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Ciencia, Política Y Poder. Napoleon, Hitler, Stalin Y José Manuel Sánchez Ron Ciencia, política y poder Napoleón, Hitler, Stalin y Eisenhower José Manuel Sánchez Ron Napoleón, Hitler, Stalin y Eisenhower Stalin Napoleón, Hitler, Ciencia, política y poder www.fbbva.es Conferencias Magistrales Conferencias Magistrales CIENCIA, POLÍTICA Y PODER NAPOLEÓN, HITLER, STALIN Y EISENHOWER Ciencia, política y poder Napoleón, Hitler, Stalin y Eisenhower José Manuel Sánchez Ron DATOS INTERNACIONALES DE CATALOGACIÓN Sánchez Ron, José Manuel Ciencia, política y poder : Napoleón, Hitler, Stalin y Eisenhower / José Manuel Sánchez Ron. — Bilbao : Fundación BBVA, 2010. 262 p. ; 24 cm ISBN: 978-84-96515-99-4 1. Historia 2. Conocimiento científico I. Sánchez Ron, José Manuel II. Fundación BBVA, ed. 165.9 Primera edición, enero 2010 © José Manuel Sánchez Ron, 2010 © Fundación BBVA, 2010 Plaza de San Nicolás, 4. 48005 Bilbao www.fbbva.es [email protected] IMAGEN DE CUBIERTA © Eduardo Núñez Valbuena, 2010 Universo del poder, 2009 Al publicar la presente Conferencia Magistral, la Fundación BBVA no asume responsabilidad alguna sobre su contenido ni sobre la inclusión en la misma de documentos o información complementaria facilitada por el autor. EDICIÓN Y PRODUCCIÓN: Rubes Editorial ISBN: 978-84-96515-99-4 Depósito legal: B-3869-2010 Impreso en España – Printed in Spain Impreso por Valant 2003 sobre papel con un 100% de fibras recicladas y elaborado según las más exigentes normas ambientales europeas. Índice Introducción ........................................................................................................ 9 1 Ciencia y poder: «Primero el poder, después los detalles» .......... 13 1.1 ¿Dónde reside el poder? Tres ejemplos: Tycho Brahe, Niels Bohr y Andréi Sajarov ..................................................................... 17 1.2 La atracción del poder: el ejemplo de Descartes .................................. 27 1.3 Galileo y los poderes político, religioso y disciplinar .......................... 30 2 Napoleón y el «imperio del genio» ....................................................... 39 2.1 El Instituto de Francia ............................................................................. 45 2.2 La ciencia francesa en la época de Napoleón ...................................... 47 2.3 La École Polytechnique ............................................................................. 50 2.4 La ciencia y el poder: las campañas de Napoleón en Italia y Egipto ....................................................................................................... 55 2.5 El Instituto de Egipto ............................................................................... 59 2.6 La Description de l’Égypte ............................................................................ 64 2.7 Un fracaso bien recompensado .............................................................. 67 2.8 La Société d’Arcueil ................................................................................. 74 2.9 Honores a científicos extranjeros: Volta y Davy ................................... 77 2.10 Las servidumbres de la política: ciencia versus religión ....................... 83 2.11 Napoleón y la ciencia francesa de su tiempo: una valoración final .................................................................................. 85 2.12 Epílogo: Chateaubriand sobre Napoléon .............................................. 87 3 Hitler, heredero de un imperio científico ......................................... 89 3.1 Purgas y emigraciones científicas ........................................................... 95 3.2 Ciencia «alemana» (Deutsche Wissenschaft) .............................................. 106 7 CIENCIA, POLÍTICA Y PODER. NAPOLEÓN, HITLER, STALIN Y EISENHOWER 3.3 El oportunismo de los científicos: el caso de la biología .................... 111 3.4 De Robert Merton a Samuel Gouldsmit: ciencia, democracia y dictaduras políticas a propósito de la energía nuclear ..................... 114 3.5 Von Braun y su «nuevo Napoleón»: Adolf Hitler ................................. 126 3.6 Epílogo moral ........................................................................................... 135 4 Stalin: el corifeo de la ciencia soviética .............................................. 143 4.1 El papel de la ciencia en la teoría marxista ......................................... 144 4.2 Stalin, la ciencia y los científicos soviéticos ........................................... 151 4.3 Bombas atómicas para la Unión Soviética ............................................. 158 4.4 Biología e ideología: el caso Lisenko ..................................................... 173 5 Eisenhower: ciencia, democracia y Guerra Fría .............................. 179 5.1 Eisenhower y su educación atómica ....................................................... 183 5.2 Interludio: el papel de los científicos en el control de la energía nuclear en 1945-1946 ............................................................................... 186 5.3 Eisenhower y el lanzamiento de las bombas atómicas de 1945 .......... 193 5.4 Eisenhower y la energía nuclear: los años de la Presidencia .............. 195 5.5 Investigación básica versus aplicada ........................................................ 204 5.6 La Unión Soviética toma la delantera: el Sputnik y sus consecuencias .................................................................................. 211 5.7 Una nueva agencia espacial: la NASA ..................................................... 223 5.8 La física de altas energías ........................................................................ 228 5.9 El adiós de Eisenhower ............................................................................ 240 5.10 Epílogo ....................................................................................................... 247 Bibliografía ........................................................................................................... 251 Índice de ilustraciones ..................................................................................... 257 Nota sobre el autor ........................................................................................... 261 8 Introducción l presente libro constituye una versión sustancialmente amplia- da de las conferencias que dicté en la Fundación BBVA los E días 15, 16 y 17 de noviembre de 2005, dentro del ciclo de Conferencias Magistrales que organizó esta institución. Además de ampliar el contenido del texto que utilicé en cada una de mis tres in- tervenciones, y de convertir en dos capítulos lo que inicialmente fue una de las conferencias (la dedicada a Hitler y a Stalin), he añadido un primer capítulo introductorio en el que expongo algunas ideas generales sobre las relaciones entre la ciencia y el poder político. Quiero agradecer a la Fundación BBVA y muy en particular a su director, el profesor Rafael Pardo Avellaneda, su invitación, así como su paciencia y comprensión ante mi demora en entregar el texto defi- nitivo. En mi descargo querría decir que tal retraso se debe al deseo de presentar a la Fundación un texto que fuera más allá de lo que expuse en mis conferencias de 2005 y de lo que ya he escrito en otras obras mías, especialmente en El poder de la ciencia. Espero haberlo con- seguido; ciertamente, el tema lo merece por su importancia. Por último, quiero agradecer a dos queridos amigos y maestros en el arte del bien pensar, Miguel Artola y Gonzalo Pontón, que tuvieron la amabilidad de realizar las presentaciones de dos de mis conferen- cias. Sus generosas palabras de entonces me animan a esforzarme para hacerlas realidad. 9 Si los hombres de ciencia no nos deben nada, nosotros sí tenemos muchas cosas esenciales que aprender de ellos. Nos pueden enseñar a verificar una prueba, a asegurarnos de la profundidad y exactitud de un razonamiento, y a cómo controlar y emplear con seguridad una hipótesis y una analogía. Son ellos los que poseen el secreto de las misteriosas propiedades del intelecto, mediante las que el error sirve a la verdad, y la verdad prevalece lenta, pero inexorablemente. Suya es la lógica del descubrimiento, la demostración del avance de las ideas, que son las leyes del progreso y la llama vital de la historia, y que, como las necesidades terrenales y las pasiones del hombre, permanecen casi inalterables. A menudo nos proporcionan consejos inestimables, aun cuando traten de su propia materia y se dirijan a su propia gente. Lord Acton (1834-1902), conferencia inaugural como nuevo Regius Professor de Historia Moderna de la Universidad de Cambridge, 11 de junio de 1895 (ACTON 1999, 27-28) 11 1 Ciencia y poder: «Primero el poder, después los detalles» Los científicos deberían ser capaces de formar una organización política, pero para ello es preciso ser algo más que un experto en algo. No es sólo cuestión de organización, debe existir un programa definido. Incluso si nuestras ambiciones políticas son más que vagas. Estamos diciendo siempre, igual que solía decir Hitler: «Primero el poder, después los detalles», pero en realidad no tenemos planes concretos claros. Karl WIRTZ, 25 de noviembre de 1945, en Farm Hall1 l fin último de la ciencia es comprender la naturaleza, o me- jor, el universo puesto que eso que los humanos llamamos E naturaleza no es sino una minúscula parte, localizada en un pequeño planeta. La ciencia pretende saber cómo es y qué sucede en ese universo, buscando para ello leyes —cuanto más generales, me- jor— a las que obedecen los fenómenos que
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