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Exploitation of Pearl Fisheries in the Spanish American Colonies

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Exploitation of Pearl Fisheries in the Spanish American Colonies De Re Metallica, 13, 2009 pp. 19-33 © Sociedad Española para la Defensa del Patrimonio Geológico y Minero ISSN: 1577-9033 EXPLOITATION OF PEARL FISHERIES IN THE SPANISH AMERICAN COLONIES Enrique Orche Universidad de Vigo. SEDPGYM. E.T.S.I. Minas, Lagoas-Marcosende, 36310 Vigo. [email protected] ABSTRACT This paper describes the pearl oyster exploitation process carried out in the Spanish American Colonies compiled by virtue of an integration of researched existing information. The study covers the whole of the colonial period and describes the various productive pearl fisheries by considering all of the exploitation aspects, viz., location and discovery of oyster beds, harvesting methods, labour, diving equipment, taxes and productions. This study there- fore gives us a wholesome vision on the issue. KEY WORDS: Colonial America, pearls, diving, taxes. RESUMEN El presente trabajo describe la explotación de ostras perlíferas llevada a cabo en la América española de acuer- do con las fuentes de la época. El trabajo cubre el período colonial completo y describe las distintas pesquerías productivas considerando todos los aspectos involucrados, como son la localización y descubrimiento de los ostrales, la recogida de las ostras, el trabajo de los pescadores, los equipos de buceo, los impuestos a que estaban sometidas las perlas, su valor y las producciones perlíferas deducidos de éstos. Por tanto, este trabajo proporciona una visión de conjunto de las explotaciones perlíferas de la América colonial española. PALABRAS CLAVE: América hispana, perlas, buceo, impuestos. INTRODUCTION banks at depths of between 10 to 20 metres. Pearls are formed in the mantle of the oysters when a foreign body (generally a parasite, shell pieces, sand grains, etc...) Pearls are shiny hard concretions that are either enters the mantle cavity and the oyster neutralises the spherical or irregular in shape but with a curved sur- irritant foreign body by secreting layers of pearl ooze face. They are formed in the mantle of certain molluscs, around it. This process lasts a few years wherein the generally marine molluscs, although Margaritana mar- pearl size increases with each successive layer deposi- garitifera a fresh water species inhabiting mountainous tion. regions can produce real but badly formed pearls The density of the pearls is 2.70 g/cm3. They are amongst its tissues. Some gastropods belonging to the quite hard and are made of thin superimposed layers of Trochidae and Haliotidae can also produce pearls but calcium carbonate in the form of aragonite (82-86%), an the fine and valuable pearls are found in diverse species organic substance called conchiolin (10-14%) and water of oysters generically termed pearl oysters (Smith et (2-4%). A pearl is formed when the existing spaces al., 1973). These lamellibranchs that fundamentally between conchiolin deposits (which are spider web-like) belong to the species Pteria (= Meleagrina) margari- are filled with microscopic aragonite crystals and with tifera, Pinctada maxima, and P. vulgaris (Symes & Hard- its main axis located radially with respect to the pearl ing, 1991), generally exhibit a rough shell with an nucleus. The value of a fine pearl depends on many fac- almost circular perimeter and a diameter (Lindner, tors: its weight (calculated in carats or grams), its 1983) of between 25 and 30 cm. The inside of the shell colour composed of a basal tone (normally white or is smooth and lined with mother of pearl. They live cream coloured) which can be affected by a second attached to rock bottoms in tropical seas from where superimposed colour tone, its reflection (pink, green. they are harvested to extract the pearls that they nor- blue), its iridescence caused by light diffraction in the mally contain while the shells are used to extract moth- superimposed mother of pearl layers, its shape, its lus- er of pearl. The pearl oysters are generally found in tre, its transparency, etc. De Re Metallica 13 julio–diciembre 2009 2ª época 19 During the colonisation period, pearls had different names depending on their shape: asientos (flat on one side), berruecos (irregular), aljófar (small & irregular), and margaritas (round uniformly white and with a skin- like lustre). The most highly appreciated pearls of the time were those that originated in the Gulf of Persia fol- lowed by those that originated on the Atlantic Columbian coast (Arphe, 1985) called the Cabo de Vela. It is quite possible that pearls were the first gems used by Man during ancient times because they did not require further treatment to highlight their natural beauty. It is known that Mankind was keenly interested in pearls since these have been found in ornaments that were made in India many centuries before the present time. Cleopatra was also known to have used pearls. Japanese chronicles are found to mention them in the VI century. In later years, pearls continued to be consid- Figure 1. Map of Pearls´ Coast, in northern Venezuela, in which Margarita and ered as highly important ornamental elements and Cubagua islands are placed (1594). acquired prices comparable to gems of mineral origin. The Spaniards upon arrival in America learned of the existence of pearls as soon as contact with the native American Indians was established with whom they com- Pearl size depended on the amount of dew received menced trading via a barter system (called rescate in by the oyster. If there happened to be thunder and light- those times) whereby local goods were exchanged for ning before the shells closed, the mature shells would Spanish goods. After ascertaining the abundance of shut tight frightened by the thunder and lightning. This pearl oyster beds, the colonisers soon isolated the pros- sudden reaction could forcefully expel the pearl or perous ones and exploited them exhaustively. During affect its normal growth, thereby resulting in imperfect colonial times, pearls were more abundant than pre- or small pearls. cious metals and therefore were of less economic Pearls were naturally soft when in water and would importance. Their supply was discontinuous and often harden upon removal from water. The oysters were coincided with discovery and exploitation of newer bet- afraid of fishermen and therefore hid amongst and ter pearl oyster fisheries. Despite the irregular supply, attached to rocks. They either swam or walked in the pearls were always present in cargo sent on a regular company of other oysters and their King , who happened basis to Spain, although most of the pearls were distrib- to be the biggest and oldest oyster. If the King, who the uted in the colonies themselves. They were solely used others followed was somehow captured, the rest that for ornamental purposes even though there was a con- followed were also easily captured. Pearls were born stant quest for medicinal properties which were diffi- inside the flesh of a live oyster and apparently waxed cult to prove (Arphe, 1985). Pearl production was sub- and waned with the different moon phases. When an ject to Royal Tax just like all other valuable substances. oyster felt the hand of a fisherman upon itself, it would protect the pearl by drawing its mantle over it and try to hurt the intruder by biting with its valves. THE ORIGIN OF THE PEARLS Las Casas said that there were some not so presti- gious authors who cast doubt on the above statements Las Casas (1995) compiled existing theories of the but were unable to come up with alternate explanations period on the origin of pearls, these being based entire- for pearl formation. They opined that some natural ly on the conception of classical authors like Plinio, process was responsible for their creation such as the Megastenes and others which the friar accepted with mineralisation influence of seawater and of celestial certain reservations. According to belief, pearls were bodies, which the friar did not think insensible either. created from dew drops that fell into the oysters when open. To this end, at certain times of the year, the oys- ters would surface on to the beaches, feeling an urge to PRINCIPAL PEARL FISHERIES conceive and would await dew drops to fall from the sky above. Pearl quality depended on the purity of the dew; A greater part of the coast between the north of clean dew resulted in white pearls whereas turbid dew Venezuela and Florida, both on the Atlantic and resulted in brown or dark pearls. The earlier the dew Caribbean, as well as the Pacific sides were favourable fall, the whiter were the pearls. Whiteness also depend- environments for the abundant presence of pearl oyster ed on age and therefore the younger the oyster the beds. As the Spaniards began conquering newer territo- whiter the pearl. Oysters escaped from the heat of the ries, they discovered newer pearl oyster fisheries that sun into the depths of the sea to preserve the whiteness resulted in either an increased production or in a trans- of the pearls. fer to sites in the newer colonies. 20 De Re Metallica 13 julio–diciembre 2009 2ª época Pearls were obtained from a number of places and just a handful of writers of the time mention place names while the great majority made a passing refer- ence to place names. The following important fisheries are mentioned in chronological order according to the year of their discovery: – 1499 Margarita & Cubagua Islands (Venezuela) – 1501Atlantic Columbian Coast (Riohacha, Santa Marta & Cartagena) Figure 2. Illustration of pearl oysters´ shells (end of the 16th century). – 1513 The Pearl Islands (Pacific Panamanian Coast) – 1533 Gulf of California (Mexico) – 1540 Florida (USA) thereby leading to an abandonment of such expeditions (Céspedes, 1994). The first of these voyages (Morales, 1988) organised THE FIRST CONTACT OF THE SPANIARDS WITH by Alonso de Ojeda left Spain in May 1499 and the aim PEARL ZONES: MARGARITA & CUBAGUA ISLANDS was to travel along the coast that was recently discov- ered by Columbus on his third trip.
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