ENGLISH CIVIL WAR SOMA XLVI CRISIS COMMITTEE BACKGROUND GUIDE Keep Your Faith in God, but Keep Your Powder Dry

ENGLISH CIVIL WAR SOMA XLVI CRISIS COMMITTEE BACKGROUND GUIDE Keep your faith in God, but keep your powder dry. -Oliver Cromwell

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INTRODUCTION

Welcome to the Southern Ontario Model United Nations Assembly’s English Civil War Historical Crisis. This war saw the revolutionary Long Parliament against the traditional royal government of the House of Stuart. At stake beyond the political and military struggle are the more far-reaching questions of governance and religion. We hope you are as excited for this year’s crisis as we are.

For those of you unfamiliar with Crisis, this committee differs significantly from the other Model UN committees. Instead of representing countries, you represent people, each with your own individual agenda. We try to simulate every aspect of a historical conflict from the economics and politics to religion and military conquest. You will each play the role of someone who lived and held power on the eve of the Civil War, and will have a chance to reshape history. As your characters, you will manage taxes and trade, lead armies on campaigns and on the field of battle, and respond to envoys from Ireland, Scotland, and other foreign powers who will have their own interests in England. Above all, you will be trying to win the war while advancing your own standing as much as possible.

This background guide is meant to provide a general overview of the war and its causes. It is meant to provide a starting point for your position paper research; however in order for your experience to be as fulfilling as it can be, it is necessary that you devote time and effort into conducting your own independent research for this Crisis. It is also highly recommended that you review the political structures of England during the early 17th century as well as the military technology and strategies in use at the time. We recommend that this research be used in your position papers. Lastly, it is recommended that all delegates read the entire background guide, and especially that they review the sections pertaining to Committee Structure and Procedure.

We wish you the best of luck,

Ernest Li Aakash Budhera Jerry Wang Sungmin Lee

Crisis Director Crisis Head Jr. Crisis Head Jr. Crisis Head

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HISTORICAL CONTEXT

The English Civil Wars were a series of battles between the King of England and his supporters (Royalists) and the forces of Parliament (Parliamentarians). A root to the conflict was the difference between constitutional monarchy and absolute rule. The concept of an English Parliament was introduced in 1215 upon the signing of the Magna Carta. Unlike modern parliaments today, at the time directly preceding the English Civil War, Parliaments were not permanent institutions, but convened under the king’s orders; generally, a main reason for the gathering of parliament was to approve the raising of taxes. A constitutional monarchy would have put most of the power in the hands of parliament instead of in the hands of the king. On the other hand, absolute rule would have given all of the power to the king. Naturally, Parliamentarians supported a constitutional monarchy while Royalists supported absolute rule. Additionally, the conflict had historical roots reaching back to Henry VIII and the split between the Catholic Church and the Church of England.

RELIGIOUS TENSION

In 1534, King Henry VIII split from the Catholic Church, forming the Protestant Church of England with the King and the Archbishop of Canterbury at the helm, instead of the Pope. In the 16th century, wars of religion were commonplace throughout Europe, pitting Catholics against Protestants. Although England was not involved in these wars, there was still a deep mistrust between English Catholics and English Protestants. At the time of the English Civil Wars, both England and Scotland were predominantly Protestant, however there was still a sizeable Catholic minority in both countries. Furthermore, the House of Commons contained a large number of Puritans, a sect of Protestantism that sought to cleanse the Anglican Church of all of its Catholic rituals.

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THE BISHOP’S WARS

The first Bishop’s War proved inconclusive and a settlement was quickly reached with the Covenanters. In return for the summon of a Scottish General Assembly as well as parliament, the Covenanters would return royalist castles and prisoners. However, the powers of the General Assembly were disagreed upon by the king and the rebels, especially over religious power. Naturally, the Scots ignored the religious demands of Charles I upon the cessation of conflict.

Tensions soon flared once more and Charles I began raising a new army to lead into Scotland. To raise money for the Bishop’s Wars, Charles I called the “Short Parliament” after 11 years of direct rule over England. Instead of immediately granting funding for Charles’ war through new taxes, Parliament posed grievances to unpopular royal policies, such as “ship money”, a tax levied on the gentry to pay for the English fleet as well as the increase in customs duties. Additionally, Parliament looked towards completely changing the structure of the Anglican Church. Seeing that money would not be quickly raised, Charles I became infuriated with Parliament; the name “Short Parliament” was derived from the fact that Charles I dissolved it after only three weeks.

Under the guidance of Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, a new army was raised and equipped to launch a campaign into Scotland. It is important to note that many Englishmen, once again, did not support the war effort.

Unlike the first Bishop’s War, the Second Bishop’s War had a clear victor. The Covenanters repulsed the English attack and launched their own counterattack, conquering several Northern counties of England. A short term ceasefire was brokered out between the Covenanters and the English. Under the conditions of the agreement, the Covenanters were allowed to remain in the counties that they have conquered and were to be paid £850 a day until a real peace was negotiated.

THE BIRTH OF THE LONG PARLIAMENT

The immense burden on the English taxpayer, who had to fund the payments to the Covenanters, forced Parliament to be reconvened. Furthermore, negotiating with the Covenanters and establishing a long lasting peace treaty took a significant amount of time, thus the Parliament could not have been dismissed in a short period. As such, this Parliament came to be known as the “Long Parliament.”

The Long Parliament was composed of the House of Commons and the House of Lords. In the first year of the Long Parliament, many acts were passed to repeal Charles’ most

SOMA XLVI English Civil War Crisis Committee Background Guide⎟ 5 unpopular policies. Interestingly, under the orders of Parliament, Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford and one of Charles’ right-hand men, was also executed for high treason. Within the first year, divisions in the Long Parliament were also beginning to show. It was quite clear by that point that some members of Parliament still supported the king.

THE IRISH REBELLION

In October 1641, the kingdom of Ireland, commonly seen as a sister kingdom to England, rebelled against its English administrators. The King and the Long Parliament argued over who would command the army sent to quell the rebellion. Eventually, parliament passed the Grand Remonstrance, a biting list of grievances against Charles I and solutions to those grievances, by a narrow margin (159-148). Some of those solutions included anti-Catholic Church reform and parliamentary appointment of the royal ministers. Soon after, parliament also passed the Militia Ordinance, which granted parliamentary control of the appointment of all of England’s army and navy commanders. As expected, Charles I refused to accept the Grand Remonstrance or give royal assent to the Militia Ordinance.

Violence in the streets of London and rumours of a plot to remove his wife and pushed Charles I to arrest five members of the House of Commons and one Lord on counts of treason: John Hampden, Arthur Haselrig, Denzil Holles, John Pym, William Strode, and Viscount Mandeville. On January 4, 1642, Charles I entered the House of Commons, an action forbidden to the king, with a group of armed soldiers to arrest the men. But, the six men had been tipped off and had already fled. The city of London erupted into chaos after learning the news and was openly hostile to the king. On January 10, 1642, Charles I fled the capital for the north of England and the Royalists and Parliamentarians prepared for civil war.

ECONOMY

Before the English Civil War, the English economy was in a constant stagnation and experiencing social unrests. The enrichment of bourgeoisie and capitalist thoughts shook the country as it led to unemployment and fluctuations in the market. During the war, the nation suffered from further recessions because of the sharp commercial contractions. Considerable efforts were required during the English Restoration period to reassert England's prowess in trading overseas, undo the damages and unrests suffered from the war and the previous monarchs, and to implement new economic policies as the power shifted from the King to parliaments. The results of these considerable changes of the English Restoration, which started the year the Stuart king Charles II was restored to power in 1660 following the death of Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell, included an increase in commercial prosperity, global trade, and literacy rates.

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ECONOMIC HISTORY

The decisive change after the English civil war from an economic standpoint was that the capital was now free from the strict monopoly of the monarch. When Charles I became king, a series of poor grain harvests, continued dislocation of the cloth trade, and a virulent plague that killed tens of thousands all conspired against the new ruler. This all contributed to the prolonged economic stagnation that England experienced during his reign as king. Citizens were taxed heavily to accommodate for his luxurious life and wars with Spain and France.

THE STATUTE OF MONOPOLIES

Under the first two Stuart Kings, James I and Charles I, England suffered from an act of Parliament titled the Statute of Monopolies. Introduced under the rule of James I, the Statute of Monopolies created the concept of patents. In exchange for a cash payment to the crown, patenters gained the protected right to pursue a particular form or method of trade or industry. This practice led to widespread corruption in the system with royal commissioners manipulating patents to their own benefit. Every food item produced in England such as butter, currants, red herrings, salmon, lobsters, salt, pepper, vinegar, and wine was controlled by monopolies. Similarly, goods such as clothes, soap, starch, feathers, lace, linen, leather, and gold thread were monopoly-owned as well. Even the Bible and the Latin grammars were owned by monopolies. Besides the patent holders, anyone attempting to trade or produce these goods would be punished. Unsurprisingly, the patent system angered the common English people because it guaranteed that power, patronage, and commercial wealth remained in the hands of the monarchy and the immediate court circle.

THE BIRTH OF CAPITALISM

England was one of the hotspots for capitalism. The rapid development of capitalism during the period directly preceding the English Civil War led to unemployment and significant social unrest. The nobility, who were concerned about the rise in capitalism and the bourgeoisie, sought to control it by granting privileges and placing hindrances in the way of mobility and freedom of movement and contracts. The nobles who were dissatisfied or refused by this monopoly system became the parliamentarians After Charles I reluctantly recalled parliament in 1626 as he needed money to finance the war with France and Spain, the new nobles and the bourgeoisie took control of the nation. They passed resolutions that stood for the benefits of bourgeoisie and capitalism. Finally, the abolition of feudal tenures passed in 1660 in the English Restoration period allowed lands to be bought, sold, and mortgaged for the first time, clearing the path for long-term investment in agriculture.

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MILITARY

INFANTRY

Civil war infantry comprised two distinct types of soldier: pikemen and musketeers. At the beginning of the wars, the ideal regimental balance was regarded as two pikemen for every musketeer. As the wars progressed and pikemen proved vulnerable to musket fire, the use of the pike declined. By the end of the English Civil War, the ratio of pikemen to musketeers in the New Model Army had reversed to two musketeers to one pikeman. Infantrymen were organised in regiments commanded by colonels, with each regiment sub-divided into a number of companies commanded by captains. Ideally, a regiment comprised ten or twelve companies of 100 men, each with its own flag or colour, though in practice these numbers were rarely attained. Regiments in large armies were often brigaded together into a tercio under the command of a senior colonel. In general, infantry regiments were deployed with a "stand" of pikes in the centre and equal bodies of musketeers on either flank. PIKEMEN

Pikemen were equipped with heavy protective armour, and as a result somewhat slow while marching. They were armed with a long iron-headed spear mounted called a pike. Pikemen were used to fight opposing pikemen but were also very effective in fending off cavalry. Pikemen also carried a short sword known as a "tuck" for close-quarter fighting. In infantry combat, opposing blocks of pikemen would advance with their pikes "charged" horizontally at shoulder level to jab at one another until contact was made. The two sides would then push physically until one or other of them gave way (known as "push of pike"). An increasingly important role of the pikeman was to defend musketeers against attack by enemy cavalry. To meet a cavalry charge, the pikeman would crouch with the pike angled upwards. Although use of the pike declined during the civil wars, it was not fully abandoned by the English army until the adoption of the bayonet in the early 18th century. MUSKETEERS

Musketeers were unarmored troops equipped with musket. They were generally vulnerable in close combat, and were especially vulnerable to charging cavalry. The type of musket most commonly used in this era was the matchlock or arquebus, a gun first used towards the end of the 15th century, which had a long barrel length and was fired by touching off the priming charge with a piece of burning slow-match. The matchlock had a range of about 300

SOMA XLVI English Civil War Crisis Committee Background Guide⎟ 8 yards but was only accurate to approximately 50 yards. Although cheap and robust, the matchlock musket was useless if the match became damp and necessity of keeping match alight also meant that it was impractical in situations where a quick response might be needed. Consequently, the more expensive firelock musket was often issued to sentries and lifeguards of high-ranking officers, and was only very slowly introduces to troops at the end of the seventeenth century. In battle, musketeers usually lined up in six ranks. After firing, the front rank stepped to the rear to reload while the second rank moved up to take its place, followed in succession by the other ranks, to maintain a continuous fire for as long as the ammunition lasted. Sometimes a massed volley or salvee would be delivered by three ranks at once, either to precede an assault or to receive one. Like pikemen, musketeers were usually armed with a short sword or "tuck", though the musket itself was frequently used as a club in close-quarter combat.

LEVIED MILITIA

County militia comprising all able-bodied men that was raised, using Posse Comitatus, in times of emergency under the command of the Sheriff. These men were generally untrained and poorly armed and fared poorly in sustained offensive combat.

CAVALRY

Cavalrymen were organised in troops like infantry companies. Each troop was commanded by a captain and consisted of between thirty and one hundred men. Although some cavalry troops operated independently, they were usually brigaded together into a regiment of around six troops under the command of a colonel.

CUIRASSIERS

Cuirassiers were the descendants of the fully-armoured knights of the Middle Ages, and rode into battle encased in a suit of armour.

The invention of the wheel-lock firing mechanism made it practical to use firearms on horseback, so cuirassiers discarded the heavy lance in favour of pistols, carbines and swords. Mounted and armoured pistoleers, called reiters, dominated European battlefields during the late 16th and early 17th centuries. Although it was fashionable for officers and noblemen to sit for

SOMA XLVI English Civil War Crisis Committee Background Guide⎟ 9 portraits in full armour, very few cuirassier units served during the English civil war. Not only were cuirassiers expensive to equip and maintain, it was also difficult to find horses strong enough to bear their weight. Their cumbersome armour became steadily less effective as firearms improved, which is consistent with the general decline in the use of protective armour during the 17th century. Individual commanders on both sides sometimes went into battle equipped as cuirassiers but the only regular cuirassier units were Parliamentarian.

HARQUEBUSIERS

Most civil war cavalry were equipped as "harquebusiers". Originally, harquebusiers were foot soldiers who had exchanged the crossbow for the arquebus (or harquebus), an early form of matchlock firearm. During the French religious wars of the 16th century, harquebusiers were mounted on horseback. By the early 17th century, they had evolved into the light cavalrymen of western Europe.

Ideally, harquebusiers were armed with a carbine or harquebus, a pair of pistols and a sword, although during the civil wars, the carbine or harquebus was likely to be carried by officers only. Cavalry firearms were of the firelock pattern, either flintlocks or the more expensive and less popular wheel-lock. Harquebusier were lightly armored and were classified as light cavalry, in contrast to cuirassiers who were regarded as heavy cavalry. In practice, however, cavalry tactics developed during the civil wars so that harquebusier regiments such as Prince Rupert's horse and Cromwell's Ironsides fought as shock troops, the role usually associated with cuirassiers.

DRAGOONS

Dragoons were mounted infantry who rode small horses or cobs to move into position and then fought on foot. They wore no armour and usually carried a musket or carbine and sword.

Typical dragoon actions during the civil wars were to cover the approaches to a position or to guard the flank. Initially, dragoons were organised in distinct regiments, but as the wars

SOMA XLVI English Civil War Crisis Committee Background Guide⎟ 10 progressed, the practice grew of attaching a company of dragoons to some of the larger cavalry regiments to provide supporting fire in action and to act as sentries.

ARTILLERY

Artillery of the civil war era can be broadly divided into three classes: siege guns, heavy field guns, and light field guns. Most artillery was muzzle-loading, smooth bore, and cast in bronze or iron.

The heaviest guns were used for battering down walls in sieges. Artillery batteries were sited as close as possible to the enemy position without exposing the gunners to enemy fire. Mortars were often used to fire explosive shells or incendiary devices over the walls of the besieged position.

The main marching armies were usually well-equipped with field artillery. Heavy field guns were set up at the beginning of a battle and remained in place. Their purpose was to fire upon the enemy army from long range before the troops came into direct contact. The opening cannonade could continue for several hours, sometimes forcing enemy troops to move from a good position and often weakening the morale of the troops under fire.

In contrast light artillery was integrated with infantry units. The practice of attaching light artillery pieces to every regiment of infantry was copied from European armies of the Thirty Years War, and were used to cover the gaps between infantry units. The guns could be moved with the infantry as it advanced to bolster the firepower of the musketeers.

FOREIGN POWERS

During the English Civil War, both the Parliamentarians and the Royalists were trying as hard as they could to gain allies within the British Isles, specifically Scotland and Ireland. While nominally ruled by the English, these countries retained their institutions and were fiercely independent. The Scots were vital in the defeat of the Royalists while the Irish revolt was vital in keeping Royalist troops occupied in Ireland for an extended period of time. While Scotland and Ireland will play a considerable role, the rest of Europe is currently fighting the Thirty Years War and can only offer limited aid to the side that offers them better concessions.

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SCOTLAND

Map of Scotland from the 17th century

Scotland, while historically independent, had been ruled by the English monarchy since 1603 and still retained many independent institutions. One of the fiercest opposition to the English came from the protestant Scottish Presbyterian Church, more commonly known as the Kirk. It was highly influential among the Scots, who were deeply religious. While Scotland and England coexisted peacefully for now, that changed when Charles I tried to install the Book of Common Prayers into the Kirk, leading to widespread backlash from the extremely influential church and therefore the common people.

In opposition to the Book of Common Prayers, the Supplicant movement was formed in Scotland. When Charles I remained insensitive to Scottish affairs and declared these men treasonous, they also raised the stakes and refashioned themselves as the Covenanters. Covenanters believed that they had entered a covenant, or agreement, with God in order to defend Christianity from attacks by the Prayer Book. However, it is important to note that the Covenanters believed that their quarrel was not with England or the Anglican Church, but only with the prayer book. The movement was widely supported by the Kirk, who saw them as a method to counter the religious reforms of England. Consequently, the Kirk used its influence to support the movement, which gained popularity with the common people, threatening the English even more.

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In 1640, once the English had ignored the Scottish demands, a Covenanter army marched from Scotland into Northumberland, past the River Tweed, and even occupied Newcastle. The English monarchy lacked the funds to repel the invasion, and Charles I was forced to call a hostile parliament to grant him funds. The feud between the monarchy and parliament was central to the divisions that led to the First English Civil War breaking out. Meanwhile, the Covenanters withdrew their army in exchange for a promise from Charles I that he would abandon his attempts to reform the Scottish Church.

Despite the peace, the Covenanters did not fully trust Charles I and sided with the Parliamentarians during the First English Civil War. Their troops played a commanding role in the Battle of Marston Moor, which resulted in a decisive Royalist defeat and gave the Parliamentarians control over northern England. However, Scotland sided with the Royalists during the Second English Civil War because Charles I agreed to establish Presbyterianism for three years if they invaded England on his behalf. The Scots did not have strong loyalties to either side during the Civil Wars and would side with whoever gave them a stronger position, especially regarding the state of their Church. While Scottish commanders began the war supporting the Parliamentarians, their roles could change if the Royalists gave large concessions to win their favour.

IRELAND

Map of Ireland from the 17th century

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Like Scotland, Ireland was ruled by the English monarchy and had a very independent Church. Unlike Scotland, the majority of the Gaelic peasantry followed Catholicism while the English elites followed Protestant sects. The English had attempted to establish a feudalist society in Ireland, but the local Gaelic Catholic nobles were replaced by Protestant Scots once they rebelled against English authority. During this period of religious turmoil in Europe, the Irish chose to rebel again in 1641, right before the start of the First English Civil War, demanding more religious freedom.

However, unlike the short Bishop’s War, this happened in the time of great unrest and conflict between the Parliament and the king. Both of them knew that the rebellion had to be put down, but the Parliament did not trust the king with any money and had to attach many strings to the money it did allot to Charles to fix the rebellion. There were even rumours in parliament that Charles secretly supported the Irish and this probably led to the Grand Remonstrance, which was a list of grievances presented to Charles.

During the English Civil War, the Royalist army was also occupied in suppressing rebellion in Ireland. A peace treaty was signed during the war and freed Royalist men from Ireland, giving them more manpower. In this conflict, Ireland had a very minor role, but they are more likely to support the side that would give greater tolerance to Catholics. Despite fighting the Royalists, they were more likely to support them since Charles had married a Catholics and Parliament was filled with radical Puritans like Cromwell. However, if the Parliamentarians offered enough incentives and toleration to Catholics and got the people to accept it, the Irish may support them instead.

EUROPE

Map of the Conflicts and Battles during the Thirty Years War

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While the English were fighting the English Civil War, the Thirty Years War was raging in Europe. While the English fought with Protestant countries like Denmark, Sweden, and the Netherlands, none of them are likely to give support to either side without major incentive since they are still involved in war and do not particularly favour any side. The Protestant Alliance was fighting a group of Catholics nations that included Austria and Spain, who might give very limited aid to the Irish to aid their rebellion. They might also lend considerable resources to the side that would champion more religious freedom and less oppression of Catholics, especially in Ireland. Therefore, if the Royalists offered these concessions, the Holy Roman Empire and its allies may give some aid to the Royalists. The Parliamentarians, who were devout Protestant Puritans, would be much less likely to offer these reforms and they would face massive uprisings, especially from the devout.

CONCLUSION

The English Civil War was a war that involved almost no major foreign powers because they were also in conflict. However, the semi-independent nations of Scotland and Ireland wield a lot of influence and armies, and they could turn the tide of the war to the side that offered them more concessions, especially religious concessions about the state of their Church. However, delegates must be careful that these concessions may have negative repercussions on the people your side is ruling, and must negotiate carefully in order to appease both their allies and people.

CRISIS PROCEDURES

Crisis differs greatly from other Model UN committees. It lacks the usual topics, resolutions, speakers’ lists, speaking times, and strict procedures, and this makes it considerably more organic and efficient. That being said, Crisis’ fluid nature makes it very easy for it to spiral out of hand, thus there are a few guidelines that have been developed to ensure that the committee remains focused, organized, and on-task.

SPEAKING IN COMMITTEE SESSIONS

There will be a Chair in each committee that retains absolute control over who is allowed to speak, and for how long. The Chair will be rigorously trained, and understands not to abuse his/her privilege. He/she will remain impartial and will exert minimal influence over the delegates’ decisions and strategies.

There is no speakers’ list, delegates need only raise their placard, and the Chair will acknowledge them. There is no maximum speaking time, however the Chair will cut off delegates if the speech becomes excessive; there will be no filibustering in committee. If a

SOMA XLVI English Civil War Crisis Committee Background Guide⎟ 15 delegate wishes to respond to another delegate’s points, they do not need to declare a Point of Information or Right of Reply: again, they must raise their placard and wait for the Chair to call on them. When desired, the committee can motion for an un-moderated caucus. This is essentially a 5-10 minute period during which any delegate can speak freely, without raising their placard.

CRISIS DIRECTIVES

The Committee’s decisions are articulated to Crisis Central via Directives. These state what the committee wishes to do with its resources. Directives can include anything from troop movements and hirings, to the management of resources and food supplies, to asking for an envoy from another state, etc. Committee Directives must receive a majority vote in order to be passed to Crisis Central.

There are also Personal Directives, which describe what a delegate’s character wishes to do that is independent of the Committee. These are top secret, and they allow characters to communicate individually with other characters from their Committee and the opposing Committee, as well as with Crisis Central. These will be passed using slips of paper handed to the Pages that will be waiting in the Committee rooms.

Crisis Central will use its discretion in evaluating whether or not the instruction on the Directive (both Committee and Personal) is physically possible and historically probable, and thus whether or not it will be processed. If a Directive is processed, it will be acknowledged as “fact.” Committees and individuals will receive frequent updates on the statuses of their directives. The members of Crisis Central have been very well trained, and have Crisis experience. Thus, we kindly ask that the delegates do not object to any of the decisions that the SOMA Crisis Staff will make.

POSITION PAPERS

Delegates are expected to supplement their knowledge of the English Civil War with a position paper on their assigned characters. These papers should be 400-600 words with citations in Chicago format.

The topic is fairly open ended, but generally speaking, all position papers should outline the specific character’s background, motivations, goals, resources, and other details that might be relevant for committee sessions. Delegates are strongly recommended to start working on these position papers as soon as possible. Delegates must submit a position paper to be considered for a delegate award and the papers will factor into those award decisions.

Position papers will be due on April 10 at midnight. Please send them as a .pdf attachment to [email protected].

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ashley, Maurice. 1973. A history of Europe, 1648-1815. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.

Barratt, John. 2000. Cavaliers: the Royalist army at war, 1642-1646. Thrupp, Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton Pub.

Bellany, Alastair, and Andrew McRae. 2005. "Monopolies And Corruption". Early Stuart Libels: An Edition Of Poetry From Manuscript Sources.. http://purl.oclc.org/emls/texts/libels

Braddick, M. J. 2008. God's fury, England's fire: a new history of the English civil wars. London, England: Allen Lane.

Firth, C. H. 1902. Cromwell's army: a history of the English soldier during the Civil Wars, the Commonwealth and the Protectorate. London: Methuen & Co.

Fletcher, Anthony. 1981. The outbreak of the English Civil War. London: E. Arnold.

Greenblatt, Stephen, and M. H. Abrams. 2005. The Norton anthology of English literature. New York: W.W. Norton.

Haythornthwaite, Philip J. 2001. The English Civil War, 1642-1651. London: Brockhampton.

Henry, Chris, and Brian Delf. 2005. English Civil War Artillery 1642-51. Oxford: Osprey Publishing.

Jörgensen, Christer. 2005. Fighting Techniques Of The Early Modern World, AD 1500 To AD 1763. Staplehurst: Spellmount.

Kishlansky, Mark A. 2014. Charles I: an abbreviated life.

Reid, Stuart. 1998. All the King's armies: a military history of the English Civil War, 1642-1651. Staplehurst, Kent: Spellmount.

Reid, Stuart. 2012. Scots Armies Of The English Civil Wars. Oxford: Osprey Publishing Ltd.

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Roberts, Keith. 2005. Cromwell's war machine: the new model army, 1645-1660. Barnsley: Pen & Sword Military.

Russell, Conrad. 1973. The origins of the English Civil War. London: Macmillan.