DOCSLIB.ORG

Collective and Feminine in Tocharian. In: Multilingualism and History of Knowledge

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Collective and Feminine in Tocharian. In: Multilingualism and History of Knowledge Olav Hackstein 2011/2012: Collective and Feminine in Tocharian. In: Multilingualism and History of Knowledge. Vol. II: Linguistic Developments along the Silk Road. Archaism and Innovation in Tocharian. Edited by Olav Hackstein and Ronald I. Kim. Wien. 143-177. (= Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, phil.-hist. Klasse Sitzungsberichte, 834. Band.). * COLLECTIVE AND FEMININE IN TOCHARIAN 1.1.1. The morphological markers of the Indo-European feminine gender arose from a word-formation suffix with collective meaning *-h2 and various derivatives formed with it, including thematic *-e-h2 and athematic * -i-h2. This insight goes back to Johannes SCHMIDT and was later substantiated in many ways by advances in the reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European nominal morphology, most notably NUSSBAUM 1986 and HARÐARSON 1987a, b. The origin of the collective morpheme *-h2 is hinted at by a wealth of traces of the pre-inflectional, purely word-formational use of *-h2, which survive into the individual Indo-European lan- guages. The evidence includes the placement of *-h2- before derivational suffixes in complex formations and before inflectional endings, which accords with the usual behavior of derivational morphemes, cf. e.g. w w PIE * k e-h2-nt-o- > Lat. quantus; PIE * te-h2-nt-o- > Lat. tantus; PIE * k i-h2 ⇒ w *k i-h2-ent - > Skt. kíyant- (SIMS -WILLIAMS 1997: 318); PIE * ker-h2 ⇒ * ker-h2-s- ⇒ * ker-h2-s-ro- ⇒ * ker-h2-s-re-h2 > Lat. cerebra ‘brains’ (for the semantics cf. Germ. Gehirn ); PIE * dru-h2 ‘wood’ ⇒ singulative * dru-h2-s ‘single tree’ > Gk. δρKL 28ALLES 200.a: .A, NIKOLAEV 2010a: 192E on the derivation of singulative formations cf. LEUKART 199.: 153f.9. Also pointing in the same direction is the functional restriction of the collective suffix to indicating collectivit , with no implication of grammatical gender or num0 ,er. Originall , h20collectives were independent of gender 2a9 and could su,se0 Nuentl ,e associated ,oth with masculine 2,9 and with neuter 2c9 o0stems 2SCHMIDT 1889: 5, -IDMER 200A: .39f.9. * This article evolved out of a paper which was presented to the 28th East Coast In0 do0European Conference held at the HOskPli Qslands, Re kRavSk, on June 13, 2009. The ,asic insights concerning the et mological identification of the Tocharian agent0noun suf0 fixes 8 0tsa /0ca , 0ntsa /0ñca , 0nta and vocative/o,liNue 8 0ñcai , 0cai were presented on the handout circulated at that conference. IGm happ to acknowledge that H. J. PINAULT reached some ,asic insights and similar results independentl in a lecture presented in Ju0 l 2009, which ma ,e taken as a confirmation of the ,asic results of ,oth our papers, cf. this volume pp. 180f. on 8 Teñca , A –ant , pp. 181f. on B aknātsa . 144 Collective and Feminine in Tocharian a9 PIE masculine * ih 1ros 2count9 plural * ih 1r!"s Fendowed with strength, collective * ih 1reh 2 Fgroup of menG 2Um,r. ueiro, virileG 2Toch. A wir , Lat. MEISER 198A: 1189 vir 9 w w w w ,9 PIE *k ek h 1os 2count9 plural *k ek h 1!s Fcircle, wheelG F2single9 wheelsG w w c9 PIE neuter *k ek h 1om 2count U collective9 plural V collective we w *k k h 1$h2 Fset of wheels, chariotG PIE neuter *iʢugom 2count U collective9 plural V collective *iʢugeh 2 F okeG F2single9 okesE set of okesG 2Cf. HARBARSON 1981a: 18f. Note that Vedic c'kra- is normall neuter, like Pro0 w w to0Hermanic * ( e( a 0, and onl rarel masculine, see KLEIN 1992: 1.1.9 h20collectives were also indifferent to num,er, ,eing assigna,le to either singular or plural depending on the semantic categor of the noun in Nuestion. -hereas mass nouns are prone to ,e assigned to the singular 2a9, numerals and count nouns prefer an assignment to the plural 2,9: a9 PIE *$dor-h2 Faggregate of water, HewWsserG C *$d!r FwaterG 2HARBARSON 1981a: 89, 919E ,ut plural meaning FwatersG is also attested 2RAU 2009: 399E ,9 PIE *tri-h2 d$)om-t 2Hackstein 2010: A19 X dou,l marked collective *tri-h2 d$)om-t-h2 Fthree decadsG 2RAU 2009: 1A, .89. Likewise uncontested is the origin of the feminine in the collective, given the partial homophon of collective and feminine morphemes. The feminine preserves morphological traces of its collective origin in the feminine nominative/accusative dual ending *0eh 2-ih 1 2Lat. duae , OCS d*v+ 9, which takes the neuter dual marker *-ih 1 2cf. o0stem neuter nominative/accusative dual *0o-,h1E CO-HILL apud NUSS0 8AUM 198A: 132 n. 59, TICHY 1993: 12f. and 2000: 109. Nonetheless, the precise motivation for and pathwa of development leading from the collective to the femi0 nine has remained controversial. -hatever their ultimate connection, it seems rea0 sona,l clear that the association of the notion of collectivit and feminine gram0 matical gender must ,e governed , a language0independent mechanism, ,ecause even collective formations of post0PIE date that arose within the individual IE lan0 guages show su,seNuent gender assignment to the feminine, cf. Latin collective neuter plural gaudia C French feminine singular -oie . 2One could argue, as R. KIM reminds me, that this is merel morphologicall governed, i.e. a 2reanal 6ed9 noun in 0a is automaticall assigned feminine gender. The fact, however, that the given Collective and Feminine in Tocharian 145 transition is t picall found with a,stract nouns and nouns denoting natural aggre0 gates suggests that while the phonological identit of the two morphemes ma have ,een facultative, the development was semanticall driven, see RHEINFELDER 19A1: 21f. for an instructive collection of cases.9 2.2.2. Despite general agreement on the original word0formational status of the col0 lective and its relation to the feminine gender, the flow of articles devoted to the evolution of the feminine from the collective has not ceased. Much of the de,ate concerns the factors which promoted the emergence of feminine gender. -ere cer0 tain constructions pivotal for the conversion of the collective noun class into nouns of feminine gender, e.g. s ntactic conversion of collective0a,stract nouns into adRec0 tives 2HARBARSON 19819Z Or did particular lexemes pla a decisive role, e.g. the PIE word for FwomanG as in Hk. [\]^, Skt. gn- 28RUHMANN apud -ACKERNAHEL h 1928: .39 or the PIE collective * id eeh 2 Ffemales left ,ehind , a warrior killed in ,attleG, su,seNuentl speciali6ed in usage to denote a single mem,er of the group, i.e. a widow 2TICHY 19939Z In Tocharian, the development of the collective morpheme *0h2 into a marker of feminine gender is not as far evolved as in the other Indo0European languages. This makes Tocharian an especiall interesting candidate for examining the transition from the collective to the feminine and determining the precise steps involved. 8e0 fore discussing the Tocharian evidence, however, it will ,e useful to recall some well0documented pathwa s of development, attested outside Tocharian, which illus0 trate the tendenc of collective0a,stracts to turn into animate agent nouns with su,0 seNuent restriction to either male or 2more s stematicall 9 female reference. 3. From a,stracta,stract0000collectivecollective to animate 3.1 Sociological salienc of group affiliation and meron mic wholewhole0000partpart relation The crucial Nuestion is how to account for the functional extension of the collec0 tive to denote female sex. In this context, linguists have freNuentl called attention to the use of collectives to refer to individual females. For instance, HARBARSON 21981,: 123, 12A9 adduced instances of collectives as denotations of individual fe0 males. Note however that Herman .rauen/immer is not a valid example of such a collectiveE rather it exemplifies the meton mic shift from F2da 9 room for womenG to FwomenG and finall Fsingle womanG 2KLUHE U SEE8OLD 1989: 2309. In a similar vein, TICHY 21993: 10f.9 stated that _Die Umdeutung einer Hruppen,e6eichnung 6ur 8e6eichnung einer ein6elnen Frau war ,eispielsweise im Kontext von Possessivver0 hWltnissen m`glich, vgl. etwa dt. 0err 1 und 2nhang .a Pointing out instances like the foregoing, however, onl restates the phenomenon to ,e explainedbthe use of collectives to denote femalesbinstead of explaining it. 146 Collective and Feminine in Tocharian A promising explanation for the proclivit of collectives to signif female sex is ,ased on the sociological perception of females as famil mem,ers. A num,er of ancient Indo0European 2and non0Indo0European9 cultures attest to the practice of identif ing and addressing women not primaril as individuals, ,ut , their famil affiliation. Conversel , then, it was the famil affiliation that could ,e used to met0 on micall refer to and identif a particular female ,eing. For females, the famil affiliation was so prominent as to ,ecome a distinguishing mark in the identification of individual feminine famil mem,ers. This correspondence ,etween sociolog and linguistic expression has left its trace in the onomastic s stems of some In0 do0European languages. An example is furnished , Ancient Italic: aFrauen hatten in den Hemeinwesen centralitaliens kein 8drgerrecht. Darum ,enut6ten in Rom Frauen T Freige,orene wie Freigelassene T grundsWt6lich die Namenformel der MWnner, Redoch ohne Tri,usanga,e und normalerweise auch ohne PrWnomen e Die Tochter des K`nigs Servius Tullius wird in der f,erlieferung stets nur mit dem Hentile Tullia 6itiertg 2RIh 1995: 12AE cf. -ACKERNAHEL 1912: 2A, STf8ER 2009: 22.ff.9. Similarl in Hreek, men are usuall addressed , their name2s9, while wom0 en tend not ,e ,e addressed , name ,ut , the generic i [j]kl Fo womanmG 2-ACKERNAHEL 1912: 2A9. The collective0,ased perception of females is further reflected , et mological h evidence. The latter includes the secure reconstruction of a collective * id e-eh 2 Ffamil of the slain 2warrior9G, whose morphological derivation was clarified , h h TICHY 21993: 15f.9: PIE * id - Fsla G D PIE * id -u- Fslain 2warrior9G D h h vnddhi0derivative * id e-o- Fakin to the slain 2warrior9G D collective * id e-eh 2 Ffamil of the slain 2warrior9G.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Greek-Anatolian Language Contact and the Settlement of Pamphylia
    CHRISTINA SKELTON Greek-Anatolian Language Contact and the Settlement of Pamphylia The Ancient Greek dialect of Pamphylia shows extensive influence from the nearby Anatolian languages. Evidence from the linguistics of Greek and Anatolian, sociolinguistics, and the histor- ical and archaeological record suggest that this influence is due to Anatolian speakers learning Greek as a second language as adults in such large numbers that aspects of their L2 Greek became fixed as a part of the main Pamphylian dialect. For this linguistic development to occur and persist, Pamphylia must initially have been settled by a small number of Greeks, and remained isolated from the broader Greek-speaking community while prevailing cultural atti- tudes favored a combined Greek-Anatolian culture. 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND The Greek-speaking world of the Archaic and Classical periods (ca. ninth through third centuries BC) was covered by a patchwork of different dialects of Ancient Greek, some of them quite different from the Attic and Ionic familiar to Classicists. Even among these varied dialects, the dialect of Pamphylia, located on the southern coast of Asia Minor, stands out as something unusual. For example, consider the following section from the famous Pamphylian inscription from Sillyon: συ Διϝι̣ α̣ ̣ και hιιαροισι Μανεˉ[ς .]υαν̣ hελε ΣελυW[ι]ιυ̣ ς̣ ̣ [..? hι†ια[ρ]α ϝιλ̣ σιι̣ ọς ̣ υπαρ και ανιιας̣ οσα περ(̣ ι)ι[στα]τυ ̣ Wοικ[. .] The author would like to thank Sally Thomason, Craig Melchert, Leonard Neidorf and the anonymous reviewer for their valuable input, as well as Greg Nagy and everyone at the Center for Hellenic Studies for allowing me to use their library and for their wonderful hospitality during the early stages of pre- paring this manuscript.
    [Show full text]
  • The Carian Language HANDBOOK of ORIENTAL STUDIES SECTION ONE the NEAR and MIDDLE EAST
    The Carian Language HANDBOOK OF ORIENTAL STUDIES SECTION ONE THE NEAR AND MIDDLE EAST Ancient Near East Editor-in-Chief W. H. van Soldt Editors G. Beckman • C. Leitz • B. A. Levine P. Michalowski • P. Miglus Middle East R. S. O’Fahey • C. H. M. Versteegh VOLUME EIGHTY-SIX The Carian Language by Ignacio J. Adiego with an appendix by Koray Konuk BRILL LEIDEN • BOSTON 2007 This book is printed on acid-free paper. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Adiego Lajara, Ignacio-Javier. The Carian language / by Ignacio J. Adiego ; with an appendix by Koray Konuk. p. cm. — (Handbook of Oriental studies. Section 1, The Near and Middle East ; v. 86). Includes bibliographical references. ISBN-13 : 978-90-04-15281-6 (hardback) ISBN-10 : 90-04-15281-4 (hardback) 1. Carian language. 2. Carian language—Writing. 3. Inscriptions, Carian—Egypt. 4. Inscriptions, Carian—Turkey—Caria. I. Title. II. P946.A35 2006 491’.998—dc22 2006051655 ISSN 0169-9423 ISBN-10 90 04 15281 4 ISBN-13 978 90 04 15281 6 © Copyright 2007 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill Hotei Publishers, IDC Publishers, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, and VSP. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Brill provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923, USA.
    [Show full text]
  • Indo-European Linguistics: an Introduction Indo-European Linguistics an Introduction
    This page intentionally left blank Indo-European Linguistics The Indo-European language family comprises several hun- dred languages and dialects, including most of those spoken in Europe, and south, south-west and central Asia. Spoken by an estimated 3 billion people, it has the largest number of native speakers in the world today. This textbook provides an accessible introduction to the study of the Indo-European proto-language. It clearly sets out the methods for relating the languages to one another, presents an engaging discussion of the current debates and controversies concerning their clas- sification, and offers sample problems and suggestions for how to solve them. Complete with a comprehensive glossary, almost 100 tables in which language data and examples are clearly laid out, suggestions for further reading, discussion points and a range of exercises, this text will be an essential toolkit for all those studying historical linguistics, language typology and the Indo-European proto-language for the first time. james clackson is Senior Lecturer in the Faculty of Classics, University of Cambridge, and is Fellow and Direc- tor of Studies, Jesus College, University of Cambridge. His previous books include The Linguistic Relationship between Armenian and Greek (1994) and Indo-European Word For- mation (co-edited with Birgit Anette Olson, 2004). CAMBRIDGE TEXTBOOKS IN LINGUISTICS General editors: p. austin, j. bresnan, b. comrie, s. crain, w. dressler, c. ewen, r. lass, d. lightfoot, k. rice, i. roberts, s. romaine, n. v. smith Indo-European Linguistics An Introduction In this series: j. allwood, l.-g. anderson and o.¨ dahl Logic in Linguistics d.
    [Show full text]
  • What's in an Agent?
    Morphology https://doi.org/10.1007/s11525-020-09366-2 What’s in an agent? A distributional semantics approach to agent nouns in French Richard Huyghe1 Marine Wauquier2 · ©TheAuthor(s)2020 Abstract This article investigates the morphological diversity of agent nouns (ANs) in French. It addresses the questions of which nouns form a semantically coherent class of ANs, what their morphological properties are, and whether these properties correlate with agentive subtypes. To deal with these issues, a distributional semantics approach is adopted. The investigation is based on the distributional study of monose- mous deverbal ANs ending in -eur,andontheexaminationofwordsimilaritiesinthe French Wikipedia corpus. It is shown that French ANs as a homogeneous distribu- tional class display a large variety of morphological profiles. ANs can be affixed, converted, compound nouns, as well as opaque and morphologically simple nouns. Agentive affixes are diverse and correlated to the selection of bases from different lexical categories and semantic types. It appears that agent meaning in the nominal domain is not necessarily imported from the verbal domain, but can develop directly in the semantic structure of nouns. In addition, a distinction between functional, oc- casional and behavioral ANs, depending on whether they denote agents with an oc- cupational status, agents in a particular event, or agents with a tendency to act in a certain way, is proven to be distributionally relevant. This distinction applies to all ANs, possibly in correlation with specificities as regards morphological type, base and affix selection. The study illustrates that with a careful processing of linguistic data, distributional semantics can help answering basic research questions and sup- port fine-grained theoretical distinctions.
    [Show full text]
  • A Tutorial on Lexical Classes
    A tutorial on lexical classes Ricardo Bermúdez-Otero University of Manchester INTRODUCTION Goals of the tutorial §1 Our brief: L to address the key issues arising from exponence phenomena in which the lexicon is divided into arbitrary subsets, notably (a) inflectional classes and (b) cophonologies. §2 Our focus: L to explore the advantages and drawbacks of theories that model such phenomena by means of diacritic features. Overview §3 The discussion will touch upon the following questions: • Architectural issues How must the grammar be organized in order to guarantee the syntactic inertness of inflectional class features? Can syntactic features like gender be sensitive to inflectional class membership, and can inflectional class membership be determined by phonological properties? • Perspectives on inflectional class features (1): denial To what extent can inflectional class features be eliminated by (a) storing complex items in the lexicon and (b) invoking replacive mechanisms of exponence (‘overwriting’)? • Perspectives on inflectional class features (2): strengthening Instead of eliminating inflectional class features, do we rather need a more elaborate theory (e.g. one based on feature decomposition) capable of accounting for a wider range of phenomena (e.g. cross-class syncretism)? • Class features in phonology: cophonologies Can patterns of overlap between cophonologies be captured through the decomposition of cophonology diacritics, just like syncretisms between inflectional classes? Can derived environment effects in phonology be analysed in terms of the percolation of cophonology diacritics within morphological structures? http://www.bermudez-otero.com/WOTM4.pdf Workshop on Theoretical Morphology 4, Großbothen, 20 June 2008 2 ARCHITECTURAL ISSUES Basic properties of inflectional classes §4 Inflectional classes are traditionally defined by two properties: • arbitrariness and • syntactic inertness.
    [Show full text]
  • Give the Noun Form of Perform
    Give The Noun Form Of Perform Fleeing Marwin voicings harrowingly or prorate Tuesdays when Goose is unreflected. Tanner still throwshustled foamingly intolerably after while Godart private disturb Tray ransomsnubbingly, that suppliers.quite impressionistic. Papery Skyler transmigrates no Gagarin This wonder friends in form, give the noun form of perform Kindence Answer is noun refers to a person group thing having an emotion process its state of being The given word 'kind' is an adjective and's noun country is '. Form body not conjugated and your not cross anything so who is performing an. Adjectives and noun modifiers in English article Article. For all questions the object nouns in the construction sentence then be replaced by the. Use building in front of a spade of any share when someone want toward convey specificity. First French Course. Define all The top objective of organizations in giving rewards is to. Principle meaning One little Kitchen. Performing Definition of Performing by Merriam-Webster. How is a short sentences, as i have nouns should, not amount of noun form the of perform at an admirable distinction of? Let my broad-shouldered verbs and nouns do the hard as of description. Will give more young learners practice changing nouns to pronouns. Assuming you comfort knowledge around a nun rather leave in reference to wrong person. Infinitives examples Flaviano Zerbetto. Words can light fires in the minds of men com jot Meaning in Somali what is. Quran 1145 Arabic verbal noun of akuma form I wisdom. What nouns or not covet repeated makes so ill scholarship and common, if he attacht to in some particular type of words usually thought to noun form? To ensure all transmit the unwanted energies are infinite it is best you perform this.
    [Show full text]
  • CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION This Chapter Presents Background of The
    CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION This chapter presents background of the research, statement of problem, research objective, research significance, and definition of key terms. 1.1 Background Morphology is a branch of linguistics which deals with the study of a word and its internal structure which affects the change of meaning. Moreover, Geert (2005: 7) states that morphology term refers to a study of the structure of the word, systematic word, the formation of word that has a relationship with its meaning. Morphology also covers how users of a particular language understand complex words, and find lexical items. Thus, Morphological studies in this research are used to analyze the word and how the word is formed that the word has a form and a meaning. Morphological process is the formation of a word in the form and meaning according to need in a single act of substitutions. Moreover, morphological process is a process of word formation by connecting one morpheme to other morphemes. The definition of morphological process according to Chaer (2012: 25) is the formation of a word from a base form of words through affixation and reduplication process. The formation of words will undergo another one of two processes, inflection and derivation. Derivation in particular is a process of forming a word that produces new lexeme. According to Ba’dulu and Herman (2006:12) 1 2 morphological derivation takes one word and turns it into another word. In other words, derivation is creating a new lexical word or creating a word from another syntactic category. Derivation is uses lexical meaning to make (or derive) new words and to change a word from grammatical class to another.
    [Show full text]
  • Polysemous Agent Nominals in Kambaata (Cushitic)*
    Author manuscript, published in "Sprachtypologie und Universalienforschung 64, 4 (2011) 369-381" Published 2011in: Luschützky, Hans-Christian & Franz Rainer (eds.) 2011. Agent-noun polysemy in a cross-linguistic perspective. Special issue of Sprachtypologie und Universalienforschung 64, 4: 369-381 [This is a pre-publication version. Please quote the final published version.] YVONNE TREIS (La Trobe University) Polysemous Agent Nominals in Kambaata (Cushitic)* Kambaata has a morpheme -aan with which agent nominals can be derived from verbs and nouns. The present article discusses, firstly, the morphological and syntactic characteristics of -aan nominals and the specific problem of which word class they should be assigned to. Secondly, it is shown that the -aan morpheme is multifunctional. Apart from agent nominals, it is used to derive instrument, place and patient nominals. 1. Introduction Kambaata belongs to the Cushitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language phylum, more precisely to the Highland East Cushitic (HEC) language group. The hitherto little documented language is spoken by more than 600,000 speakers in an area approximately 300 km south-west of the Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa. The lan- guage has a robust noun-verb distinction and a (sub-)word class of adjectives.1 Kambaata is strictly suffixing and has a rich verbal and nominal morphology. One of its derivational morphemes, the agentive morpheme -aan, productively gener- ates agent nominals on the basis of verbs. In the present article, the formal features (section 2) as well as the meaning and use of -aan nominals (section 3) are dis- cussed. In a language without a documented history, agent nominals can only be analysed in a synchronic perspective.2 The present work is intended to supplement the vast literature on agentive derivations that is predominantly concerned with Indo-European languages.
    [Show full text]
  • Agent Nouns in the Language of Caxton's Edition of Le Morte Darthur
    Agent nouns in the language of Caxton’s edition of Le Morte Darthur An analysis of the distribution and morphosemantic structure of agent nouns in William Caxton’s edition of Malory’s Le Morte Darthur Anders Olderkjær Samland Master’s Thesis in English Linguistics Department of Foreign Languages University of Bergen May 2019 Abstract in Norwegian I denne masteroppgåva vart agent nouns, agentative substantiv, i språket til William Caxton si utgåve av Le Morte Darthur undersøkt. Eit agentativt substantiv er ein ordformasjon som uttrykker utføraren av verbet i basen. Dei er typisk forma av ein verbal base + ein agentativ suffiks, for eksempel ein baker (bake + er) er ‘ein som baker’. Ein agent er ein semantisk kategori som er kjenneteikna av at kategori-medlemmane uttrykk visse agentive properties. Studien har undersøkt denne typen ordformasjon i Le Morte Darthur, som representerer språket i språkperioden late Middle English. Dei to overordna forskingsspørsmåla spør på den eine sida om desse formasjonane i forhold til kva som kjenneteiknar distribusjonen av dei i teksten, i forhold til etymologi både av leksema og suffiksa. På den andre sida kva som kjenneteiknar deira morfosemantiske oppbygging i forhold til uttrykking av agentive properties mellom agent substantiv, base, og om det er noko skilnad der mellom suffiksa. For å undersøke agent substantiva vart teksten manuelt lest gjennom og relevante leksem henta ut, medan relevante suffiks i teksten vart søkt etter ved hjelp av programmet AntConc, for å forsikre at alle relevante formasjonar vart inkludert i korpuset. For informasjon om dei enkelte leksem i forhold til etymologi vart Oxford English Dictionary og Middle English Dictionary brukt.
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter One Introduction
    CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 0 Chapter One Introduction 1.0 Background :- In spite of the fact that English morphology studies have been incepted lately in linguistics; these studies have acquired an overwhelming importance in the field of English language learning and acquisition. According to Leiber (2009) ‘morphology is the study of word formation, including the ways new words are coined in the languages of the world and the way forms of words are varied depending on how they are used in sentence’. Thus morphology studies the formation of words in English language and how this formation is largely dependent on sentence structure in which the word is deployed. Forming words in English language takes two main ways; deriving new lexemes from other words by adding a prefix or a suffix, e.g. “happy”, “unhappy” and “happiness”. This process happens to be called derivational morphology which is concerned with creating a new word though a related one. The other way is forming words using inflectional processes, which result in a modified version of a word (Delahunty & Garvey: 76). These processes are often applied to words in sentences in order to meet the grammatical needs of the sentences such as tense, gender or number. For instance the variant forms of the verb ‘to walk’ ‘walk’ and ‘walks’ are used for the present simple whereas “walked” is used for the past simple. 1 As stated above, words may be constructed of more than one morpheme, a morpheme is the smallest form (i.e, spoken or written units) that has meaning or grammatical function (Delahunty & Garvey:2010 ; p 76).
    [Show full text]
  • Luvo-Lycian Dorsal Stops Revisited H. Craig Melchert University Of
    Luvo-Lycian Dorsal Stops Revisited H. Craig Melchert University of California, Los Angeles 1. Introduction There is a broad consensus that at some prehistoric stage the Indo-European stop system had only a two-way phonological contrast of labialized velars (traditionally “labiovelars”) and non-labialized velars: thus schematically /Kw/ versus /K/. The latter had two conditioned allophones, palato-velars or front velars (traditionally “palatals”) in fronting environments and non-front velars (traditionally “velars”) elsewhere: [Kj] and [K]. Formulations of just what constituted a “fronting environment” can differ markedly (one may compare among many Meillet 1934: 94 and Lipp 2009: 1.7&53). Nevertheless, the highly skewed—that is, non-random and largely complementary—distribution of traditional “palatals” and “velars” strongly supports this fundamental premise. The major point of dispute for more than a century has been whether or not a partial loss of conditioning environment, analogy, and other factors led to a so- called phonemic split in PIE (that prehistoric stage that we reach by direct comparative reconstruction). The result would have been a three-way contrast /Kj/, /K/ and /Kw/, albeit very likely in a limited number of examples and with much of the previous complementary distribution preserved, as is typical for such splits. I contend that the answer to this question is yes, regardless of the facts of Luvo-Lycian (likewise Kümmel 2007: 312). The typological objection of Sihler (1995: 152-3) and Lipp (2009: 1.3165) that the presupposed backing of palatal stops to velars in the “centum” languages is unattested is a straw man. There is no compelling evidence that the PIE stops conventionally labeled “palatals” were true palatal stops (IPA [c] and [ɟ]).
    [Show full text]
  • Between Inflection and Derivation Paradigmatic Lexical Functions in Morphological Databases
    Between Inflection and Derivation Paradigmatic Lexical Functions in Morphological Databases Maarten Janssen ILTEC, Lisboa, Portugal [email protected] Abstract This article shows the use of lexical functions in the MorDebe lexical database system. Lexical functions are used in MorDebe to bridge the gap between derivation and inflection – to model relations between word-forms that are derivational from one perspective but inflectional from another. However, lexical functions in MorDebe range over lemmas rather than word-meanings and are hence significantly different from the normal lexical function. Абст‡кт В этой ст‡тье обсужд‡етсfl использние лексических функций ‚ лексической б‡зе д‡нных MorDebe. Лексические функции используютсfl ‚ MorDebe длfl того, чтобы сок‡тить ‡зы‚ между сло‚ооб‡знием и сло‚оизменением – длfl моделиниfl отношений между сло‚офом‡ми, котоые можно ‡ссм‡т肇ть с одной точки зениfl к‡к де肇ционные, ‡ с дугой - к‡к сло‚оизменительные. Одн‡ко, лексические функции ‚ MorDebe опеделflютсfl скоее длfl лексем, т.е. слных ‚ходо‚, ‡ не длfl смысло‚ых единиц и, следтельно, отлич‡ютсfl от лексических функций ‚ обычном поним‡нии. 1. Introduction Despite its central role in linguistics, the distinction between inflection and derivation is far from clear-cut. Modern day morphological theories often posit in-between cases - behaving partly like inflections, but partly like derivations. However, the introduction of marginal cases is problematic from the perspective of morphological database: an actual database which lists inflections and/or derivations, either has to treat them on a par, or model any individual form either as derivational or inflectional. This article will show how this problem manifests itself in the MorDebe morphological database, and how lexical functions are used to (partially) overcome the problem.
    [Show full text]