in language and thought. It Learning Process During Human Relations Training, by is divided into 10 sections, each with an introduction by Matthew B. Miles; University Training in Human Rela- the editor: (1) The Study of Language: In the Beginning tions Skills, by Jane Srygley Mouton and Robert R. was the Sound (the relation of language mastery and the Blake; Case Methods in the Training of Administrators, various intellectual processes); (2) Language, Thought, by Kenneth D. Benne. (157) and Culture: Linguistic Trickery (the relation of lan- guage and thought to culture); (3) Language and Social Class: Cognitive Disadvantage (identification of social BRIGGS, LESLIE J. and NANCY RUSSELL HAMIL- class differences in linguistic and cognitive behavior); TON. Meaningful learning and retention: practice (4) Language and Meaning: The Union of Mind and and feedback variables. Review of educational Body (the question of the meaning of meaning and how research 34:5, December 1964. pp. 545-558. meaning is acquired); (5) Instruction in Reading: From Phoneme to Grapheme; (6) The Study of Thought; In the research reportedinthisarticle, the (7) The Development of Language and Thought: Ages investigators who carried out a large proportion of the and Stages: (8) Language and Learning: How Do We studies concerned with practice and reinforcement in Acquire Language; (9) Language and Problem Solving; verbal learning employed rote memorizalion or problem and (10) Instruction in Language and Thought: There solving as experimental tasks. Results from these studies May Be a Will Without a Way. Indexes of names and are difficult to apply to education, because these tasks subjects are included. (159) differ so much from classroom learning. Comparisons of particular autoinstructional programs with certain in- stances are difficult to interpret because experimental FLEISHMAN, EDWIN A. The description and predic- variables are not explicitly described. In general, when tion of perceptual-motor skill learning. IN Glaser, tasks lend themselves to much internal cognitive struc- Robert (ed.). Training research and education. turing,thefunction of practiceisto provide the Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1962. occasion for such structuring. For rote learning, the pp. 137-175. functionof practiceisto provide relatively more instances of prompting, responding, contiguity, and The facts of individual differences have rele- feedback, in order to strengthen the desired response, to vance to the requirements of tasks to be learned. The dissociateit from conflicting responses, and to bring interaction of treatment effects with individual differ- disinhibition. In relation to prompting and confirmation, ence variables isof major theoretical and practical the most clear-cut results of the review can be expressed. significance. The study of ability variables and the When the student needs only to acquire, by rote, the learning of perceptual-motor tasks assists understanding ability to reproduce a verbal task, repeated trials under of perceptual-motor performance, and may be useful in full prompting are sufficient, with or without overt predicting later proficiency as well as in the structuring responding or feedback. When the student must dis- of training. This chapter summarizes research con- cover how to define the goal or how to reach it, some cerned with the isolation of ability variables productive combination of prompting, responding, and feedback of high proficiency levels in perceptual-motor skill learn- appears optimal. When it is necessary to employ some ing. (160) device external to the task itself to keep the student working, reinforcement through reward or, perhaps, vicarious reinforcements may need to be added to GAGNE, ROBERT M. (ed.). Learning and individual prompting and feedback conditions. A bibliography is differences. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill included. (158) Books, 1967. 265 pp.

A 1965 symposium of the Learning Research and DeCECCO, JOHN P. (ed.). The psychology of language, Development Center, University of Pittsburgh, con- thought, and instruction. New York: Holt, Rine- sidered the question of how people differ in the rate, hart & Winston, 1967. 446 pp. extent, style, and quality of their learning. Each chapter contains a major paper immediately followed by a The problem of instruction in language and discussant's comments. The volume as a whole provides thought is the organizing principle of this selection of 43 a survey of views on the problem of individual differ-

41 ences in learning. The major papers include: (1) Some from learning to tasks of the job. If these are all Implications of Previous Work on Learning and Individ- systematically controlled by a machine or by an other- ual Differences, by Robert Glaser; (2) How Can Instruc- wise well-designed learning situation, there are great tion be Adapted to Individual Differences?, by Lee J. possibilities for increasing the efficiency of learning. In Cronbach; (3) Individual Differences in Verbal Learn- learning to identify, to follow procedures, and to use ing, by James J. Jenkins; (4) Individual Differences and concepts, there are two classes of manipulatable condi- Problem Solving, by Richard C. Anderson; (5) Individ- tions: (1) "readiness factors," which are the motiva- ual Differences in "Attention": The Orienting Reflex, tional or preparatory conditions that make the trainee by Irving Maltzman; (6) Varieties of Individual Dif- ready for learning; and (2) "associative factors," which ferences in Learning, by Arthur R. Jensen; (7) Indi- are the stimulus conditions that determine which spe- vidual Performance, R-R Theory and Perception, by cificassociations are formed and how strong these Murray Glanzer; (8) Individual Differences and Motor associations are relative to competing associations. Read- Learning, by Edwin A. Fleishman; (9) The Relation of iness factors include (1) motivation, (2) reinforcement, IQ and Learning, by David Zeaman and Betty J. (3) taskset, and (4) attention, or intent to learn. House; (10) Simulation of Cognition and Learning: The Associative factors include (1) the nature of the associa- Role of Individual Differences, by Paul M. Kjelder- tiontobeestablished,(2) intratrialfactors,and gaard; and (11) Individual Differences and Theoretical (3) intertrial factors. It is important to determine how Process Variables: General Commentson the Confer- far each of these variables, or combinations of them, can ence, by Arthur W. Melton. Each paper includes a list be pushed in order to make learning efficient. (163) of references and the entire collection is indexed by author and subject. (161)

GAGNE, ROBERT M. Problem solving. IN Melton, GAGNE, ROBERT M. and NOEL E. PARADISE. Arthur W. (ed.). Categories of human learning. Abilities and learning sets in knowledge acquisi- New York: Academic Press, 1964. pp. 293-317. tion. Psychological monographs 75:14, Whole No. 518,1961. 23 pp. Certain variables govern problem solving as a form of learning. Dependent variables include (1) rate of Individual differences in rate of completion of attainment of some criterion performance, and (2) de- and achievement in learning programs result primarily gree of correctness of this performance. The indepen- from the fact that individuals begin the task of learning dent variables are (1) the stimulus situation and (2) a set with different amounts and kinds of knowledge, and of instructions. The instructions are intended to change only secondarily from a difference in basic abilities or in the subject's behavior in four ways by: (1) identifying general intelligence. A set of subordinate capabilities new stimuli; (2) identifying the expected form of the called "learning sets," arranged in a hierarchy such that terminal performance; (3) recalling previously acquired any learning set may have several learning sets subordi- capabilities; and (4) chaneling thinking in a relevant nate to it, are relevant to any task. In order for learning direction. The most important difference between prob- to occur at any point in the hierarchy, each of the lem-solving and other forms of learning is that the learning sets subordinate to a given task must be highly learning situation for problem-solving never includes recallable and integrated by a thinking process into the performances which could, by simple summation, consti- solution of the problem posed by the task. A substantial tute the criterion performance. Problem-solving is the proportion of the variance in learning program perfor- most complex form of human learning. The suggested mance is attributable to the attainment or nonattain- ordering of types of learning is: (1) response learning; ment of learning sets relevant to the final task which the (2) chaining; (3) verbal learning; (4) concept learning; program isdesigned to teach. An ideally effective (5) principle learning; and (6) problem-solving. Problem- learning program has the effect of reducing the perfor- solving requires the establishment of a process which mance variance attributable to number and pattern of combines two or more previously learned rules in a relevant learning sets to zero, since in such a program all higher-order rule. (162) learning sets are attained by everyone. General intelli- gence and relevant basic abilities relate to the time taken by the learner to attain any or all of the relevant learning GAGNE, ROBERT M. and ROBERT C. BOLLES. A sets, including the final task. The relation of basic and review of factorsinlearning efficiency. IN general abilities to achievement (as opposed to learning Galanter, Eugene (ed.). Automatic teaching: The rate) is more difficult to predict. According to this state of the art. New York: John Wiley & Sons, theory of learning set hierarchy, the frames of a program 1959. pp. 13-53. should be designed in such a way that they (1) consti- tutean ordered sequence logically reated to the There are certain manipulatable conditions of hierarchy of learning sets for the desired final task; learning which may be used to ensure maximum transfer (2) provide for recallability of subordinate learning sets;

42 and (3) furnish the guidance to thinking whichwill knowledge of the nature of the formation of learning enable the learner to integratesubordinate learning sets sets could be of such importance to educational theory in the performance of new tasks. (164) and practice as to justify prolonged and systematic inves- tigation. (166)

GROSE, ROBERT R. andROBERT C. BIRNEY (eds.). Transfer of learning:an enduring problem in psychology. New York: D.Van Nostrand Com- HUNT, EARL B. Concept learning;an information pany, 1963. 194 pp. processing problem. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1962. 286 pp. This book reportson studies of transfer of training. Contents include: (1)The influence of Im- provement in One Mental Function "An attempt has been made to bring together upon the Efficiency some of the relevan4, milterial from fields of logic, of Other Functions, byEdward L. Thorndike; (2) Recip- rocal Improvement in psychological theory, and electronic computers." Chap- Learning, by Peter Sandiford; ter headings further indicate content and organization: (3) An Experimental Test of the Law of Assimilation, by (1) The Nature of Concept Learning; (2) Analysis of the K. S. Yum; (4) Transfer ofTraining in Reasoning, by Problem; (3) Concept Learning and Basic Learning; M. C. Barlow; (5) Transferof Training in Learningto Hit (4) Stimulus Organization; (5) Memory and Concept a Submerged Target, by Gordon Hendricksonand Learning; (6) Strategies of Concept Learning; (7) Arti- William H. Schroeder; (6) TheSimilarity Paradox in ficial Intelligence; (8) An Information-Processing Model Human Learning: A Resolution,by Charles E. Osgood; (7) Stimulus Predifferentiation: of Concept Learning; (9) Concept Formation by Arti- Some Generalizations ficial Intelligence; (10) The Near Future. (167) and Hypotheses, by MalcolmD. Arnoult; (8) Transfer of Learning, by J. M. Stephens; (9)Transfer to a Motor Task as Influenced by Conditionsand Degree of Prior Discrimination Training, by Albert E.Goss and Norman Greenfeld; (10) The Transfer Vilueof Given and Indi- vidually Derived Principles, by G.M. Hoslereed and KELLER, FRED S. Learning: reinforcement theory. Shirley Meyers; (11) A Comparison of Three Varieties of New York: Random House, 1954. 37pp. Training in Human Problem Solving, byLloyd Morrisett, Jr., and Carl J. Hovland; (12) Problem Solving Behavior The reinforcement theory of learning isex- and Transfer, by Rudolph W. Schulz;and (13) On plainedindetail;itsprinciplesareidentified and Transfer and the Abilities of Man, byGeorge A. Fergu- clarified, and their interrelationships and possible son. exten- (165) sions indicated. Included are discussions of operant and respondent behavior; respondent conditioning;operant conditioning; positive and negative reinforcers; extinc- tion; extinction and negative reinforcement; primary and HARLOW, HARRY F. The formationof learning sets. secondary reinforcement; generalization; discrimination; The 56:1, January1949. differentiation; chaining; and secondary negative rein- pp. 51-65. forcement. Suggestions for further reading anda brief bibliographical essay on these readingsare given. (168) Because the human being isa reasonably rational creature rather than a conditionedresponse robot, the learning of prinnry importanceto him is the formation of learning sets or learning howto learn efficiently. This "learning to learn" transforms theorganism from a creature that adapts to a changing environment bytrial KLEINMUNTZ, BENJAMIN (ed.). Problem solving; and error to one that adapts by seeminghypothesis and research, method, and theory. New York: John insight. The development of certainlearning sets is Wiley & Sons, 1966. 406 pp. extremely orderly, quantifiable, andpredictable. A learning set functions to converta problem which is This book is the result of the first ofan annual initially difficult intoa problem which is so simple as to series of symposia in the area of cognition under the be immediately solvabTe. Thus, theformation of a sponsorship of Carnegie Institute of Technology. Partial learning set leaves the organism freeto attack problems contents are: Current Trends in Problem Solving, by of another hierarchy of difficulty. Muchof the current Bert F. Green, Jr.; Human Problem Solving: Internal and research on learning theory forgetsthe experience External Events, by Robert M. Gagne; An Operant variable in learning behavior, i.e., thelearning sets which Analysis of Problem Solving, by B. F. Skinner. (USCSC subjects bring to the experimentalsituation. Detailed 1, edited) (169)

43 POSTMAN, LEO. Learned principles oforganization in some uses of these techniques and some personal memory. Psychological monographs 68:3, Whole observations and analyses. These techniques offer inter- no. 374, 1954. pp. 1-24. esting possibilities for improving the retention of techni- cal information. Research on these techniques probably A series of studies is described demonstrating would be profitable." (ASTD) (172) that learned rules of organizationcan systematically influence both amount and quality of retention. The effectiveness of this training increases with retention SMITH, WENDELL I.and J. WILLIAM MOORE. interval. (HumRRO) (170) Conditioning and instrumental learning; a pro- gram for self-instruction. New York: McGraw- Hill, 1966. 169 pp. SEASHORE, ROBERT H. Work and motor perfor- mance. IN Stevens, S. S. (ed.). Handbook of Prepared for beginning college students, this experimental psychology. New York: John Wiley book presents most of the key concepts and principles in & Sons, 1951. pp. 1341-1362. common use in classical conditioning and instrumental training with more thorough treatment of important Gross motor coordination, the activity ofnerves concepts such as reinforcement, extinction, and discrimi- that connect the central nervous system to muscles and nation. The humanistic implications of the models of glands, is manifested as strength, and differs from fine classicalconditioning and instrumental training are motor coordination, in which strength is secondary to presented and recent developments in interoceptive speed and precision. Among the factors underlying conditioning and behavior therapy are included to individual differences in fine motor skillsare these: the provide appreciation of the potential value of condition- musculature is of slight significance; the sensory organ ing models. The material is "semi-programmed": infor- employed is of moderate significance; the pattern of mation is presented in prose rather than programmed movement is likely to be of the greatest significance. form and is followed by a set of frames which (1) teach The "work methods hypothesis" suggests that individual discriminations among concepts; (2) call attention to differences in human ability are attributableto the important material; (3) provide review of information physical constants (innate characteristics) of theorgans sections; or (4) test knowledge of the material. Three involved, the pattern of the component actions used, articles from scientific journals are included to provide and the refinement of these patterns through varying opportunity for the reader to transfer what is learned to strength and timing to produce an optimal pattern of the reading of articles in scientific journals. Reading time action. Empirical evidence indicates that skilled workers for the book ranges from 7-13 hours. A 59-item attain superior results by discovery of qualitative pat- bibliography and an index are included. (173) terns of action (work methods) that make work easier. (171) STAATS, ARTHUR W. (ed.). Human learning: studies extending conditioning principles to complex SENTER, R. J. Review of mnemonics andmnemono- behavior. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, technics for improved memory (AMRL-TR-65- 1964. 520 pp. 180). Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio: Air Force Systems Command, Aerospace Medical The application of learning principles to the Division, Aerospace Medical Research Labora- study of human behavior and its problems isthe tories, Behavioral Sciences Laboratory, Decem- organizing thesis in this selection of 49 essays by various ber 1965. 18 pp. authors, including the editor. The stated aim is twofold: (1) to "focus" this development, and (2) to provide a "A review was made of books on mnemonics and stimulus for it. Several dominant themes are subsumed mnemonotechnics. These are techniques for improving under this aim: (1) the various studies suggest that an the efficiency of memory. These books describe the integration of empirical learning principles and methods effect on memory of common principles of learning, will serve as a general approach to the study of human such as motivation, attention, and rehearsal. They also behavior and its problems; (2) information on contem- illustrate the use of simple mnemonics such as 'ROY G. porary research procedures for this study is described in BIV' for remembering the hues of the visual spectrum. the articles, providing an important set of tools for the More extensive descriptions, however, are provided of empirically minded student of human behavior; (3) the more complex mnemonic systems, such as the so-called articles provide support for the view that learning `hook' or 'peg' systems. With the hook system, informa- psychology is entering upon the phase of a science where tion in serial order is retained by aid of vivid, even basic principles and methods become applicable to the bizarre, visual images. The information to be retained is study and solution of complex problems; (4) the applica- incorporated into a visual image which had been tion of basic principles to complex cases and to actual previously associated with a number. The report includes practical problems is an integral part of the generaliza-

44 tion and verification of the principles and the science. of the authors. Chapter titles are: The Definition of The book is divided into nine chapters: (I) Introduction; Meaningfulness; Meaningfulness and Learning:Initial (II) Child Learning; (III) Verbal Behavior; (IV) Com- Evidence; Frequency and Meaningfulness; Word Struc- munication and Other Functions of Language; (V) ture and Learning Materials; Frequency and the Spew Problem Solving; (VI) Attitude Learning and Human Hypothesis; Initial Experiments on Response Frequency; Motivation; (VII) Social Interaction, Attitude Function, Further Experiments on Response Frequency; Letter Group Cohesiveness, and Social Power; (VIII) Personal- Sequence Habits; Letter Association and Learning; A ity; (IX) Behavioral Treatment. A bibliography and Final Appraisal. Appendixes contain technical data. An author and subject indexes are included. (174) author index is included. (175)

WINNICK, WILMA A. Two sources of distraction in UNDERWOOD, BENTONJ.and RUDOLPH W. incidental learning. The American journal of SCHULZ. Meaningfulness and verbal learning. psychology 79:1, March 1966. pp. 104-110. Chicago: J. B. Lippincott, 1960. 430 pp. One of two experiments showed that incidental The basic experiments on which this book is learning, unlike intentional learning, is unaffected by based were supported by the Office of Naval Research. external distractions. The other experiment showed that The volume is divided into two parts, the first being a internal distraction had no effect on intentional learning summary of the work of other investigators to give a and only a slight effect on incidental learning. Incidental picture of the state of knowledge about meaningfulness learning may be generally immune to distraction either and learning at the time these studies were undertaken. because it occurs under any conditions or because of a The second half is devoted to the experimental analyses high degree of selectivity in incidental learning. (176)

45 PROGRAMMED LEARNING THEORY AND RESEARCH

De CECCO, JOHN P. (ed.). Educational technology, FINE, B. Teaching machines. New York: Sterling Pub- readings in programme nstruction. New York: lishing Company, 1962. 176 pp. Holt, Rinehard & Winston, 1964. 479 pp. This book is written for those with a low level of This collection of readings brings together re- prior knowledge about teaching machines. The course search reports and theoretical discussions of psychol- followed is a build-up of information about teaching ogists and educators who have contributed to the machines written in simple, easy-to-understand language. knowledge about educational tecHology, programmed Some chapter headings are: (1) What is a Teaching learning, and the psychology of learning. The criteria Machine; (2) Programmed Learning; (3) How Do Stu- used for selecting the readings further elaborate this dents Respond; (4) How Do Teachers React; (5) What purpose: (1) readings were chosen that emphasize the Can Teaching Machines Teach; and (6) Research Find- relationship between the psychology of learning and ings. (ASTD) (179) practical applications of this knowledge in educational technology and programmed learning; (2) research re- ports and discussions of research were selected for each of the major variables of programmed material thus far investigated; (3) a few readings were selected in order to familiarize students with the basic concepts, techniques, GAGNE, ROBERT M.and LARRY T. BROWN. Some and mechanical devices that have thus far been em- factors in the programming of conceptual learn- ployed; (4) major research reports, frequently referred ing. Journal of experimental psychology 62:4, to in the informal discussions of the field have been October 1961. pp. 313-321. selected; (5) readings of a more practical nature that deal with the problems of school utilization have been "An experiment was performed to investigate the selected; (6) readings that are critical of many of the effects of certain variations in the programming of unwarrantedly enthusiastic claims made for programmed conceptual learning materials on effectiveness of learning learning and educational technology are included.(177) as measured by performance in a problem-solving situa- tion." Three programs incorporating differences in ex- perimental treatment were used: a rule and example program (using small steps), a discovery program (using very large steps), and a guided discovery program (using smallsteps).Significantlearning occurred withall programs. However, best performance resulted from guided discovery, worst from rule and example, and intermediate from discovery. The finding that a dis- covery method lead to greater transfer than a rule and De GRAZIA, ALFRED and DAVID A. JOHN (eds.). example method was consistent with earlier cited investi- Programs, teachers, and machines. New York: gations. Results were interpreted as suggesting that: Bantam Books, 1964. 309 pp. (1) the guided discovery program led to superior perfor- mance because it required systematic reinstatement (and Articles by leading therapists, psychologists, edu- in this sense, practice) of learned concepts; (2) positive cators, programmers, and research specialists who have transfer of training to a problem-solving situation de- been working with programmed instruction are pre- pends upon the resemblance between what is practiced sented. The aim of the book is to provide the reader in a learning situation and what is used in problem with a sense of perspective about the state of the art. solving; (3) to find the ways of developing effective The thirty-four essays are arranged in five sections: learning priigrams, one must search out the specific (1) Programmed Instruction: Background and Setting; concepts which enter into the chain of events between (2) Programming Theory; (3) Research and Development the stimulus situation and the overt performance itself; in Programmed Instruction; (4) Programmed Instruction and (4) "what is learned" rather than "how it is learned" for Subject Matter Areas; and (5) The Potential of is the crucial factor in problem-solving performance and Programmed Instruction: Evaluation and Use. (178) learning effectiveness. (180)

46 GALANTER, EUGENE (ed.). Automatic teaching: the GLASER, ROBERT (ed.). Teaching machines andpro- state of the art. New York: John Wiley & Sons, grammed learning, II: data and directions. Wash- 1959. 198 pp. ington, D.C.: National Education Association, 1965. 831 pp. These papers, most of which were prepared for thefirst conference in the Art and Science of the Not all authors represented in this collection Automatic Teaching of Verbal and Symbolic Skills (indexed by subject and author)are committed to the (1958), provide informationon automatic teaching and idea of programmed instruction, but theyare convinced are presented to help researchers to isolate parameters. of the validity of teaching methods basedon behavior Titles are: The Ideal Teacher, by Eugene Galanter; A theory and experimental evidence. This volume includes Review of Factors in Learning Efficiency, by Robert M. more reference works than does its companion volume, Gagne and Robert C. Bolles; On Some Methods of Teaching Machines and Programmed Learning I. Seven- Programming, by Jacob Beck; The Programming of teen papers are divided into four sections: Section I, Verbal Knowledge, by B. F. Skinner; A Teaching Perspectivesand Technology(1) Reflectionsona Machine Program in Psychology, by James G. Holland; A Decade of Teaching Machines, by B. F. Skinner; (2) The Program in Elementary Arithmetic: Present and Future, Analysis of Instructional Objectives for the Design of by Susan R. Meyer; Some Effectson Year-Long Teach- Instruction, by Robert M. Gagne; (3) Researchon ing Machine Instruction, by Douglas Porter; Specula- ProgramMing Variables, by James G. Holland; (4) An tions: Characteristics of Successful Programs and Pro- Analysis of Programming Techniques, by David J. Klaus; grammers, by Donald E. P. Smith; Relationships Be- (5) Teaching Machines and Computer-Based Systems, by tweentheProgrammedTextbookandTeaching Lawrence M. Stolurow and Daniel Davis; (6) The Theory Machines, by Lloyd E. Homme and Robert Glaser; and Practice of Adaptive Teaching Systems, by Brian N. Automatic Tutoring by Means of Intrinsic Programming, Lewis and Gordon Pat; (7) Assessing the Effectiveness by Norman A. Crowder; The IBM Research Center of Instructional Programs, by A. A. Lumsdaine; (8) Pro- Teaching Machine Project, by Gustave J. Rath, Nancy S. gramming Classroom Instruction, by Bert Y. Kersh; Anderson, and R. C. Brainerd; Teaching Machines for SectionII,TechnologyandSubjectMatter Training of Military Personnel in Maintenance of Elec- (9) Programming in Mathematics and Logic, byJames L. tronic Equipment, by Leslie J. Briggs; Partial and More Evans; (10) Science Education and Behavioral Technol- Cr:raplete Automation of Teaching in Group and Indi- ogy; (11) Reading and Related Verbal Learning, by vidual Learning Situations, by A. A. Lumsdaine; Skin- Harry F. Silberman; (12) Programmed Instruction in ner's Theory of Teaching Machines, by David Zeaman; English, by Susan Meyer Markle; (13) Programmed TeachingMachines and Psychological Theory, by Learning of a Second Language, by Harlan Lane; Section Howard H. Kendler; Certain Major Psycho-Educational III, Implementation-- (14) School Use of Programmed IssuesAppearingintheConference on Teaching Instruction, by Lincoln F. Hanson and P. Kenneth Machines, by S. L. Pressey. (181) Komoski; (15) The Use of Programmed Instruction in Industry, by H. A. Shoemaker and H. 0. Holt; (16) Use of Programmed Instructional Materials in Federal Gov- ernment Agencies, by Glenn L. Bryan and John A. Nagay; Section N, Directions (17) Towarda Behav- ioral Science Base for Instructional Design, by Robert Glaser. Each paper lists references. (183)

GEIS, GEORGE L. Variety and programmed instruction GREEN, EDWARD J. The learningprocess and pro- or what can't be programmed? AV communica- grammed instruction. New York: Holt, Rinehart tion review 14:1, Spring 1966.pp. 109-116. & Winston, 1962. 228 pp.

Programmed instruction is a process rather thana The author's objective in this book is to bridge product. The programmer is engaged in the specification the information gap between the experimental psychol- and analysis of behavior, not content. This behavior ogist and the teacher. Programmed instruction isseen as orientation makes it possible to developa program to "the first application of laboratory techniques utilized in produce any behavioral goals that can be specified. Any the study of the learning process to the practical traditional content, once it has been categorizedon the problems of education." At present it employs only the basis of specifiability of the outcomes desired,can be of behavioral control techniques. The author programmed. It is not the sole purpose of programmed sugvts that "looking at behavior from the point of instruction to teach rote responses, but rather to teach view of the experimentalist can provide the teacher with crucial concepts. More programs should be developedas fresh insights that need not dehumanize his relationship instruments of concept formation rather than of infor- with his students, but rather affordsa more effective mation passage. (182) teacher-student relationship in the bestsense of the 47 term." The first half of the book deals with behavioral experimentalstudies of procedures for guiding the psychology concepts, the second half with aspects of implicit or overt responses of learners to increase the programmed instruction. There are 76 references and an effectiveness of instruction. The symposium reports the index of names and subjects. Chapter titles further findings of relevant studies that developed out of indicatecontent and organization: (1) Assumptions; militaryresearch programs.All the studies involve (2) Definitions;(3) BasicConditioningProcesses; conscious attention to the manipulation of appropriate (4) Motivation; (5) Complex Processes; (6) Concept of implicit or overt responses by the learner, and most of ProgrammedInstruction;(7) TeachingMachines; them involve techniques for eliciting and/or guiding (8) Techniquesof Programming;(9) Evaluation; overt responses during the course of instruction. They (10) Problems. The appendix contains a statement on do not_ however, represent a fully integrated program- self-instructional materials and devices released by a matic effort, but were conducted under a policy joint committee of the American Educational Research allowing considerable latitude to individual investigators Association, the American Psychological Association, in the formulation of problems and research design. and the Department of Audio-Visual Instruction of the These 31 studies by various authors are divided into National Educational Association. (184) three main parts: (I) Learning Complex Sequential Tasks for Demonstration and Practice; (H) Motor, Perceptual, and Academic Subject-Matter Learning; (III) Studies on HOLLAND, JAMES G. Research on programming vari- Learning of Paired-Associates Material. A bibliography ables. IN Glaser, Robert (ed.). Teaching machines and a name index are included. (186) and programmed learning II: data and directions. Washington, D.C.: National Education Associa- tion, 1965. pp. 66-117. LUMSDAINE, ARTHUR A. and ROBERT GLASER (eds.). Teaching machines and programmed learn- Programming isthe construction of carefully ing: a source book. Washington, D.C.: National arranged sequences of contingencies that lead to certain Education Association, Department of Audio- terminal performances which are the object of educa- Visual Instruction, 1960. 724 pp. tion. A review of experimental research in the variables of programming discloses that: (1) a contingent relation This book of 48 papers (with bibliography and between answer and content is important; (2) the ability author index) is organized into five parts: Purpose and for the contingency to be met (low error rate) has Scope, Pressey's Self-Instructional Test-Scoring Devices, received support; (3) sequencing is important at least for Skinner's Teaching Machines and Programming Con- material that builds progressively. (Principles of progres- cepts, Contributions from Military and Other Sources, sion have been demonstrated in teaching verbal knowl- and Some Recent Werk. One appendix contains ab- edge, shaping skillful response topographies, and estab- stracts of all published papers (and some unpublished lishing or transferring stimulus control; fading of formal material) that deal directly with teaching machines and prompts in teaching isolated stimulus-response associa- programmed learning. (187) tions has not been demonstrated); (4) a range of examples is probably necessary for full comprehension; and (5) for long programs, a public, overt response is MARKLE, SUSAN M. and PHILIP W. TIEMANN. necessary if the material meets the above criteria of a pro- Programming, is a process: an introduction to gram. (185) instructional technology (A Programmed Film). Technicalmanual:thecontent,objectives, measuring instruments, and validation studies. LUMSDAINE, ARTHUR A. (ed.). Student response in Chicago: University of Illinois at Chicago Circle, programmed instruction: a symposium on experi- Office of Instructional Resources, 1967. 25' pp. mental studies of response factors in group and individual learning from instructional media. This manual accompanies a program presented Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sci- via 16mm color film (running time 32 minutes). Each ences, National Research Council, 1961. 555 pp. viewer is provided with a copy of the "student notes," a two-page handout that provides space for directed This book brings together and makes available a note-taking and question-answering and also servesas a group of studies that have relevance both for pro- take-home summary of the program. An instructor's grammed self-instruction by teaching machines and guide and an evaluation sheet are also included. "The related devices and also for sequenced, reproducible program introduces viewers to the basic process of instructional programs presented by films and other instructional technology: programming an instructional media. Some of the distinctions and relationships be- sequence for maximum student learning. The steps of tween thespecialized and more general forms of the programming process, applicable to all media, are programmed instruction are discussed in the introduc- described as a means to (1) prepare instruction resulting tory chapter. The papers collected for this volume report in specific student performance; (2) provide for student

48 interaction with the instructionalprocess; and (3) pro- SILBERMAN, HARRY F.Self-teaching devices and vide for evaluation of instruction in terms ofstudent programmed materials. Review of educational performance" (author's summary). (188) resources 32:2, April 1962. pp. 179-193.

Research on self-teaching devices andprogram- MELCFIING, WILLIAM fl. Measures of abilityand med materials is reviewed, Topics include (1) Summaries programmed instruction performance (HumRRO and Reviews; (2) Program Variables, including (a) Defini- technical report 65-12), Alexandria, Va.: The tion of ponse Modes, (b) Eliciting Desired Responses, George Washington University, Human Resources and (c) Adaptation of Programs to Individual Differ- Research Office, December 1965. 11pp. ences; (3) Comparisons with Conventional Instruction; and (4) Trends and Problems.. (Hund2R0) (193) "The results of several programmed instruction studies recently accomplished by flumRRO Division No. 5 (Air Defense) at Fort Bliss were compared with regard STOLUROW, LAWRENCE M. Teaching by machine to the relationship between measures of ability and (Cooperative Research Monograph no. 6, OE- measures of programmed instruction performance. Al- 34010). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of though there were some exceptions, each abilitymeasure Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Educa- tended to be substantially related to eachmeasure of tion, 1961. program-test performance. The contention that program- med instruction eliminates achievement differences due An extensive treatment of teaching by machine is to intellectual ability was not substantiated." (ASTD) presented in this report. Chapter headingsare (1) Cur- (189) rent Instructional Problems, (2) A Systems Approach to Instruction, (3) Teaching Machines, (4) The Learner, (5) Program and Programming Process, (6) Concepts and Techniques, and (7) ResearchFindings. (Hum12120) RESNICK, L. B. Programmed instruction and the teach- (194) ing of complex intellectual skills: problems and prospects.Harvardeducational review33:2, 1963. pp. 439-471. TABER, JULIAN I., ROBERT GLASER and HAL- MUTH H. SCHAFER. Learning and programmed This article provides a discussion of the implica- instruction.Reading,Mass.:Addison-Wesley, tions of operant conditioning and cognitive theory for 1965. 182 pp. thelearningof complex intellectualskills by pro- grammed instruction. (HuniRRO) (190) This book grew out of a manual developed for the Air Force. The authors' purpose in publishing is indicated by the following statement from the preface: SCHRAMM, WILBUR. The researchon programmed "At the present stage of development of programmed instruction: an annotated bibliography (Bulletin instruction, there is little substitute for research, devel- No. 35, 0E-34034). Washington: U.S. Depart- opment, and demonstration. These efforts, however, ment of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office must take place on the basis of underlying principles and of Education, 1964. not outward appearances. Most published programmed instructional materials have linear, small-step formats, This is an annotated bibliography of 190 research but this format is based on some underlying knowledge reports on programmed instruction published since about the learning process. The improperly initiated 1954. A 15-page introductory summary is provided. practitioner may learn only to imitate the format and (litiniRRO) (191) ignore the principles. It is primarily for thisreason that this book discusses principles as wellas procedures." Content and organizationarefurther indicated by SIEGEL, ARTHUR I. and M. A. FISCHL. Studies in chapter headings and selected topics within chapters: adjunct autoinstruction. Journal of industrial (1) Introductory Overview (instruction objectives; trans- psychology 4:2, 1966. pp. 37-47. fer of stimulus control; prompting and guided discovery; gradual progression; reinforcement; generalization and Adjunctautoinstructionisaform of pro- discrimination; understanding; empirical development); grammed instruction; it is "self-instructionas an adjunct (2) Some Definitions and Operations in Learning and to some primaryteaching method." These studies Instruction (behavior; stimuli; responses; response reper- attempted to determine "the relative effectiveness of toires; reinforcement; extinction; recovery andwarm- adjunct autoinstruction in comparison with presentation up); (3) Stimulus (Subject Matter) Control of Behavior of the same course materials by unaugmented methods." (discriminative behavior; response chaining; motivational (USCS 1) (192) uses of terminal behavior); (4) Analysis of Instructional

49 01*ctives and SubjectMatter Units (a generalproce- dure; specifying search Issues (use in schooland industry; parametric steps' and sequences; tasktaxonomies); (5) The baseline data; terminalbehavior analysis; subjectmatter FrameUnitandPromptingTechniques; (6) Frame Sequences task properties and thelearning process;assessment and Program Characteristics(spe- of entering behavior and cial frame; introductory aptitude; instructionalsequenc- frame; discrimination, general- ing; size of step; richness of ization, chaining, concept formation, experience; form of student practice, review, response; learning rate; response feedback and and terminal behaviorsequences; linear and branching reinforce- ment). References followeach chapter. There isa name programs); (7) ProgramDevelopment; (8) Data and Re- and subject index. (195)

50 iT.saaaaNca .

SYSTEMS THEORY AND APPLICATIONS

ADELSON, MARVIN. The systems approachaperspec- EGBERT, R. L. and COGSWELL, J. F. System design in tive. SDC magazine 9:10, October 1966.pp. 1-3, theBassett High School (TM-1147).Santa Monica, Calif.: System Development Corpora- The systems approach is able to produce "dem- tion, April 1963. onstrably good" or defensible solutions whichmay take many forms. In each case the use of available techniques This report describes the use of system analysis may be different; the systems approach is a creative and design techniques in connection with the develop- process that includes arrangements for all appropriate ment of a high school designed for continuous pro- sources to make relevant contributions. The systems gress. (HumRRO) (199) approach is organized, creative, empirical, theoretical, and pragmatic. System analysis cannotor will not: provide asimplisticset of procedures toarrive at GAGNE, ROBERT M. Learning decisions in education. incontestable conclusions; do everything atonce within IN HIS The conditions of learning. New York: availablefunds and manpower; guarantee,atleast Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1965. pp. 237-266. without considerable work, the transferability of tech- niques developed in other subject domains. (196) The concept of an educational system as an arrangement of people and conditions whose purpose is to bring about learning is introduced. The following areas of decisions which affect the function of an educational system are discussed: learning objectives, the structure of knowledge to be learned, motivation, COGSWELL, JOHN F. The system approachas a conditions for learning, the transferability of knowledge heuristic method in educational developmentan and assessment. There are 12 references. (200) application to the counseling function (SP-720). Santa Monica, Calif.: System Development Cor- poration, March 1962. GAGNE,ROBERT MILLS (ed.). Psychological prin- ciples in system development. New York: Holt A preliminary analysis of the counseling function Rinehart & Winston, 1962. 560 pp. in a city school district is described. Hypotheses for systems research WCie stimulated by viewing the counsel- The procedures for developing systems and the ing function from the systems point of view, particularly psychological principles of these procedures are de- strengthening the interaction between the counseling scribed and explained. Each chapter describes tech- and teaching functions. (HumRRO) (197) niques employed atastage of development, gives examples, and discusses the relationships between the techniques and their psychology. Each chapter has a reference list; the entire book is indexed. Chapter titles and authors are: (1) Psychology and System Develop- ment, by John L. Kennedy; (2) Human Functions in Systems, by Robert M. Gagne; (3) Men and Computers, CORRIGAN, ROBERT E. and ROGER A. KAUFMAN. by Ward Edwards; (4) Human Capabilities and Limita- Why system engineering. Palo Alto, Calif.: Fear- tions, by Joseph W. Wulfeck; (5) Human Tasks and on Publishers, 1965. 71 pp. Equipment Design, by J. S. Kidd; (6) Task Description and Analysis, by Robert B. Miller; (7) The Logic of This programmed book was written "to providea Personnel Selection and Classification, by Paul Horst; thorough overview of the need for applying system (8) AidstoJob Performance, by J. Jepson Wulff; engineering and system functional analysis methodsas (9) Concepts of Training, by Meredith P. Crawford; prerequisites to efficient total system designs." Drawings (10) Training Programs and Devices, by William C. Biel; and flow charts illustrate the text which includes specific (11) Team Functions and Training, by Robert Boguslaw discussion of steps in system design. A self-test and a and Elias H. Porter; (12) Proficiency Measurements: glossary of terms are included. (198) Assessing Human Performance, by Robert Glaser and

51 David J. Klaus; (13) Evaluating System Performance in Language, by H. Putnam; (7) The Abstract Theory of Simulated Environments, by Robert H. Davis and Self-Reproduction, by J. Myhill; (8) Entitation, Ani- Richard A. Behan; and (14) The System Conceptas a morgs, and Other Systems, by R. W. Gerard; (9) Toward Principle of Methodological Decision, by John L. Finan. Approximate Analysis of Linear Dynamic Systems, by (201) W. K. Linville; (10) Invariant Imbedding and the Analy- sis of Processes, by R. Kalaba; (11) System Causality and Signal Predictability, By R. F. Drenick; (12) Introduc- LIKERT, RENSIS. The need fora systems approach. IN tory Remarks at Panel Discussion, by W. R. Ashby; HIS The human organization: its management (13) Remarks on General Systems Theory, by A. Rapo- and values. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967.pp. port; (14) An Approach to General Systems Theory, by 116-127. C. W. Churchman. An index is included. (203) The management system of an organization must have compatible component parts if itis to function ODIORNE, GEORGE S. A systems approach to training. effectively. Experiments in organizations must involve Training directors journal 19:10, October 1965. internally consistent changes. Because the organic integ- pp. 11-19. rity of each system must be maintained while experi- mental variations are being made,a systems approach The author declares that training can be systema- must be used. A planned change should start by altering tized into eight different types which are explained, first the most influential causal variable; then there together with notes on the one to choose for one's own should be systematic plans to modify in coordinated department."Cyberneticsystemsthemodernap- steps all of the operating procedures which now anchor proach" is described along with its advantages. Refer- the organization to its present management system. The ences are included. (USCSC 4, edited) (204) systems principle must also be applied to managerial development activities in order to ensure (1) consistency between the system of management of a company and O'DONNELL, CYRIL J. Managerial training;a system the content of development programs for itsmanagers, approach. Training and development journal and (2) the internal consistency of content ofmanage- 22:1, January 1968. pp. 2-11. ment development courses. Successful business enter- prises are characterized by internally consistent prin- The author explains the management process asa ciples and procedures. The need for consistency and the system so that those who are involved in management systems approach must be considered in all (1) organiza- training can understand its real purpose. He discusses tional research; (2) attempts to improve organizations by problems in managerial appraisal and management by applying research findings; and (3) management develop- results and declares that the end of management training ment programs. (202) must be improvement in the manager's ability to achieve his goals. (USCSC 1, edited) (205) MESAROVIC, MIHAJLO D. (ed.). Views on general systems theory: proceedings of the second sys- O'TOOLE, JOHN F. Approach to decision making in tems symposium at Case Institute of Technology. education. SDC magazine 8:7, July 1965.pp. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1964. 178 pp. 1-16.

The contributions comprising this book represent The need is recognized for a systems analysis slightly revised versions of the talks delivered at the CAP approach in designing and developing more effective Second Systems Symposium. The objective of the educational enterprise. The central idea of the systems symposium was stated as the clarification of the follow- approach to educational system design is that functional ing areas: (1) basic characteristics of general systems components are interrelated and that a complex process theory; (2) review of major developments achieved to can be understood best if it is treated as a whole. This date; (3) statement of current problems of importance; approach viewsasysteminthe broadest possible (4) prospect for the future. The contents are: (1) Foun- perspective, including the system's surrounding social dations for a General Systems Theory, by M. D. Mesaro- and economic environment, and it pays close attention vic; (2) General Systems as a Point of View, by K. E. to the information network binding the interacting Boulding; (3) The Concept of State in System Theory, elements of the system together. No single educational by L. A. Zadeh; (4) General System Theory and Systems problem or organizational level of the systemcan be Research: Contrasting Conceptions of Systems Science, properly assessed or changed independently without by R. L. Ackoff; (5) Constrained Extremization Models consideration of the impact such modifications may and Their Use in Developing Systems Measures, by A. have on other functions and levels of the system. A Charnes and W. W. Cooper; (6) The Compleat Conversa- systems analysis should be focused in the nation's public tionalist: A "Systems Approach" to the Philosophy of education system from elementary level through the

52 college level, and a research effort of unprecedented RYANS, DAVID G. A model of instructionbased on scope and magnitude should be put forthto answer information system concepts. IN Curriculum critical questions about the future direction of our Research Institute. Theories of instruction.Wash- educational program. Four logicalphases for the analysis ington, D.C.: Association for Supervision and tofollow would be a socio-economic analysis, an Curriculum Development, 1965.pp. 36-61. analysis of educational technology research,a search for novel developments, andan evaluation of the overall The paper suggests viewing the teacher results. The systems analysis and approach would achieve pupil as information systems. Several flowcharts are several urgent objectives: identifydeficiencies in educa- included representing the teacher tion and focus attention as an information on the need to improve the processing system, the pupilas an information pro- quality of the educational system; develop public aware- cessingsystem,theinter-actionofteacher-pupil- ness of the importance of education to nationalsecurity situationintheteaching-learning and economic growth; impart process, and the knowledge of possibilities systemic integration ofresources and media in convey- for long-term improvements in theeducational system; ing information to the pupil. A quantitative define priorities for improving model is education and establish presented which may be characterizedas an informa- priority of educational improvementsin relation to tion processing or an information system other national conceptual programs; and show the direction of ization of instruction. Attentionisdirected, firstto continuing research and developmentfor constantly some basic postulates and definitions to provide upgrading the nation's educational a basis enterprise. (206) for discussion of an informationsystem or information processing theory of instruction. An outlineof the instructional model is then presented. Thetopic head- ings are as follows: A Definition of TeacherBehavior; Some Postulates (seven postulates PORTER, ELIAS H. Manpower relating to the con- development: thesys- ceptualiiation of teacher behavior); SomePropositions tem training concept. New York: Harper & Row, Extending the Postulates; The SystemsConcept (sys- 1964. 131 pp. tems defined, inputs and outputs of systems);Informa- tion Defined; Information Processing (decision-making, Attention is given to the roles of theU.S. Air programming of behavior Force and the Rand Corporation's information control); The Systems Research Instructor as an Information ProcessingSystem; The Laboratory in this illustrated and indexedaccount of the Learner or Pupil as an Information Processing evolution of "system training," presented System; so the reader IntegrationofInformation-ProvidingSources;and can apply its ideas to his own concerns. Chaptertitles Some Hypotheses Relating to the Model. are: Introduction: The Climate for Breakthrough; References Sys- are included. (209) tems, Components, and OrganizationalBehavior; Why Study Organizations?; Real-TimeProblems and Scientif- ic Method; Search and Serendipity;Field Test and Expansion; A Field Evaluation ofSystems Training; Adaptations of System Training Concepts. (207)

SEILER, JOHN A. Systems analysis inorganizational behavior. Homewood, Ill.: Richard D. Irwin, PORTER, JOHN H. and PAUL Inc. SWADENER. The and The Dorsey Press, 1967. 219pp. systems concept and quantitative analysis (Pro- grammed learning materialto supplement the Organizational behavioroccurs in a system of chapter of the same title in BusinessAdministra- interdependent forces. These forcescan be analyzed and tion, An Introductory Management Approach, each set in the perspective of the others.The concepts of 3rd edition, by Arthur M. Weimer). Homewood, this indexed book are basic to schemes forinvestigating, Ill.: Richard D. Irwin, 1966. 145pp. diagnosing, and dealing with human-socialaspects of problems in organizational settings. Severalcase studies The bookletisarranged in four sectionsas are included. After an exploration of the character of follows: (1) the systems concept; (2) generalmodels systems and the categories of the scheme set forththe used in business decision makingand the concept of characters of four behavior-determining forces(inputs optimization; (3) the technique of linearprogramming human, social, technical, and organizational) and its applications and .the as an aid to decision making; and dynamic nature of behavior itselfare examined. The (4) game theory and decision making under conditions important elements of the frameworkare then reviewed_ of uncertainty. A shortsummary of the materials and the relationships between analysisand action are dis- covered is included at the end of the book. (208) cussed. (210) 53 STOLUROW, LAWRENCE M. Some educational prob- (10) An Experimental Program in EducationalAdapta- lems and prospects of a systems approach to tion (Case Two), (11) Multimedia Systems of Instruc- instruction (Technical reportno. 2). Urbana, tion, (12) Media Development: A Past of Instructional University of Illinois, Training Research Labora- Change, (13) Afterthoughts ona Systems Conference, tory, March 1964. and (14) Not the Last Word on Systems. (ASTD)(212) The implications of media for theconcept of instructional systems are discused. Teaching bymedia implies a model of the instructionalprocess. Media WALRATH, DONALD C. A systems approach to the permit the analysis of instruction by being objective and trainingprogram.Traininginbusiness and repeatable. The computer isan especially promising tool. industry 2:1, January-February 1965.pp. 22-24. (HumRRO) (211) A systems approach to training isone that takes into account the importance of "human factors"or The systems approach (entire issue). Audiovisualinstruc- "human engineering" withinan organization. Applied to tion 10:5, May 1965. 71pp. industrial training, the systems approach implies that the training elements will be combined ina rational way to This issue of Audiovisual Instruction is devoted make up a complete system, affectednot only by to an examination of the "Systems Approach"to internal factors but by elements outside the training instruction. The articles includedare: (1) Systems: An package, such as the attitude of the trainees toward the Approach to Improving Instruction, (2) On theDesign training or the "climate" in which the training takes of Educational Systems, (3) Reply to QuestionsAbout place. A diagram showing the ideal situation forperfect Systems, (4) Educational Escalation Through Systems performance of a man-machine system is presented and Analysis, (5) Standard Operating Procedures fora Learn- explained. The human and economic limitations that ing Resources Center: A System for Producing Systems, make the existence of sucha system impossible are (6) The Articulated Instructional Media Programat the discussed, and the necessity for compromise is pointed University of Wisconsin, (7) First Steps in the Systems out. Six common training "trade-offs" thatcan provide Approach, (8) Systems Analysis and Computer Simula- for acceptable compromises are discussed. Determina- tion in the Implementation of Media, (9) An Experi- tion of training needs and methodsare also discussed in mental Program in Educational Adaptation (Case One), relation to the systems approach. (213)

54 ROLE THEORY

BALES, ROBERT F. and PHILIP E. SLATER.Role articles onroletheory published through 1964 is differentiation in small decision-makinggroups. included, as well as an index of names andan index of IN Parsons, Talcott and Robert F. Bales. Family, subjects. (215) socialization and interactionprocess. Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1955.pp. 259-306.

Roles are usually differentiated from each other COTTRELL, LEONARD S., JR. The adjustment of the in a group which endures overany considerable time. individual to his age and sex roles. IN Newcomb, The general forms andreasons for the development of Theodore M. and Eugene L. Hartley (eds.). such differentiation were studied in the researchdis- Readings in social psychology. New York: Henry cussed here. Fourteen groups of from 3 to 6men were Holt & Company, 1947. pp.367-370. observed through four sessionsas they discussed an administrative problem case. Bales interaction categories The concept of role is defined, and it is pointed were used in observation. Results are discussed in terms out that "a consideration of adjustment toany social of the degree of consensusamong members about roles category rolecenters around two closely associated and types of leadership which emerged. Theimportance problems: (1) the adjustment to a role called for by the of consensus in the structure and developmentof a social category (in the present discussion,age-sex classes) group and theroles of task specialist and social- to which the individual presently belongs; (2) the adjust- emotional specialist are discussed. Some comparisons ment to theshifts inrole made necessary by the with the typical nuclear familyare made. (214) progression from one category to another." A series of propositions (applicable to any social role) about condi- tionsthatfacilitateor interfere with theeffective learning of roles is presented. Psychosociological findings BIDDLE, BRUCE J. and EDWIN J. THOMAS (eds.). about how individuals make the transition fromone Role theory: concepts and research. New York: developmental stage to the next are summarized.(216) John Wiley & Sons, 1966. 453pp.

This book servesasatext explicating the concepts of role theory and as a collection of readings. It is intended to provide a comprehensive statement ofthe GOODE, WILLIAM. A theory of role strain. American concepts, theory, and knowledge of role. Emphasis sociologicalreview25:4, August1960.pp. throughout is on theory, and no writingson techniques 483-496. or applications of the role theory are included. The book is divided into 10 parts. The first two comprise thetext "When social structures are viewed as made up of portion and are titled: Part I, Background and Present roles, social stability is not explicableas a function of Status(1) The Nature and History of the RoleTheory; (a) the normative consensual commitment of individuals Part II, The Conceptual Structure(2) BasicConcepts or (b) normative integration. Instead, dissensus and role for the Properties of Role Phenomena, (3) Basic Con- strainthe difficultyoffulfillingrole demandsare cepts for the Variables of Role Phenomena. The remain- normal. In a sequence of role bargains, the individual's ing eight parts, each with a brief introduction, comprise choicesareshaped by mechanisms, outlined here, the collection of readings (47) by various authors,and through which he organizes his total role system and topics covered areorganized to progress from the performs well or ill in any rote relationship. Reduction simpler to the more complex, and from themore of role strain is allocative or economic in form, but the fundamental to the more complex. Theseparts are economic model is different. 'Third parties' interact with entitled (III) Positions; (IV) Prescriptions; (V)Descrip- an individual and his alter, to keep their bargain within tions; (VI) Performance and Interdependence; (VII)Dif- institutionalized limits. The larger social structure is held ferentiation,Specialization, andDivisionof Labor; in place by role strains. The cumulative pattern of all (VIII) Consensus and Conflict; (IX)Sanctioning and such role bargains determines the flow of performances Conformity; (X) Learning and Socialization. Acompre- to all institutions. The research Ltility of this conception hensive bibliography of over 1500 entries of booksand is explained" (journal summary). (217)

55 GRUSKY, OSCAR. A case for the theory of familial role compared with the "before" measures obtained about differentiationinsmall groups. Social forces one month earlier. The main findings, together with 35:3, March 1957. pp. 209-217. various methodological checks, support the hypothesis that overt verbalization induced by role playing tends to The theory of role differentiation in small social augment the effectiveness of a persuasive communica- systems presented by Parsons and Bales (Family, Sociali- tion. Additional observations are analyzed to explore zation and Interaction Process, 1955) is empirically possible mediating factors underlying the gain in opinion demonstrated in this paper which analyzes the behavior change because of active participation. A list of refer- of a "natural" small groupthe staff of a psychological ences is included. (220) clinic. Data from a study of the staff are consistent with Parson's generalization concerning the universality of the instrumental-expressive (or mother-father-like) role dif- ferentiation in small groups. The importance of taking KAHN, ROBERT L., DONALD M. WOLFE, ROBERT power and power structures into consideration in a P. QUINN and J. DIEDRICK SNOEK, in collabo- theory of familial role differentiation is elaborated. ration with ROBERT A. ROSENTHAL. Organi- (218) zationalstress:studiesinroleconflict and ambiguity. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1964. 470 pp. HODGSON, RICHARD C., DANIEL J. LEVINSON and ABRAHAM ZALEZNIK. The executive rolecon- Using the framework of role theory, the book stellation: an analysis of personality and role examines the pressures that occur in various echelons of relations in management. Boston: Harvard Uni- modern, large-scale organilations and investigates their versity, Graduate School of Business Administra- sources, consequences, and personal and social costs. tion, Division of Research, 1965. 509 pp. The authors' thesis is that primary sources of individual tension are two of the most difficult and persistent The primary aim of the study reportedwas to problems of organization today, namely, conflicting delineate the workings of the top executive echelon in demands and ambiguous requirements for behavior. one organization and to develop a comprehe"sive theo- Employing data obtained from intensive case studies as retical perspective for the analysis of executivegroups well as from a nationwide survey, the book shows how generally.Theroleperformancesofpsychiatrist- various positions in large-scale organizations of the type executives at the top echelon of a mental hospitalare studied are differentially vulnerable to these problems. examined, the personal role-demands are analyzed, and The dynamics of three major factors are discussed: the the interpersonal dynamics that brought the executive individual's position in the organization, the nature of role constellation into being are interpreted. (219) hisrelations with his immediate associates, and his personality.Itis shown that individual strategies for coping with conflict and ambiguity are directly influ- JANIS, IRVING L. and BERT I. KING. The influence of enced by personalitycharacteristics and that these roleplaying on opinion change. Journal of strategies often aggravate rather than ameliorate the 49:2, April1954. pp. stressful situation. (221) 211-218.

This experiment investigated the effects ofone type of demand that is frequently made upon a person LEVINSON, DANIEL J. Role, personality,and social when he is induced to play a social role, namely, the structure ir. the organizational setting.Journal of requirement that he overtly verbalize to others various abnormal and social psychology, vol.58, 1959. opinions which may not correspond to his inner convic- pp. 170-180. tions. Specifically, it was designed to determine whether overt verbalization induced by role playing facilitates The paper has the following aims: (1) to examine opinion change. Male college students were assigned at the traditional conception of organizational structure random to two main experimental groups: (1) active androletoassessitslimitationsfromasocio- participants who, with the aid of a prepared outline, psychological point of view; (2) to examine the concep- -played the role of a sincere advocate of the given point tion of social role that derives from this approach to of view; and (2) passive controls who silently read and social structure and that tends, by definition, to include listened to the same communication. In the experi- consideration of personality; (3) to provide a formula- mental sessions three different communicationswere tion of several analytically distinct role concepts to be used, each of which argued infavor of a specific used in place of the global term "role"; and (4) to conclusion about expected future events and waspre- suggest a theoretical approach to the analysis of relation- sentedbyadifferentactiveparticipant. Opinion ships among role, personality, and social structure. measures obtained at the end of the session were References are included. (222)

56 -17 7,7,,,,A,P 7^, ,77,

LINTON, RALPH. Concepts of role and status. IN paper deals with the various definitions of role that have Newcomb, Theodore M. and Eugene L. Hartley been used in the literature. (225) (eds.). Readings in social psychology. New York: Henry Holt & Company, 1947. pp. 367-370. OHLIN, LLOYD E. The reduction of role conflict in The terms "status," "position," and "role" are institutionalstaff.Children5:2, March-April explained and illustrated with examples from simple and 1958. pp. 65-69. complex societies. The disappointments and frustrations in our society due to the breakdown of an inherited A major reorganization andclarificationof system of statuses and roles is pointed out. (223) power, authority, and decision-making in the relation- ship between houseparents and social workers in an institution for delinquent girls resulted in increased staff MOMENT, DAVID and ABRAHAM ZALEZNIK. Role harmony, an increase in treatment-relevant information development and interpersonal competence. Bos- for the social workers, and the provision to the girls of a ton: Harvard University, 1963. 346 pp. united front on the part of the staff. (226)

This study traces the developmental issues in- volved in the variety of work styles that individuals SARBIN, THEODORE R. and NORMAN L. FAR- establish in their interaction with others. It presents BEROW. Contributions to role-taking theory: a theresultsof aseries of experimental studies of clinical study of self and role. Journal of ab- individual performance in problem-solving groups, and normal and social psychology 47:1, January of the relationship between performance and individual 1952. pp. 117-125. motivationand development."Change agents"are those who have the responsibility for initiating and The purposes of the paper are (1) to investigate facilitatingchange. Their jobisto help the client the phenomenon of age regression and (2) to illustrate system change itself toward increased competence in the heuristic value of the concepts of self and role. problem solving by helping individual clients change The pertinent features of age regression as a social theirbehavior.Lastingbehavioralchangesinvolve psychological phenomenon are first reviewed, followed changes in character structure. It is the change agent's by brief examination hypnosis, the procedure that job to determine when and how to intervene in the apparently facilitates age regression. The findings of natural process to economize, facilitate, or accelerate the experiment, together with those of other investiga- the function. Types of intervention include traditional tions,are then discussed and interpreted with the teaching (as through lectures), human relations training concepts of roleandself. A finalsection briefly groups, and individual counseling or psychotherapy. formulates a general theoretical position that complex Chaptersfollowingtheintroductionare:(2) Role social and psychological phenomena can be more read- Sp lizationandFusion,(3)BehaviorPatterns, ily understood with the aid of self and role concepts. ( redispositions for Role-Taking, (5) Social and De- References are included. (227) velopmentalInfluences, (6) Satisfaction, (7) Develop- mental Trends, and (8) Implications for the Develop- ment of Administrators. Appendices describe the re- SLATER, PHILIP E.Roledifferentiationinsmall search operations and methods, exhibit questionnaire groups. American sociological review 20:3, June forms, and list background and motivation resources. 1955. pp. 300-310. An index and bibliography are included. (224) The failureto consider simultaneously both psychological (personal need) and sociological (group NEIMAN, LIONEL J. and JAMES W. HUGHES. The need) aspects of role performance constituted a stum- problem of the concept of rolea re-survey of bling block in small-group research in the past. This the literature. IN Stein, Herman D. and Richard paper illustrates the way in which consideration of both A. Cloward (eds.). Social perspectives on behav- psychological and sociological factors may aid in the iora reader in social science for social work and interpretationof tendenciesfor members of small related professions. Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, experimental groups to behave in systematically differ- 1958. pp. 177-185. entiated ways. Twenty groups, of from 3 to 7 members each, met four times for a total of 80 meetings. These The purpose of the paperisto survey the meetings were studied using Bales set of interaction literature with specificreference to the use of the categoriesforclassifyingdiscussion remarks and a concept,"role." The method used was tosurvey questionnaire containing 4 questions concerning task systematically the literature in both books and journal leadershipandsocial-emotionalleadershipratings. articles in all possible fields, attempting to cover a period Groups were rated as High status-consensus or Low of approximately 50 years, from 1900 to 1950. The status-consensus depending upon the amount of agree-

57 "44 ment among members concerning leadership ratings. THEODORSON, GEORGE A. The relationship between Discussion of results emphasizes that a specialist in a leadership and popularity roles in small groups. grouptask-leadershipfunctionorsocial-emotional- American sociological review 22:1, February leadership function in a Low status-consensus group may 1957. pp. 58-67. go through the same motions as such a specialist in a High status-consensus group, but for different personal The relationship between leadership and popu- needs and social purposes. Failure to consider such larity roles in small groups, using cohesiveness asthe complex phenomena obscures understanding of small intervcAing variable, is discussed. Thehypothesis that group relationships. (228) under conditions of high cohesiveness memberswill most like those whom they perceive as contri:Attingthe most to the group, and that in lowcohe:ive groups leadership and popularity are segmentalized roles, was supported in the case of the four groups studiedtwo laboratorygroups and two "natural" groups.This SULLIVAN, HARRY STACK. The interpersonal theory hypothesis may be used to explain some seemingly of psychiatry. Edited by Perry, Helen Swick, and contradictory findings of previous studies. If eventually Mary Ladd Gawel. New York: W. W. Norton & verified, the hypothesis also offers a specific example of Company, 1953. 391 pp. the changesinsmall group rolestructure usually assumed theoretically to accompany changes in cohesive- This book embodies Sullivan's latest conceptions ness. (230) and was prepared from his last series of unpublished lectures. Basically, the interpersonal theory of psychia- try rests on the propositions that: (1) a large part of THOMAS, EDWIN J. Problems of disability from the mental disorderresults from and is perpetuated by perspective of role theory. Journal of health and inadequate communication, the communicative pro- human behavior 7:1, Spring 1966. pp. 2-13. cesses being interfered with by anxiety;and (2) each person in any two-person relationship isinvolved as a Two general topics are discussed, the first being portion of an interpersonalfield,rather than as a the "roles" of the disabled. Five disability roles are separate entity, in processes that affect and are affected described: the disabled patient, the handicapped per- by the field. There are 22 chapters divided into four former, the helped person, the disability co-manager, main parts: (I) Introductory Concepts; (II) The Develop- and the public relations man. The second topic concerns mental Epochs (infancythroughlateadolescence); the problems of role that may attend disablement:the (III) Patterns of Inadequateor InappropriateInter- role of discontinuity, role conflict, conflict of role personal Relations; and (IV) Towards a Psychiatry of definition, nonfacilitative interdependence, role strain, Peoples. An index is included. (229) and the special difficulties of role synchrony. (231)

58 GROUPS-DYNAMICS, PROCESS, STRUCTURE

ADULT EDUCATION ASSOCIATION. Understanding BALES, ROBERT F. and HENRY GERBRANDS. The how groups work (Leadership pamphletno. 4). "interaction recorder": an apparatus and check Chicago: Adult Education Association, 1956.48 listforsequential content analysis of social PP. interaction. Human relations 1:4, August 1948. pp. 456-463. The articles in this pamphlet analyze different aspects of group interaction in an effort to understand A detailed description with illustrative plates is how groups work. Some of the forces thatcan be seen given. A checklist enumerating interaction categories is when looking at groups as groups rather than simplyas also provided. This list categorizes the various actions collections of individuals are described in "Pressures in and reactions of the subject when interacting with others Groups." "Diagnosing Group Problems" presents the according to whether solidarity,release of tension, basic steps and sensitivities needed to diagnose the real reaching solutions, proposing actions, analyzing, report- cause of disruptive group behavior. Three conflicts that ing facts, opening problems, finding difficulties, personal allgatherings of individuals faceinthe process of opposition, or negative reactions are apparent. (234) becoming groups and that need to be resolvedone way or another before the members can work together with trust and ease are described in "Some Basic Issues." "When They Fight," "It's Apathy If," "Indecision," and "The Hidden Agenda" describe four types of behavior BALES, ROBERT F. and FRED L. STRODTBECK. that commonly trouble groups and suggest the kinds of Phasesingroup problem-solving. Journal of underlying problems these behaviors often indicate. abnormal and social psychology 46:4, October "Improving Group Efficiency" su -,gestsa number of 1951. pp. 485-495. ways in which groups may learn to increase their sensitivity to their own process. (232) "This paper presents a method of testing for the empirical existence of differentiated phases in group process and some evidence that under certain particular conditions a certain type of phase movement does tend toappear. ... The present phase-hypothesisisre- stricted to instances in which groups work toward the goal of a group decision on a full-fledged problem. Briefly stated, the phase-hypothesis is the proposition that under these conditions groups tend to move in their interaction from a relative emphasis upon problems of orientation,to problems of evaluation,and subse- quently, to problems of control, and that concurrent BALES, ROBERT F. Interactionprocess analysis; a with these transitions, the relative frequencies of both method for the study of small groups. Cam- negative reactions and positive reactions tend to in- bridge, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1951. 203pp. crease." (The terms used in the hypothesis are explained in the text and in a table of 12 interaction categories.) Interaction process analysisisaterm which Observation of 22 problem-solving groups supported the designates a body of methods for firsthand observation hypothesis and suggested that "the interaction process of social interaction in small face-to-facegroups. This should be considered as a system, with internal tenden- volume is a working manual of the method. Chapters cies which make each part of the process a condition to are:(1) Descriptions of the Method; (2) Theoretical other parts. These 'internal' conditions are assumed to Framework; (3) Training Observers; (4) Appraising Ob- be similar to some degree from case to case and to exert server Reliability; and (5) Analysis and Interpretation. a constant 'biasing' effect. This effect becomes apparent The appendix contains definitions of the categories used within individual cases under full-fledged external condi- in describing interaction. Various phases of the method tions or in aggregates of cases in which differences in are illustrated by 35 charts. There is a 31-item bibliog- external conditions average out." Thirteen references are raphy and an index. (233) cited. (235)

59

r BEAL, GEORGE M., JOE M. BOHLEN andNELL J. BLAU, PETER M. Structural effects. American socio- RAUDBAUGH. Leadership and dynamicgroup logical review 25:2, April 1960. pp. 178-193. action. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press, 1962. 365 pp. "In empiricalresearch,socialstructuresare usually characterized, explicitly or implicitly, by fre- The book is directed to lay readers in search of quency distributionsof behavior of individuals or ways to enhance the results of their group activities and relationships among them. Thus, thecommon culture is designed to be a practical guideto effective group refers to prevailing values, and group cohesiveness,to leadership and membership. The logic ofindividual pervasive interpersonal bonds. To isolate the external behavior in a group setting is developed.The general constraints of social values from the influences of the framework of group behavior, which is thetheme of the individual's internalized values, that the prevalence ofa book, provides the specific points whichare elaborated value in a group is associated with social conduct when upon. Part and chapter titles describe the contents: Part this valueis held constant for individuals must be I, Group Interaction(1) Introduction; (2)Democracy demonstrated. Data from a public assistanceagency and the Democratic Group; (3) Leadership in theDemo- show that the prevailing values in a work group had such cratic Group; (4) A Framework for the Study ofGroup structural effects. In some cases, the group value and the Action; (5) The Individual and the GroupSetting; individual's orientation had similar, but independent, (6) The Internal Dynamics of Groups; (7)The External effects on his conduct; in other cases they had opposite Dynamics of Groups; (8) Group Goals andObjectives; effects; instill others, the effects of the individual's (9) Group Techniques; (10) Group Productivity,Matur- orientation were contingent on the prevalence of this ity, and Worth; (11) Group Evaluation; Part II,Tech- orientationin the group, a pattern which identifies niquesSmall Group DiscussionThe "Huddle" Method; characteristics associated with deviancy. The samepro- The "Buzz Group" Method; The Symposium; ThePanel cedure was used to isolate the structural effects of Discussion; The Interrogator Panel; The Committee cohesiveness and the communication network" (journal Hearing; The Dialogue; The Interview; TheLecture; summary). (238) Brainstorming;Role-Playing;RecreationalActivities; Working with Large Groups; Workshops;Conferences; Institutes;PartIII, Evaluation(1)End-of-Meeting BRADFORD, LELAND P. (ed.). Group development Comments and Suggestions; (2) More Basic GroupEvalu- (Selected reading series no. 1). Washington, D.C.: ation;(3) Evaluationof ContentandObjectives; National Training Laboratories and National (4) Evaluation and Individual Contributions; (5)Group Education Association, 1961. 106pp. Observer Devices; (6) Group Observer Evaluationof Individual Participation; (7) Sociometry; and (8)Using The need for understanding group behavior is Evaluation. A suggested reading list andan index are found wherever individual goals must be merged with included. (236) thegoals of others. The forces engendered within groups are potent determiners not only of morale but of productivity. The necessity of studyinggroup behav- ior is apparent. The articles in this pamphlet deal with various aspectsof group behavior. Articles inthis collection include: What Is Group Dynamics?; Group DynamicsandtheIndividual;TheIndividual Counts...in Effective Group Relations; How to Get BENNE, KENNETH D. and WARREN G. BENNIS. Results from a Group; How to Diagnose Group Prob- Studying the classroom asa group. Phi Delta lems; Functional Roles of Group Members; The Case Kappan 39:6, March 1958.pp. 274-279. of the Hidden Agenda; Decisions ... Decisions... De- cisions; Stereotypes and the Growth of Groups: Feed- An attempt by the teachers and students ofa back and Group Self-Evaluation; Improving Decision- course in group behavior to apply current knowledge of Making with Groups; and Developments in Group small group behavior to the control andmanagement of Behavior in Adult Education. (239) classroom behavior is described and assessed. Thecourse was designed to promote conscious diagnosis of the interpersonal and group problems in classroom behavior, BURTON, WILLIAM H. Group roles with specialre- and by doing so to extend the student's knowledgeof sponsibility to the group. IN HIS The guidance small group behavior in relation to teaching and learning. of lemming activities. 3rd edition. New York: The primary questions investigatedwere the role of Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1962. pp. 206-210. teachers in learning, the role of the students, student self-concepts, types of learning achieved, increase of The major specialized roles in agroup are those usable knowledge, and the predicted transfer of learning of leader, recorder, observer, andresource person. There from the course. (237) are two types of leaders, status and shared. Status

60 leaders occupy theirpositions through appointment, COLLINS, BARRY E. and HAROLD GUETZKOW. A election, ownership,or force. Democratic status leader- social psychology of group process for decision- ship substitutes leadership forauthority; it is shared by making. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1964. anyone who offers a suggestion or argument. The jobsof 254 pp. the status leader and the appointedleader are to start discussion, keep it going, and indicatethe need for A systemizing of the findings in social psychol- responsibility. The recorder recordsmajor issues and ogy relevant to the group processes involved in decision pertinent comments. The observerconcentrates on making is attempted here. A blend of theorizing and method or process of discussionto the exclusion of empirical review (of selected studies) calledan inductive content, and provides feedback for thegroup. The summary and theory of face-to-face group processes is resource person provides special information. David the goal. Studies in both field and laboratorysettings, as Jenkins' Group Discussion Observation Guideis repro- well as data obtained frommany different kinds of duced; an observer's chart indicates thegroup inter- experimental subjects, were used insupport of the action. (240) variousconceptionspresented.Chaptertitlesare: (1) Building a Social Psychology of GroupProcesses for Decision-Making; (2) Group and Individual Performance; (3) Group Productivity: Interpersonal Relationsand the Task; (4) A Simple Working Model of Factors Molding Interpersonal Behavior and Task Performance; (5)Obsta- CARTWRIGHT, DORWIN and ALVIN ZANDER (eds.). cles to Effective Interpersonal Relations ina Group; Group dynamics: research and theory. 2nd edi- (6) Direct Sources of Power andInterpersonal Influence; tion. New York: Harper & Row, 1960. 826pp. (7) IndirectSourcesof PowerinDecision-Making [3rd edition, 1968, isnow available] Groups; (8) Consequences of Small and LargeAmounts of Power for the Behavior of Group Members; (9)Com- The book isdivided intosixsections and munication and Interaction; (10) Participant Satisfaction contains 42 papers by various authorities inthe field. with the Conference; and (11) Leadership: Leadership Sections are: (I) Introduction to Group Dynamics (ori- Traits and the Differentiation of Leadership Roles. Each gins, issues, and basic assumptions); (II) Group Cohesive- chapter contains a summary andan optional section ness;(III) Group Pressuresand Group Standards ; defining special terms and formulating workingproposi- (IV) Individual Motives and Group Goals; (V)Leader- tions. A bibliography and author and subject indexesare ship and Group Performance; (VI) The StructuralProp- included. (243) erties of Groups. References follow eachpaper. There is a name and subject index. (241) GHISELLI, EDWIN E. Psychologicalpropertiesof groups and group learning. Psychological reports 19:1, August 1966. pp. 17-18.

Twenty groups of students were given the task of CATH, STANLEY, H. The student-teacher alliance and learning to operate a model railroad which required the the formation of the professionalego: an experi- coordinated action of the members. The results indi- ment in small-group seminars in the secondyear cated that if the group consists of self-confident decision of medical schoo International journal ofgroup makers, possesses one person outstanding in this quality, psychotherapy 15:7, July 1965.pp. 303-315. or consists of individuals strongly oriented to others, the initial performance is poor. Themore intelligent the A small group seminar designed to combat members of the group are, the better is their initial cynicism and the inability to establish doctor-patient performance; and if the group containsa person who is responses in medical students disclosed the formation of uncontestedasaself-confident decision maker,its the professional ego in these groups. The psychiatric performance at later stages in learning is better. (ASTD, instructor acts as a model for the students, providing edited) (244) expression of their doubts, insecurity, and condemna- tion of the handling of patients. This focus, onthe doctor-patient relationship increases understanding of it GIBB, JACK R., and others. Dynamics of participative and creates healthier reactions in students. Thegroup groups. Washington, D.C.: National Education setting provides a catalytic agent for learning concepts. Association,NationalTrainingLaboratories, values, and ego ideals. Student anxiety in the face of 1966. 89 pp. illness and death is assumed to be implicit but unfelt and is approached through group discussion of the anxiety of Through university laboratory experiments, field the patient until the student becomesaware that he observations in industrial, community, and educational responds in the same way. (242) settings, and experiences in classes in group dynamics,

61 the participative action method ofgroup training for must unify its concepts and operations before integra- more effective problem solving and decision makingwas tion and synthesis can occur. Chapter titlesare: The developed.Itisbased on eight principlesphysical Small Group: Introduction and Sketch ofan Applica- regrouping, reduction of interpersonal tensions, infor- tion; Designational Divergence and Analytical Pitfalls; mality of procedure, freedom of choice,distributive Small-Group Dimensions I: Two Comprehensive Ap- leadership, explicit goal formation, skilltraining, and proaches; Small-Group Dimensions II: The Structural continual evaluation. This handbook,a series of study Panel of Variables; Small-Group Dimensions III: The guides and training procedures,can be used as a manual Style Panel of Variables; and The Population Panel of forcollegeclassesingroup dynamics and human Variables: Effects upon Small-Group Properties. Each relations training, as a reference book for staffsand chapter includes a summary of findings. The study is in- committees, and as a source book and discussion guide dexed. (247) for seminars and studygroups. Methods of group action, the role of the group member and trainer,suggestions for workshops and conferences, applicationsto educa- HARE, A. PAUL. Handbook of small group research. tional, industrial, religious, military, and adulteducation New York: The Free Press, 1962. 512 pp. programs, and a selected, classified list of 102 references are included. (ERIC) (245) As indicated in the introductory abstract of the handbook, essentially the same material on smallgroup research is organized in three main parts: (1) the first GLASER, WILLIAM A. and DAVID L. STILLS. The considers thecentraltendencies of the interaction government of associations: selections from the process and group structure; (2) the second emphasizes behavioral sciences. Totowa, N.J.: The Bedmin- the deviations from typical patterns that may result ster Press, 1966. 264 pp. from variations in such factors as members' personalities, group size, and leadership; and (3) the third reviews The focus of this collection of readings ison the differences in productivity related to variations ingroup organization, activities, and accomplishment of volun- process and structure. Part and chapter titles are: Part tary associations. The book consists of 47 selections One, Group Process and Structure(1) Elements of from books, journals, and researchreports inthe Social Interaction, (2) Norms of Social Control, (3) In- behavioral sciences. Twenty-seven of the 50 contributors teraction and Decision Process, (4) Roles, (5) Inter- are sociologists; six are political scientists; and fourare personal Choice; Part II, Six Variables That Affect the from the fields of anthropology, business administration, Interaction Process(6) Personality, (7)Social Charac- and social work. Selectionsare grouped in four major teristics, (8) Group Size, (9) Task, (10) Communication sections and 14 subsections: Part One, Voluntary Associ- Network, (11) Leadership; and Part III, Performance ations: An Overview(1) The Social Origins of Volun- C h a racteristics(12) Productivity:IndividualVersus tary Associations, (2) Types of Voluntary Associations; Group, (13) Productivity: Group Versus Group. There Part Two, Voluntary Associations and TheirEnviron- are two appendixes entitled (1) Research Methods and ment(3) SocialInfluencesupontheMembership, (2) Factor Analysis. References and indexes are included. (4) The Association's Influenceupon Society, (5) Volun- (248) tary Associations in Other Societies; Part Three, The Nature of Leadership(6) Three Theories of Leadership, (7) The Effects of Leadership; Part Four, Problemsof Government(8) Organizational Structure, (9) Organiza- HARE,A.PAUL, EDGAR F. BORGATTA and tional Processes, (10) Communications and Decisions, ROBERT F. BALES (eds.). Small groups: studies (11) Organizational Goals, (12) Organizational Means, insocialinteraction. New York: Alfred A. (13) Internal Divisions, (14) Organizational Change. An Knopf, 1961. 666 pp. index of names of organizations is included. (246) Fifty-five essays by various experts in the field of small group theory and research are presented. The book is divided into four parts: the first part is concerned with GOLEMBIEWSKI, ROBERT T. The smallgroup: an the historical and theoretical background of the field; analysis of research concepts and operations. the second contains a collection of studies that view the Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962. 303 social process from the perspective of the single individ- PP. ual in a social situation; the third contains studies in which the perspectiveis more that of an external This study deals with the literature of the small observer viewing the groupasa system of social group, judging to what extent it has reached valid interaction and describing its characteristics; and the conclusions that can serve as bases for research ina final part is a guide to the research literature in the developing science. The aim in comparing these concepts field in the form of an annotated bibliography of about is to determine how much the analysis of smallgroups 580 titles. (249)

62 HARRISON, ROGER. Cognitive modelsforinter- HOFFMAN, J. M. and J. ARSENIAN. An examination personal and group behavior: a theoretical frame- of some models applied togroup structure and work for research. Explorations in human rela- process. International journal of group psycho. tions training and research,no. 2, 1965. 112 pp. therapy 15:2, April 1965. pp. 131-153.

"The purpose of thispaperis to present a An adequate model for understanding the forma- cognitive and perceptual approach to understanding the tion and process of small groups should specify: (1) the process of learning and change in face-to-face groups, composition of the group, the level, and the permeabil- and to outline a program of research basedon this ity of boundary; (2) the degree of differentiation and approach."Itisconsidered relevant topracticein freedom of movement of the components of the group; higher education, group psychotherapy, human rela- (3) the nature of leadership functions and the distribu- tions training, and the management of organizational tion of deference; (4) how the interaction process has change. A cognitive model of T-group trainingis been initiated; (5) the bases for ongoing interaction; proposed in which the process of learning isseen as (6) thenature of communication, cooperation, and consistingof thedevelopment,differentiation, and competition; (7) the group's orientation to time; and elaborationof a system of conceptsor constructs (8) the tangible or intangible product or goal resulting which fit and structure the personal, interpersonal,and from the process. Metaphor models in current usage group phenomena of the T-group experience. Based includethose ofcellbody, personality, machine, upon the conceptual analysis of the learning process,a mythology, economic group, animal group, family, and program of research is proposed involving (1) develop- tribe. None of these demonstrate point-to-point conver- ment of instruments for measuring change in cognition gence with the phenomenon to which it is applied. They of persons and groups; (2) prediction andassessment of do not offer maximum descriptive power and utility. conceptual changes induced by the T-group experience; Beyond the points of convergence their application acts, and(3) investigationoftherelationshipsbetween in part, to obscure. (ASW, edited) (252) initial structures for cognizing interpersonal andgroup phenomena and the extent and nature ofchange. Thirty-one references are cited. (250)

HEINICKE, C. and R. F. BALES. Developmental trends in the structure of small groups. Sociometry, vol. 16,1953. pp. 7-38.

"Various aspects of the development of status structure were studied in a number of newly formed HOPKINS, TERENCE K. Exercise of influence in small initially leaderless groups duringa series of meetings groups. Totowa, N.J.: The Bedminster Press, under reasonably constant laboratory conditions. The 1964. 205 pp. subjects were asked todiscuss and solve a human relations problem within a period of about 40 minutes. This book attempts to answer two central ques- The successive meetings of ten small groups of under- tions about the difference in influence among group graduate students were observed using Bales interaction members: what factors govern the distribution of influ- category system. Observer ratings and subjects' ratings ence among members of a group, and under what of each other were also available assources of data. To conditionsdoesthisdistributionremainrelatively analyze the developmental trends of thegroups, they stable? The analysis proceeds in two steps corresponding were divided into a High and Low status-consensus to these two questions. The first part of the book classification. The analysis of trends was organized in presents a set of propositions describing the ietionship terms of five main hypotheses, all of which receive among four properties of the status of membersrank, substantial support from the data." The hypotheses centrality, conformity, and observabilityand between relate to (1) developmental trends in statusconsensus each of these and the influence a member exercises. The in High and Low groups; (2) overt social-emotional propositions are considered in some detail each being conflict; (3) adecrease ininitiation by high status weighed against current theory and against available data individualsin High groups of overt interactionin for its plausibility. In the second part the propositions categories highly associated with status; (4)more satis- arerelated to abasic group process, the principal faction by High groups with theirgroup and its tendency of which isto bring into balance, over a solutions than by Low groups; and (5)more efficiency group's set of members, the distribution of rank and in High groups than in Low. Findings in support of the influence. The analysis in this part focuseson various hypotheses are discussed in more general terms. Eight institutional and structural features of groups that help references are cited. (251) stabilize the distribution of influence. (253)

63 KELLY, HAROLD H. and JOHN W. THIBAUT. Experi- Group-Picture-Impression Technique: A Projective Ap- mental studies of group problem solving and proach to the Measurement of Attraction-to-Group; and process. IN Lindzey, Gardner (ed.). Handbook of The Group-Picture-Impression Manual. A bibliography social psychology, vol.II.Cambridge, Mass.: and miscellaneous exploratory studies are appended. Addison-Wesley, 1954. pp. 735-785. (256) The chapter is intended to summarize the litera- ture on theexperimental investigation of problem solving by small groups. The focus of the study ison the LIFTON, WALTER M. Working with groups:group communication process and the interaction involved in process and individual growth. New York: John producing group solutions to various types of problems. Wiley & Sons, 1961. 238 pp. The study considers a broad range of factors thatare known to affect group process and examines themas Designed for use by teachers, social workers, they relate to group problem solving. The main discus- counselors, psychologists, and laymen who are seeking sions within the chapter are: Experimental Comparisons to acquire the skills and knowledge that are prerequisite of Individual and Group Problem Solving; Theoretical to working with groups, the book develops a major Analysis of the Factors Uniquely Affecting Group premise that there is no necessary contradiction between Solutions; Some Specific Factors Affecting Group So- individual growth and societal, or group,process. How lutions; Trends in Research on Group Problem Solv- group action can be a source and a means of freeing the ing. (254) individual rather than enslaving him isa principal thesis of the book. Both background theory concerning the issue as a whole and guides to practical applications of KNOWLES, MALCOLM and HULDA KNOWLES. Intro- conclusions resulting from various studies are presented. duction to group dynamics. New York: Associa- Initial chapters summarize issues involved ingroup tion Press, 1959. 95 pp. process and define terms employed in the text. The middle sections offer descriptions, analyses, and inter- An introduction to the basic principles of group pretations of several group situations, followed by dynamics is presented. The book is intended for the resumes of writings with counter-interpretations of the general reader and requires no particular background. concepts explored. Final chapters are designed to help Chapter titles and topic headings describe the contents: the reader to evaluate himself and the groups with which (1) What Is Group Dynamics? (Four Uses of the Term, he works. Chapters are: (1) Group Process and Individ- Historical Perspective, The Modern Era, Different Ap- ual Growth; (2) Theories, Professional Jargon, and Defi- proaches to the Study of Groups); (2) Understanding nitions (Education and Therapy, A Group versusa Mass, Individual Behavior (Life History Forces, Forces Based The Group Dynamic Approval, The Common Denomina- on Psychological Needs, Associational Forces, Forces tions, Restatement of the Philosophy Expressed in this from Goals and Ideologies); (3) Understanding Group Text); (3) The Tools and Techniques Involved in the Behavior (What Is a Group, Some Properties of Groups, Helping Process (Clarifying Operations, The Show-How Psyche and Socio Dimensions, Membership and Leader- Operations, Security-Giving Operations); (4) A Group in ship Functions, The Role of Leadership, Groups in Action; (5) Typical Problems in the Group Process (The Motion, Some General Principles); (4) Practical Applica- InitialLeader, Voluntary and Involuntary Groups, tions (Leadership and Membership Training, Invention Group Composition, Out-of-Group Sessions, Group Size, of New Techniques, The General Spirit of Group and Length of Group LifeFixed and Continuous Groups, LargeMeetings, CommunityRelationsandSocial Admitting New Members, The Silent Member, Silence in Change); (5) What Does It Add up To?; (6) Readings for the Group, The Missing Member, The Missing Leader, Further Understanding. An index is included. (255) The Monopolist, Resistance, Catharsis, The Role of Strategies, Decision MakingTo Vote or Not to Vote, Responsibility in a Group, Other Tools and Techniques); LIBO, LESTER M. Measuring group cohesiveness. Ann (6) Group TechniquesApplied (Orientation, Group Arbor: Research Center for Group Dynamics, Guidance Programs, Group Techniques in the Subject Institute for Social Research, 1953. 111 pp. MatterClassroom,Identifying Group Goals,Using Records for Self-Evaluative Purposes, Effect of the Theprojectivetechniqueandabehavioral Course upon the Author, As Applied to a Workshop, measure involving locomotion of attraction-to-group are Studies on Work withFailing and Underachieving emphasized in this treatment of the central concepts of Students, Student Councils, Moral and Spiritual Values, group dynamics theory. Other methods of measurement Group Techniques in Developing a Program); (7) Evalua- and experimental manipulation of group-related vari- tion and Research (EvaluationGroup Growth, Individ- ables in the laboratory are also explored. Chapters are: ual Growth, A Comparison of Self with Others, Re- The Concepts of Cohesiveness and Attraction-to-Groups; searchSummary, Bibliograrhy, and Bibliography of An Experimental Study of Attraction-to-Groups; The Doctoral Dissertations); (8) Conclusion. The appendix

64 contains A Diary Report of the Complete Life ofa MAIER, NORMAN R. F. and L. RICHARD HOFFMAN. Group. Each chapter is followed by a discussion anda Acceptance and quality of solutions as related to bibliography. There is an index. (257) leaders' attitudes toward disagreement in group problem solving. Journal of applied behavioral science 1:4, October-November-December 1965. pp. 373-386.

An experiment was designed to test the hypoth- esis that (1) disagreement in a discussion can lead either LIPPITT, GORDON L.(ed.). Leadershipin action to hard feelings or to innovation depending upon the (Selected Reading Series no.2). Washington, attitude of the discussion leader; and (2) acceptance will D.C.: National Training Laboratory and National depend upon the leader's perception of disagreement as Education Association, 1961.96 pp. well as upon the decision reached. The test situation utilizedarole-playing format in which a foreman Leadership is difficult to define because it has attempted to induce three subordinates to accept a complex dimensions, exists in highly diverse situations, change in work methods. Measures of the negative vs. and manifests differing effects of power. Theoretical positive effects of disagreement were obtained by the approaches used in various research studies are covered frequency with which the discussion leader reported in "Scientific Spotlight on Leadership," "What Do We having problem employees vs. idea men in his group. Know About Leadership," and "Research Trends in "The results showed that when the foreman most often Executive Behavior." Studies and theories about the reported having problem employees, solutions were least group leadership role and functions are discussed in likely to be innovative and acceptance was relatively "Leaders Are Made, Not Born," "New Questions for low. When the foreman perceived his subordinates as Old," "Leadership and Group Behavior," and "Leader- idea men, innovative solutions increased and satisfaction ship in Small Groups." Leadership in organizations is with the solution was greatest for all concerned, despite discussed in "Leadership Within a Hierarchical Organiza- the fact that all persons involved had to change their tion" and "A Fundamental of Democracy." Ethicsare initialpositions. Although previous research has indi- covered in "Building a Democratic Work Group" and cated that satisfaction is a function of influence over the "Ethics of Leadership." Leadership, asit varies with decision,regardlessofitsquality,this experiment organizational goals, situational dynamics, individual supplies evidence that the quality of the solution can leadership, and the group being led,isdiscussed in introduce a further source of satisfaction. This occurs "Leadership: A Conception and Some Implications," when a solution is one that resolves differences and and "How to Choose a Leadership Pattern." Some integrates differing viewpoints to form a new and better essential elements in the growth of any action leader are product. (ASTD) (260) examined in "Elements of Leadership Growth." (258)

MANN, RICHARD D. Dimensions of individual perfor- mance in small groups under task and social- emotional conditions. Journal of abnormal and social psychology 62:3, 1961. pp. 674-682. LIPPITT, GORDON L. and EDITH W. SEASHORE. The leader looks at group effectiveness (Looking Into Considerable attention has been directed to the Leadership Series). Washington, D.C.: Leadership search for a minimum number of dimensions in terms of Resources, Inc., 1961. 13 pp. which to describe a person's overt behavior and informal status in small groups. Factor analytic techniques have Seven questions often asked about groups are been used to isolate these basic dimensions. Carter cited as introduction to the discussion. Results of group (1954) proposed three basic factors: Individual Promi- research are summarized and guidelines for assessing nence and Achievement, Aiding Attainment by the group effectiveness are provided. The behavior of a Group, and Sociability, which Bales (1956) labeled group may be analyzed in terms of the following factors Activity, Task Ability, and Likeability. Questioning of (which are discussed): background, pattern of participa- the disparity in results of subsequent testing for these tion and communication, atmosphere and cohesion, factors led to the author's doctoral dissertation upon sub-groupings, standards, procedures, goals, leader and which this article is based. The purpose of the research member behavior. Group task and maintenance func- was to determine what effect varying the group problem tionsareelaborated.Characteristics which indicate (in terms of task or social-emotional conditions) would maturity in a group are cited and questions for leader have upon the dimensions of individual performance. In self-appraisal are offered. A scale for measuring group the Task condition the group was oriented to an external growth on eight dimensions and a briefly annotated problem,anintellectualtask,andintheSocial- 7-item reading list are included. (259) Emotional condition a topic of high personal relevance

65 created problems of integration and tensionreduction. present the research program out of which the book Twenty five-men groupswere run under each conditon. grew as a case history in the classification and synthesis Two major results were: (1) A Task Prominence factor of scientific knowledge. Accordingly, the book is divided was isolated which suggested a combination of the into three parts entitled: Classification of Small Group Carter-Bales Activity and Task Ability dimensions;and Research Information: a Case Study; Perspectiveson the (2) the need fora more complex interpretation of Small Group Field; and Catalogue of Relationships, Likeability was suggested. Premature closureon any set Annotations, and Bibliography with Addenda. Chapters of performance factors should be avoideduntil more is are entitled: Introduction; The Problem and Its Back- known about the effect that variation in thesituation, ground; The Classification System; A Validation of the the size and nature of the group,or other experimental ClassificationSystem; Evaluation, Modification, and procedures has upon the resultant factor structure. Some Implications of the Classification System; Descriptive of the outlines of themore complex view of perfor- Characteristics of the Small Group Field; Generalizations mance factors that may emerge from such needed from Small Group Research. Data; Methodology of Small researcharesuggested by thepresentstudy. Ten Group Research: Problems and Prospects; The Culture references are cited. (261) of the Small Group Research Field; References; Cata- logue of Relationships between Variables; Study Anno- tations; Bibliography of Small Group Research. (263) MANN, RICHARD D. Interpersonal styles andgroup development: an analysis of the member-leader relationship. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1967. 308 pp. MILLS, THEODORE M. Group transformation:an The primaryfocus of the studyison the analysis of a learning group. Englewood Cliffs, changing relationship between the members of four N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1964. 120pp. classroom discussion groups and their formal leader. Chapter 1 presents an overview of the conceptual and The transformations of asingle group asit methodological strategy adopted for the study. Chap- gathers, forms, operates, and dissolves, andas these ters 2 and 3 outline the kind of self-analyticgroup changes are detected by a systematic analysis of the being studied and the observation system usedas the content of each event that occurs are described. Empiri- core of the research method. Chapter 4 sets up a cal trends lead to a conception of the life cycle ofgroups conceptual framework for the analysis ofan individ- which, it is hoped, will serve as a useful guide to leaders, ual's performance, the emphasis beingon the connec- members, and those interested in humangroups. The tions between the feelings expressed and the antece- essential group theory that emerges from the study is dent relationships that seem to be servingas models threefold: (1) groups are open, not closed systems; for the individual's experience. In Chapter 5an analy- (2) allsmallgroupsdie;(3) group mechanisms are sis of the leader's role and the influence he exerts contingent upon boundaries. The contents are: Introduc- upon the process being observed is presented. Chapter tion; The Group; The Method of Sign Process Analysis; 6 treats the development of thegroup as a whole in The Chronology of Negative and Positive Scenes; Group terms of the shifting arrays of subgroups that seek to Issues and Data Trends; Toward a Conception of the determine the course of the group. Chapter 7 returns Life Cycle of Groups; Two Dynamic Issues; and Sum- to the individual level to explore thecareer of the mary and Conclusions. An index is included. (264) group member and to see how the commonly observed member-leaderrelationshipscontributeto and are shaped by the development of thegroup. In the concluding chapter a conceptual scheme for analyzing MILLS, THEODORE M. The sociology of small groups. an individual's feelings and actions in groups is devel- Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1967. 136 oped. An index and references are included. (262) pp.

Fourspecificaims of the book are (1) to McGRATH, JOSEPH E. and IRWIN ALTMAN. Small introduce the sociological way of thinking aboutgroups; group research: a synthesis and critique of the (2) to acquaint the reader with the social context in field. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, which the investigator gathers his basic information 1966. 601 pp. about groups; (3) to introduce the five levels on which group processes occur: behavior, feelings, norms, goals, The aim of the book is threefold: (1) to make and values, and to relate those levels to the subjective available a compilation of research information from experience of group members; and (4) to introduce the more than 250 small group studies; (2) to present view that the group as a whole is a dynamic system with perspectivesabout substantive, methodological, and potential for change and growth. Selected references and institutionalcharacteristics of thefield; and (3) to an index are included. (265)

66 MILTON, G. A. Group vs. individual problem-solving PHILLIPS, GERALD M. Communicationand the small and decision-making. Canadian public administra- group. New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1966. 139 pp. tion 8:3, September 1965.pp. 301-306. This book is an attempt to bridge thegap The purpose of this series of experimentsdealing between what experts know about smallgroups and with management processeswas to test the following what may be taught ina beginning course in college. predictions: "(1) On intellectual, problem-solving, and The author outlines how PERT (ProgramEvaluation decision-making tasks, individualprocesses are superior and Review Technique)may be used by groups in to group processes; (2) Group members feelthat group evaluating the potential effectiveness of their solutions procedures are superior because eachmember feels that and discusses group interactions interms of game he is participating in all group solutions and decisions theory. Chapter and selected sectionheadings further and therefore he feels that he is being more creative than indicate contents: (1) The Small Group in OurSociety; when working independently." Fromthe 48 subjects, all (2) UnderstandingtheSmall Group; (3) The Small of varying executive experience, it was found that group Group in Education and Therapy (basicapproaches to processesareinferior to individualprocesses when group therapy, formats for educational and therapeutic applies to intellectual tasks; and it was suggested that the discussion, techniques of communication inthe small generalization will hold forany group procedure. It was group, sources of trouble in communication in small also found that groupprocesses engender greater enthu- groups); (4) Problem-Solving Discussion siasm for a task, regardless of lowered (the standard efficiency. The Agenda, case study ofaproblem-solving discussion latter finding pointsup a potential value in using group employing PERT); (5) Human Relations procedures. (ASTD) in the Small (266) Group (the interactiongame, the special case of the hidden agenda, common reasons for failure of groups). Thereisa 5-page bibliographic essay. An index is included. (268) MURSELL, JAMES L. Theprincipleof socializa- tion.. .IN HIS Successful teaching: its psycho- logicalprinciples.2nd edition. New York: PHILP, HUGH and DEXTER DUNPHY.Developmental McGraw-Hill, 1954. pp. 141-171. trends in small groups. Sociometry, vol. 22, 1959. pp. 162-174. Meaningful and effective learning is relatedto the social setting created in the classroom. A good social Research on group problem-solving by R. F. setting capitalizesupon "social facilitation," the fact Bales and associates at Harvard has produced that an individual will do a set of many tasks better when he observational categories which impliesa sequence of does them in a group of similarlyoccupied workers. This functions necessary for progression from gain due to the presence of a problem a group is known as "social situationto consensus or agreement. Thissequence increment." Social facilitation is found when the group involved phases of communication, evaluation,control, works withoutrestrictionor disturbance and with decision, and tension reduction. In their positiveincentives. The democratic experiments group, with its Bales and associates used carefully contrivedgroups promotion of team spirit and mutual responsibility,has discussing specially constructed artificial a desirable effect upon the learning and achievement of problems. The research reported here took place in Australiaand was group members. Skillful and imaginative variation of the anefforttodiscover (a) whether contrived patterns of social behavior in the groups group of learners employed on complex problems directlyrelated to their uncovers talents and capacities for leadership that might course of work (ego relevant) would in factpass through remain hidden in an undifferentiated adherenceto free a similar series of distinguishable phases, and (b) whether talk. Finally, relationsamong all students and coopera- the sex of the participants would influence tion rather than competition create such a phase a favorable social pattern in any way. The general theoretical positionof atmosphere. There are three degrees of excellencein the Bales was supported. The sex-composition utilization of social dynamics and of the groups social-psychological did not affect the phase movement. (269) factors:(1) conventionalrecitationwith submissive group of learners requiring imposed discipline; (2)con- tributing atmosphere with only sympatheticdiscipline; SCHMIDT, WARREN H. The leader looksat the and (3) cooperativegroup carrying their common under- leadership dilemma (Looking IntoLeadership taking with self-generated discipline. A democratic group Series). Washington, D.C.: LeadershipResources, pattern organizes learning at the highest level ofmean- Inc., 1961. 12 pp. ingfulness and gives added drive to learningby bringing potential social forces to bearon it. This organization Five questions often asked by leaders about favors cooperative thinking, problem-solving, their planning, role introduce the discussion in thispamphlet. Historical and action, and bringsforthoriginal and creative shifts in the research-emphasis and definitions suggestions and contributions. of leader- (267) ship are discussed (leader personalityand functions, 67 autocratic, democratic, and laissez-fairestyles). The THELEN, HERBERT A. Dynamics of dilemma of the leader is groups at work. that he is expectedto be Chicago: The University of Chicago Press,1954. democratic (by allowinggroup participation) and at the 379 pp. same time efficient (which often requiresdeciding alone tosavetime).Certain dependable approaches and This book uses two approachesto group dynam- suggestions derived from researchand experience are ics, the first practical, the second theoretical. offered.Five It assumes typical patterns of leadershiptelling, that basic principles and understandingscan be found selling, testing, consulting, andjoininginvolve varying from the analysis of successful practice degrees of group-centeredness. Forces in such areas as in the leader, in citizen participation classroom teaching, inservicepro- the group members, and in thesituation are discussed, and the leader fessional training, administration andmanagement, hu- isurged to assess these forcesin man relations training, and public meetings. The second determining the pattern of behavior most appropriate approach offers concepts useful in thinkingabout group for him at a given time. A brieflyannotated 5-item activity regardless of its social bibliography is included. purposes or particular (270) clientele. Chapters in Part I, Six Technologies,include: (1) Rebuilding thy Community throughCitizen Action; (2) Educating Children Through Need-MeetingActivity; (3) Developing the School Through FacultySelf-Train- ing; (4) Administration and Management: GroupRe- SHEPHERD, CLOVIS R. Smallgroups: some socio- sponsibility and Individual Autonomy; (5) Training logical for perspectives. San Francisco: Chandler Group Participation: The Laboratory Method;and Publishing Company, 1964. 130 pp. (6) Effective Meetings: Principles and Procedures.Chap- ters in Part II, Explanations, include: (7) Membership: The book introduces the reader to several socio- The Groups-Within; (8) Integration: Evaluating andAct- logical and social-psychological theoriesand research ing;(9) Reality:Factorsinthe Problem-Situation; methods dealing with small groups and organizes this (10) Control: Developing the GroupCulture; (11) Lead- material from the standpoint ofpure and applied social ership: Co-Ordinating Effort Toward Group science and the philosophical positions Goals; and of symbolic (12) Community: The Context of GroupOperations. An interactionism and positivism. Personalunderstanding, annotated list of selected readings is included. The the accurate perception of text events, and relating theories is indexed. (273) and research findings to experienceis stressed. A small group (as a social phenomenon) ismore organized and enduring than a social relation; smallgroups of two or three, because of their size, havecharacteristics that are either absent or different from thoseof groups of four or more. A small group possesses general characteristics: common objectives,differentiation of roles, shared values and norms, criteria for membership,and patterns TROW, WILLIAM CLARK, A. E. ZANDER,W. C. of communication. Asa group grows, its members MORSE and D. H. JENKINS. Psychology of establish formal rules and regulations;it comes to group behavior: the class as a group. The journal resemble a formal organizationmore than a group. The of educational psychology, vol. 41,1950. pp. attitudes of daily life are contrasted with thescientific 322-338. attitude. Three general theories and severallimited theories show concepts useful in understandinggroup The study is concerned with whetherthe school behavior. The application of knowledge aboutsmall class is a group and, if it is, what this shouldmean to groups is also discussed. (271) educational psychologists whose task itis to introduce teachers to the principles that shouldaid them in developing the best possible environmentfor learning in their classrooms. Research ingroup dynamics is first reviewed, from which it is concludedthat group phe- STAGER, PAUL. Conceptual levelas a composition nomena definitely affect the progress of learningas well variable in small-group decision making.Journal as the kind of learning that takes place. The educational of personality and social psychology5:2, Febru- significance of this view derives fromthe fact that ary 1967. pp. 152-161. students' attitudes as wellas their behavior patterns are modifiable. How the teacherscan effectively shape these "Decision making was investigated from the attitudes and behavior patterns is discussedin the standpoint of the emergent distribution offunctional remainder of the article under theheading of The Roles roles,conflictgeneration, utilization of conflict in of the Teacher (the instructionalrole, the role of the decisionsynthesis,andinformationacquisition." democratic strategist, and the roleof the therapist.) (USCSC /) (272) References are included. (274) 68 ZALEZNIK, ABRAHAM and DAVID MOMENT. The cessesoccurring between the work group and its dynamics of interpersonal behavior. New York: environmenttheformal organizationwithin which John Wiley & Sons, 1964. 520 pp. small groups operate and the broader culture in which their members live. The fourth part analyzes natural The study is divided into four major parts. The and planned processes of leadership. Parts and sections first part deals with the processes ofgroup development, are:Part One, Groups and Interpersonal Processes using the group itself as the unit of analysis. Two Group and Interpersonal Behavior in Organizations: concerns are primary: (1) exploration of the require- Perspectives, Processes in Group Development: Group ments for the development of skills in social analysis Identity, Process in Group Development: Structure, necessary for working with data on human behavior Group Process: The Control of Behavior, Affect and knowledge of theory, appropriate analytical methods, Work in Groups; Part Two, Interpersonal Dynamics and ample material for practice; and (2) theuse of Role Performances in Groups, Individual Development research findings and theories that hold promise for and Modes of Interpersonal Behavior, Interpersonal both theoretical and practical understanding ofgroup Dynamics;PartThree,OrganizationalAspectsof behavior. The second part focuses on the individual Group BehaviorEnvironmental Constraints, Produc- andrelationshipsbetween individuals,treating the tivity, Satisfaction; Part Four, Leadership and Change. group as an influence on individual and interpersonal Included are a bibliography and author, subject and behavior. The third part concerns itself with thepro- research indexes. (275)

69 ORGANIZATIONS AND ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE

ARGYRIS, CHRIS. Organization and innovation. Home- BASS, BERNARD M. Organizational psychology. Bos- wood, Ill.: Richard D. Irwin, 1965. 274pp. ton: Allyn & Bacon, 1965. 459 pp.

Research was conducted by the author in three This introduction to organizational psychology organizations for the purpose of examiningsome basic considers the role of industry in American society and issues:(1) thenature of interpersonal competence, changing attitudes about its goals andpurposes; moti- (2) the nature of organizational innovativeness, and (3)a vationalfactorsrelated to work; the roles of the theory of individual and organizational change. In supervisor and the work group in developing and Chapter 1a new set of categories is presented that can maintaining such motivation; the nature of thestruc- be used to observe individual andgroup behavior and to ture, communications, and conflicts in large formal quantify variables related to interpersonalcompetence organizations; and the executive decision-makingpro- and problem-solving effectiveness. In addition to explor- cess. There are 767 references and author and subject ing several methodological issues, the author defines indexes.Chapters are (1) Introduction to Organiza- hypotheses and predictions thatare explored in the tional Psychology (background, aims of psychology in remainder of the book. Chapters 2, 3 and 4 containa industry, importance of values); (2) Attitudes Toward report of a study in an organizational setting. Chapter 5 Work (satisfaction and productivity); (3) Rewards of describesan attempt to change certain values and Work(materialrewards,workingconditions,co- behavior of the board of directors ofan organization as workers, job status); (4) The Individual and His Motiva- well as to measure the impact of these changes. In tion to Work; (5) Supervisory Behavior; (6) Working Chapter 6 the author extrapolates from the data and the Groups;(7) IndustrialOrganization; (8) Communica- relevant literature a model of the probable relationship tions in Industrial Organizations; (9) Conflict in Indus- among interpersonal competence, internal organization, trial Organizations (status differences, goals andcon- environment, and innovation. Appendix A containsa straints, intergroup conflict, union-managementcon- more detailed description of the categories used in the flict);(10) PsychologicalAspects of Executive De- theoretical scheme. Appendix B provides furtherinter- cision-Making (rational approaches to makingunpro- observer reliability studies. (276) grammed organizational decisions, decisions with lim- ited rationality, perceiving the problem in organiza- tions, searching for solutions, evaluating and choosing). (278)

BENNIS, WARREN G. Theory and method in applying behavioralsciencetoplanned organizational change. Journal of applied behavioral science ARGYRIS, CHRIS. Personality and organization: the 1:4,October-November-December,1965.pp. conflict between system and individual. New 337-360. York: Harper & Brothers, 1957. 291pp. Man's behavior is fallible in regulating the adapta- This book represents the author's first stepat tion of human organizations. The proportion of planned, integrating the existing research literature relevantto contemporary change is much higher than in form: understanding human behavior in on-going organiza- times. As a consequence, behavioral scientistsare caVal tions. Most of the book focuseson the question of on to influence organizational functioning and effective- why people behave the way they do in organizations. ness more often than heretofore. A theory of change Wherever possible, concrete practical applicationsare must include certain characteristics: communicability; included to make the bookmore useful to people compatibility with client systems must be determinable; concerned with the problems dealt with. Other basic variables must be manipulable and consonant with the questions discussed are: What are the basic components client system's values; cost must not be prohibitive; the of organization?, How does the organization tendto conditions of the "patient" must be susceptible to evolve?, and How does it tend to maintain itself in- diagnosis; and phases of instruction must be discreteso ternally? (277) the change agent can forecast the termination of the

70 relationship. Some types of change programs are: exposi- laboratory training described here has been effective in tionandpropagation,elitecorps, human relations integrating organizational requirements of profit and training programs, consultation, staff programs, circula- human requirements of growth. Chapters of the book tion of ideas, developmental research, and action re- aretitled;(1) Group Dynamics inDecision-Making, search. (279) (2) The Management Development Lab, (3) How Power Affects Human Behavior, (4) How Power Affects Em- pk.yee Appraisal, (5) How to Get Better Decisions from BENNIS, WARREN G. Changing organizations: essays Groups, (6) The Story Behind Inter-Group Conflict, on the development and evolution of human (7) Why Problem-Solving Between Groups Sometimes organization. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966. Fails, and (8) Power Styles Within An Organization. A 223 pp. glossary of terms and a subject index are appended. (281) The problem of change is considered from many different angles with focus on the causes and conse- quences of changeinorganizational behavior. The BROWN, DAVID S. The leader looks at authority and conclusions are derived from attention to (1) problems hierarchy (Looking into Leadership series). Wash- of change, (2) how these problems affect human organi- ington, D.C.: Leadership Resources, Inc., 1961. zations, and (3) what the behavioral sciences can do 12 pp. about directing the rate, shape, and consequences of change. The first section of essays identifies the evolu- Seven questions which leaders often ask about tionary or inevitable trend in organizational develop- authority and hierarchy are cited as evidence of the ment: (1) The Decline of Bureaucracy and Organizations importance of these facets of organizations. Problems of the Future; (2) Democracy Is Inevitable; (3) Toward with commonly held assumptions about organizational a"Truly" Scientific Management: The Concept of authority and hierarchy are examined: (1) organizations Organization Health; (4) Changing Patterns of Leader- are systems which function in much the same way as ship. The second section focuses on the contributions mechanical systems; (2) authority exists at the top and is behavioral science can make to planned change; (5) Ap- distributed downward through the organization by a plying Behavioral Sciences to Planned Organizational system known as delegation; (3) there is a distinction in Change; (6) Planned Organizational Change in Perspec- kind between what is done at the top of the organization tive; (7) Change-Agents, Change Programs, and Strate- and what is done at the bottom (policy and operations). gies; (8) Principles and Strategies of Directing Organiza- Ways in which power is expressed Skill requirements of tional Change Via Laboratory Training; (9) Some Ques- an administrative leader are suggested, and some guide- tions and Generalizations about Planned Organizational lines for administrative leadership are offered. The role Change. Five axioms basic to the study of organizations of the administrator as a group leader who moves people are offered in conclusion: (1) organizations are micro- to achieve goals which they have a part in determining is cosms; (2) behavioral scientists have become more com- emphasized. (282) mitted to applying their knowledge; (3) implementation of knowledge is a key problem facing the behavioral sciences; (4) the key to the problem of knowledge CANGELOSI, VINCENT E. and WILLIAM R. DILL. utilization is collaboration between the producers and Organizational learning:observations toward a users of knowledge; (5) the value systems of the scien- theory. Administrative science quarterly 10:2, tific community and the practitioner must be enriched September 1965. pp. 175-203. to include the idea of "revitalization." Our educational system should help us (1) accept the adaptive process This paperanalyzes learning processes of a without the fear of losing our identity; (2) increase our seven-man team during a semester's involvement in a toleranceof ambiguity without thefear of losing complex management decision exercise. Four phases of intellectual mastery; (3) increase our ability to collabo- organizational development are identified and discussed: rate without fear of losing individuality; and (4) develop an initial phase, a searching phase, a comprehending a willingness to participate in social evolution while phase, and a consolidating phase. Observations of how recognizing implacable forces. (280) the team learned are then compared with three recent discussions of organizational learning processes in labora- tory, industrial, and governmental settings. The paper BLAKE, ROBERT R. and JANE S. MOUTON. Group proposes a synthesis which views organizational learning dynamicskey to decision making. Houston: as a product of interactions among three kinds of stress. Gulf Publishing Company, 1961. 120 pp. It presumes that learning is sporadic and stepwise rather than continuous and gradual and that learning the Management training is intended to effect, for preferences and goals goes hand in hand with learning theattainment of corporateobjectives,the willing how to achieve them. Separate mechanisms are postu- release of energies controlled by others. The approach to latedtocontroladaptationattheindividual and

71 subgroup level within the organization and to control GINZBERG, ELI and EWING W. REILLEY. Effecting adaptation of the organizationas a total system. Links change in large organizations. New York: Colum- between the two levels of adaptationsare also described. bia University Press, 1957. 155 pp. (ASTD) (283) "Thisisanexploratorystudy.Ithas four objectives: to identify an important aspect of corporate life; to assess the strategic factors involved in the process of directed change; to consider how current efforts to bring about major organizational changes can be im- CARZO, ROCCO, JR. and JOHN N. YANOUZAS. proved; and to suggest the lines of future investigation Formal organization: a systems approach. Home- likelyto yield new knowledge and improvements in wood, Richard D. Irwin,Inc. and The practice. The subject is so large that we are inevitably Dorsey Press, 1967. 591pp. forced to deal with it suggestively rather than exhaus- tively. Our aim is to frame the problem and to identify In the systems approach formal organization is the key elements and processes so that others in business treated as a set of interdependent elements which act to and academic life may be stimulated to concern them- achieve certain goals and to maintain an orderly state of selves with it" (from author's foreword). Chapter titles affairs in exchanges with the environment. This intro- and selected topics further indicate content and organ- duction tothe systems approach is designed fora izationof thebook:(I) The Challenge of Change beginning course. Parts and chapters include: Part I, (change in the work of the president, the key executives FundamentalConcepts(1) Introduction;(2) Tradi- and the general manager, parallels in military organiza- tional Organizational Theory; (3) Administration in Tra- tions); (II) The Balance Sheet for Change (cultural and ditional Theory; (4) Problems of Traditional Theory; economic environments,corporationforces,inertia, PartII, Behavioral Patterns(5) Nonformal Behavior; competitive pressures, personnel resources, prior expe- (6) Social Organization and Behavior; (7) Power and rience with change, reputation of the management); Power Structure; (8) Emergent System; Part III, Organi- (III) Psychological Factors in Change (facilitating and zational Design(9) Markov Chain Analysis; (10) Learn- retarding factors, psychological mechanisms, effective ing; (11) Basic Framework for Organizational Design; communications, control of anxiety, learning new skills); (12) Control; (13) Waiting Line Theory and Organiza, (IV) Preparing the Plan; (V) The Initial Stage of Imple- tional Design; (14) System Reliability in Organizational mentation (announcement, timing, objectives, approach, Design; Part IV, Elements of Change (15) Motivation in specification of functions, group involvement); (VI) New Organization; and (16) Organizational Change. There are Behavior Patterns (personnel patterns, control measures, name and subject indexes. (284) formal mechanisms for learning, feedback and audit); (VII) The Process of Change (major findings, directions for research). There is a 5-page bibliography. (286)

GUEST, ROBERT H. Organizational change: the effect of successful leadership (Irwin-Dorsey Series in COOPER, W. W., H. J. LEAVITT and M. W. SHELLY, II Behavioral Science in Business). Homewood, Ill.: (eds.). New perspectives in organization research. The Dorsey Press and Richard D. Irwin, Inc., New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1964. 606 pp. 1962. 180 pp.

The papers comprising thechapters inthis A Yale Technology Project production, "This is a volume were drawn from two sources: from an Office of study. .of a patient who was acutelyill and who Naval Research Conference on Research in Organizations became extremely healthy. The 'patient' was not a Man held at Carnegie Institute of Technology, June 22-24, but a Management, the management of a large complex 1962; and from a Ford Foundation Seminar on the industrial organization." The book is one of the few Social Sciences of Organization held at the University of systematic studies of a large complex organization in Pittsburgh, June 10-23, 1962. The conference partici- process of change. It contains reliable and meaningful pants were persons active in either the management performancedata,exhibitsfullrecognition of the sciences (including operations research) or the behavioral technological environment within which the change sciences (including economics). The seminar participants phenomenon occurred, and puts an empiricalcase were from business schools and social science depart- history into broad theoretical perspective. The first 5 ments of a number of universities. There are 29 chapters chapters describe the organization and its problems over by as many authors, arranged in four parts: General a period of 3 years. Chapter 7, The Process of Change, Perspectives, Behavioral Science Perspectives, Interdisci- treats the change phenomenon specifically from prelim- plinary Perspectives, Management Science Perspectives, inary conditions to aftermath. Chapter 8, The Nature of and Perspectives for Further Research. A bibliography is Authority in Perspective, examines the authority func- included. (285) tion and its effects on group interaction. Chapter 9 is

72 syn. v.v471,...rrsvITI7717,

entitled Production Organizations as Socio-Technical Wide Culture; and (7) The Administrator as an Agent of Systems. The appendix contains a review of research on Organizational Change. (290) tension and stress in organizations, how they can be modified, and the role of the leader in the process of change. An 11-page bibliography and author and subject LIKERT, RENSIS. Measuring organizational perfor- indexes are included. (287) mance. Harvard business review 36:2, March- April 1958. pp. 41-50. An argument is made for management's need of HILL, WALTER A. and DOUGLAS M. EGAN. Readings measurements that deal directly with the human assets in organization theory: a behavioral approach. of the organizationfor example, measurements of Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1966. 748 pp. loyalty, motivation, confidence, and trust. Traditional theories of measurement which concentrate on aspects A collection of 41 readings by various authorities of profit and loss do not adequately and accurately in the field is presented for use either as a basic text or reflect the quality and capacity of the human organiza- as supplemental readings. The readings are arranged in tion of a company. The need for measuring these seven groups as follows: (1) The Complex Nature of variables is supported by a detailed review of a study Organization Goals; (2) The Process of Goal Formation; designed to test these two concepts of a modified Ihei .cy (3) The Social System in Organizations; (4) The Struc- of measurement: (1) that the pattern of interaction ture of Organizations; (5) Decision Making and Adapta- between the manager and those with whom he deals tion; (6) Control and Evaluation; (7) Some Remaining should always be such that the individuals involved will Questions. References are included. (288) feelthatthe managerisdealing with them ina supportiveratherthan athreatening manner; and (2) that management will make full use of the potential HUTCHINSON, JOHN G. Organizations; theory and capacities of its human resources only when each person classical concepts. New York: Holt, Rinehart & in an organization is a member of a well-knit and Winston, 1967. 178 pp. effectively functioning work group with high inter- actions, skills, and performance goals. The concepts were There are chapters on human factors in organiza- tested by using attitudinal and motivational data col- tions, planning, authority and leadership, the control lected in 1955 in a study by the Institute for Social process, and sources of managerial talent. (USCSC 1, Research, University of Michigan. The study is de- edited) (289) scribed, analyzed, and applied. The article concludes with alist of the variables of human assets now measurable with the techniques of the social sciences. LAWRENCE, PAUL R. and others. Organizational be- (291) havior and administration. Homewood, Ill.: The Dorsey Press and Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1961. 910 pp. MARCH, JAMES G. (ed.). Handbook of organizations. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965. 127 pp. The behavior of people as members of groups and organizations rather than as unique individuals is The present state of organizational research and focused upon. Case descriptions of the behavior of theory is described in 28 essays on the subject by a people in organizations are presented; these cases are not number of authorities in thefield. The essays are to demonstrate how people should act but how they do groupedinfive majorareas: I,Foundations act. The cases have been grouped into clusters to help (1) Influence, Leadership, Control, by Dorwin Cart- students accumulate and build the simulated experience wright; (2) Decision Making and Problem Solving, by that the discussion of cases can provide. There are D. W. Taylor; (3) Small Groups and Large Organizations, several types of cases: cases that are descriptive, cases by R. T. Golembiewski; (4) Social Structure and Organi- designed for drill, cases which report research, cases that zations, by A. L. Stinchcombe; II, Methodologies present the fragmentary symptoms of a problem which (5) Laboratory Experimentation with Organizations, by might come to the administrator for action. The aim of K. E. Weick; (6) Field Methods in the Study of Organiza- the book is to illustrate how future administrators can tions, by W. R. Scott; (7) Simulation of Organizational make use of systematic research as guides to their own Behavior, by K. J. Cohen and R. M. Cyert; (8) Math- behavior and not simply to acquaint students with what ematics and Organizational Theory, by W. H. Starbuck; is known. The material in the book was selected to show III, Theoretical-SubstantiveAreas(9) Management that there is order in the human universe. Chapter titles Theory, by J. L. Massie; (10) Economic Theories of are:(1) The Human Problems of Administration; Organization, by T. A. Marschak; (11) Organizational (2) Work Group Behavior; (3) Supervisory Behavior; GrowthandDevelopment byW. H.Starbuck; (4) Diagnosing and Proposing Remedial Action; (5) In- (12) Communication in Organizations, by H. Guetzkow; tergroup Behavior; (6) Organizational Behavior and the (13) Interpersonal Relations in Organizations, by A.

73 Zaleznik; (14) Organizational Decision Making, by J. McGREGOR, DOUGLAS. The human Feldman and H. E. Kanter; (15) side of enterprise. Organizational Control New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960.246 pp. Structure, by A. Etzioni; (16) TheComparative Analysis of Organizations, by S. H. Udy;IV, Specific Institu- The purpose of this volume is "to tions(17) Unions, by A. S. encourage the Tannenbaum; (18) Political realization that theory is important,to urge management Party Organization, by J.A. Schlesinger; (19) Public to examine its assumptions and make them Bureaucracies, by R. L. Peabody explicit." and F. E. Rourke; The author attempts to substantiatethe thesis that "the (20) Military Organizations, by K.Lang; (21) The Organ- theoretical assumptions management holds ization of Traditional Authority: English about con- County Gov- trolling its humanresources determine the whole charac- ernment, 1558 to 1640, by V. K. Dibble; (22)Hospitals: ter of the enterprise." He repudiates the traditional Technology,Structure, view andGoals, by C. Perrow; of direction and control (called TheoryX) and proposes (23) The Schoolas a Formal Organization, by C. E. a theory involving the integration of individual and Bidwell; (24) Prison Organizations, by D. R. Cressey; organizational goals (Theory Y). As hestates in conclu- (25) Business Organizations, by W. R. Dill; V, Applica- sion, "if we can learn how to realize thepotential for tions(26) Changing Interpersonal and Intergroup Rela- collaboration inherent in the humanresources of indus- tionships in Organizations, by H. A. Shepard;(27) Ap- try, we will provide a model forgovernments and plied Organizational Change inIndustry; Structural, nations which mankind sorely needs." Parts Technological, and Humanistic and chapters Approaches, by H. J. further indicate content and organization:Part One, The Leavitt; (28) Organizational Design andSystems Analy- TheoreticalAssumptionsof Manage- sis, by C. J. Haberstroh. Author and subjectindexes are ment (1) Managementand included. ScientificKnowledge; (292) (2) Methods of Influence andControl; (3) Theory X: TheTraditionalView of DirectionandControl; (4) Theory Y: The Integration ofIndividual and Organi- zationalGoals; Part Two, Theory Y inPractice (5) Management by Integration andSelf-Control; (6) A Critique of Performance Appraisal; (7)Administering Salaries and Promotions; (8) The ScanlonPlan; (9) Parti- MARCH, JAMES G. and HERMAN A. SIMON, with the cipation in Perspective; (10) The ManagerialClimate; collaboration of Harold Guetzkow. Organiza- (11) Staff-Line Relationships; (12)Improving Staff-Line tions. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1958.262 Collaboration; Part Three, The Development pp. of Manager- ial Talent(13) An Analysis of Leadership;(14) Manage- ment Development Programs; (15) AcquiringManagerial This book is about the theory of formalorganiza- Skills in the Classroom; (16) TheManagerial Team. tions. It is organized around propositions about organi- References are cited after each chapter. (294) zational behavior whichcan be grouped in three broad classes, on the basis of their assumptions: (1)employees are passive instruments of the organization; (2) members bring attitudes, values, and goalsto the organization which affect the entire organization; and(3) members are decision makers and problem solvers,so perception and thought processes are centralto the exploration of behavior in organizations. Chapter 1,Organizational Behavior, discusses the importance of thesubject, the PERROW, CHARLES. The analysis ofgoals in complex scattered and diverse nature of the literature as well as organizations. American sociological review26:6, the disparity between hypothesis andevidence, and the December 1961. pp. 854-866. organization of the book. Chapter 2, "Classical"Organi- zation Theory, deals with the employeeas passive "An understanding of organizational instrument, as he appears in behavior scientific management requires close examination of the goals of theorganiza- literature. Chapter 3, Motivational Constraints:Intra- tion reflected in operating policies. Toreach a first organizational Decisions; Chapter 4, MotivationalCon- approximation of operative goals,a scheme is proposed straints: The Decision to Participate; and Chapter5, which links technology and growthstages to major task Conflict in Organizations, deal withpropositions relating areascapital, legitimization, skills, and coordination to the second basic assumption about employees. Chap- which predict to power structure andthence to limits ter 6, Cognitive Limits on Rationality, and Chapter 7, and range of operative goals. The majorillustration of Planning and Innovation in Organizations,are concerned the utility of the scheme is provided primarily with the decision-making and by voluntary problem-solving general hospitals; other voluntary andnon-voluntary aspects of organizational behavior. There isa 35-page service organizationsare discussed, in these terms, as bibliography, a numerical index to variables(key con- well as profit-making organizations" (journal cepts in the text) and a general subject index. summary). (293) (295) 74 71: .3 7. ,M5MF-7,7 77 ,

SCHEIN, EDGAR. Organizational psychology (Founda- TANNENBA'UM, ROBERT, IRVING R. WESCHLER tions of Modern Psychology series). Englewood and FRED MASSARIK. Leadership and organi- Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1965. 114 pp. zation:a behavioral science approach. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961. 456 pp. Drawing from the parent fields of industrial psychology, industrial sociology, and social psychology, This book represents a selected collection of the the author presents points of view and focal concepts writings, from 1950 to 1960, of members of the Human around which to organize thinking about the new field Relations Research Group (HRRG), Institute of Indus- of organizational psychology. Chapters and selected trial Relations and Graduate School of Business Admini- topics are: (1) The Field of Organizational Psychology; stration, UCLA. It is designed as an overview of HRRG (2) Psychological Problemsin Organizations; (3) Re- work from its inception to1961. As such itisa cruitment, Selection, Training, and Allocation (includ- collection of articles, research papers, excerpts from ing job design and human engineering); (4) Organiza- monographs, and the like. These writings are presented tional Man and the Process of Management (organiza- in the first three of the four major parts of the book: tional relationships, management's assumptions about (1) Leadership and the Influence Process; (2) Sensitivity people, authoritythe psychological contractand the Training: A Personal Approach to the Development of process of management in perspective); (5) Group and Leaders; and (3) Studies in Organization. The initial part Intergroup Relationships (definition, types, functions presents some general reflections on the human relations of groups, integration of organizational goals and indi- area and a number of theoretical and practical state- vidualneeds);(6) The Organizationasa Complex ments concerning concepts and processes of basic System;(7) OrganizationalEffectiveness(adaptive- leadership. The second part focuses on the purposes and coping cycle, organizational conditions for effective functions of sensitivity training and the concepts of coping). A selected reading list of 423 titles and an trainer role and group development. The third part index are included. (296) develops some theoretical notions pertaining to formal organization, examines the operation of a particular organization, and presents the results of some empirical explorations in the organization area. Part IV presents commentaries on HRRG theory, concepts, and methods prepared by leading experts in related fields. A bibliog- raphy and indexes are included. (298)

VINTER, ROBERT D. Analysis of treatment organiza- SMITH, ROBERT J.(ed.). Major issues in modern tions. Social work 8:3, July 1963. pp. 3-15. society; twentieth anniversary meetings of the Society for Applied Anthropology (special issue). Analysis of "people-changing" organizations and Human organization 21:2, Summer 1962. pp. the two major types that compose this categorysocial- 61-170. ization and treatment agenciesare presented. Distinc- tive features of treatment organizations are examined Papers included are: Professional Responsibility and certain problems that confront complex treatment for Social Change, by F. L. W. Richardson, Jr.; The organizations arediscussed:use of human relations Change Process in Organizations, by Leonard Sayles; technologies, reliance on professionals, consequences for Quantitative Analysis of Complex Organizational Sys- clients, and evaluation of performance. References are tems, by Eliot D. Chapple; Changing Behavior Through cited in footnotes. (299) Cognitive Change, by Herbert R. Shepard and Robert R. Blake; The Organization of the Large Mental Hospital, by Elaine and Sohn Cumming; Community and Regional WHYTE, WILLIAM H., JR. The organization man. Development: The Joint Cornell-Peru ExperimentThe Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday Anchor Books Process of Acclerating Community Change, by Allan R. (paperbound edition), 1956. 471 pp. Holmberg and Henry F. Dobyns; Summary of Progress and Reactions, by Henry F. Dobyns, Carlos Monge M., "As more and more lives have been encompassed and Mario V. Vazquez; Integrating Communities Into by the organization way of life, the pressures for an More Inclusive Systems, by Harold D. Laswell; Imple- accompanying ideological shift have been mounting. The menting Change Through Government, by the Task pressures of the group, the frustrations of individual Force on Indian Affairs; Planning Future Joint Pro- creativity,theanonymity of achievement...[have grams, by John Ohly; Disorganization and Reorganiza- caused the organization man to seek] a redefinition of tion, by Everett C. Hughes; Where Are We Going If his place on eartha faith that will satisfy him that what Anywhere?, by Kenneth E. Boulding. (297) he must endure has a deeper meaning than appears on

75 the surface." Thus,a body of thought called the Social lifeis now needed.The 29 chapters of Ethic is replacing theProtestant Ethic. Theroots of this the bookare current phenomenon arranged under 7 majorheadings: (I) TheIdeology of are discussed and its impacton Organization Man (Decline individuals is suggestedby description ofthe organiza- of Protestant Ethic,Scien- tion man in college, his tism, Belongingness,Togetherness); (II) The initial indoctrination inorganiza- Training of tion life, analogies in Organization Man; (III)The Neuroses ofOrganization research labs andacademic life, Man; (IV) The expressions in popular Testing of OrganizationMan; (V) The fiction, and examplesof far- Organization Scientist; reaching effectsas seen in thenew suburbia. The (VI) The OrganizationMan in problem has Fiction; (VII) TheNew Suburbia:Organization Man. An swung too far in the directiondiscussed so appendix is entitled that a re-emphasison individualismwithin "How to Cheaton Personality organization Tests." There is an index of names and subjects. (300)

76 P.F.,S7,,,,,,,,T,,,prar.74.,,,,,,,

EDUCATIONAL AND TRAINING PHILOSOPHIES

ARCHAMBAULT, REGINALD D. (ed.). John Dewey medical educators, university officials, public officals, on education; selected writings. New York: The and others about problems in the field of medical Modern Library, 1964. 439 pp. education.. ..Most point to the need to take major stepsto improve medical educationto enable the "This book represents an attempt to collect, in nation to produce more and better prepared physicians systematic form, Dewey's major writings on education, and other health personnel. ... Most impressive is the together with certain basic statements of his philosophic repeated assertion that there is need for some organiza- position that are relevant to understanding his educa- tionpreferably the Association of American Medical tional views. ... The aim of the book is to prompt a Collegesto assume a more aggressive and correlative fresh lookat Dewey's educational theory.Itisa role if future needs in the field of education for all commonplace that everyone talks about Dewey and no health personnel are to be met. The report endeavors to one reads him. Itis my hope that a comprehensive highlight the needs for change identified and to suggest collection of this kind will facilitate a careful, critical courses of action that might be taken to meet the reading of Dewey's views, on the part of scholars and anticipated needs of America for medical education" students of education" (editor's preface). Major parts (from Letter of Transmittal, by Lowell T. Coggeshall, and selected chapter headings indicate the book's organi- M.D.). Major sections of the report are entitled: (1) Med- zation:(I) Philosophy and Education; (II) Ethics and ical Education in Perspective; (2) Major Trends Related Education; (III) Aesthetics and Education; (IV) Science to Health Care and Their Implications; (3) The Past and and Education; (V) Psychology and Education; (VI) So- Present Roles of the Association of American Medical ciety and Education; (VII) Principles of Pedagogy (The Colleges; (4) The Future Development of the Associa- Relation of Theory to Practice in Education; The Child tion of American Medical Colleges; (5) Summary of and the Curriculum; The Nature of Subject Matter; Trends, Implications, and Recommendations. An appen- Progressive Organization of Subject Matter; The Nature dix of terminology defines terminology of primary of Method; The Educational Situation: As Concerns importance to the association: education for health and Secondary Education; The Way Out of Educational medical sciences; physician education (pre- and post- Confusion; My Pedagogic Creed). (301) doctoral education); basic medical sciences education; continuing education; and allied health professions and occupations. There is a selected bibliography. (302) ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN MEDICAL COL- LEGES. Planning for medical progress through education (report submitted to the Executive De LONG, EARL H. A philosophy of training and Council of the AAMC by Lowell T. Coggeshall). education for the federal service. IN Presidential Evanston, Ill.: The Association, April 1965. 107 Task Force on Career Advancement. Self and pp. service enrichment through federal training; se- lections from studies, reports and papers sub- "The great and growing national concern over mitted to the Presidential Task Force...(Dis- the health of our people requires that those responsible tributed by U.S.CivilService Commission). for medical education today and in the future turn their Washington: U.S. Govt. Print. Office, 1967. pp. attentions to a question of the greatest importance and 56-90. most far-reaching consequences: Will the methods and practices currently followed in providing health person- The need for, current status of, and suggested nel of all categories, together with the programs and changes in training of federal professional, managerial, facilities in being or planned, be adequate to meet our and technical employees are discussed. The needs for national needs? This basic question about the future increased planning, specific goals, and attention to development of medical education, and parallel concerns individual requirements are emphasized. Topics included about the role that the Association of American Medical in the discussion are: the philosophy and assumptions of Colleges should play in the decades ahead and how the the Government Employees Training Act of 1958; organization should develop its effectiveness, led to this militarytraining;universitytraining and education study of the association's future work....During the (undergraduate and graduate); pre-entry training; post- study, surprising unanimity of concern was found among entry training and education; up-dating requirements;

77 and executive development. Ten-specificsuggestions for Evaluation; Courses, Tasks and Skills; Government/ improving federal employee training and educationare Education/Industry Interface; The World Crisis in Edu- made in summary, and a table charting the suggested cation; How Can We Meet the Challenges? [Located too roles of the Federal Government itself and the academic late for indexing.] and related research and professionalorganizations is provided. (303) THELEN, HERBERT A. Education and the human quest. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1960. 224 pp.

"We know a great deal about the nature ofman, Educational technology, innovation in education; featur- knowledge, and society; about the dynamics of learning ing a special report on an Aerospace Education by individuals; about the factors affectinggroup perfor- Foundation seminar. Washington, D.C.: Aero- Ince; about intergroup relations and social action; space Education Foundation, Spring 1967. 66 about community improvement....As judged by what pp. could be done if we were to understand and apply modern knowledge to educational problems, allour The edited proceedings of the Seminaron Educa- schools are obsolescent." Communities need to make tional Technology held in Washington, D.C., in 1966,are education intervene in the processes of interdependence presented. Questions exploredare indicated by topics of which tend to fractionate and dehumanize andto papers: The New World of Educational Technology, by formulate broad policy which is responsive to demands William Leavitt; A SymposiumPart I: The Systems of human natures, social interdependence, and societal Approach to Education; A SymposiumPart II: How goals. Instead of allowing education to develop through the Military Can Aid Civilian Education; A Symposium increased bureaucracy, tinkering (distinguished from Part III: Questions from the Audience, Answersfrom experimentation by absence of any thought-out theory); the Panelists; What Satellite Technology Can Do for and experimentation (which occasionally yields good Education, by Maj. Gen. James McCormack, Jr., USAF results), a fourth approach is needed (discussed in (Ret.); The Realities of the Learning Market, by Harold Chapter1) whereby everyone concerned with the Howe, II; How to Help Johnny Getand Keep--a Job, enterprise of education is educated. "It would involve by Robert M. Morgan and David S. Bushnell; Toward the teachers studying and formulating the basic discipline of New Pedagogy, by Robert Glaser; Education and the the field of knowledge they teach; administrators and Underdeveloped World, by George D. Woods. There isa counselors studying the bases for deciding which particu- selected, annotated bibliography by Gabriel D. Ofiesh. lar child should be assigned to which teachers;commun- [Located too late for indexing.] ity agencies studying the over-all range of education- relevant experiences of students in the community and then trying to decide which kinds of experiences could best be supervised in schools, in families, in clubs, and in work situations." These ideas are further developed in subsequent chapters:(2) Man: What Makes Johnny Tick? (the complexity of human behavior and the task NATIONAL SECURITY INDUSTRIAL ASSOCIA- of education to supervise the natural inquiry intoways TION.Proceedings of Project ARISTOTLE of resolving the conflict between our animal and social Symposium, Washington, D.C., December 6-7, natures in each of its confrontations); (3) Knowledge: 1967. Washington, D.C.: The Association, 1968. The Instinct for the Jugular (information and knowledge 642 pp. are compared, and the educative part of knowledge as a disciplined approach to life is suggested); (4) Society: Proceedings of general sessions and taskgroups The House That Jack Lives In (social context of school are entitled: Industry's Proposed Creed; What Education need for community awareness of andconcern for Wants From Government and Industry; The Challenge to welfare and education of youth); (5) Suppositions: Four ARISTOTLE and Future Needs; Project 100,000; Media Models for Education (Model 1Personal Inquiry; Model Workshop; Information Storage, Retrieval, and Dissemi- 2Group Investigation; Model 3Reflective Action; nation; Frontiers of Educational Research; Panorama of Model 4Skill Development); (6) Model 1: Personal Educational Research; Computers in Education; Com- Inquiry; (7) Social Order: The Subterranean World of municationsforEducation; New Developments in the Group; (8) Model 2: Group Investigation; (9) Model Teaching Marine Technology; New Audio-Visual Devel- 3: Reflective Action; (10) Model 4: Skill Development; opments; New Developments in Trainers and Simulators; (11) Do-It-Yourself: The Greatest Project (necessity for New Developments in Educational Facilities; Biomedical joint action by school and community if improvement is Education; Systems Approach to Education; Issues and to come). References are listed after each chapter. There Evaluation of Education; Current Activities in Education is an index of names and subjects. (304)

78 /,11,

TYLER, RALPH W. Distinctive attributesof education School in an Urban Society, Twixt the Upper and the for the professions. IN Councilon Social Work Nether, by Sidney P. Marland, Jr.; Can the Schools Put Education. A source book of readingson teach- Innovations to Use?, by Robert E. Slaughter; The Things ing in social work; reprints of selectedarticles of Education, by Harold B. Gores; A Larger Role for the (65-58-3). New York: The Council, 1966.14 pp. Small College, by Esther Raushenbush; Does America Need the Negro Colleges?, by Earl J. McGrath and L. In education for all professions thereare com- Richard Meeth; From Autonomy to Systems, by James mon problems, common principles, and common criteria A. Perkins; Technology and Education, by Thomas J. for guiding emerging programs. The essential character- Watson, Jr.; Education's Role in International Relations, istics of a profession(1) a professional code of ethics, by Charles Frankel. (307) and (2) techniques of operation basedupon principles rather than rule-of-thumb proceduresor routine skills are discussed, and the major tasks involved in planning and conducting a professional educationalprogram are U.S. AIR UNIVERSITY. ACADEMIC INSTRUCTOR set forth with specific reference to professional content AND ALLIED OFFICER SCHOOL. Readings in in sections entitled: Objectives of Professional Educa- educational theory. Maxwell Air Force Base, tion; Planning Learning Experiences; Organizing Learn- Alabama: The University, 1965. 126 pp. ing Experiences; and Evaluating Effectiveness of Educa- tional Program. Emphasis throughout ison planning and "This book presents four theories of education evaluating in terms of objectives. (Reprinted from Social which have major significance in America today: peren- Work Journal 33:2, April 1952, pp. 55-62, 94.) (305) nialism, essentialism, progressivism, and reconstruction- ism. Each theory presents a program for education. Each seeks to shape American education through its concept of the nature of learning and through its view of the TYLER, RALPH W. Scholarship and education for the main tasks and aims of the educational process. Each professions. IN Council on Social Work Educa- theory is based on a philosophy of education that is not tion. A source book of readings on teaching in necessarily a fully systematized body of thought, but socialwork;reprintsofselectedarticles rather a set of deeply-rooted convictions about the (65-58-3). New York: The Council, 1966. 11pp. nature and aims of education and its place in American society. An attempt has been made to present writings This discussion is aimed at throwing lighton by outstanding representatives of the major educational questions of intellectual attainment and academic stan- theories currently being discussed in America.. ..Their dards in professional education. Topic headings indicate works, although abridged in some instances, are pre- content and organization: The Meaning of Education for sented at considerable length to do justice to their the Professions; The Tasks of Professional Education; views" (from the introduction). Selections in each part ProfessionalSchoolsandAcademic Departments are: Part I, Philosophy and Educational TheoryWhat Similarities and Differences; The Concern with Certifica- Can Philosophy Contribute to Educational Theory?, by tion; The Distinction between Graduate and Under- Curt J. Ducasse; Part II, PerennialismIntroduction to graduate Education; The Aims of Graduate Education: Perennialism; The Conflict in Education in a Democratic Theory and Practice; The Research Function of Profes- Society, by Robert M. Hutchins; Education vs. Western sional Schools. (Reprinted from Education for Social Civilization, by Walter Lippman; The St. John's Pro- Work, 1957 Proceedings of the Fifth Annual Program gram: a ReportAnnapolis, Maryland; A Conversation Meeting. New York: Council on Social Work Education, on Education, by Robert M. Hutchins; Part III, Essen- 1957.) (306) tialismIntroduction to Essentialism; An Essentialist's Platform for the Advancement of American Education, by William C. Bagley; A National Standard for Educa- The unfinished journey; issues in American education. tion, by Vice-Admiral H. G. Rickover, USN; The Case New York: The John Day Company, 1968. 202 for Essentialism in Education, by William C. Bagley; Part pp. IV, ProgressivismIntroduction to Progressivism, My Pedagogic Creed, by John Dewey; Experience and This book commemorates 100 years of history Education, by John Dewey; The Case for Progressivism for the U.S. Office of Education. It containsa Preface in Education, by William Heard Kilpatrick; Part V, by President Lyndon B. Johnson, an Introduction by ReconstructionismIntroduction to Reconstructionism; Harold Howe II, U.S. Commissioner of Education, and Philosophies of Education in an Age of Crisis, by 12 essays: What Price Quality in Education?, by Ralph Theodore Brameld; Imperatives for a Reconstructed W.Tyler; The NationalPolitics of Education, A Philosophy of Education, by Theodore Brameld; Part Congressman's View, by John Brademas; Education and VI, Education in the Aerospace AgeHigher Education Poverty, by Walter P. Reuther; The Educability of the as an Instrument of National Policy, by Merriam H. Children of the Poor, by Allison Davis; The Urban Trytten; Education for the Third Revolution, by Glenn

79 T. Seaborg; A Twenty-First Century Lookat Higher Precedent and the Urban Challenge, by Paul A. Miller, Education, by Alvin C. Eurich. There isa selected, AssistantSecretaryfor Education(possibilitiesfor classified, 68-item bibliography. (308) adapting rural extension service type of informal educa- tion to needs of urban poor); RehabilitationAn Act of Faith, by Mary E. Switzer, Administrator, Social and U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND Rehabilitation Service (history of that branch of HEW, WELFARE. "What's going on in HEW?" The triumphs of faith behind the system); National Purpose HEW Forum Papers 1967-1968. Washington: and the Need for Community, by Lisle C. Carter, U.S. Govt. Print. Office, 1968.152pp. Assistant Secretary for Individual and Family Services (growing conflict between traditional national mindset "The HEW Forum lecture series wasan attempt and current reality, with implications for civil rights); to give HEW employees a wider perspective on the work PublicServices Under a Government of Laws, by of the Department as a whole by exposing them to the Alanson W. Willcox, General Counsel (new role of the ideas and personalities of itsleadership. They are Nation's courts in making social services availableto all published here 'to convey to people outside HEWa who are eligible); Federal Funding: Categorical Vs. Bloc degree of insight into the range and magnitude of this Grants, by James F. Kelly, Assistant Secretary, Comp- HEW effort as well as ameasure of the earnestness and troller(current and projected ways of distributing vitality that goes into it.' The Forum began and ended Federal funds for HEW programs); Sharpening the Knife with a Secretary setting forth an overall plan of aims and That Cuts the Public Pie: Toward Better Choice-Making strategies. Secretary John W. Gardner...launched the Via PPBS, by William Gorham, Assistant Secretary for series with a comprehensive view of President Johnson's Planning and Evaluation (new techniques of planning, domestic program. He placed it in its historical frame of choice-making and evaluation); The Worth of Our Work, reference, identifying key issuescivil rights,poverty, by Donald F. Simpson, Assistant Secretary for Adminis- crime control, environmental qualityand discussing the tration (management's contributions to quantity and great questions of how to adopt existingmeans to quality of work done in a big organization). (309) evolving ends. Incoming Secretary Wilbur J. Cohen concluded the series with an analysis ofsome of the most challenging domestic problems of the Nation's unfinished agenda and a description of theway in which WHITEHEAD, A. N. The aims of education and other our democratic process produces social progress." Be- essays. New York: Macmillan, 1929.247 pp. tween the Secretaries' lectures there were 3 presenta- tions on health, 2 on education, 3 on social welfare, and "One main idea runs through the various chap- 3 on ways and means. Lecture topics and speakerswere: ters and is illustrated in them from many points of view. Health Services: Who's in Charge, by Dr. William H. It can be stated briefly thus: The studentsare alive, and Stewart, Surgeon General (organization and non-organi- the purpose of education is to stimulate and guidetheir zation of medical facilities in the U.S., and mood of self-development. It follows asa corollary from this health professions); Has the World Grown Too Small?, premise, that the teachers also should be alive withliving by Dr. Phillip R. Lee, Assistant Secretary for Health and thoughts. The whole book isa protest against dead Scientific Affairs (population explosion and birthcon- knowledge, that is to say, against inert ideas" (from trol);FromWitchcraftandSorcerytoHead- author's preface). Titles of essaysare: (I) The Aims of Shrinking-Society's Concern About Mental Health, by Education; (II) The Rhythm of Education; (III) The Dr. Stanley F. Yolles, Director, National Institute of Rhythmic Claims of Freedom and Discipline; (IV) Tech- Mental Health (history of care for mentally ill, current nical Education and Its Relation to Science and Litera- stresses threatening mental health, and evolving pro- ture; (V) The Place of Classics in Education; (VI) The grams); Who's Minding the Store?, by Dr. Harold Howe, Mathematical Curriculum; (VII) Universities and Their Commissioner of Education (discussion of formal and Function; (VIII) The Organization of Thought; (IX) The informal groups comprising power structure in teaching Anatomy of Some Scientific Ideas; (X) Space, Time, and and learning in the U.S.); Informal Education: The Rural Relativity. (310)

80 V77 1,,,,,,,%ItWri7Pvds251.7.7a7,TVF.,FA"."-.M.77.4777,71Fg

INDEX (by referencenumbers) ABILITY, APTITUDE ATTITUDES 61, 63, 73, 152, 160, 164, 165, 171, 189, 195 8, 12, 26, 27, 29, 30, 34, 68,70, 128, 152, 174, 278, 293 ACHIEVEMENT 50-52, 63, 64, 68, 70,73, 74,78, 79, 81, 88,90, AUDIO RECORDING 164, 189 121

ADMINISTRATION AUDIOVISUAL AIDS 53, 70, 73, 82-84, 98, 109, 157, 219, 221, 224, 101, 110, 111, 117, 119, 121,152, 186, 188, 258, 266, 273, 282, 284, 290,296, 304 209, 211, 212, 307

ADULT EDUCATION 123-133, 239, 245 AUDITORY PERCEPTION 1, 3, 4, 7, 9, 14, 43 ADULT LEARNING 123-133 AUTOMATION 110, 112, 152, 163, 181 AGE 123, 128, 130, 133 BEHAVIOR CHANGE (INDIVIDUAL) 19, 22, 30, 36, 38-40,53, 117,156,184, 224 ANALYSIS 10, 16, 22, 32, 36, 40, 50,53, 182, 195, 198, BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES 199, 201, 210, 211, 233, 234, 262,264 17, 18, 24-27, 33, 36

ANXIETY 36, 66, 98, 229, 242, 286 BIBLIOGRAPHIES 1, 3, 4, 12.14, 16-19, 24, 28-31,35, 37-41, 43, 44, 46-50, 52, 55, 56, 58, 59, 66,68-70, 73, 76, ANTHROPOLOGY 77, 79, 86, 95, 96, 100-102, 107, 9, 13, 18, 24, 78, 159 110, 117, 118, 120,123,126,127,131,132, 134,137, 141-144, 148, 149, 151, 152, 154,156, 158, 161, 168, 173, 174, 183, 184, 186, APPRECIATION (LEARNING) 187, 191, 150 195, 200, 201, 209, 215, 220, 222,224, 225, 227, 233, 236, 241, 243, 245,248, 250, 251, 255-257, 259, 261-263, 265, 268,270, 273-2751 278, 285-288, 293, 294, 296,298, 299, 302, ARCHITECTURE 304, 308 6

ATTENTION BRAINSTORMING TECHNIQUE 20, 43, 93, 103, 118, 143, 161,163, 172 236

81 11 6'3

BUSINESS AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING COMPUTERS 2, 8, 25, 53, 64, 81-83, 92, 106, 131, 171,183, 32, 112, 119, 167, 183, 201, 211, 212 195, 202, 204, 205, 213, 224, 245, 281,294, 300 CONCEPT FORMATION 46, 134, 137, 139, 141, 142, 148, 149, 152,167, BUZZ GROUP TECHNIQUE 180, 182, 195, 242 236

CONDITIONED RESPONSE CASE RECORDS 19, 22, 26, 30, 36, 102, 134, 136, 137,139, 221, 268, 290 141-145, 148, 149, 151,153, 173, 174, 184

CASE STUDY (INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUE) CONFERENCE METHOD 157, 214, 290 236, 243, 245

CHAINING (SEQUENTIAL LEARNING) CONFLICT 139, 148, 168, 186, 195 16, 17, 20, 29, 42, 45, 50, 56, 66, 68, 73,115, 157, 215, 217, 221, 226, 231, 232, 251,252, 257, 272, 277, 278, 281, 293, 304, 308

CHANGE PROCESS-INDIVIDUALS, GROUPS, OR- GANIZATIONS CONSULTATION 16, 17, 19, 22, 30, 34, 36, 38-42, 53, 63, 70, 82, 17, 279 117,130,156,184, 202, 224, 246, 250, 275-280, 284, 286, 287, 290, 292, 297 CONTIGUOUS CONDITIONING 141, 143, 144, 158

CLASS (INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD) 157, 237, 257, 267,274 CONTINGENCY MANAGEMENT 71

CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM, TAXONOMY 140, 149, 263 CONVENTIONS 101

COGNITIVE ORGANIZER TECHNIQUE 154, 155 CORRESPONDENCE STUDY (INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD) 132 COGNITIVE STRUCTURE 146, 154, 155, 158

COUNSELING COMMITTEE HEARING TECHNIQUE 197, 224, 304 236

COMMUNICATION (THOUGHT TRANSFER) COURSE DESIGN 1, 7-9, 18, 20-24, 26, 32, 43, 83, 93-122, 138, 99 174, 220, 229, 238, 243, 246, 248, 254, 259, 268, 269, 271, 278, 279, 286, 291, 292

COMMUNITY CREATIVITY 23,41, 255, 273,297, 304 21, 30, 267

82 CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT ENVIRONMENT (GENERAL) 18, 21, 23, 26, 29,34-36,41,92, 110, 111,115, 3-6, 8, 9, 20, 26.28, 33, 36, 54, 55, 58, 63, 70, 119,159,238, 275, 286, 290 81, 84, 110, 111, 152, 157, 224, 246, 248, 267

CURRICULUM EQUIPMENT 119, 301 1, 3, 7, 9, 11-14, 152, 201

CYBERNETICS EVALUATION 22, 24, 32, 112, 114, 120, 204 6, 10, 11, 14, 29, 99, 151, 183, 184, 200, 201, 236, 239, 245, 257, 259, 268, 269, 273, 288, 291, 299, 305, 309 DECISION MAKING 24, 58, 152, 201, 208, 209, 226, 232, 239, 243-246, 248, 257, 266, 269, 270, 272, 278, EVALUATION DEVICES 281, 288, 292, 293, 309 187, 233, 236, 240, 259, 262, 264, 276

DESIGN EXHIBITS 1, 3, 5, 7, 11, 12, 14, 15, 36, 201, 284, 292 101, 121

DETERMINING TRAINING NEEDS EXTENSION EDUCATION 213 132, 308

DIALOGUE FACILITIES 104, 107, 236 6, 70, 121, 199

DISCOVERY LEARNING FEEDBACK (KNOWLEDGE OF RESULTS) 154, 180, 195 11,60, 89, 147, 158, 195, 239, 240

DISCRIMINATION LEARNING FILMS-MOTION PICTURE 44,137, 139, 142, 143, 145, 152, 153, 165, 168 19, 64, 86, 99, 119, 121, 186, 188 173, 195

FILMSTRIPS, FILM SLIDES DISPLAY 121 1, 3, 7, 9

FLIPSHEETS ECONOMICS 121 12, 24, 27, 29, 36, 63, 70, 78, 213, 307

GAME THEORY EDUCATION 24, 208, 268 24, 36, 59, 98, 119, 134, 138, 157,159, 183, 195, 197, 199, 200, 206, 209, 212, 224,245, 250, 257, 268, 273, 280, 301-310 GESTALT THEORY 143, 151 EMOTION, FEELINGS 20, 21, 28, 36, 42, 44, 56, 69, 77,86, 97, 115, GLOSSARIES, TERMINOLOGY 116, 118, 126, 137, 157, 214,218, 228, 261, 14, 20, 24, 30, 39, 45, 1: 144, 148, 195, 198, 262, 265, 275 243, 257, 281

83 GOALS, GOAL-SETTING HIERARCHICAL LEARNING MODEL 17, 60, 68, 73, 81-84, 138, 182, 183, 185, 195, 139, 141, 154, 155, 164, 166 200, 205, 236, 239, 245, 246, 255, 257-259, 265, 271, 273, 281.284, 288, 291-296, 303-305, 308, 310 HIERARCHICAL MOTIVATION MODEL 55,77,85,88,90

GROUP COHESIVENESS 174, 230, 234, 238, 241, 256, 259 HISTORY 24, 27

GROUP CONSENSUS 214, 215, 217, 228, 241, 251, 269 HUDDLE GROUP TECHNIQUE 236

GROUP DISCUSSION 97, 236, 240, 242, 260 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 18, 30, 37, 123, 152, 156, 159, 174, 216, 224, 229 GROUP DYNAMICS AND PROCESS 17, 18, 23, 29, 98, 150, 174, 224, 228, 232, 236, 239, 241, 243, 245, 248, 252-258, 262-264, 267, HUMAN FACTORS ENGINEERING 273-275, 281 1-15, 201, 213, 289

GROUP INSTRUCTION HUMAN MEASUREMENTS 157, 181, 186, 236, 242, 257, 304 3, 13, 14

GROUP SIZE HUMAN RELATIONS 241, 248, 257, 271 18, 20, 21, 23, 26, 29, 30, 35, 56,58, 63,70, 74, 81, 85, 86, 98, 152, 157, 214-300

GROUP STRUCTURE 29, 157, 174, 214, 217, 218, 221-224, 226, 228, ILLUMINATION 230, 238, 241, 246-248, 251-253, 275, 292 1,3,4,6,9

GROUPING FOR INSTRUCTION IMITATION 245, 257 39, 156

GROUPS (GENERAL) INCIDENTAL LEARNING 17, 18, 23, 29, 30, 36, 38, 41, 58, 97, 98, 150, 149, 176 157, 174, 181, 186, 214, 217, 218, 221-224, 226, 228, 230, 232-275, 278, 281, 290, 292, 300, 304 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 20, 26, 33, 43, 128, 138, 160, 161, 193

HEALTH AND MEDICAL FIELDS 19, 26, 30, 36, 40, 41, 59, 70, 77, 86, .87,99, 101, 115, 157, 218, 219, 224, 226, 229, 231, INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION 242, 268, 280, 292, 295, 297, 299, 302 181, 186, 303, 304

HIDDEN AGENDA (GROUPS) INFORMATION PROCESSING 232, 239, 268 9, 58,112, 143, 167, 209

84 INFORMATION THEORY INTERVIEW TECHNIQUE 24, 97, 114 70, 236

INQUIRY TRAINING JOB PERFORMANCE AIDS 146 201

INSIGHT KNOWLEDGE 150 20, 135, 304

INSTITUTE METHOD LABORATORY METHOD OF SENSITIVITY TRAIN- 236 ING 250, 273, 280, 281, 298 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN 53, 99, 128, 147, 152, 164, 177-195,200, 202, LANGUAGE 204, 206, 211-213, 305 20, 38, 47, 94, 95, 97, 114-116,118,120, 134, 135, 138, 159, 174, 183, 203 INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS CENTERS (LEARN- ING RESOURCE CENTERS) LAW 99, 119, 212 24, 36, 120

INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS AND TECHNIQUES LAW OF EFFECT (LEARNING) (GENERAL) 151 131, 138, 152, 154, 213, 236,301

LEADERSHIP INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY 8, 16, 63, 118, 214, 215, 218,228,230, 236, 119,143, 161,163, 177, 188,307 239, 240, 241, 243, 245, 246,248,251-253, 255, 257-260, 262, 267, 270,273,275, 280, 282, 287, 289, 292, 294, 298 INSTRUCTOR (TEACHER, TRAINER)-ROLEAND FUNCTIONS 104, 119, 126, 131, 135, 138, 150, 181,184, LEARNING 209, 237, 242, 245, 274, 298 6, 11, 14, 18-21, 26, 28, 30, 37, 43-47, 49, 55, 56, 77, 102, 119, 120, 125, 126, 128-131, 133-195, 200, 215, 237, 244, 250, 274, 283, 284, 286, 304, 308 INSTRUCTOR (TEACHER, TRAINER)-TRAINING 99, 119, 273 LEARNING CURVES 142 INTELLIGENCE 18, 20, 21, 35, 77, 128, 161, 164, 189, 244 LEARNING MOTIVATION 56, 62, 134, 136, 148, 152, 153, 163, 195

INTERACTION PROCESS ANALYSIS 214, 218, 228, 233, 234, 240, 248, 251, 252, LEARNING READINESS 254, 262, 264, 269, 276 44, 47, 163, 164, 166

INTERFERENCE (LEARNING) LECTURE TECHNIQUE 89, 153 236

85 LINGUISTICS OBJECTIVES 20, 24, 38, 47, 94, 95, 97, 112,159 82, 138, 182, 183, 185, 195, 200, 236,271,305

LISTENING OBSERVATION 43, 96, 105,113 138, 233, 236, 240, 251, 262, 264, 276

MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT,MANAGEMENT OPERANT CONDITIONING EDUCATION 19, 22, 36, 141-143, 148, 149, 153,168,169, 8, 25, 202, 205, 224, 281, 294,300, 303 173, 184, 190

MANUALS ORAL COMMUNICATION 119 1, 7, 9, 32, 97, 106, 110, 118, 122, 220

MASS MEDIA ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE 26, 30, 40, 97, 110, 116, 119, 150 63, 73, 82, 85, 275, 294

MEANINGFULNESS ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 21, 59, 70, 82, 105, 154, 155, 158, 159, 175, 8, 70, 100, 221, 222, 224, 278, 286, 296 267

ORGANIZATIONS MEETINGS-METHODS AND TECHNIQUES 23, 26, 41, 63, 64, 70, 73, 75,95, 100,117, 118, 273 122, 201, 202, 207, 210, 221, 222, 224, 226, 246, 258, 271, 275-300

MENTAL HEALTH 19, 23, 68, 70, 77, 97, 115, 157, 218, 229,309 OVERHEAD AND OPAQUE PROJECTION 121

MILITARY TRAINING 2, 11, 13, 14, 89, 172, 186, 187, 189, 245, 303 PANEL TECHNIQUE 236

MODELS (THEORETICAL) 17, 23, 30, 73, 100, 119, 143, 167, 203, 208, PARTICIPATION, INVOLVEMENT 209, 211, 217, 243, 250, 252, 276, 304 29, 70, 85, 103, 132, 147, 185, 220, 236, 243, 245, 259, 270, 273, 293, 294

MOTIVATION 8, 18, 20, 26, 29, 36, 37, 41, 44, 50-92, 100, PERCEPTION 117, 123, 126, 128, 131, 134-137, 141, 148, 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 14, 18, 20, 22, 26, 28, 29, 33, 37, 152, 153, 157, 163, 172, 174, 184, 195, 200, 41, 43-49, 52, 55, 77, 98, 100, 103, 105, 115, 224, 241, 255, 278, 284, 293 119, 126, 128, 133, 134, 150, 152, 161, 293

MULTIMEDIA INSTRUCTION PERCEPTUAL -MOTOR LEARNING 99, 212 119, 137, 148, 149, 160, 161, 171, 186, 187

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION PERCEPTUAL SET 115, 118 44, 47

86 PERFORMANCE PRINCIPLE LEARNING (HIERARCHYTHEORY) 2, 8, 10, 20, 37, 56, 61, 68, 70, 73, 84,133, 153, 139, 141 160, 171, 180, 201, 224, 243, 244,248, 281, 291, 294 PROBABILITY LEARNING 149 PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL 8, 84, 281, 294 PROBLEM SOLVING PERSONALITY 21, 32, 133, 139, 142, 149, 152, 158, 159, 161, 162, 165, 169, 174, 180, 190, 224, 234, 245, 18, 20, 23, 28, 29, 32, 35, 77, 88, 97, 116,118, 251, 253, 254, 260, 266-269, 276, 281, 292, 141, 156, 174, 219, 221, 222, 248, 277 293

PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION PERT (PROGRAM EVALUATION AND REVIEW 25, 39, 101, 242, 302, 303, 305, 306 TECHNIQUE) 268 PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION (THEORY,PRO- CESS, PRODUCTS, USE) PHILOSOPHY 20, 33, 89, 116, 119, 121, 134, 150, 154, 30, 59, 63, 69, 82, 300-310 164, 173, 177-195, 198, 208

PHOTOGRAPHY PSYCHIATRISTS 121 218, 219, 242

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT PSYCHOLOGISTS 3-6, 9, 26, 28, 33, 55, 63, 70, 81,84, 110 218

PLANNING PSYCHOLOGY (GENERAL) 16, 17, 32, 42, 73, 289, 293, 303,309 18, 20, 21, 23, 24, 32, 35, 37, 62, 114, 181,201

POLITICAL SCIENCE PUBLIC SERVICE, GOVERNMENT TRAINING 24, 27, 104, 307 80, 183, 303

POST-GRADUATE EDUCATION PUNISHMENT 101 36, 39, 45, 47, 66, 89

POWER AND POWER STRUCTURE QUESTIONNAIRES 52, 74, 174, 218, 226, 243, 258, 281,282, 284, 224, 228 287, 289, 295

RATIONALIZATION (DEFENSE MECHANISM) 35 PPBS (PLANNING PROGRAMMINGBUDGETING SYSTEMS) 309 READING 101, 108, 110, 159, 183

PRACTICE RECITATION (INSTRUCTIONALTECHNIQUE) 45, 147, 151, 154, 158, 172, 180, 195 138

87 RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES SELF-EVALUATION 236 16, 38, 118, 257, 259

REINFORCEMENT SEMANTICS 19, 39, 53, 56, 71, 89, 134, 137, 141, 144, 152, 95, 105, 108, 114, 116 156, 158, 163, 168, 173, 195

SEMINAR METHOD RELIGION 245 30, 36, 59, 104, 245

SENSORY DEPRIVATION 28, 52, 56, 66 RESEARCH 4, 5, 8, 9, 14, 17, 22, 26, 27, 30, 37, 41, 51, 52, 54, 56, 61, 63, 65, 66, 72, 79, 87, 91, 99, 102, SEQUENCING (INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN) 106, 108, 112, 116, 117, 120, 126, 131, 133, 164, 185, 186, 195, 301 134, 140, 142, 143, 148, 152, 154, 156, 166, 172, 174, 175, 177-179, 183-186, 191, 192-194, 202, 206, 214, 215, 217-221, 224, 227, 228, SIGNAL LEARNING 230, 241, 243, 247-250, 254, 257-259, 261, 263, 19, 36, 137, 139, 141-143, 149, 151, 173 266, 270, 274, 276, 277, 279, 285, 286, 292, 298, 306 SIMULATION 9, 11, 13, 32, 131, 161, 201, 212, 292 RETENTION AND FORGETTING 20, 32, 33, 43, 103, 112, 131, 133, 134, 137, 140, 142, 143, 148, 149, 152, 154, 155, 158, SKILLS 167, 170, 172 11, 43, 105, 113, 133, 134, 137, 142, 148, 149, 160, 291, 304

REVIEW 195 SOCIAL CHANGE 41, 111, 224, 255, 280, 297, 309

REWARD 45,63, 66, 67, 80, 82, 84, 89, 148, 158, 278 SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT 4, 6, 20, 26, 27, 33, 36, 54, 55, 58, 63, 70, 81, 84, 110, 152, 157, 224, 246, 248, 267 ROLE-PLAYING TECHNIQUE 220, 236, 260 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 18,20, 29, 31, 32, 36, 38, 77, 88, 125, 156, ROLE THEORY 157, 214-231, 243, 271, 296 26, 29, 31, 36, 41, 55, 63, 81, 118, 214-231, 239, 240, 243, 245, 248, 253, 255, 257, 258, 259, 261, 271, 272, 275, 278, 282, 287 SOCIAL SYSTEMS 17, 23, 27, 29, 214-218, 221, 223, 226, 249, 264, 265, 288

ROTE LEARNING SOCIAL WORKERS 142, 149, 154, 155, 158, 182 39, 218, 225, 226

SOCIALIZATION SELECTIVE PERCEPTION 21, 26, 29, 35, 39, 40, 142, 150, 156,159, 215, 43,44, 47, 118 216, 229, 299

88 SOCIOLOGY TASK ANALYSIS 18, 20, 23, 24, 26, 159, 265, 271, 296 195, 201

SOCIOMETRY TASK EXERCISE 236 244

SONIC ENVIRONMENT TEACHING MACHINES 3,4,6,9,43 33, 89, 116, 121, 163, 177, 179, 181,183, 184, 186, 187, 194

STIMULUS-RESPONSE ASSOCIATIONS 7, 19, 22, 36, 137, 139, 141-143, 148, 149, 153, TEAM TRAINING 163, 169, 173,184, 185, 190, 195 201

STRESS VARIABLES TELEVISED INSTRUCTION 2, 13, 56, 66, 115, 221, 234, 245, 261, 269, 283, 99, 121 287

THERAPY STRUCTURE (SUBJECT FIELD) 19, 30, 36, 77, 86, 98, 173, 224, 250, 257, 268, 35, 146, 200 274

STUDENT ROLE THERMAL ENVIRONMENT 237 3, 4, 6, 9

STUDENT-TEACHER RELATIONSHIP THOUGHT PROCESSES 86, 157, 184, 209, 237, 242 20, 28, 33, 36, 46, 77, 97, 113, 137, 138, 150, 151, 159, 162, 164, 293

STUDY GROUP METHOD 245 TOLERANCE (SOCIAL LEARNING) 150

SUPERVISION, SUPERVISORS 8, 61,70,81, 278, 290 TRAINER (INSTRUCTIONAL DEVICE) 11

SY] 1POSIUM TECHNIQUE 236 TRAINING 8, 11, 14, 17, 37,53, 60, 62, 65,74, 89, 92, 106, 113, 119, 121, 131, 157, 160, 181, 201, 204, SYSTEMS APPROACH 205, 207, 213, 224, 245, 273, 279, 296, 300, 1, 9, 10, 13, 15, 17, 23, 24, 27, 29, 30, 36, 53, 303, 304 73, 99, 105, 112, 117, 122, 183, 194, 196-218, 221, 223, 226, 249, 264, 265, 279, 282-284, 287, 288, 292, 296, 297, 307 TRANSFER OF TRAINING 11, 131, 137, 140, 147, 148, 152-154, 163, 165, SYSTEMS THEORY 173, 180, 185, 200, 237 23, 203

TACTUAL PERCEPTION TUTORING (INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD) 7, 14 181

89 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION AND TRAINING VOLUNTARY ASSOCIATIONS (GROUPS, ORGANI- 67, 132, 157, 303, 305-308, 310 ZATIONS 246, 257

VALUES, VALUE INQUIRY 17, 23, 24, 26, 27, 32,34, 68, 77, 78, 238,242, 257, 265, 271, 278-280,293

WORK ENVIRONMENT VERBAL LEARNING 8, 9, 63, 70 26,102, 137, 139, 149,152, 154, 155,158,159, 161, 174,175,181, 183,185, 186

VISUAL PERCEPTION WORKSHOP METHOD 1, 3, 4, 7, 9, 14, 43-45, 49 236, 245, 257

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