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Transport Networks and Ecotourism Destinations: the Aim for Sustainability

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TRANSPORT NETWORKS AND ECOTOURISM DESTINATIONS: THE AIM FOR SUSTAINABILITY Eden Sorupia Submitted in total fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy September 2007 Faculty of Architecture, Building and Planning The University of Melbourne Produced on archival quality paper ABSTRACT Ecotourism as sustainable travel to biodiversity-rich areas advocates the utilisation of modes with minimal impacts to the environment. Yet most often the modes available to the public and the transport network that serves the destination undermine its aims of sustainability. The research looks into the relationship between an ecotourism destination and the transport network that serves it. The objective of the study is to identify policies and structures that contribute to improve its sustainability. Case studies from a developed and developing country are utilised to examine the relationship and to investigate whether strategies differ given the different settings and opportunities open to each. Policies regarding transport, tourism and the environment were evaluated and correlated with current practices, reports, literature as well as interviews of key informants. The study has found that even with good public transport services to the national parks, the mode of choice of visitors remains the private vehicle. Public transport solutions in urban areas remain relevant in the countryside. Policies aimed at reducing car use and promoting public transport have comparable impacts to rural areas. In this setting, non-government organisations and interest groups play a big role in educating the public regarding the sustainability of their mode choices. The examples from Switzerland and Brazil have shown that their innate differences do not prevent them from employing similar policies and structures, and that improving the sustainability of transport network that serves an ecotourism destination is possible. The study stresses the importance of providing a well-integrated network and good public transport service to ecotourism destinations. Unsustainable travel can be reversed by changing the balance of transport incentives and disincentives and encouraging mode shift to more sustainable modes. DECLARATION This is to certify that (i) the thesis comprises only my original work towards the PhD, (ii) due acknowledgement has been made in the text to all other material used, (iii) the thesis is less than 100,000 words in length, exclusive of tables, maps, bibliographies and appendices. Eden Sorupia September 2007 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS My gratitude goes to the University of Melbourne for the opportunity to pursue my PhD under full scholarship and to the Faculty of Architecture Building and Planning for providing a good office base to undertake my research. Many thanks to my supervisor, Paul Mees, for his untiring support, patience and constructive criticism draft after draft after draft. The extra effort he put into sourcing funding for the Switzerland fieldwork and the WCTR as well as the opportunity to do tutorials to augment my savings when my scholarship ran out. Special thanks to Nick Low and Catherin Bull for helping shape the thesis in its early stages. Particular mention goes to GAMUT for funding the fieldwork to Switzerland and providing the opportunity to present a paper at the WCTR 2007 in UC Berkeley. My interviewees both in Brazil and Switzerland for sharing their expertise and time in answering my questions. Special mention to France Chou and Marcos Damas who kept in touch and updated my file regarding the Iguaçu National Park. To PNI Chief Jorge Pegoraro for facilitating data collection as well as giving me free access to select activities of the concessionaires. Felix Laube who secured a contact person for me in the RhB and in the public transport department in Graubünden a few days prior to my flight to Switzerland. Guilherme for translating my questions into Portuguese and giving me pointers about Brazil prior to the fieldwork. ABP staff: Jane, Lorenne, Jessie, Maricar, Somchit and all the IT staff ▪ UP-NCTS: Karl, Regin, Oyie, Mike, Ed and Ian for the interview, data and program ▪ ANU-Philippine Studies Group for allowing me to share my work and for the feedback ▪ To the following people who have made the last four years extra fun and meaningful: Melbourne Tropa: Primo and Vergie for the helpful comments and feedback, Anna, James, Teks, Maan, Maridel, Ed, Shayne, Darwin, Tess, Adrian, Maline ▪ ABP friends: Eka, Imran, Estela, Hao, Phuong, Agus, Paula, Sidh, Tum, Youngmi, Deepika, Yash, Mujeeb, Kate, Morteza, Hui, Gerardo, Andrew, Vrushti, Michelle ▪ M606: Philippa, Simone, Maloti ▪ Cheerleaders: Aimee, Ces, Derlie, 43 Mahusay girls, NCTS, Tita Melinda, Wendell, UP Arki ’91, Thelma and Art ▪ To my parents and siblings, for the support and the love. TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION 1 2. SUSTAINABILITY, TOURISM AND TRANSPORT 5 Tourism and the growth of travel 5 Environmental impacts of tourism-related travel 7 Global impacts of travel and tourism Local impacts of travel and tourism Sustainable development 11 Weak sustainability Strong sustainability Sustainability and tourism 14 Role of marketing Particular challenges for developing countries Weak sustainability applied to tourism Strong sustainability applied to tourism Defining ecotourism 22 Transport and sustainable tourism 23 Conclusion 26 3. MAPPING THE NETWORK: THE METHODOLOGY 28 The ecotourism destination and the transport network: a question of sustainability 28 Approach Adopted 29 Selection of Case Study Areas 30 The tourism-transport framework Eliminating the Philippines as case study Eliminating Australia as case study The consideration of Switzerland as case study The consideration of Paraná, Brazil as case study Road Map: Data collection methods 36 Document analysis Literature review Interview and site visits Reading the signs: Methods of analysis 40 Triangulation Evidence-based policy Policy Analysis 4. DEVELOPING COUNTRY PERSPECTIVE: 44 PARQUE NACIONAL DO IGUAÇU, PARANÁ, BRAZIL Transport and the ecotourism destination 44 The bigger picture: Paraná State, making a difference? 45 Foz do Iguaçu as a tourism destination within three frontiers 54 Immigration and the growth of a city The black market in Ciudad del Este, Paraguay A history of natural area protection Iguaçu National Park 61 Internal transport scheme IBAMA-Concessionaire system Ecotourism and visitor management In retrospect: the Iguaçu National Park management Foz do Iguaçu as a tourist destination and its transport network 76 National and international linkage FozTrans and transportation management Transportation in tourism Conclusions 90 5. DEVELOPED COUNTRY PERSPECTIVE: SWISS NATIONAL PARK, GRAUBÜNDEN, SWITZERLAND 92 Switzerland: creating an ideal? 92 Development of the Swiss transport network Mode of choice: the Swiss Railway Swiss transport policy Leisure traffic The value of Swiss tourism Graubünden: a tradition of tourism and the development of its 109 transport network Graubünden as a tourism destination Transport network in the canton: trains and buses The Swiss National Park 122 Park access The OfenPass and the Swiss National Park In retrospect: the nature tourist, the Swiss National Park and 130 the transport network The transport network and the private vehicle Mode split and the mobility in the region Promoting a more sustainable alternative Conclusions 138 6. TRAVEL, THE NATIONAL PARKS AND THE TRANSPORT NETWORK IN PERSPECTIVE 140 Understanding ecotourism and the role of transport 140 Modes to the ecotourism destination Managing ecotourism destinations Encouraging sustainable behaviour What is driving the car? Of incentives and disincentives, and the aim for sustainability 145 Infrastructure Public transport services Slowing down for sustainability Managing the transportation network for ecotourism destinations 148 Governance structure Provision of transport services Towards a sustainable relationship, of carrots and sticks In retrospect 7. CONCLUSIONS 156 BIBLIOGRAPHY 160 APPENDICES 173 LIST OF TABLES Table Page Title Number Number 1 World Arrivals by mode of transport (including estimations for 6 countries with missing data) 2 Emissions of CO2 from Transport by Country (IEA) 8 3 Levels of emissions by mode – grams/passenger-km of travel 9 4 Expected growth in worldwide vehicle ownership and traffic 10 5 Emissions levels for cars and buses in urban areas 25 6 State/Country of Origin Tourist Statistics 1996-2003 56 7 Modes used by visitors to the Iguaçu National Park 64 8 Number of Vehicles Entering Iguaçu National Park 2002-2003 67 9 Morning and Evening Timetable, Parque Nacional-TTU route 86 10 Tourists’ Satisfaction Rating of Specific Services 87 11 Foz do Iguaçu Tourist Population and Travel Organisation 88 12 Passenger Transport Statistics (in passenger-kilometre) 99 13 Construction Expenditure in CHF million, at year 2000 prices 102 14 Modal Split for Year 2000 Micro Census (in %) 106 15 Lü Village Timetable 115 16 Transport Infrastructure 132 17 Travel Times of the various Modes within the Region 134 18 Mode Split in the Canton Graubünden 135 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page Title Number Number 1 International Tourist Arrivals, 1990-2005 5 2 International tourist arrivals by means of transport, 2005; 6 International tourist arrivals by purpose of visit, 2005 3 Map of Brazil showing demarcation line by the 1494 Treaty of 46 Tordesillas 4 Early settlements and transport development 1850-1999 47 5 Paraná Integration Ring 52 6 Municipality of Foz do Iguaçu showing major access
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