'AHR • COLLEGE OF TROPICAL AGRICULTURE AND HUMAN RESOURCES • UNIVERSITY OF HAWAII

PROCEEDINGS: 4th ANNUAL HAWAII TROPICAL FRUIT GROWERS CONFERENCE

September 30 - October 2,1994 Kona Surf Resort Keauhou, Hawaii Proceedings: Hawaii Tropical Fruit Growers "­ Fourth Annual Conference

September 30 - October 2, 1994 Kona Surf Resort, Keauhou, Hawaii

PREFACE

The issues addressed at the conference - marketing, promotion, research funding, and quarantine disinfestation treatments - all need to be dealt with in the course of the development of a Hawaii specialty fruit industry.

The keynote speaker, Dr. Mohamad bin Osman, gave a detailed and interesting a~ount of Malaysian fruits and the marketing of the commercialized fruits. It is useful to note that the growth of the Malaysian fruit industry started when it was targeted by a national agriculture policy in 1984. Dr. Mohamad has an M$. degree in genetics from the University of California at Davis and a Ph.D. in plant breeding/genetics from the University of Wisconsin. At the time of his participation in the fruit conference, he had just completed his tenure as Director of the Fruit Research Division of MARDI, a position he held from 1990 to 1994.

Editor: C. L. Chia Extension Specialist in Horticulture Department of Horticulture College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources University of Hawaii at Manoa

. Cover: Multiple shoots of carambola (Ave"hoa carambo/a L.) from cotyledon culture. Photo courtesy of L. Agus Sukamto. .

Qisdaimer . Pesticides should be used in accordance with label instructions. Mention ofa trade or proprietary name does not constitute a guarantee or warranty of the prOduct by the University of Hawaii and does not imply its approval for use in Hawaii or recommendation of its use to the ex~lusion of other unmentioned products.

- 1 ­ Fourth Annual International Tropical Fruit Confer'ence , September 30 - October 2, 1994 Kona Surf Resort, Keauhou, Hawaii

Sponsored by the Hawaii Tropical Fluit Growers, University ofHawaii College ofTropical Agriculture and Human Resources, County ofHawaii Department ofResearch & Development Govemor's Agriculture Coordinating Committee PROGRAM FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 30, 1994 . Funding and Development or Research and 5:00 pm Mauna Kea Gardens Promotion Programs Registration,Heavy pupus, Jo Ann Smith, Exec. Dir. of the Pecan No-host bar and Poster session Marketing Board and former Asst. Sec. for USDAfMkting & Inspection Services 7:30pm Tropical Fruit Crops orMalaysia Dr. Mohamed Osman, Benefits or Generic Promotion . Director of Fruit Research Tom and Ann Thacker, Principals . Malaysia R&D Institute The Thacker Group, Kona & CA-based pUblic relations fIrm specializing in SATURDAY, OCTOBER 1, 1994 generic promotion of Agcommodities. 8:00 am Registration " 8:30 am Annual Membership Meeting - Lesley Hill Hawaii Department or Agriculture's Role in Marketing and Distribution of Ag Products 9:30 am Welcome from Governor's Office Samuel Camp, Manager, Hawaii Department Robert Robertson of Agriculture, Commodities Branch 10:00 am Future Development or Tropical Fruits Australian System of Funding Research and in Hawaii Promotion Diane Quitiquit, Director Dr. RC. "Skip" Bittenbinder, UH/CTAHR County of Hawaii, Department of R&D Ext. Specialist for Tropical Fruits & Nuts 10:30 am BREAK 3:00pm Fruit tasting and social hour 10:45 am Global Marketing or Malaysian Fruits . 6:00pm No-host cocktails, dinner and auction Dr. Mohamed Osman Director of Fruit Research SUNDAY, OctOBER 2, 1994 - FIELD TRIP Malaysia R&D Institute 8:00am Bus leaves Kona Surf Resort . . . . , ' . 11:45 am Treatments ror Export or Hawaii Ka'aina Porio, Honaunau - Craig Elevitch Tropical Fruits South Icona Orchard Dr. Jack Armstrong, et ai, USDA/ARS Brian Lievens - Irrigation Brian Paxton - Varieties ofTropical Fruits 12:30 pm LUNCH Kona Experiment Station Marc Meisner, Farm Manager 1:30 pm Future or Research & Promotion Programs Varieties of tropical fruit & ground covers in Hawaii Panel facilitated by Brian Lievens 1:30pm Keahou Yacht Club - LUNCH Table of Contents Future Development of Tropical Fruits in Hawaii Diane S. Quitiquit 1 Tropical Fruit Crops of Malaysia Mohamad bin Osman 3 Global Marketing of Malaysian Fruits Mohamad bin Osman 17 Benefits of Generic Promotion Tom and Ann Thacker 29 Poster Abstracts: Peach Palm for Palm Heart in Hawaii: Is It Worth Planting? C.R Clement, RM. Manshardt, e.o. Cavaletto, J. DeFrank, K. Fleming, and J. Mood 31 Quality Evaluation of Fresh·Peach Palm Heart e.O. Cavaletto, N.Y. Nagai, e.R Clement, and R.M. Manshardt 31 Effect of Planting Density on Precocious Palm Heart Yield of Peach Palm in Hawaii C.R. Clement and R.M. Manshardt. 31 Genetic Variability for Precocious Palm Heart Yield of Pejibaye in Hawaii C.R. Clement and R.M. Manshardt 31 Response of Pejibaye to Herbicides and Black Polypropylene Mat During Establishment in Hawaii J. DeFrank and C.R. Clement ; ; 32 Precocious Response of Pejibaye to Legume, Grass, and Black Polypropylene Groundcovers During Establishment in Hawaii J. DeFrank and C.R. Clement 32 Poster Articles: Tissue Culture Propagation ofAtemoya and Starfruit L. Agus Sukamto .. ;.~ 33 Biological Control of Fruit Flies in Hawaii: Prospects and Problems Russell Messing and Mary F.Purcell .., : ; 36 Identification of Lychee Cultivars by Isozyme Fingerprinting Francis Zee, MalliK. Aradhya, and Richard M. Manshardt 38 Field Trip Notes Craig Elevitch ; 41 Kent Fleming 44 AppendiX Australian System of Funding Research and Promotion 46

- m­ MESSAGE FROM GOVERNOR JOHN WAIHEE

.September 30 - October 2, 1994

It is a pleasure to extend my greetings, and my warmest aloha, to everyone who has gathered for the Fourth Annual International Tropical Fruit Conference in Kom~ on the Big Island of Hawaii.

Tropical fruits such as atemoya, star fruit, lychee, and mango are enjoyed as delicacies throughout the world. In 1993, Hawaii's tropical specialty fruit production totaled nearly 500,000 pounds. I am happy to know that this conference will focus on furthering the education of growers, marketers, and consumerS of tropical fruit.

You will hear national and international experts share information about research, development, and promotion programs. Their knowledge will be sure to inspire and stimulate each of you.

I commend the Hawaii Tropical Fruit Growers for sponsoring this conference, and wish you all an enjoyable and productive meeting of the minds.

JOHN WAllffiE Future Development of Tropical Fruits in Hawaii

Diane S. Quitiquit Hawaii County Department of Research and Development

Good Morning! Thank you for inviting me to island; hard working and committted to making this conference. I am asked to speak to you this things happen. morning about the Future Development of The Big Island farmers who are here today Tropical Fruits in Hawaii. Let me begin by stating must sense the bright economic promise of that, the Big Island will continue to be the tropical fruit, otherwise their attendance at this production center of tropical fruit in the State. conference would not be this impressive. The time And this is why. and money they have invested in this conference Current statistics on tropical specialty fruit speak of their willingness to venture into this new . show that in 1993, a total of three hundred and industry despite the many unknowns. ninety acres were planted with tropical specialty Except for mango, kiwifruit and persimmon, fruits statewide. Of this total, two hundred and the markets for other tropical fruits are not fifty acres or 64% is on the Big Island. The developed. This is where the visionary attribute of number of acres in tropical specialty fruit on the the Big Island farmers will come into play. Your Big Island is increasing by 11% per year. The farm choice of market, either local, export, or both, will .value of this new and progressive industry is dictate the future prospects of the industry. Ifyou $136,000 per year. restrict yourself to the local market, your potential The closing of the commercial sugar for expansion will be limited. Your real potential production on the Hamakua Coast and the lies in developing the export market. upcoming closure of the Ka'u sugar on September As all of you know, tropical fruits grown in 1996, will release approximately 66,600 acres for Hawaii are hosts of tephritid fruitflies. As such our other crops. Tropical fruits will play a major role fruits are prohibited from entering the mainland in the utilization of these lands. Just how available U.S. due to the potential damage that the flies and affordable these lands will be to farmers is a may cause to their agriculture. The biggest question that is in everyone's mind. Let me update challenge that the industry will face in the export you on how the County is working to address this market is developing fruitfly treatments applicable question. to each type of fruit. Unfortunately, each fruit has The County is working on legislation which its unique characteristic such that it requires will establish separate subdivision standards for individualized treatment. To develop a fruitfly farm lots. It is hoped that with these new rules, treatment takes a long time. It took five years for landowners will be able to subdivide their lands carambola. without meeting the strict requirements of the We are very fortunate to have on the Big Subdivision Code, so that they will be affordable Island a facility and a group of committed experts to farmers. Moreover, the current re~l property .whose mission is to develop suitable commodity tax assessment for agricultural lands is being treatments for use on fresh fruits and vegetables examined to find ways of simplifying it to against fruitflies and other quarantined insects. encourage diversified agriculture. Making the· Big Island fruitfly free, if it can be However, having land alone does not create an done, would be the best solution for the export industry. We also need hard working visionary market. However, such an ambitious endeavor will farmers. The Big Island is fortunate to have be difficult to achieve due to the large numbers of visionary and hardworking farmers who are host materials existing in Hawaii and the flies are attracted to tropical fruit farming. The 1993 already established throughout the islands. statistics show that there are fifty growers of There are already existing technologies that tropical fruits on the Big Island compared to show great potential for treating fresh fruits with twenty-five growers in the rest of the State. such delicate characteristics. These techniques These seventy-five growers ought to be include direct treatments such as the use of congratulated for bringing an unknown industry fumigants, heat, cold and irradiation and multiple into existence and making it a promising one. treatment which uses a combination of heat and These are the breed of farmers we need on this cold.

- 1 ­ The industry has to evaluate the merits of each community and the various government agencies. of these techniques and choose the one that shows We have been very supportive of your industry less damage to your fruit. A wise choice will have a since its inception. We have provided financial great impact on the future destiny of this industry. assistance to enable your industry to invite Therefore, choose wisely. international experts to your conferences. We plari The County has always been supportive of on continuing our support of the tropical fruit

.J diversified agriculture. My department does not industry. only provide financial support to Big Island Once again, thank you for inviting me to commodity groups in carrying out their programs participate today and I wish you a very successful but also act as a conduit between the agriculture conference.

·2· Tropical Fruit Crops of Malaysia· Mohamad bin Osman MARDI, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

.Introduction (1) the domestic fresh fruit demand; (2) the export In Malaysia, fruits are steadily becoming an oftropical fruits; and (3) processing. important component of the agricultural Before the National Agricultural Policy (NAP) production. Our processed pineapple has been in was launched in 1984, there were no specific the world market for decades. In fact, since the policies for the development of the fruit industry. late 1980s, the fruit industry began to command a The industry at that· time consisted of about small but important niche in the international 135,000 smallholders with poor'economy of scale export market for fresh starfruit. The country is of production and widely dispersed. With the probably clpse to becoming a net exporter of directions of the NAP, fruit was selected as a fruits, with the exports of fresh and .processed commodity to be given the thrust for development fruits showing upward trends in recent years. In in the agricultural sector. This was in line with the 1992, the export values increased to US$58.1 and Government's policy to promote commodities US$40.1 million, respectively. The main fruits which have high added values and good export exported were pineapple (32.8%), durian (22.2%), potential. starfruit (9.6%), papaya (9.6%), watermelon The supportive government policies had given (9.1%) and banana (5.4%), and together these the fruit industry the necessary impetus for fruits contribute 89% of the total fruit export accelerated development, and had encouraged the value. commercial production of fruits for local This paper briefly describes the fruit industry consumption, .e.JPort and processing. The growth in Malaysia and the cultivars grown commercially of the fruit industry further gathered momentum in the country. It also highlights the diversity of with the active participation of the government tropical fruits found in the country and some of and priv&te sectors. While these were happening, the potential minor and rare fruit types. the efforts of some traditional plantation agencies in the private sector which had earlier pursued The Fruit Industry diversification .opportunities by experimenting At present, the country's economy is strongly with .large scale fruit cultivation in the late 1970s, fuelled by the manufacturing and industrial sector also begun to bear fruits. Table 1 shows the as the engine of growth. Agriculture remains involvement of public agencies and private important, but has steadily experienced a decline growers involved in the commercial fruit in its contribution towards the Gross Domestic production in Malaysia in the last five years. Product. The area for fruit cultivation had increased Based on the export earnings, fruits are still rapidly from 121,000 hectares in 1984 to 180,000 considered as relatively minor crops in the hectares in 1990, or almost 50% increase in country. It is envisaged that the country's hectarage in about seven years. The bulk of the agriculture will continue to be dominated by present fruit production is still produced in the rubber, oil palm and cocoa amongst the plantation smallholdings and in home gardens. In essence, . crops, and rice amongst the food crops. And this this increase was largely due to rehabilitation of crop mix pattern is likely to change slowly in the old stands, and only recently it was due to years ahead. It is expected that fruit production commercial plantings. At .present, durian is the will remain behind the status of any of the most extensively:· planted, fruit in the country, plantation crops, both in terms of priority accounting for 61 % of thehectarage increase and accorded and their scale of operation.. 34% of the.total hectarage. However, more recent However, the future for fruits is bright because .trend of expansion has included starfruit, papaya, tHey have the potential to contribute towards the Cavendish hanana and citrus as well. country's earning, indirectly through import substitution and directly as an export commodity. Tropical Fruits: Their Profile Overall, the potential for growth of the fruit Tropical fruits in Malaysia comprise more industry can be exploited from three main areas: than five hundred species of both edible and

- 3 ­ Table 1. Commercial fruit production in Malaysia in the past five years.

I i Public/Private Growers IHectaragej frui t type:; I IOurian-dominant I I felcra (Kota Tinggi, Johor) 250 I Durian/rubber intercrop, others / Ousun Labu Valley, (Nilai, N. S.) 90 I Ourian, jackfrviI I Eden Farm (Tapah, Perak) 100 "I Our'ian I Seng Hock Farm (Bt. Selambau, Kedah) 80 Durian, mango I Felda' PKPF (Bt. Cerakah, Selangor) 120 Our ian, jackfrui t, starfrui t, I ciku, mangosteen, soursop IManoosteen - dominant 1 Perak fruit and Dev. Corp. (Sungkai) 120 MangoSteen, durian I IDokong-dominant j 8ukit Jelutung Farm (Terengganu) 60 Dokong I /Manooo . dominant" I Perlis Plantation (Chuping, Perl is) 120 Mango I Tenusu Jadi Farm (Bt. Selambau,Kedah)1 80 Mango I lAOP (Perl is) I 240 Mango I I IStarfrui t • dom; nant I I PKPS (Puchong, Selangor) I 120 Starfruit, jackfruit, soursop I . Vita Tenggara (Kota Tinggi, Johor) I 240 Starfrui t, mango, durian, soursop 1 Crystal Farm (Bidor. Perak) I 20 'Starfrui t I Felcra (Sg. 8unga) 20 Starfrui t I Bounticrest Farm (Kluang, Johor) "I 20 S"tarfrui t I Far East Holding (Maran . Pahang) I 200 Starfrui t, banana, citrus (mandarin) I I 'Citrus· dominant I I IADp· (Samarahan, Sarawak) I 200 Citrus (mandarin) I Koperas i Pemoangunan Desa (Sabah) I 60 Citrus (mandarin), passion fruit I Prudence Nursery (Segamat, Johor) I 8 Citrus' mandarin planting materials I I IGuava . dominant I I Go\d,:n Hope (Bt. Lawang, Johor) I 240 Pinkguava, calamondin I I ICiku . dominant I I Felcra (Sr iMakmul") 10 Ciku I Felcra. (Cempon) 6 Ciku I IPineaoole I PCM· (Pekan Nanas, Johor) 300 Pineapple I Lee Pineapple (59. Rengam, Johor) 2,800 Pineapple I I~ I Johor Tropical Product (JoMor) 400 Cavendish banana I United Pl antat ion cr. [ntan, Perak) 100 Berangan banana I I I IPacava . dominant I I Agromaju (Bandar Tenggara, Johor) 160 Pap",ya, starfrui t, ci trus (mandar in) I I EPA (Ulu Tiram, Johor) I 80 Banana and papaya I

-4­ Jan Feb Mar· Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Durian

Mangosteen

Cempedak

Rambutan

Pamela

Duku .Iangsat

Duku

Langsat

Mango

Citrus

Figure 1. Fruit seuons in Malaysia. inedible ones, including related wild fruit species. From the commercial point of view, Malaysian Of these, it is estimated about one .hundred and fruits can be further categorised into three groups fifty species are either cultivated or whose fruits based essentially on the number of years each are harvested from the wild for consumption and group. takes to bear. The group with a long other uses. juvenile period takes between six to twelve years, Like rubber, oil palm and cocoa, the fruit the intermediate between two to five years, and industries in Southeast Asia have also benefited the short less than two years. Many non-seasonal from the efforts of early settlers and traders. Many fruits such as papaya, banana and melons have important fruit types were introduced from other short juvenile periods, in contrast to seasonal tropical regions. For example, pineapple and fruits which usually have intermediate to long papaya industries started with the introduction of juvenile periods, for example, mangosteen and these species from Central America. Guava, ciku dokong. and soursop were introduced from South America, In the strict sense, many non-seasonal fruits do jackfruit from India, while watermelon was from not actually produce continuously throughout the South Africa. In fact, due to the multitude of agro­ year but exhibit one or several peak bearing ecologies and socio-economic influences, even the periods. For example, guava, ciku and starfruit are introduced fruit species, such·as guava and papaya, known to have two to three ·bearing periods in a have accumulated considerable diversity locally year. For seasonal fruits,· some of them exhibit (Singh, 1993). . biennial bearing such as duku langsat. The fruits cultivated in Malaysia can generally In Peninsular Malaysia, the main seasons of be grouped into two broad categories, namely: many fruits are observed to occur in the mid-year or few months thereafter. Durian, rambutan and Non-Seasonal Fruits: banana, ciku, citrus, mailgosteen often fruit about the same time, and guava, honeydews, jackfruit, papaya, the main seasons normally overlap in the months pineapple, starfruit, soursop, watermelon; of June through August (Figure 1). Seasonal fruits Seasonal Fruits: cempedak, dokong, duku, usually produce heavily in the main season, but duku langsat, durian, mango, mangosteen, some may also produce in minor seasons rambutan. depending on the agro-ecological environments

- 5 - where they are grown. As an example, the period wafers and flavouring powder in ice creams, jams in which durians are available gets extended and others. . because the fruit season in the West Coast is The total area planted with durian is about normally followed about a month later by the fruit 50,000 hectares with production of more than season in the East Coast. 250,000 tons. There are nearly two hundred clones Virtually all the tropical fruit crops can be available in the country, but only a small number propagated vegetatively, but to a large extent of them are utilized by the growers. At present, many growers still propagate from seeds, except the popular clones being planted include 024, for some which are seed propagated fruit species 099, 0123, 0145, D158, 0159, 0169, MOUR 78, such as papaya and melons. Ookong, duku, duku MOUR 79, and MOUR 88. langsat and mangosteen are known for their apomictic behaviour, including polyembryony. Starfruit (Ave"hoa carambo/a) Even though they can be clonally propagated, they The stadruit is named as such because a cross­ are invariably raised from seeds to avoid the section of the fruit looks like a star. The fruit is problem arising from rootstock-scion incompati­ native to Malaysia and Indonesia, and has spread bility, particularly for mangosteen. Ourian and to India, Philippines and other countries in stadruit are examples of cross-pollinated fruits, Southeast Asia. Starfruit, or carambo/a, is an and therefore require suitable pollenizer cultivars attractive small tree which produces fleshy five­ to enhance fruit quality and production. And as angled fruits having a sweet to sour taste, and are for soursop, assisted pollination has been found to eaten fresh or used in salad,. for drink, jellies and be required to improve the presently poor fruit preseIVes. The total area under stadruit is about yield and quality. 450 hectares with two popular cultivars, namely BI0 and B17 with their pollenizer clones, B2 and Brief Descriptions of BU. Some Important Tropical Fruits Growing stadruit can be profitable but labour Pineapple (Ananas comosus) intensive. Apart from the local market, starfruit Pineapple is now widely distributed in the has also found ~ growing and lucrative markets in tropics and sub-tropics. The succulent fruit is a Hong Kong and Europe. There is· also an popular dessert, and it is also canned as slices, emerging market in Canada. i cubes, cocktails or juice. Notable producing I countries are the Philippines, Thailand, Hawaii, Papaya (Carica papaya) Ivory Coast, Kenya, South Africa, Malaysia, . Papaya has .long been popular not only in the Taiwan, Vietnam and Australia. In Malaysia, tropical countries but also in the other parts of the 11,500 hectares are grown, concentrated on the world. Its fruit is eaten fresh, and is excellent in peat areas of West Johor. The major cultivars taste and nutritive value. Papaya is also processed grown are Gandul (in estates) and Masmerah (in into preseIVed foodstuff such as juice, nectar, smallholdings), and are grown mainly for canning puree and others. Locally, the type of fruits in in making slices and cubes. The best eating and demand is the one with orange to red flesh, sWeet the most popular fresh cultivar is the Nanas Moris and juicy. There are many local and introduced (Mauritius). varieties of papaya in Malaysia. At present, the popular varieties include Eksotika, Eksotika II, Durian (Durio zibethinus) Batu Arang and Subang 6. Before the incidence of Ourian, also known as the "King of Fruits", is papaya ringspot virus more than two years ago, the one of the best known fruits in Asia and is a area planted with Eksotika was estimated at more gourmet's delicacy. The fruit, weighing from one than 600 hectares. to five kg with large .thorns on the skin, has a delicious, creamy pulp inside. It is also known for Watermelon (Citrullus vulgaris) its strong and pungent odour which can be Cultivation of watermelon in this country has offensive and nauseating to some people. It is increased substantially in the last ten years. widely cultivated and is the most popular fruit in Watermelon is consumed fresh, in form of juice or Southeast Asia. In Malaysia, durian is one of the salad, is popular among the Malaysians; and has· fruits with the highest export value. Besides good export potential. Propagation is through the consumed as fresh fruit, the durian· is 111so use of imported commercial seed varieties, and .. processed into products such as cakes, candies, the popular varieties grown include Seedless

- 6­ variety, Fenghsan No.1, Flower Dragon, New There are about 2,000 hect~res of jackfruit in Dragon, New Sugar Baby and Yellow Baby. Malaysia, and the two popular cultivars are NS I andJ29.. Rambutan (Nephe/ium /appaceum) The rambutan tree is native to Malaysia and Lansium domesticum Indonesia. It is cultivated for its tasty fruit. The The Lansium species are cultivated as a oval fruit is about the size of a hen's egg and has garden crop in Southeast Asia, and is almost bright red to yellow colour. It is presently grown in unknown outside the region. They are native of many countries in the Southeast Asian region, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand and Indonesia. especially Thailand, which has become the leading The fruits are mostly locally consumed and do not producer of the fruit. store for long after harvest. Most of the rambutan grown in the country is It is estimated that there were about 8,000 consumed fresh, and canned in syrup. The total hectares of duku, langsat, duku langsat and area under rambutan is estimated to be more than dokong. It is one of the slowest growing trees, and 20,000 hectares. There are more than .180 may need seven to ten years before the trees reach rambutan clones, but the ones released for general bearing stage. There are no recommended clones, planting include R3, R134, R156, RI60,. R161, but selected trees are normally propagated R162, and R170. through seeds or grafted plants; they are apomictic. Mangga (Mangifera indica) Mango is one of the popular fruits in the Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana) tropics and sub-tropics, and has an aromatic Mangosteen is one of the most delicious flavour and taste. The fruit is eaten fresh or tropical fruits, and is named "Queen of Fruits." processed into juice and various products such as The fruits are consumed fresh, but the edible pickles, jams, jellies, vinegar and dried fruits. portion can also be c.anned and processed. Growing mango in the suitable agro­ Mangosteen is grown in most part of Southeast ecological zones is an important pre- requisite for Asia, but often as a minor component in mixed good production because fruit setting is a problem. .crop planting. The trees require fairly high rainfall, Mango is suited in the area where there is a humidity and well-drained soil. distinct dry period, usually in the north. Initially, Being apomictic, mangosteen can be most of the introduced cultivars were from India, propagated from seeds without producing variable .but later cultivars from Indonesia, Thailand and fruit characteristics, and the practice of the others were brought in. Current mango clones growers are to raise mangosteen from seeds. Only available include MA128 (Harumanis), MA162 large seeds are used for producing good seedlings. (Golek), MAI65 (MAHA 65), Nam Dok Mai, The leaves are easily scorched under full sunlight. Masmuda and Chokanan. Mangosteen has a long juvenile period, and the trees begin to bear fruits six to eight years Cempedak (Artocarpus integer) after planting. The planted area in Malaysia is The cempedak is an evergreen· tree which abO\lt 3,000 hectares, and there is as yet no produces seasonal fruits. The ripe fruit is sweet, . recommended clone. has a pleasant (or pungent) smell, and the flesh is waxy and golden yellow in colour. It has .Processing varieties , voluminous seeds and the pulp is eaten fresh, fried The Beaumont variety has been recently or processed into products. There are about 8,000 introduced as a juicing guava variety from Hawaii, hectares of cempedak in Malaysia. Several good besides other selections, such as GU5. For clones include CH27, CH28, CH29, and CH30. soursop, there are few selections that have been recommended for planting, namely OBI, DB2 and Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) DB3. Passion fruit seeds are normally imported The jackfruit is a fast growing latex producing from Taiwan. tree which produces fruit all year round. An average tree can yield between 30 to 250 fruits per Toward More Commercial Production: year, and each fruit is big, weighing between 9 to Breeding and Commercial Cultivars 32 kg. The fruits are eaten fresh when ripe, and Inconsistencies in fruit quality and lack of the immature fruits can also be used for cooking. good, dependable varieties have often been

-7- Table 2. Some suitable cultivars of Malaysian fruits.

Fruit type Some suitable varieties Potential varieties

Banana Berangan Local lntan, Novoria Cavendish Mantel, Williams Cempedak CH28, CH30 Ciku· Jantung, Subang CM 20 Citrus Langkat Terengganu Pomelo C41 KK 2 Duku Langsat Local J 35 Dokong Dokong Kering Durian o 24, MDUR 78, MDUR 79, MDUR 88, 0 99* Guava Fresh Kampuchea JP 2 Process Beaumont GU 5 Jackfruit NSl Isi Merah Mango Nam Dok Mai 4 Masmuda, Chokanan Mangosteen Local Seedless Melon Watermelon Nefti Dragon, IS Shen Shan (seedless) Muskmelon Jade Dew, Sky Rocket Papaya Fresh Eksotika, Eksotika II Process Subang Pineapple Process Gandul Selection A20-3 Fresh Sarawak, Mauritius M 36, Selection A54-47 Rambutan RIJ4, R156 IAnak Sekolah Soursop** Process DB1 Starfruit IB11*· I * Pollenizer varieties ** Requires assisted pollination· quoted to· be the major set-back in the results of their initial efforts. development on ~mmercial !lC8le of some fruits, A program to promote the fruit industry is particularly those that are seasonal or biennial and often confronted with the question of which fruit have long juvenile periods. Breeding for tropical crops to grow and what cultivars to be planted·to fruits usually does not have a high priority. For meet the market specifications - whether for fresh one thing it requires a long-term research export or for processing. In Malaysia, genetic commitment and the benefits will only accrue in improvements of many fruits have been made the distant future. Due to long juvenile periods, through selectfon from farmers' plantings after the time for breeding work will necessarily take a several seasons of evaluation. Since 1934, the long time to accomplish. It is, therefore, not Department of Agriculture has been keeping a unusual that breeders seldom remain to see the register on pr9mising fruit clones .pf cempedak,

- 8­ Table 3. Mean annual yield (t/ha) for fruit crops in three countries (1986-87).

Peninsular T.hailand The Ma 1 a y.s;.i a Philippines

Banana 8. J J. 1 11. 5 Pineapple 12.6 - 32.8 Papaya 22.5 - 14.7 citrus 5.0 9.1 5.3 Mango 3.5 2.2 5.8 Durian 6.2 5.6 13.5 Langsat 9. J 4.6 2.5 Rambutan 2.9 6.9 - Mangosteen 12.9 5.2 1.8 Jackfruit 8.7 10.5 5.2 Cempedak 10.9 12.1 -

Guava I 23.8 3.1 - ciku 15.0 - 3.9 Sugarapple - 4.0 3.2

ciku, durian, guava, jackfruit, mango, rambutan obtained from D24 x D 10 crosses which were first and stadruit. Needless to say, the selection was planted in 1969. A year after the release of these not confined only. to local materials, but also two clones, MAlU)I released another hybrid clone included introduced materials. Since then many called MDUR 88, also selected from progenies of selected ones have become standard local clones the cross D24 x D10. The pedormance and quality now, and have been released to the growers. Table of these three hybrid clones are comparable or . 2 lists the suitable and potential clones that have better than the standard clone D24. However, the been selected or bred locally for m;lny of the fruit new hybrids are found to be tolerant to canker . crops. disease caused by Phytopthora These three clones For fruits with good export potential such as have so far been very well received and over stadruit and papaya, suitable cultivars are already 100,000 grafted plants have been sold to the . )available. The most suitable cultivar of starfruit for growers. export is B10. Since its early years, MARDI has been MARDI has. bred and released several new involved with hybridization and selection of varieties of fruits which have been cultivated on pineapple, papaya and durian. For stadruit and commercial scales,namely papaya; durian and ciku, hybridization has recently been initiated. pineapple. For papaya, the EkSotika variety Selection work is in progress for rambutan and released in 1987 was a tremendous success, and· guava. Not too .. long similar effor-ts will be boosted papaya export. Eksotika was developed· . undertaken for other fruit types. through backcrosses of local cultivar Subang 6 with Having made the choice as to what fruit types the Hawaiian Sunrise Solo. In 1991, MARDI to work on, the next step is to clearly define the -released an improved papaya hybrid developed breeding objectives. In general, there is a strong from crossing Line 19 with· Eksotika. The new . . emphasis now to develop cultivars for processing hybrid, Eksotika II, has better yield and fruit and for added value products. In addition to these, cosmetics and also keeps better than its certain breeding objectives remain universal, for predecessor.· example high and consistent yields, and good For durians, the first hybrid- clones were quality characteristics are of great importance. released in 1991, that is about. twenty years after Table 3 shows the yields of a number of fruit types initial crossing. Named MDUR 78 and MDUR 79, in Malaysia compare with those of Thailand and these clones were selected from hybrid progenies the Philippines (PROSEA, 1992).

- 9 ­ Production Systems Long Juvenile Periods The present production systems for fruit Papaya, banana and melons are examples of cultivation, which are still considered inefficient fruits with short juvenile periods. As a matter of and labour intensive, need improvement. Some fact, the growers treat them as 'cash crops' that evident areas which are presently pushing up can make a quick profit. On the other hand, the production costs are in fruit bagging (e.g., starfruit, fruit types that are seasonal with too long of guava, mango, cempedak) and in harvesting (e.g., juvenile periods will not be preferred by the mangosteen). intermediate growers, unless there is a strong Increasing production through efficient market for good payback such as durian and pollination is also another area that poses a huge dokong. . challenge to large scale orchards. On smaller, In fact, mangosteen, dokong, and duku langsat intensive scales, increased yield and quality of have long juvenile periods of between six to ten certain fruits such as durian and soursop using years, which therefore. effectively discourage hand pollination may be feasible but this may entrepreneurs from investing. An area which holds become impractical in large commercial farms. promise for shortening the juvenility is the use of Other methods using suitable pollinators, and advanced planting materials (APM). pollen sprays for pollination have to be developed under such circumstances. Nursery Propagation and Techniques There is good potential for higher density Much efforts have been spent on research on planting for mango, ciku, soursop, starfruit and propagation techniques for tropical fruits. others when the proper methods of training and Grafting techniques using bud, or cleft have been pruning are practiced. developed for almost all the popularly cultivated perennials. The technology for nursery techniques Pest and Disease Management and propagation is complete for many fruit types. Pests and diseases are often limiting factors Therefore, there should be effort to encourage the affecting fruit growth and production, especially establishment cpf more nurseries to produce when fruits are planted on large scale where quality planting materials to support the growth of inoculum and pest levels can increase rapidly to large scale commercial farms in future. . epidemic proportion. Orchards are under constant threat from debilitating diseases. The recent Diversity of Tropical Fruits . outbreak of papaya ringspot virus disease has Southeast Asia region, with a multitude of caused great concern regarding the future of the climatic conditions and agro-ecologies, is one of papaya industry in the country. Virus diseases on the most important centres of diversity for tropical . passion fruit have also virtually .ruled .out its fruits. The rich diversity of plant life in the tropical commercial potential in the fruit industry. Other· rainforests of the region is a well known fact. diseases that may threaten and curb large scale Endowed with a conducive climate, the region is cultivation 'are greening disease of citrus, Sigatoka reported to have about 25,000 indigenous species and fusarium wilt in banana and bacterial canker of flowering plants. More than five hundred of jackfruit. species of fruits are estimated to be found in the For pests of fruits, the major one which region. A wealth of these. indigenous genetic threatens the industry is fruit fly, which has done resources still remain in the forests, and only a immeasurable damage to soft-skinned fruits like fraction of them are actually grown in cultivation starfruit, ciku, guava and many others. For and utilized. In \general, many tropical fruits are production of clean, good cosmetic fruits, growers under-exploited and remain far behind the are forced to bag fruits to keep out infestation and temperate fruits in terms of their exploitation. this has pushed up production costs. For control of To date, the development of cultivars .has fruit fly, MARDI and ACIAR have recently coine generally tapped on the existing variability in the out with a new formulation for the' protein bait cultivated species, and very few through deliberate called PROMAR. This is produced from autolysed breeding programmes. yeast available as an industrial by-product. This The region produces the major tropical fruits attractant, laced with insecticides, is spot applied namely banana, mango, and pineapple as well as on trees at weekly intervals for effective fruit fly some exotic fruits such as durian and rambutan. control. It is safe on other beneficial organisms During 1986-88 period, the region produced most and also environment-friendly. of the minor tropical fruits in world market,

- 10- accounting for more than 68%. M~or fruits: And Malaysia is unrivalled in terms of its great banana, starfruit, mango, durian, jackfruit, diversity of fruit genetic resources and is rambutan, citrus, duku langsat, dokong, renowned as one of the major centres of origin of cempedak, mangosteen; the cultivated fruit plants. Many of the important cultivated fruit species have their wild relatives Minor fruits: which are found in the rainforests, particularly the sukun, kuini, salak*, jambu air+, tarap, large genera such as Durio (durian), Garcinia bambangan, rambai, duku (lohor), langsat, (mangosteen), Nephelium (rambutan, pulasan), bacang, binjai; Artocarpus (cempedak, tarap), Baccaurea (rambai), Citrus (lime, pomelo), Syzgium (water Rare fruits: apple), Mangifera (binjai, bambangan), Musa pulasan, isau, dabai, sentul"', bidara"', (banana), Salacca (salak) and others. To evaluate kedondong"', lontar, kabong, buah Melaka, the species richness, Saw et a!. (1991) made an lanjut, cermai, rokam, jambu bol, jambu inventory of 50 hectares of primary lowland rain mawar, perah, engkabang. forest in Peninsular Malaysia, in which about 340,000 trees 1 cm diameter or larger were (* Popular in Indonesia, measured and identified to species. Out of a total + Popular in Taiwan, plot tree flora of 820 species, seventy-six species '" In Thailand). are known to bear edible fruit. Especially diverse were the wild species of mango (twelve species), Collections and Conservation of Fruit Diversity mangosteen (thirteen species), breadfruit (ten The indigenous plant genetic resources has species) and rambutan (five species). Even though dwindled as a result of the development by way of there may be more than two hundred fruit species logging and conversion of forest land to in the forests in Peninsular Malaysia, only a agriculture or other uses such as mining, handful of them, about one hundred species, are construction of dams and urban development. edible and significant (Hashim, 1987; Lemmens et Ever since the establishment of various al., 1989). government bodies, many collection trips have been carried out from time to time. Some of them M~or, Minor and Rare Fruits· have done this as part of· their conservation or The terms "major fruits", "minor fruits" and plant breeding programmes. Although many plant "rare fruits" are relative in their meanings. In the species may have been lost forever, many have international fruit markets, the tropical fruits are been collected and maintained by the various considered minor and exotic compared to the research bodies in the country. temperate fruits, except for a few of them. The living collections of fruit genetic resources Durians, for example, are the major and the most held by different institutions and agricultural parks popular fruits in Malaysia and Thailand, and a are indicated in Table 4, either in-situ or ex-situ or number of other countries in Southeast Asia, but both. Overall, these in·stitutions taken together the fruits are still unheard of in many parts of the now have more I than one hundred a·nd fifty world. In Indonesia, salak has already. been species, with over 4,700 accessions ex-situ. The planted very widely, but it is still rare to see the various institutions that provide for in-situ fruits in this country. Similarly, tarap in Sabah and conservation ··areas include Forest Research dabai in Sarawak are popular but only locally. In Institute of· Malaysia (fRIM), Forest Research our context, the major and minor fruits are Centre· (FRC), Sabah· and . Department of dermed as those that are planted with production Agriculture (DOA), Sabah. In MARDI, the in mind, but differing in their relative abundance, accessions are ,basically working germplasms that while the rare fruits are usually not deliberately are being handled by many breeders. planted and may only be found in the jungles and The genetic diversity of fruit genetic resources the rainforests, and none or very little of them find in Malaysia has already been well documented, their way into the market places. The rare fruits· particularly by Corner (1988), Whitmore (1972; also include those that have become negligible or 1973), Ng (1978; 1989; 1990) and PROSEA ignored over time. (1992). The genetic diversity of the lesser-known Generally, the indigenous fruits can be fruit species in Sabah, Sarawak and Brunei categorized as follows: Darussalam has also been well documented by

- 11 ~ Table 4. Living collections of fruit genetic resources held by dilTerent institutions in Malaysia. '

INSTITUTIONS LOCATIONS NUMB~R NUMBER OF OP ACCESSIONS SPECIES

DOA, P. Malaysia Serdang 54 1000 Taman Pertanian, Bkt Cahaya Sen A/am Taman Pertanian, Indera Mahkota Ulu Paka

DOA, Sabah Kundasanif 95 418 Tenom Ulu Ousun (also in-situ) DOA, Sarawak Semongok 38 310 Taman Pertanian, Sg •. Sebiew Tarat FRe, Sabah Sepilok (in-situ) 14 133

FRIM Pasoh (in-situ) 54 200 Kepong MARDI BktTangga 100 22303 Cameron Highlands% Jeram Pasu Jerangau Kemaman K. Kangsar Kluang Pontian Serdang UPM Serdang 36 239 UM Kuala Lumpur 71 207 TOTAL 154 4737

1 Estimated figures; Wan Razafi et al. (1993), Saw et al. (1991). 2 Sub-tropical and temperate fruit collections. 3 Not including accessions obtained through MAROI-IBPGR coll~ion in 1984/85.

- 12 ­ .Lamb (1993), Wong (1993), Voon et al. (1992) and However, there is an increasing interest in Serudin (1993). planting of heretofore lesser important fruit types in specific parts of the country. These include Fruit Arboreta jambu, air, sukun and dokong (Lansium More recently, there has been a strong surge domesticum) in Peninsular Malaysia, salak of interest in the pursuit of agro-tourism, leading .(Sa/acca edu/is) in Terengganu, tarap (Artocarpus to establishment of a number of agricultural parks. odoratissmus) in Sabah, and isau (Dimocarpus A number of parks have also established fruit longan) and dabai (Canarium odontophyllum) in arboreta of some sort, ranging from a simple to Sarawak. With few exceptions, information on well-planned ones. Presently, there are few fruit many of these lesser important fruit types are "arboreta" that have been established for more scanty. than twenty years. Fruit arboreta are now found Most of the indigenous fruit species have been in: assessed mainly from the timber-producing FRIM, Kepong, Selangor; perspective, and their other uses particularly for Agriculture Park, Bukit Seri Cahaya, Shah breeding and improvement are still negligible Alam, Selangor; (Hashim, 1987). These species can either be, Agriculture Park, Sg. Sebiew, Bintulu, harnessed directly or indirectly to exploit their Sarawak; potentials, namely for the following purposes: Agricultural Research Centre, Tenom, Sabah; Direct utilization Agricultural Research Centre, Ulu Dusun, (1) As new fruit trees. Sabah. (Table 4) (2) As multi-purpose trees.

Potential Uses of Minor and Rare Fruits Indirect utilization Many local popular fruits such as durian, (3) As rootstocks for specific purposes: rambutan, and cempedak now have selections that disease resistance; are more superior than their progenitors from the toleran~ to adverse environments; rainforests. The obscurity of the lesser-known dwarfing; indigenous fruit species is' either because they are efficient uptake of nutrient; and localized and little known outside or because availability of seeds. superior genotypes have not been found such that (4) As sources of germplasm for breeding they are rendered undesirable and therefore they and improvement: become ignored totally. Furthermore, these desirable traits, and materials are difficult to work with because of the pollenizer. undesirable characteristics such as seasonal, late and difficult to propagate. Brief Descriptions of Potential Minor and Rare It is apparent .that there is a long list of Fruits indigenous fruits but the more familiar ones Many minor and rare fruits have potential in include: their own rights, and these are briefly described . below. asam gelugur Gardnia atroviridis . bacing Mangifera foetidiJ SUkUR (Artocarpus communis) binjai. Mangifera caesia The breadfruit is well known in Polynesia of cerapu Gardnia prainiana course, but it is believed to have been introduced jambu air Syzygium aqueum there. It is a versatile crop, which is useful both as jambu bol Syzygium malaccense starchy vegetables and fruits. Two forms exist with jambu rriawar Syzygium jambos the seedless form being the more desirable ones. kelubi Salacca conferta The beautiful tree can be propagated by seed, kuini Mangifera odorata producing the breadnut (A. kemangsi), or more pulasan Nephe/ium ramboutan-ake commonly by root cuttings or suckers, producing rambai Baccaurea mot/eyana the seedless form. sentul Sandoricum koetjape sukun Artocarpus communis Tarap (Artocarpus odoratissimus) tampoi Baccaurea griffithii~ '. Outside Borneo island, tarap is not

d3- well-known, though in Philippines scattered trees K~iril (Mangifera odorata) , of tarap can be found in the Southern islands. It Like bacang, kuini is another species that also appears to be confmed to Sabah, Brunei and has a characteristic for good nutrient uptake and Sarawak with greatest diversity in the Brunei. Ripe may prove valuable to use it as rootstock to fruits are light brown, weighing one to three kg increase the efficiency of Ca uptake. The species ,and contain sixty to two hundred seeds. The stiff also has the potential to be used in processing for hairs give way to touch, but are sticky and gritty. its juice. ' The whole fruit is a fused berry with the seed attached to the central core. Each seed is covered Pulasan (Nephelium ramboutan-ake) with a sweet and juicy white pulp. The seed is The species resembles closely the rambutan edible and can be roasted or boiled. The taste of and is considered as one with very good potential. the seed is somewhat like chestnut. The white pulp Unlike rambutan, the fruits have short and stubby can be fermented to organic vinegar. spinterns. The edible part is the sarcotesta, which Tarap is a hardy plant and thrives on the is similar to rambutan and has excellent fruit poorest soils, on rocky outcrop and even on peat. quality, that is the sarcotesta is thick, crunchy, It grows rapidly and into huge tree and once juicy and sweet. A major problem is with established, the tree grows aggressively to propagating, because the success of budding is dominate the canopy with the broad huge leaves. usually very low.

Dabal (Canarium odontophyllum) Salak (Salacca edulis) Locally found in Sarawak and known as Salak, known as the snake fruit, is native to "dabai", this so-called tropical olive belongs to the Indonesia and Malaysia, and is widely cultivated in family Burseraceae, and is a relative of the pili nut Indonesia. Belonging to the palm family, it has of the Philippines or the Chinese olive. The tree male and female flowers in separate palms. Male can attain great heights up to twenty-one metres palms are required as pollenizer plants. The and is seasonal in fruiting from August to indigenous salak grown in Malaysia, is of the December. The fruit, with persistent calyx present species Salacca glabrescens. below, is dark purple and ellipsoidal with rind The few existing salak plantings are mainly enclosing the triangular stony seed. It has high fat seed lines from the Balinese bisexual types. Whilst content and is eaten after the fruit is steeped in quality is satisfactory, the amount of production is boiling water for ten to fifteen minutes. Adding not and the 'fruiting season (January and fine salt enhances the taste of the rind. The fruit February) is relatively short. ' 'normally has a short shelf-life, often becQming soft and wrinkle at ~mbient temperatures after three Jambu air (Syzygium aqeum) days. The wax apple belongs to the Myrtaceae family, which comprises about 1,000 species, the Isau (Dimocarpus longan spp. malesianus) most famous being the clove tree. The fruits, bell­ Belonging to the Sapindaceae family, this shaped with a wide apex and a narrow base, are attractive species is a relative of the most eaten fresh or dipped in a mixture of salt, sugar commonly cultivated longan. Having similar and chili. It is very popular in Taiwan, and there sweetness and nearly as thick aril, the fruit can be are also now superior varieties being planted in distinguished from longan by its warty skin. The ' Thailand, Indonesia, Philippines and Malaysia. species is reported to 'have between thirty to forty , different forms, ,and this gives a remarkable' Bidara (Zizyphus mauritiana) opportunity 'for making selection. In Sarawak, The plant is planted quite a bit in Taiwan and three major forms are found, namely the "isau," Thailand. A number of sweeter and more crunchy "kakus" and "sau." Among these three forms, the ,varieties ,are now seen in the markets. Some "isau" has the thickest aril and sweeter, but commercial plantings are already taking place in remain green when ripe, and the fruit bunch not 'Malaysia. ~Besides eating fresh, the fruits can also compact. The "kakus" is widespread in Sarawak, be turned into pickles. while the other two forms are mainly confmed along Rajang river and the valleys of the Bario Future Scenario of the Fruit Industry Highlands. The small and inefficient economy of scale of , present holdings or "dusuns" is hardly the answer

- 14­ to acceleration of the fruit industry. Rather, to become another important remunerative crop commercial orchards which are more efficient in in the Malaysian agriculture. utilization of resources, will be- seen as the backbone of the industry in future. -There are Acknowledgements noticeable changes from the traditional "dusun" The author wishes to express his gratitude to style of fruit cultivation consisting of mixed fruits Ministry of Agriculture and MARDI for granting of small acreages to -profit-oriented, commercial permission to attend and present this paper in the scale farms of monocrops. More private agencies, Fourth Annual International Conference on previously involved with only plantation crops Tropical Fruit on September 29 - October 2, 1994, have also stepped in to cultivate fruits. Thus, in in Hawaii, and to thank Hawaii Tropical Fruit formulating the overall fruit - development Growers for their financial support. Thanks are program, one of the strategies is to encourage also due to Prof. Othman Yaacob, Ms. Zabedah large scale commercial cultivation of selected Mahmod and Mr. Roslee Painudee for their fruits. valuable contribution, and Ms. Maznah for her However, making profits out of growing fruits help in preparing this paper. is not as easy as it may sound. In fact, there is already growing frustration faced by several References commercial growers who are cultivating fruits but Comer, E. J. H. (1988). Wayside Trees- of Malaya so far have not made profits. Amidst the rapid (in two volumes). Malaysian Nature Society, progress of the fruit industry, is the need to have Kuala Lumpur. 774 p. strong and sustained research and development Hashim, M. N. (1987). Wild fruit tree species. support. Prosid. Simposium Buah-buahan Kebangsaan, 8-9 April, 1986, Serdang. pp. 154-169. - _ Fruit Research Lamb, A. (1993). The policy, strategies and The overall objective of the fruit research is to programme& of the Sabah Department of develop appropriate technologies for. increasing Agriculture for fruit production in the state. In the productivity and quality of local fruits, Ke Arah Industri Buah-Buahan Berdaya Maju. enabling them to meet domestic and export Prosid. Simposium Buah-Buahan Kebangsaan demand as well as increasing the income of the Ketiga, - 24-26 September, 1991, Genting producers. In future, more emphasis will be given Highlands. pp. 181-187. to fruit types for processing and other Lemmens, R. H. M. J., Jansen, P. C. M., downstreaming activities. Siemonsma, J. S. and Stavast, F. M. (1989). In the past, MARDI. identified and gave Plant Resources of Southeast Asia - Basic list priority to 16 fruit types for research. These will of species and commodity grouping - version 1 now be reduced to about half the number to PROSEA Project. Wageningen, Netherlands. ensure more intensified research. At the same Ministry of Agriculture, 1989. The Malaysian Fruit. time, a large scale field research is also conducted Industry Directory 1989/90. Koperasi to test appropriate technology package for Kakitangan Kementerian Pertanian Malaysia commercial production, processing and marketing Bhd.246p. of selected fruits. Mohd. Yusof Hashim, Saharan Anang dan Mohamad Osman, 1991. Production research Conclusion- strategies for the development of fruit It is obvious that markets, both domestic and industry. Paper presented at the National Fruit overseas, possess great potential for expansion and . Symposium 1991, September 24-26, 1991, further exploitation of tropical fruits. However, Genting Highlands, Pahang Darulmakmur. the present industry is _still far from being Ng, F. S. P. (1978). Tree Flora of Malaya - Volume sufficiently poised to tap this potential fully, given Three. Longman. 339 p. the current constraints. At present, pineapple, Ng, F: S. P. (1989). Tree Flora of Malaya - Volume durian, starfruit, papaya, watermelon and banana Four. Longman. 547 p. are the main fruit types in the industry, many of Ng, F. S. P., Low, C. M. and Mat Asri (1990). them being non-seasonal. If tropical frliits are Endemic trees of the Malay Peninsula. FRIM given the push through concerted efforts, and Research Pamphlet 106:118. -given more emphasis on processing and PROSEA (1991). Plant resources of South-East downstreaming activities, they can be positioned Asia: Edible fruits and nuts (E. W. M. Verheij

- 15 ­ and R. E. Coronel, editors). 446 p. Bangkok. pp. 1-26. Sahadevan, N. (1992). The Exotic Fruits Of Voon, B. H., Chin, T. H., Sim, C. Y. and Sabariah, Malaysia. Asian Pacific Panorama Vol. 2. P. (1992). Wild Fruits And Vegetables in Sahadevan Publ., Seremban. 239 p. Sarawak. Dept. of Agriculture, Sarawak. 114 p. Saw, L. G. and Raja Barizan, R. S. (1991). Wan Razali,- W. M., Abd. Razak, O. and Chua, S: Directory Of Plant Genetic Resources In L. (1993). Tanaman Buah-Buahan di Kawasan Malaysia. Research PampWet No. 109. Perhutanan. In Ke Arah Industri Buah­ Malaysian National Committee On Plant Buahan Berdaya Maju. Prosid. Simposium Genetic Resources, (FRIM), Kuala Lumpur. Buah-Buahan Kebangsaan Ketiga, 24-26 Serudin, D. S. T. (1993). Fruits of Brunei September, 1991, Genting HigWands. pp. 88­ Darussalam. In Ke Arah Industri Buah­ 95. Buahan Berdaya Maju. Prosid. Simposium Whitmore, T. C. (1972). Tree Flora of Malaya ­ Buah-Buahan Kebangsaan Ketiga, 24-26 Volume One. Longman. 471 p. Whitmore, T. September, 1991, Genting HigWands. pp. 158­ C. (1973). Tree Flora of Malaya - 'Volume 165. Two. Longman. 443 p. Singh, R. B. (1993). Fruit production in the Asia­ Wong, W. W. (1993). Clonal fruit collection in . Pacific region. In: Research and Development Sabah. In Ke Arah Industri Buah-Buahan of Fruits in the Asia-Pacific Region. (Ed. Berdaya Maju. Prosid. Simposium Buah­ Singh, R. B.). RAPA Pub. 1993/94. Regional Buahan Kebangsaan Ketiga, 24-26 September, Office for Asia and the Pacific/FAO, 1991, Genting HigWands. pp. 298-303.

- 16 ~ Global Marketing of Malaysian Fruits Mohamad bin Osman, Basic Research Div., MARDI, Serdang Zahari Radi, Techno-Economic Div., MARDI, Serdang Othman Yaacob, Faculty of Agriculture, Universiti Pertanian Malaysia

Introduction increase from 842,000 metric tons to 1,102,000 In Malaysia, as it is in some parts of Southeast tons. The major increase were led by durian, Asia, except Thailand and the Philippines, fruits cempedak, jackfruit, stadruit, papaya and are still not commercially produced in the big way " watermelon. as the oil palm, rubber, cocoa or rice. For the bulk The potential for growth of the fruit industry of it, fruit cultivation is a side-line activity can be expected in three main areas: (1) the associated with rural living. For most of the trees domestic fresh fruit demand; (2) export demand producing seasonal fruits, they are not planted by for exotic tropical fruits; and (3)" processing. the present generation, were are inherited from Papaya and stadruit are already being exported their fathers, who in tum inherited them from fresh and have good potential for further growth. their grandfathers. Fruits such as durian, watermelon, citrus, The bulk of the fruit industry is still rambutan and banana have strong domestic characterized as a small holder enterprise demand. And pineapple, passion fruit, and pink involving 180,000 hectares of widely scattered guava are already known for their processing. "holdings with mean farm size of one to two hectares. The cultivation of fruits by smallholders Local Consumption is unorganized, and the portion of the farm The consumption of local fruits per household actually planted with fruits is generally low, with is found to have increased from year to year. A majority of the cases less than 50%, and usually study conducted by FAMA estimated that the per integrated with other crops. Before the National capita consumption comprising 22 local fruit types Agriculture Policy (NAP) was launched in 1984, has increased from 23.5 kg in 1985 to 27.7 kg in there were no specific policies for the 1991 (Table 2). In the study, it was found that the development of the fruit industry. The early ad consumption by the households, institutions and hoc programmes such as the Agricultural Inputs industries increased from 538,000 tons in 1989 to and Diversification Scheme (AIDS) did not have 689,000 tons in 1992. Among the 22 fruits, durian, significant impact on the industry for more than watermelon, citrus, banana, papaya, rambutan and twenty years. pineapple have strong domestic demand. This Despite all these, the growth of the fruit upward trend is expected to continue because industry is expected to increase at a strong pace in more consumers are aware of the high nutritional the coming years. The shift from uneconomical value of the local fruits, and more fruit types and smallholders of mixed orchards to" efficient varieties becoming available in the retail markets. commercial farms will be more evident. Currently, This trend is also influenced by the" growing the fruit industry is being looked upon as "ali affluence of the population and the increase in alternative source of output growth in agriculture, standards of living, particularly in the urban aimed at creating and expanding the local and centers. export markets. In short, the fruit industry will be On the other hand, the per capita consumption" geared towards commercial" production" with of fouf types of temperate fruits (grapes, apples, greater "emphasis "on" processing and other peat and oranges) have remained at about the downstream activities of selected fruit types. same level. With slight decline from 3.98 kg in "1988 to "3.26 in 1991. Figure 1 gives the Contribution to the National Economy comparison between the per capita consumption The contribution of fruits to GDP increased "of tropical fruits versus that of temperate fruits in since 1985 from RM922 million to RM1,700 """."" the country. million in 1990, a rise from 1.7% to 2;1% (Table 1). In the same period, the fruit areas in """ Local Marketing Peninsular Malaysia climbed from 119,000 to"" In spite of the difficulties faced by the once­ 181,000 hectares," resulting in a"" production neglected industry, fruits such as durian always

- 17­ Table 1. Selected indicators of progress In the Malaysian fruit industry, 1985-1990.

1985 1990

Contribution to GNP Values 921.8 1,699.7 ($ million)

% contribution 1.7 2.1 Export Fresh fruit (mt) 116,841 209,000.0 Value ($ million) 72.3 138.7 Processed fruit value 66.4 85.3 ($ million)

Fruit hectarage 119,024 181,793.0

Source: Economic Report 1991/1992, Finance Ministry, Malaysia.

Table 2. Per capita consumption (kg/person/year) by fruit types, 1982-1991.

Fruit types 1982 1985 1988 1991

Starfruit - 0.17 0.39 0.54 Papaya 1. 69 2.06 2.45 2.23 Cempedak 0.02 0.09 0.60 0.67 Ciku 0.10 0.15 0.19 0.14 Duku langsat 0.93 0.71 0.82 0.81 Durian 4.33 4.78 4.20 4.81 Guava - - 0.43 0.59 Pomelo 0.14 0.12 0.14 0.13 Mangosteen 1. 00 0.46 0.44 0.31 Mango 1'.09 1. 25 0.45 0.88 Nangka 0.49 0.22 0.34 0.23 Pineapp1e(Mauritius) 1. 84 1. 58 1. 33 1.14 . Pineapple (Sarawak) . 0.24 0.41 0.52 0.52 Banaria.(Berangan) 0.33 . 0.38 0.65 0.48 Sanana(Mas) 1.29 . 2 .21~ 2.97 2.71 .Banana ( Embun)· 0.37 0.44·· : 0.37 0.39 Banana (Raja)· 0.27 .0.30 0.25 0.23 Banana (Rastali) 1. 20 1.08 0.95 0.71 Banana (Nangka) 0.61 . 0.66 0.62 0.63 Rambutan 1. 72 .1. 78 . 1. 79 1. 96 Mandarins 1. 33 2.J2 2.81 3.01 .Watermelon 2.13 2.30 2.77 4.54

Total 21. 20 23.53 25.55 27.74

. Source: FAMA - 18­ Kg per year 30 ;""";------...,------~

25,­

20 r­

15­ , 10 ;­ s- i

0' I 1985 1988 1991 Year

- Tropical fruits %J. Temperate fruits

Figure 1. Per capita consumption or fruits in Malaysia.

Producers I , 1<-_-.... Colleccors '~ocessors ~ Canr.ca: ?r~c!!ss~,= I I rrlJ i :::; I' I ! I ·...ho I esa Iers I :.xporcers I I I I I ! . j I ! I I j I I I Reca i lers Over seas,lolar \(e t I I i Consumers

, Figure 2. Marketing system for fresh fruits in Malaysia.

- 19­ finds ready markets. Marketing starts at the farm big ones being Hankyu Jaya, Parkson Grand and level where the fruit collectors play a very. the Cold Storage - obtain their regular supplies important role in bringing them out of the from known suppliers. At the moment, three holdings from the rural areas or deep from the suppliers - the Pita Trading, the Master Fresh and interior. The collectors in turn sell to the the Crystal Fruit - supply fresh fruits to wholesalers from whom retailers obtain their supermarket chains in major cities in the country. supplies. The retailers bring them to various These suppliers are responsible for gathering fresh marketing outlets (Figure 7). In a survey fruits from all over the country. Few growers conducted by MARDI and UPM, about 55.4% of become contractors for these supplies. These are, the farmers were reported selling to collectors, therefore, new opportunities for growers to with 31.9% of them selling directly to consumers produce good quality fruits for local markets. while 4.7% contracted or leased out their holdings and orchards. Taking the system as a whole, the International Fruit Trade wholesalers together with the collectors play a Malaysia is probably close to becoming a net dominant role in the marketing system of fruits. It exporter of fruits. In 1992, total exports of fruits, is not uncommon for. the collectors and both fresh and processed) were valued at RM255.4 wholesalers to perform more than one role in the million while the total fruit imports were valued at marketing of fruits such as the collector-cum­ RM234.0 million (Tables 3 and 4). The main fruits retailer or collector-cum-wholesaler or wholesaler­ exported were pineapple (32.8%), durian (22.2%), cum-retailer. The wholesaler's role is particularly starfruit (9.6%), papaya (9.6%), watermelon critical in the inter-state movement of fruits. At (9.1%) and banana (5.4%), and together these the retail level, the traditional retailers such as fruits contributed 89% of the total fruit export those having stores in markets dominate the value. marketing of fruits. In 1992, Malaysia imported 145,000 metric The Kuala Lumpur/Petaling Jaya center is the tons of temperate fruits (fresh and processed) into largest market center for fruits in Peninsular the country. These imports were dominated by Malaysia. In all, over 6,800 tons of local fruits are oranges (including mandarins) which amounted to handled monthly. From the wholesale market, 35.6%, and apples which constituted 23.7% of fruits are distributed daily to major retail markets total import vallle; Others included grapes (9.7%), in Kuala Lumpur, Petaling Jaya, Shah Alam and pears (9.5%), dates, dried grapes and plum. Most Klang - the affluent Klang Valley - as well as to of the fruits were from the United States of other states. Other urban ceo.ters for fruit America (USA) and Australia, which together distribution are Penang, with about 1,000 tons .per accounted for over 60% of all temperate fruits day, Ipoh handling over 30 tons per day, and Johor imported into Malaysia. Bahru with over 10 tons per day. During the peak Besides temperate fruits, the country also seasons, seasonal fruits such as durian and imports tropical fruits. The main tropical fruits rambutan are also channelled through these imported into Malaysia' were durians, and centers. mangoes, mainly from Thailand, with imports Recent trend shows that more growers' are valued at RMI6.4 million in 1992. now able to sell directly to consumers or through .local traders at roadside stalls near the production Export of Fresh Fruit areas. Competition at the retail level is keen as .,Malaysia has shown an increasing trend in: the there is a trend towards wider spread of retailing exports of fresh fruits in recent years (Table 5). In through night .markets and supermarkets. " , 1982, the total export value was RM28.1 million Farmers's. markets or pasar tani are a recent and this climbed to RM151.1 million in 1992. The . development in urban areas and serve as breakdown .on the fresh fruits exported were important direct outlets. durian (31%), watermelon (20.3%), papaya Another recent feature in the local marketing (16.4%), starfruit (16.2%), banana (6.2%) and scenario is the willingness of large supermarkets to pineapple (2.1%) (Table 6).. sell them in' their outlets when the fruits are in . Fruits . registering significant increase in season. The proper displays on the supermarket exports in receot years included starfruit, papaya shelves, with of course appropriate price tags," .and watermelon. Mangosteen has also came up appeal to foreign visitors as well as the well-to-do ,' ,strong in the export value, increasing from less urban populace. Supermarket chains - the three"

- 20­ Table 3. Import of fresh fruits to Malaysia, 1980-1992.

Year Quantity Value (m. t. ) I (RM'OOO) 1980 58,773 85,175 1981 68,156 112,251 1982 64,039 117,735 1983 83,624 146,000 1984 .84,036 165,529 1985 83,428 168,725 1986 76,168 159,039 1987 90,582 165,190 1988 84,295 160,973 1989 84,750 165,644 1990 110,727 204,200 1991 80,245 164,593 1992 126,877 192,406

Source: External Trade Statistics, Malaysia

Table 4. Import of processed fruits to MalaYsia, 1980-1992.

Year Value (c.Lf. RM)

1982 57,093,000 1983 58,776,000· 1984 52,198,000 1985 45,352,000 1986 38,136,000 1987 33,361,000 1988 32,994,490, 1989 35,727,100 1990 33,267,400 1991 36,730,000 1992 41,q26,200

Source: External Trade Statistics, Malaysia

Table S. Export offresh frvits from Malaysia, 1981-1992. \ Year Quantity Value (m. t.) I (RM'OOO) 1981 I 77,320 26,391 1982 105,900 I 28,054 1983 I 77,600 3 1,318 I 1984 , 95,464 33,329 1985 112,598 70,069 I 1986 109,240 58,884 1987 141,587 79,163 I 1988 157,762 83,489 1989 192,590 126,718 1990 203,108 149,228 1991 173,303 139,829 1992 185,386 151,l~7

Source Extsrna.l Trade Sta~i5~ics, Malaysia

- 21­ . Table 6. Exports of fresh fruits from Malaysia, 1988-1992.

1988 ) iQ89 :990 '991 ~992· Percent __ oJ ons ~M· aGG j·;ns RM·OCO 70ns RM .4."~ ions ~M' 'JOO Tons ~M·OOO (~;)

Ourian 19,389 3i.f·~a3 36,;70 :'2, Y25 27,330 :'5,::23 3':', ;03 3~,;81 26,e76 1.:',589 3i.J

< •• loIatermelon 25,116 9, 12~ 36,124 15,3':'7 52.316 ,c: :'6, 1~8 22,361 !)I.,580 29,264 20.3 I -- .... ­ , Papaya 23,736 12,J57 23,217 18,002 3 i. ~.:..~ 21,::3 22,772 23,~!.8 23,225 23,630 io .. i..

Starfruit 6, li8 14,;I£.9 ! ~ , ~65 20,6i3 li,32£. 22,-~; 7,901 23,918 11,056 23,372 16.2

6anana 28,:'89 7,233 2:,£.07 7,5..9 33,732 i2, :::. 22,622 13,301 20,701 3,978 6.2

Pineapple 13,227 2,038 :3,:'1.6 2,939 23,341 . 3, ::3 18,370 2,903 19,039 3,OB6 '_. .I

Others· 7,212 c:.,377 22,986 1~,373 17,273 12,::3 I ;3,832 11,717 10,999 1i, 128 7.3 !

~12C.,C.~7 34,970 17!. ,615 .121,2£.8 196,~65 · 142; -:~ : 167,018 153,029 : 176,484 : 144,652 100.0

than RMO.5 million in 1984 to more than RM2.9 the total export while Hong KQng (21.9%) was a million in 1992. Similar trend was observed distant second. Besides importing fruits for its recently for the Cavendish banana. domestic consumption, Singapore being an entrepot is a unique market because it also re­ Exports of Processed Fruit exports the fruits imported from Malaysia and Other than fresh fruits, processed ~ruits have other countries to various fruit markets worldwide. also contributed to exports~ Since the early years, · The EEC countries imported about 12.2% of the pineapple has been the main crop for this. export, and these countries appear to have an However, recentlyother fruit types have also gone · increasingly good potential market for the tropical into processing such as pink guava, passion fruit, fruits (Table 8). starfruit, soursop and calamondin. Overall, the In order to expand the export market fOJ;" the total export value of processed fruits has also Malaysian fruits, market opening must be made shown an increasing trend, from RM67.2 million beyond the two traditional markets, i.e., Singapore in 1982 to RM104.3 million in 1992 with canned and Hong Kong. . pin,eapple contributing 77.8% of the value For Malaysia, the EEC countries are (Table 7). considered . as a newly found market for our starfruit. The promotions carriecJ out by Federal Market Destinations Agriculture Marketing Authority (FAMA) with Overall, Singapore is still the single most the collaboration of the private sector, exporters important export market for Malaysian fresh and various trade missions have been particularly fruits, although its share of the market has seen _ successful in. developing a big market for our some gradual decline over the recent years. In starfruits. 1992, Sing~pore's market accounted for 59.8% of The Middle· East is another good market for

- 22 ~ Table 7. Export of processed fruits from Malaysia, 1982-1992.

I Canned Pineapple Year- Value I (Rr'! 000) i Va 1 u e ( R,,"'!' 0 0 0 ) %

-0 ? 1982 0/,222 53,256 / J •_ 1983 70,.1,91 51,993 73.8 1984 78,~61 54,~11 69.3 1985 66,420 I 54,566 82.1 1986 69,113 55,961 82.1 1987 73,710 I 49,926 67.7 1988 78,157 i 57,014 73. 7 77,622 61,107 j' 78.7 1989 I I 1990 96,382 I 78,398 ! 81.3 ,,- .... ,­ 1991 -,-_::l,..> ... ::l 'j 94/013 ; 81.5 1992 10-":,316 81,159 77 .8

Source External Trade Sta~istics, ~alaysia

Table 8. Fruit exports from Malaysia by market destination, 1988-1992.

i988 1989 1990 1991 1992 ~arl

;(M'OOO ~et"cenc i Des tina t ions RM'OOO Percent RM'OOO Percent RM'OOO Percent I RM'OOO Percent ,I (~) 0:) 0:) (r.) (r.) (%) 1

Singapore 61,385 72.2 80,944 91,338 6':'.1 93,905 61.'- 86,090 , . 668 59.8

~ong Kong 11,855 ~ 3.9 21,787 18.0 29,730 20.9 30,786 20.1 31,526 21.9

I" :urope 9,395 11.6 13,186 10.9 15,567 10.9 20,069 13.1 17,518 12.2

; ,"Iicdle :35, 30 :J.O ~38 O.!t 352 0.2 34; 0.5 846 0.6 ., rar :35, - Japan 1l.8 0.2 I 0.0 1,640 '.. -., ; ,394 .1._ 533 0.:' ," iaiwar. 268 0.3 295 :J.2 220 0.2 268 0.2 2,574 I 1.3

Thai land 23 0.0 1,082 0.9 1,37':' : .0 730 0.5 I 3,183 2.2

' _.. Jti1er countries .,,,)00 1.;3 13,516 2.9 2, ;!!l. ~ .5 ::',536 3.0 1,778 1.1

- 23­ Table 9. Retail prices (RM/kg) oC selected Cruitsin Malaysia compared with wholesale prices in several markets in Europe in 1992.

i_oca i '.Jholesale PI"i ces in Fruit Type Re':3 i l ::lrice :lelgium France G~rmanyi IJ •.<. 'le~nerland

Stad rui·t 2.':'4 ~.06 12.62 8.72 9.!.7 7.92

flapaya 1. 02 6.78 3.21 6.45 8.23 5.70

Ramoutan 2.:.9 \4.22 15.59 14.26 19. iO ;2.QO

I. 0 0 .... ango ~. ~ 3 4.16 5.':'0 4.68 5. i9 :'.3c:.

Guava 1.63 10.14 11.59 3.30 ~O.40

Mangosteen 3.09 14.75 15.14 14.41 18.31 12.00 ·0

Sources: FAMA !. ,'1arkec ~ews Ser'l i ce, I TC. G~neva

the tropical fruits, but its market expansion has Trade Specific Fruit Types: been meagre in spite of the various promotions Pineapple carried out recently. Japan, Taiwan and more Canned pineapple contributed 77.8% of the recently China, are potentially "big" markets for total exPort of the processed fruits, and they are tropical fruits, but penetration into these lucrative mainly in the form of slices and cubes. In 1992, the markets have been very difficult (non-tariff major markets for cann~d pineapple were Japan barriers). (24.5%), U.K. (10.0%), USA (8.4%), UAE (7.4%), Singapore (6.8%), Netherland (5.6%) and . Market Prices Saudi Arabia (4.8%). To date, there is very little In consonance with the increasing per capita production of the pineapple juices. Among the income and consumption of tropical fruits, the competitors in the region are countries like domestic fruit market also experiences an Thailand and the Philippines. increasing trend in the retail prices of selected fruits. For example, in 1992 there was 4.5% to Dorian 55.2% increase in prices for these fruits· as In Malaysia, durian is the top fresh fruit compared with 1991. export. Out of the total production of 250,000 tons, Overall, the export markets appear to be more more than 30,000 tons are exported mainly to lucrative for some. Table 9 gives a comparison Singapore (92.7% in 1992). Over the last five between the 1992's retail prices of some selected years, exports of durian have exceeded RM40 fruits in the local market and the wholesale prices million annually. Although Thailand is a in several markets in Europe. These prices look competitor in the strict sense, its durian at~ractive, but in order to make profits, the production really complements Malaysia in the wholesale prices must offset the minimum air marketing of the fruits. Thailand is well-known for freight cost of RM4.60 per kg fruit, besides other its durian, but its durians are of different types as Costs. produced in Malaysia, resulting in· different consumer preferences. Furthermore,. the durian

·24· Table 10. Postharvest quarantine requirements.

Treatment I Fruit type Target markets Recommendation j Vapour heat Mango, Japan, USA, 46.5·C at 50% -RH treatment papaya .i\ustral ia, for 20 minutes (VHT) New Zealand

Cold treatment Starfruit, Japan, USA, 2'C for 1 week mangosteen Australia, New Zealand

Fumigation Starfruit Japan, USA, 24 grn/cm3 Australia, Net", Zealand

Gamma Starfruit, Japan, USA, 150 Gy irradiation papaya Australia, New Zealand

seasons generally do not overlap very much with Papaya those in Malaysia; therefore extending the For papaya, the Eksotika variety released by availability of thefruits in the year. - . MARDI in 1987 was a tremendous success. In Presently, the development of cryogenic 1991, MARDI released another variety, a hybrid preservation has -been seen as an innovative named Eksotika II, which has better yield and fruit handling technology which can help extend the cosmetics, and also keeps better than its shelf life of durians as well as boost the prospects predecessor. Papaya export was boosted up to a . for export beyond the traditional markets~ four-fold increase to RM23.6 million in 1992 compared to 1987. And the major markets of Starfruit papaya were Singapore (81.1%) and Hong Kong The starfruit has already commanded a small (18.1 %), and little in Europe. Presently, the but important niche in the international market production has not yet come back to its previous since the late 1980's. The export value of starfruit peak level since the scare of the papaya ringspot has increased from RM14.9 million in 1988 to RM virus is still abound. In. fact, the production areas 23.4 million in 1992. And the major markets for have shifted from Johor to other states in the starfruit were Europe (34.8%), Hong Kong north, particularly in Perak. (43.2%) and Singapore (19.5%). For Europe, the. Most of the papaya producing countries in the main variety exported is B1O. Recently, on the region are besieged with the ringspot virus, and production side, exports of the starfruit have been this situation will probably keep the current slightly hampered because of its the labour­ production level at bay for a while. intensive requirements. Efforts are still briskly underway to promote consumers in Europe to Watermelon "eat" more of the fruits. At the present moment, Exports of watermelon have increased much of the starfruit is used for garnishings, in significantly since the late 1980's, and increased by salad and others, and really very little consumed. about three-fold to RM29.3 million in 1992 Canada is now emerging as another new compared to 1988. In 1992, the major markets market for. our starfruits. And in Europe, our were Singapore (82.8%) and Hong Kong (13.1%), competitors are from Israel and Brazil, but in and some to Taiwan and Thailand. China is future Australia may also be in the picture. expected to be a strong competitor in future.

- 25­ Banana Contraints to Global Marketing: Exports of banana have picked up since early Quarantine Restrictions to Exports 1990's when several big commercial farms began The present export markets for starfruit, producing and exporting Cavendish and Berangan durian, papaya and watermelon are mainly to bananas. Local consumption of these bananas also Singapore and Hong Kong. And only relatively· have increased. Besides Singapore, the major small quantities of starfruit and papaya Eksotika markets for these bananas are United Kingdom reach the European markets. All these markets do and Japan. For Malaysia, the strong competitors not have any pest quarantine restrictions. . are the Philippines and Thailand. . As mentioned earlier, there are potential markets in Japan, USA, Australia and New Mangosteen Zealand for tropical fruits. However, these The export of mangosteen out of Thailand and countries have very stringent pest quarantine Malaysia is something quite recent. In 1989, regulations, especially against the fruit flies. Thailand exported to Hong Kong 350 tons of fresh Imported fruits must be pest-free. In order to· fruits worth about RM390,000 and 30 tons of achieve this, certain postharvest disinfestation frozen mangosteen' worth RM31,000. The other protocols· specified by these countries must be importing countries were Europe and Canada. . followed. The usual methods are vapour heat In 1988, the export from Malaysia was treatment (VHT), irradiation, fumigation and cold RM460,000 and it jumped six-fold increase to treatment. These treatments are found to be not RM2.9 million in 1992. It is projected that the suitable for some fruits because they affect the export of mangosteen from these two countries quality in terms of color and flavour, while others will continue to increase because of its strong may only be applicable. under certain promotion as well as good potential in the circumstances or in certain countries only. This is Japanese market. really a 'setback to the development of the fruit industry. Post harvest disinfestation research is Rambutan now being actively pursued fOf fruits which have In 1986, Malaysia and Thailand exported their good export potential, namely mango, starfruit, rambutan worth RM750,000, while in the other .papaya and mangosteen (Table 10). producing countries, production was mainly for the domestic market. Malaysia exported its fresh Storage Life of Tropical Fruits rambutan mainly to Singapore (88.9% in 1992), . The export of fresh fruits is, to a large extent, while Thailand exported fresh and canned hampered by the relatively short storage life of the' rambutan to Asian and European countries. fruits. There are only very few of them that can be Processed rambutan products of Thailand fetched kept in storage for more than' three weeks more than 10 times the value of fresh rambutan. (Figure 3). These fruits can reach the market destinations quickly by air; however, the cost of air Processing Fruits freight is usually prohibitive. The exporters have For many years, the technologies developed very little choice except to send the fruits by sea for the fruit industry were basically geared for whiCh takes much longer time, and run the risk of domestic consumption and for fresh. For the same delivering fruits with poor quality on arrival. For reason, the export expansion also involved the example, to ship fruits to Europe, it will probably fresh fruits with the exception of pineapple. take about 6 weeks, which surpasses the storage Although not without difficulties, the fruit life of most tropical fruits. industry also managed· to promote the At present, limited technology on harvesting development of several fruit types for processing. practices, postharvest handling, storage and Notable among these fruits are pink guava and packaging of fruits have resulted in substantial calamondin, which are now commercially losses throughout the handling chain, from the produced in Johor; and passion fruit, which is .farm to the distribution outlets. Intensified grown by farmers in Sabah. Apart from these fruit research on efficient postharvest handling is, types, soursop and starfruit are also now being therefore, more critical for fruits meant for export, developed for processing. Taiwan has a limited especially to facilitate sea transportation. production area for starfruit, but has successfully commercialized the production of starfruit juices.

- 26- Storage tempet"atut"e (0C)

StarEruit 5

, Papaya -. 10-15

Ourian '_------,.....1 10

Guava 5-10

I Ouku langsat i"" 10

:1angosteen 5

Mango 15

?ineapple· a- L0 3anana .­ I 14 o 2 4. 6 8 10 12

:--: ·,.Jeeks

Figure 3. Storage life of tropical fruits.

Competition in Air and Cargo Space Conclusion To some extent, the export of fruits from The prospects for the expansion of the fruit Malaysia has been initially expedited via air industry in Malaysia appear bright due to the freight. However, further increase in their export expected increase in domestic consumption of has been hampered by the limited air cargo space both fresh and processed fruits, and the expected and the unfavourable freight charges. At present, increase in the export markets stemming from the volume of air cargo under special rates increasing world demand in tropical fruits. Among (Specific Commodity Rate) allotted for exporters the fruits that have contributed to the country's is only 16 metric tons per week. Apart from the fresh exports are durian, starfruit, papaya, banana scarcity of cargo space, the other problem is the and watermelon. air cargo rate itself. The SCR freight rates are still Other than in the fresh form, Malaysian fruits· considered high, rendering the prices to be less also have good potential for the production of fruit competitive in markets of the importing countries. juices whose market is ever expanding in Europe The non-SCRcargo is readily available, but the and in the Middle East. Besides pineapple, there rates can be three four times higher. In fact, very are already few fruit types that have shown very few exporters now send their fruits by air freight good potential for processing such as pink guava because of the prohibitive charges and other and soursop. The global trade in fruit juices is handling problems, and mostly have resorted to worth billions, and Malaysia's share in this trade is sea transportation. estimated to be less than 1%. Malaysia has yet to

- 27­ make inroads in this fast expanding international Tropical Fruit on September 29 - October 2, 1994; market. in Hawaii, and to thank Hawaii Tropical Fruit Although the export markets for fresh and Growers for the financial support. Thanks are also processed fruits are not yet fully exploited, due for Ms. Maznah for her help in preparing this sustaining the present markets is no easy task. The paper. traditional markets should not be taken for granted. It is, therefore, important for the country References not to focus only on the market development but Abdul Jamil, M. A., 1991. Status of the also on the product development, as well as the development of the fruit industry. Proc. development of the fruit industry itself, especially National Fruit Symposium 1991, September in boosting commercial production of fruits with 24-26, 1991, Genting Highlands, Pahang good export potential. Efforts should be made to Darulmakmur. pp. 14-30. encourage the participation of foreign investors in Dept. of Statistics, Malaysia. External Trade the commercial production of fruits in Malaysia so Statistics (various issues). as to capture the established overseas markets. FAMA. "Warta Barangan" (various issues). Ministry of Agriculture, 1989. The Malaysian Fruit Acknowledgements Industry Directory 1989/90. Koperasi The authors wish to express their gratitude to Kakitangan Kementerian Pertanian Malaysia Ministry of Agriculture and MARDI for granting Bhd.246p. permission to attend and present this paper in the Ministry of Finance, 1991. Economic Report Fourth Annual International Conference on 1991/92, Vol. 20. 268 p.

- 28­ Benefits of Generic Promotion . Tom and Ann Thacker The Thacker Group

The Thacker Group Agency Prome medium. Don't forget the print, a media tour is an We are a public relations firm specializing in effective way to get your message out there. food and flowers. Our offices are in Sacramento, Kona, San Francisco and Houston. We work with ROP Title Slide commondity boards such as California wild rice, A ROP Title Slide - It's a full color, full page, .Texas peanuts, Texas onions, pimientos, California food story that we prepare for the food editor on tree fruits, and California cantaloupe. We behalf of our clients. There's a method called the publicize some of the PBS cooking shows, and three-way that we did with California wild rice, work with branded products such as Sunkist California cut flowers, and artichokes. It's in Growers, McCormick Spices, Campbell Soup and ninety-seven papers, thirty-one states, and an eight Del Monte Foods. In Hawaii, we have done million readership. Plus, the ad value is at projects work with DBEDT, HVB, and DOA. We $215,000, but the total cost to each client is .only are now executing a start-up. public relations $12,500! _ program for the Hawaii Tropical Flower Council. With California wild rice, we did a four-way. This included a release to weekly and suburban Exposure =Awareness =Sales newspapers across the nation. The Pecan Bread, The exposure = awareness = sales formula which was just released in May, already has has been true for decades and is still true today. appeared. in one-thousand three-hundred Unless you expose your products within the newspapers in thirty-eight states. If we were to marketplace and educate the end-user ~bout ways purchase this same amount of space through the to prepare and eat them, increased sales-will not paper, it would have cost the pecan board happen. The challenge is to create demand by $300,000. Instead, the actual cost was about making your products top-of-mind. _ $8,000, including the photography. Clips are In the case of some of the more unusual received and widespread, coast-to-coast coverage tropical fruits that are grown here, con~umers who is the result. are unfamiliar with them do not know whether to eat them, bathe with them or shoot them. Even in New York Magazine Editor Tour Honolulu last year, we saw starfruit carefully cut It's the Big Apple and we go through a collage and displayed in the produce section. But even the of magazines such as Family Circle, McCalls, produce manager did not get it! The product had. Good Housekeeping, and Woman's Day. Then we been sliced lengthwise in a slice of cantaloupe. got the crew networking in various offices .Education! It is a big, big job. We are here today simultaneously: Ann in the office of Country to show you some effective ways that you can Living and Redbook; Tom went to Philomena educate consumers and retailers. Corradeno; Mary in front of Good Housekeeping with Mildred Ying, the Good Housekeeping Food Media Tour Title Slide Editor. Taking your message to the masses through In Sunset magazine, we had a salmon television, radio and print: . placement. It was two pages of editorial coverage, "This stuff is worth $50,000 a minute on prime a $86,000 value if paid for as advertising. Then if time TV, so eat it!" you multiply that by three for the editorial value, We are executing a media tour for Sunkist it's worth more than $258,000. Hold up Sunset and growers. Within the last six months we have been talk about wild rice placement as a result of to fifty-eight cities, conducted over one-hundred harvest tour, luncheon and personal relationship and thirty interviews, which have resulted in more with editors. than $1.5 million dollars of editorial exPosure. The cost to Sunkist is just over $200,000. Another Food Photography example is using National Cable for Sam Choy Photography speaks for itself as we used it for: products. The radio is a great broadcasting Wild Rice; California Swordfish; Pecan cake; and

- 29­ Pecan pie. A three-way ROP with Texas peanut Springtime for Texas Springsweet Onions using an cookies, peanut butter, and Trail mix (Texas ID) onion box with a bright label. Images of the first by using Texas State recognition symbols such as day of fall connected to American Pecans. Keep the Texas flag and the Texas basket. videos of weather caster stuff for further promotion. First Day Promotion - Weather,Casters First day of summer showing California Exposure = Awareness = Sales summer fruit such as a plum basket. A Tree fruit Back to exposure = awareness = sales with on the news set for the Oakland weather caster. Sam Choy. We agree with Sam Choy - Hawaii, Catchy memory guides such as Giant Plums = You are Okay! TIG Profile - We are ready when Giants of San Francisco. Willard Scott in the you are!

- 30­ Poster Abstracts Peach Palm for Palm Heart in Hawaii: of the heart. Basal sections appear to be mbre Is it Worth Planting? acrid and astringent than the apical sections. C. R. Clement, R. M. Manshardt, C. G. Cavaletto, Differences in acridity also exist between plants· J. DeFrank, K. Fleming, and J. Mood within a progeny (p < 0.05). Percent total soluble Peach palm was introduced by University of solids ranged from 3.01 to 6.6, but no pattern was Hawaii in .1990 as a potential new crop to produce apparent. Samples were also provided to chefs in fresh heart of palm, a gourmet vegetable. After upscale restaurants where they received favorable the first harvest cycle (twelve to sixteen months in comments. the field) it is clear that: (1)· the palm is well adapted to Hawaii at low elevations (below 1000 ft); (2) yields are similar to those reported from EtTect of Planting Density on Precocious Palm tropical America (900-1100 lb/ac); (3) precocity Heart Yield of Peach Palm in Hawan. (measured as time from field planting to harvest) C. R. Clement and R. M.Manshardt. is more important than heart weight to ,determine The peach palm is being evaluated in Hawaii yearly yield; (4) there is genetic variability for as a source of fresh hearts of palm. Nine open­ precocity; (5) acridity (itching in mouth or throat) pollinated progenies from the Benjamin Constant is a minor problem (5-10% of plants); and (6) . population of the Putumayo landrace are planted there are three edible portions" the heart at three densities: 1.5 x 2 m (3333 plants/hectare); (0.33-0.5 lb/shoot), the tender stem (0.75-1.0 1 x 2 m (5000 pI/ha, the commercial density in lb/shoot), the tender leaves (0.1-0.3 lb/shoot). Costa Rica); 1 x 1.5 m (6666 pl/ha). Harvest New ideas about plantation design, weed control, started at 15 months after planting and four and fertilization will reduce labor requirements months later 25% of the plants had been while enhancing yield. .Germplasm that yields harvested, with 25%, 30% and 21% at 3333, 5000, 90 - 95% spineless seedlings is available and spiny and 6666 pI/ha,· respectively. Mean heart plants are easily removed in the nursery. Some up­ diameters were unaffected by density (mean± SO scale restaurants have expressed interest in the = 3.2 ± 0.4cm). Heart lengths were similar (24 ± products at $6 - 8/lb for heart and $3 - 4/lb for 5 cm, 23 ± 6 em, 26 ± 5 cm, respectively), as were . stem. Each shoot could yield $4 -7 at harvest and, heart weights (200 ± 41 g, 187 ± 44 g, 224 ± 42 g, with 2000 plants/acre, an income of $814,000 per respectively). This. relative uniformity was acre is possible if the grower deals directly with unexpected, as density effected all of these yield the restauarant. If farmers deal directly and there components in earlier experiments in Latin is a favorable balance of supply and demand, the America. Potential yields were different (667 ± market can be kept orderly and both farmers and 136 kg/ha, 835 ± 221 kg/ha, 1491 ± 275 kg/ha, restaurants win. A rough cost-benefit model is respectively), and are comparable to yields presented and variables not included are identified reported from Costa Rica. Actual precocious so that the individual farmer can compute his/her yields, however, were not different (167 kg/ha, 278 own case. You decide: is it worth planting? kg/ha, 385 kg/ha, respectively).

Quality Evaluation of Fresh Pe~ch Palm Heart Genetic Variability for Precocious Palm Heart (Bactris gasipaes). Yield of Pejibaye in Hawaii. C. G. Cavaletto, N. Y. Nagai, C. R. Clement, C. R. Clement and R. M. Manshardt. and R. M. Manshardt. The peach palm is being evaluated in Hawaii Quality of fresh heart of palm from two as a source of fresh hearts of palm. Nine open- . progenies of the Benjamin Constant population of pollinated progenies from the Benjamin Constant the Putumayo landrace was evaluated. Favorable population of the Putumayo landrace are planted sensory characteristics were: sweetness, at three sites in a randomized complete block tenderness, crispness, and moistness. Negative design. sensory characteristics found in some samples The best site started yielding at fifteen months were: low levels of astringency and acridity. after planting, the intermediate at sixteen months, Sensory scores for astringency and acridity were the poorest at eighteen months. Outing the first significantly different (p < 0.05) between sections four months of harvest at the best site, 25% of the

- 31­ plants were cut; during three months at the replication (genotype) effects that suggest varying intermediate site, 15% were cut; during the first tolerance to paraquat and oryzalin. Estimated cut at the poor site, 1% were cut. Progeny halVest palm heart yields (3731 plants/ha), corrected for percentages ranged from 7 to 53% at the best site, % halVest, were highest with polypropylene mat with only three progenies above average (33, 47, (490 kg/ha), followed by oxyfluorfen 1.2 ai (425 53%). These are considered to be precocious. kg/ha) and 0.6 ai (330 kg/ha). Paraquat severely These three progenies produced average size inhibited growth of the suckers that assure future hearts (172 ± 36, 204 ± 57, 203 ± 44 g/plant, halVests. The performance rating of these weed respectively; experimental mean ± SO =' 205 ± 53 control treatments was: mat = oxyfluorfen > g), but yielded above average at 5000 plants/ha oryzalin > paraquat. (275, 480, 524 kg/ha, respectively; expo mean = 272 kg; corrected for % cut). Potential yields of .these progenies were near the mean (871 ± 198, Precocious Response of Pejibaye to Legume, 1018 ± 280, 983 ± 197 kg/ha, respectively; expo Grass, and BlackPolypropylene Groundcovers mean = 986 ± 381 kg/ha), but their preCocity During Establishment in Hawaii. provides early returns to the farmer. J. DeFrank and C. R. Clement. Peach palm ~ being evaluated for palm heart production in Hawaii. Counts of parasitic Response of Pejibaye to Herbicides and Black nematodes, yields at 18 months and weed control Polypropylene Mat During Establishment in were evaluated in response to: Arachis pinto~ Hawaii. Cassia rotundifolia ev. Wynn, Desmodium J. DeFrank and C. R. Clement. ovalifolium, Chloris gayana, and woven black Peach palm is being evaluated for palm heart polypropylene mat. Four open-pollinated production in Hawaii. Yields and weed control progenies from the Benjamin Constant population were evaluated in response to: oryzalin (4.5 and of the Putumayo landrace were used as 9.0 kg ai/ha), oxyfluorfen (0.6 and 1.2 kg ai/ha), replications. Twenty.;five percent of the plants paraquat (1.2 and 2.4 kg ai/ha) and woven black were halVested, with means of 5, 20, 15, 15, and polypropylene mat. Four open-pollinated 70%, respectively. Individual heart weights did not progenies from the Benjamin Constant population vary significantly among treatments (mean = 169 of the Putumayo landrace were used as g). Actual yields were significantly different, with replications. Paraquat was sprayed at 50 day means of 31, 125, 92, 99, and 440 kg/ha, intelVals, while the preemergence herbicides were respectively. All vegetative ground covers sprayed at ninety day intelVals. HalVeSt started at competed with pejibaye for nutrients, which eighteen months after planting out, seventeen. . explains the halVest percentages and yields. D. months after treatment initiation. The ovalifolium and C. gayana provided acceptable polypropylene mat yielded the highest percent weed control. A. pintoi provided good ground halVest (80%), followed by oxyfluorfen (50%), cover, but no weed control. paraquat (20%), oryzalin (12.5%). There were

- 32­ Tissue Culture Propagation of Atemoya and Starfruit L. Agus Sukamto Department of Horticulture University of Hawaii at Manoa

Atemoya (Annona squamosa L. XA. cherimola Mill.) Epicotyls and hypocotyls of atemoya 1 mg/l L-glutamine, and transferred to 1/2 MS produced multiple shoots, after they were with 4.44 uM BAP. cultured on Murashige & Skoog (MS) medium with 1 uM 2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid Results and Discussion (2,4-0), 1 uM naphthalene acetic acid (NAA), The hypocotyls and epicotyls of atemoya 1 uM benzylaminopurine (BAP), 2 mg/l L­ released some phenolic compounds which proline, and 1 mg/l .L-glutamine and appeared as browning on tissues as well· as on tranferred tp 1/2 MS medium with 4.44 uM medium, but this compound did not harm BAP. Shoot regeneration occurred directly further development. from epicotyls and hypocotyls, even though The tissues grew slowly, formed callus on . limited callus was produced from excised the excised parts and multiple shoot buds on epicotyls and hypocotyls of atemoya. the fIrst medium, and grew profusely aft~r they were transferred on 1/2 MS medium with 4.44 Introduction uMBAP. Atemoya is a natural hybrid between sugar Multiple shoots were produced directly apple and cherimoya which originated in from hypocotyls or epicotyls but not from Flqrida (Jordan and Botti, 1992). This plant callus. This result was different with another has some cold tolerance and high fruitfulness and leaf culture of sugar apple which produced (Alexander et aI., 1982), can be grown well in callus before forming multiple shoots on lowland tropical and subtropical areas Nitsch & Nitsch or MS medium with (Campbell, 1976), and is produced combination of auxin and cytokinin (Nair et commercially in Queensland and New South a1., 1983; 1984), but similar result with Wales, Australia (Bourke, 1976). hypocotyl culture of cherimoya on MS with 0.5 The juvenile period is about five years so mg/l NAA and 2 mg/l BAP (Jordan, 1988). . grafting or budding methods with mature scion The shoots could be separated and cut for is preferable. The juvenile period of scions is. further multiplication. These shoots did not . greatly influenced by seedling rootstocks which produce roots, auxin treatment or cutting 2.5 can be highly variable (Jordan and Botti, cm length of the tissues may produce roots as 1992). Seedling production through tissue similar result on hypocotyl-derived shoots of culture will overcome variability of atemoya cherimoya (Jordan, 1988). rootstock. Atemoya rootstock is also compatible with scion of other annonas Acknowldgement (Bourke, 1976). The objective of this The author wishes to thank Or. Y. Sagawa experiment was to produce uniform rootstock for the use of his laboratory and for assisting and to develop atemoya propagation through with this paper. tissue culture. Literature Cited Materials and Methods Alexander, O. Mc E., P. B. Scholefield, and The seeds were sterilized with 70% alcohol Frodsham, 1982. Some tree fruits for and 5% clorox, washed with sterile water, and tropical Australia, CSIRO, p. 47. sowed on 1/2 MS medium. Hypocotyls and Bourke, O. 0' O. 1976. Annona spp. In R. J. epicotyls of seedlings were cut about 1 cm Garner, S. A. Chaudhuri, and staff of length, grown on MS medium with 1 uM 2,4-0, CBPC (eds.), The propagation of tropical 1 uM NAA, 1 uM BAP, 2 mg/l L-proline, and fruit trees. CommonweaI'th Agricultural

- 33­ Bureaux, England, p. 291-303. Biotechnology of perennial fruit crops. Campbell, C. W. 1976. Present and future of CAB International, UK, p. 513-531. minor tropical fruit species in Florida and Nair, S., P. K. Gupta, and A. F. Mascarenhas. similar areas. Acta Horticulturae 57: 89-95. 1983. Haploid plants from in vitro anther Jordan, M. 1988. Multiple shoot formation and culture of Annona squamosa Linn., Plant rhizogenesis from cherimola (Annona Cell Reports 2: 198-200. cherimola L.) hypocotyls and petiole Nair, S., P. K. Gupta, M. V. Shirgurkar, and A. explants. Gartenbauwissenschaft 53 (5): F. Mascarenhas. 1984. In vitro 234-237. organogenesis from leaf explants of Jordan, M. and C. Botti. 1992. Tropical and Annona squamosa Linn. Plant Cell Tissue subtropical small fruits.. In F. A. Organ Culture 3: 29-40. HammerscWag and R. E. Litz (eds.),

Starfruit (Averrhoa carambola L.) Seedlings and cotyledons of starfruit culture will provide abundantly uniform plants produced multiple shoots on 1/2 Murashige & as well as rootstocks in relatively short time. Skoog (MS) medium with 1 mg/l Several researchers have done work on tissue benzylaminopurine (BAP). The seedlings culture of starfruit: Rao eta!. (1981) using formed multiple shoots without previously cotyledon as explant, but failed to regenerate producing callus, whereas the cotyledons plants from cotyledon callus; Litz and Conover produced callus before producing shoots. (1980) and Litz and Griffis (1989) using leaf as Cotyledon-derived shoots were more vigorous explant, they succeeded in regenerating shoot than seedling-derived shoots,. and formed but frequency of shoot differentiation was low some fasciated stems. and occurred in a short time. The objective of this experiment were to produce uniform Introduction rootstock and to develop starfruit propagation Starfruit is an evergreen tree which can through tissue culture bear fruit continuously throughout the year on tropical and subtropical areas (Litz and Materials and Methods Griffis, 1989). Commercial production of Mature seeds were sterilized with 70% starfruit increased in the island countries of alcohol, 5% clorox, washed with sterile water, the Caribbean, Central and South America, and sowed on 1/2 MS medium. Germinated and Southeast Asia for local market or export seedlings and their cotyledons were to North. America and Europe (Litz and transferred to 1/2 MS with 1 mg/l BAP. Griffis, 1989). . The plant is cross-pollinated so the Results and Discussion variability of plant is very high and the juvenile Starfruit seeds took several months for period is four to five years (Tidbury, 1976). germination. The seedlings grew rapidly on Vegetative propagation is normally done by 1/2 MS medium. The growth of root growth grafting or budding because air-layering or was inhibited or ceased after transfer to cutting is unreliable and unfeasible (Litz and medium with 1 mg/l BAP. . Griffis, 1989). Multiple shoots were formed on the base Occasionally, seed propagated plants are of seedling stem directly without callus used for ornamental purpose or when formation. Shoot regeneration occurred only vegetatively propagated plants are lacking on 1 mg/l BAP, whereas Litz and Conover (Litz and Conover, 1980), even though the (1980) observed that it only occurred on high quality fruit of starfruit, seed propagated is concentration of cytokinin (2 - 10 mg/l 2iP) usually inferior (Litz and Griffis, 1989). from callus of leaf culture. Seedling-derived Propagatiqn of starfruit through tissue shoots shed some leaves but not as many as

- 34­ reported by Litz and Griffis (1989). Literature Cited The cotyledons formed callus on the Litz, R. E. and R. A. Conover. 1980. Partial excised tissues on MS medium with BAP. This organogenesis in tissue cultures of proved that auxin is not necessary for callus Averrhoa carambola. HortScience 15(6): formation of -starfruit cotyledon. This result 735. contradicted the observation of Litz and Litz, R. E. and J. L. Griffis, Jr. 1989. Conover (1980) who mentioned that the Carambola (Aven-hoa carambola L.). In Y. presence of 2,4-0 was necessary for initiation P. S. Bajaj (ed.), Biotechnology in and growth of callus. agriculture and forestry 5, Trees II, Cotyledon callus produced multiple shoots Springler-Verlag, Berlin, p. 57-67. which were more vigorous than those of Rao, A. N., Yeow Mei Sin, N. Kothagoda, and seedling-derived shoots. This also proved that J. F. Hutchinson. 1981. Cotyledon tissue shoot regeneration _ of cotyledon callus culture of some tropical fruits. In A. N. occurred without including embryo axis which Rao (ed.), Tissue culture of economically - was contrary to statement of Rao et al. (1981). important plants. COSTED and ANBS, Cotyledon-derived shoot formed some Singapore, p. 124-137. fasciated stems. This fasciated stem is Tidbury, G. E. 1976. Averrhoa spp. - carambola desirable for ornamental purpose. and bilimbi. In R. J. Gamer, S. A. Chaudhri, and staff of the CBHPC (eds.), Ac~owldgement The propagation of tropical fruit trees. The author wishes to thank Dr. Y. Sagawa Commonwealth Agricultural Bure~ux, for the use of his laboratory and for assisting England, p. 291-303. with this paper.

- 35 ­ Biological Control of Fruit Flies in Hawaii: Prospects and Problems Russell Messing Department of Entomology, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, Univ~rsity of Hawaii at Manoa, and Mary F. Purcell USDA·ARS Tropical Fruit and Vegetable Research Laboratory, Hilo

Introduction generalist predators, such as the big-headed ant. Four species of tephritid fruit flies infest many Some studies have shown that ants can kill up to of the marketable fruits and vegetable produced in 35% of the fruit flies pupating beneath guava Hawaii, and are considered to be among the main trees. Beetles, earwigs, and even mice and birds obstacles to a more robust and diversified can also kill their share of flies. In Europe, agricultural economy in the state. Biological researchers have shown that large wasps, such as control, in which a beneficial organism or "natural yellow jackets, swoop in and capture adult flies enemy" kills or controls a pest, is a critical but while they oviposit into fruits on a tree. These underappreciated component of fruit fly control wasps actually use the flies' own pheromones (sex throughout the islands. There is a great deal of attractants) as cues to hone in on their prey. potential to improve biological control by better understanding and management of populations of .Pathogens .these beneficial species. Like most other animals and insects, fruit flies have their share of diseases. Some strians of What Types of Organisms Kill Fruit Flies? bacteria are potent insect pathogens, and . Beneficial organisms generally belong to one researchers are testing whether Bacci/us of the three P's: parasites; predators; or Thuringiensis (which is widely used to kill pathogens. All three are well, represented in caterpillars on fruits and vegetables) can also be efforts of fruit fly biocontrol. used to kill fruit flies. Some species of beneficial nematodes, when applied to the soil, have been . Parasites shown to kill a large percentage of fruit fly larvae. Dozens of species of parasitic wasps have been imported into·Hawaii· over. the past eighty years. Is Biological Control Effective? These wasps were generally found in the same It is not generally appreciated how effective region of three of the four species of tephritid fruit biological control agents in Hawaii are at flies (three came from southeast Asia and the controlling fruit flies. However, studies have fourth is a Mediterranean fruit fly that was shown that parasites are, in fact, doing a originally from Mrica). The wasps attack only tremendous job in reducing fly population flies, and are completely harmless to humans, throughout the state. For example, in 1949 (prior other animals, and plants. Adult female wasps to the introduction of the egg parasit B. arisanus) sting the fly eggs or larvae and deposit their own mango, avocado, and guava frequently had O\~er a eggs inside. When these eggs hatch, the wasp houndred Oriental fruit flies per fruit! Also, larvae devour the flies from the inside out. There banana, papaya, lychee, citrus, and passion fruit all are two broad groupings of flies: specia~sts (family used to be much more infested. Since its Braconidae), which attack only fruit flies; and introduction, B. arisanus has been show to generalists (Chalcidoids), which attack other types parasitize over 50% of each generation of more . of flies as well as fruit flies. eggs. This raises the overall fly mortality rate to . , 95%! Pr~dators When fruit fly larvae are fully grown they exit How Can Biological Control be Improved? the fruit by jumping and burrowing into the soil in Current natural enemy impact is insufficient to order to form pupae. During this period on the give complete control of ariy of our fruit fly pests ground, they are very susceptible to being eaten by in Hawaii, but there is obviously much room for improvement. Entomologists from the USDA­ adjunct to sterile fly releases or other methods of ARS and CfAHR are working jointly to devise control. Exploration for new natural enemy augmentation strategies for mass-rearing and species in many tropical countries is fraught with release of millions of parasites in the field at key logistical difficulties, including stringent collection periods in the fruit flies' life cycle. By increasing and shipping permit requirements, and the danger the ratio of parasites to flies, higher levels of of disease, political instability, and other health parasitism may be achieved. Better understanding hazards for the explorer. of the biology and behavior of the wasps may also Importation of new parasites must pass enable us to manage and manipulate their through a stringent quarantine process at the populations in the field. CfAHR researchers are Hawaii Department of Agriculture (DOA), and studying the learning capacity of wasps to see if then go through an extremely long and they can be "trained" to be more effective complicated series of bureaucratic hurdles before incertain'crops. they can be released. The bureaucratic process has The importation of new species of parsites become so daunting that some researchers have from Asia, Africa, and South America into Hawaii . given up trying. And some "environmentalists" now has great potential to increase the levels of consider parasites more dangerous than biological control. Literally dozens of species have pesticides, and are trying to regulate the process to already been identified, and only await death. importa:tionand testing. Additional species, new For production of many tropical fruits and to science, undoubtedly exist as well. vegetables' in Hawaii to increase substantially (in order to help replace the declining sugar industry What are the Major Obstacles? with a more diversified agriculture), the problem Because in many cases fruit flies' are with tephritid fruit flies must be ameliorated. quarantine pests, biological control, alone will Biological control with natural enemies offers one never be sufficient to give. the level of control of the most environmentally safe, proven, and cost needed to export crops. Hence, some effective techniques to combat these pests. entomologists are looking at· parasites as an

- 37 ~ Identification of Lychee Cultivars by Isozyme Fingerprinting

Francis Zee, USDA·ARS National Clonal Genilplasm Repository, Hilo Malll K. Aradhya and Richard M. Manshardt Department of Horticulture, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa

Introduction general fruit features and was often sold as Lychee (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) is native to Hak ip in the Chinese markets. In Chan ts'un . subtropical China and northern Vietnam (Groff, (Chan's village) of Shun tak, a lychee cultivar 1921), and is an important commercial crop grown . known as Kam chai t'sz (golden hair pin) is in China, Thailand, and Taiwan for major markets also called Hak. ip, while it super{1cially in Singapore, Hong Kong and Japan (Chapman, resembles, but the fruit is sweeter and has a 1984). Other markets exist in Europe, North and sma..~er seed (Groff, 1921). South America and Australia. Lychee has the potential to become an export crop for Hawaii. The current classification criteria for lychee are Standardization of cultivars is a prerequisite based on both fruit and leaf descriptions. for commercial production of high quality fruits. However, interpretation of these is highly Confusion regarding cultivar names still exists in . subjective and dependent on the experience of the current lychee collections. Discrepancies have person and the availability of fruits. Isozyme arisen from: electrophoresis is a biochemical method which allows for more objective classification and (1) the fact that most Chinese cultivar names requires only a small amount of healthy leaf tissue exist in two dialect forms, Cantonese and from each tree.

.I Mandarin ("putonghua") (Groff, 1921; Watson, 1984), e.g. the cultivar Hak ip is a Isozyme electrophoresis detects and resolves romanization based on the Cantonese the multiple molecular forms or polymorphisms of pronunciation, while Hei ye is· based on the an enzyme on the basis· of their differential Mandarin pronunciation. migration rates in a standardized starch gel when subjected to an electrical field. Individual plants (2) the presence of variants and seedlings differ in their isozyme profiles or fingerprints, and selected from. popular cultivars. For example, many samples can be run on a single gel. Each gel the different forms of No mai t'sz include Lo can be sliced horizontally into thin slabs to be kang No mai t'sz , Wong No mai t'sz (yellow stained for different enzymes. No mai t'sz) (Anon., 1986), and the early, medium and late types of No mai t'sz in The objectives of this study are: Guangdong, were all reported to have different seed size, production and fruit (1) to fmgerprint and classify lychee cultivars qualities (Chapman, 1984). Variants of Kwai using isozyme markers. mi include Lo kang Kwai mi and Ap tau luk (2) to assess the level and organization of Kwai mi of Guangdong (mallard head green) genetic variability in the lychee cultivar (Anon., 1978; Groff, 1921), and the Kwai mi . collection in Hawaii. . pink and Kwai mi red from Australia. Materials and Methods (3) the lax use of popular cultivar names and Forty-nine lychee accessions maintained at the· use of local names by nurseries, farmers, USDA-ARS, National Clonal Germplasm hobbyists and fruit traders. Some examples Repository (NCGR) in Hilo were subjected to are: (a) In Hawaii, the variety Tai so has been isozyme fingerprinting using starch gel wrongly called Kwai mi since the time it was electrophoresis. Twelve enzymes were assayed and brought in by Chinese immigrants. (b) O-hai , ten were used to establish the identities of the Baidum (Thailand), Woo yip, Hak yip and accessions. The isozyme data were analyzed based Hei yue (China) are all regional names for on the similarities and differences in 'Hak ip. (c) Wai chi resembles Hak ip in polymorphisms between accessions.

- 38­ Results and Discussion Aradhya, KM., Zee, F.T. and Manshardt, Forty of the 49 lychee accessions exhibited RM. 1995. Allozyme variation and unique fingerprints, thus providing information differentiation in lychee (Litchi chinensis necessary for the identification of cultivars. This Sonn.). Scientia Horticulturae (in press). study provided some unique information on the composition of the current collection. It identified This partial listing of discrepancies between acc~ions that· have different names but showed the cultivar names and the true identities of lychee identical fingerprints, while others had identical accessions at the repository demonstrates an names but different isozyme patterns (Table 1). inherent problem in plant exploration and The Kwai mi accession in Hawaii was preservation - one cannot just blindly trust the previously reported to be identical to Mauritius in labels that come with the plants - what the label Hawaii (from South Africa) (Yee, 1972) and Tai says is not necessarily what you are getting. so in Australia (Menzel and Simpson, 1991). Our Isozyme electrophoresis is a powerful tool that study confirmed that Hawaii Kwai mi was identical can be used to check the validity of lychee cultivar to Hawaii Mauritius and also Kim jee from names in a matter of days instead of months or Thailand, but different from Kwai mi from Guang years as required by morphological descriptors. xi, China. Based on the morphological descriptions One of the critical requirements for· isozyme in Chinese literature and the results from this fmgerprinting is the availability of authentic study, we deduced that Kwai mi in Hawaii is cultivars as standards. It is, therefore, a priority for probably the cultivar· Tai so . Tai so will be the Hilo repository to collect and establish a introduced from China to provide the direct comprehensive collection of lychee cultivars and isozyme comparison in the future. The isozyme germplasm from gene banks and agricultural pattern of Mauritius in Hawaii was found to be institutes in their counties of origin for purposes different from that of Mauritius at the USDA­ of g~rmplasmpreservation and identification. ARS, Miami Repository in Florida, in agreement with a report (Storey, 1972) on morphological References differences between these accessions. One accession of No mai tsz from Maimi Anonym~us. 1986. Guangxi Litchi Annals. Guanxi Repository was isozymically identical to Shan chi Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guanxi in the same collection. The former was presumably Agricultural School. Guangdong Science a rootstock that regenerated following the and Technology Press (In Chinese). devastation of hurricane Andrew in August, 1992, Anonymous. 1978.· Guangdong Litchi Annals. since Shan chi or mountain lychee is commonly Guangdong Academy of Agricultural used as a rootstock for No mai t sz in China Sciences (Edited). Guangdong Science and (Groff, 1921). Eight variants of No mai t'sz were Technology Press (In Chinese). identified in the collection, all having distinct Groff, W. G. 1921. The lychee and lungan. Orange isozyme patterns, suggesting that the name of the Judd. Co., New York. 188 pp. .parent clone was commonly applied to seedlings of Chapman, KR 1984a. Characteristics of common No mai t'sz. lychee varieties of China - In order of The Hak ip accession in Hawaii was collected maturity. Marocchy Hort. Res. Station. by Groff from China in 1941 and was recorded as Chapman, KR 1984b. Sapindaceae: Lychee. In: Punyu Tuwah Shui Tung Haak ip (Storey et aI., Tropical. Tree Fruits for Australia. 1953). Its isozyme pattern was found to be Queensland Dept. of Primary Industry, p different from Hak ip from Guang xi, China, but 179-191. identical to Kwang tung from Taiwan, which, Menzel, eM. and Simpson, D.R 1991. A according to Menzel and Simpson (1991), is the description of lychee cultivars. Fruit same as the Souey tung in Australia (Table 1). .Varieties Journal 45:45-56. If you are not totally confused by now with Storey, W.B. 1972. The lychee. California Avocado these Chinese names, and if you are interested in Society Yearbook, 1972-73, p. 75-86. reading more about our isozyme work, I would Storey, W.B., Hamilton, RA., and Nakasone, H.Y. urge you to get a copy of our paper, which will be 1953. Groff - a new variety of lychee. Univ. available in late summer of 1995: Hawaii, Agri. Exp. Station, Circular 39. 8 pp.

- 39· Watson, B.l. 1984. Lychee - cultivar names. Yee, W. 1972. The lychee in Hawaii. Cooperative California Rare Fruit Growers Newsletter Extension Service, CfAHR, Univ. Hawaii. 16:13-18. Circular 366.

Table J. A partial list of lychee accessions with different names but identical fingerprints, and ones with identical names but different isozyme fingerprints.

NCGR Isozyme locus* . Cultivar ID# Origin 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Kwaimi 6 Hawaii Mauritius 7 Hawaii AA AA BD AC CD BC BD BD BB BB AB AB Kimjee 14 Thailand·

Nomaitsz 39 Florida Shan chi 38 Florida AA AA CD AA BC CC CD BB BB BB AA AB

Hakip 8 Hawaii Kwangtung 24 Taiwan AA AA DD BC BD CC CD BD BB BB BB BB

No mai tsz 3 Hawaii AB AA DD CC AB CC CD BB BB BB BB AB 16 Florida AB AA CD CD AB CC AC BB BB BB AB BB 17 Florida .. AA AA DD CD BB CC CC BB BB AB AB BB 19 Taiwan AA AA CD CD AA CC AC BC BB BB AB AA 27 Taiwan AA AA CD CD AA CC AC BC BB BB AB AB 30 China AA AA DD DD BB CC CC CC BB AB CC AB 36 Florida AB AA DO CC BC CC CC BD BB BB AB AB 49 Hawaii AA AA CD CD BC CC AC BB BB BB AB BB

Hakip 8 Hawaii AA AA DD BC BD·CC CD BD BB BB BB BB 28 China AB AA CD DD BC CC AD AB BB BB AB AA

Kwaimi 6 Hawaii AA AA BD AC CD BC BD BD BB BB AB BB 29 China AB AA CD CD AB CC CD BC BB BB AA BB

Mauritius 7 Hawaii AA AA BD AC CD BC BD BD BB BB AB BB

34 Florida AA AA BD AD BC AC AB BD BB AB AA BB

• • 1 =Idh-1, 2 =Idh-2, 3 =Mdh-2, 4 =Per-1, 5 =Pgi-2, 6 = Pgm-1, 7 = Pgm-2, 8 =Skdh, 9 = Tpi-1, 10 = Tpi-2, 11 = Ugpp-1, 12 = Ugpp-2

- 40­ Field Trip Notes Craig Elevitch producing trees; Ka'aina Pono permanent ground covers and contour hedgerows for erosion control; An Enduring Agriculture - Land ofAbundance shelter belts (windbreaks) of useful species; Most indigenous cultures, such as the and .Hawaiians', cultivated the earth, fulfilling their integration of nutrient flows from aquaculture needs for food, materials and medicine for . and home waste with orchard. generations, balancing their needs with their natural resource base. The modem concept of Phased Implementation "permaculture" combines "permanent" and The full implementation of this design will "agriculture" to describe agricultural systems take shape in phases, over a period of about two which provide for people indefmitely. years: Permaculture draws from Hawaiian indigenous agriculture, either indigenous practices, and the Phase I 'July-September 1994: Establishment life sciences. to create enduring, productive of soil and water conservation measures systems that mimic the diversity and stability of including contour hedgerows and ground nature. Many farmers have begun to question the covers to. stabilize soil and boost fertility. ability of chemically-based agriculture to sustain Conversion of certain areas of the farm to itself, and are rediscovering the knowledge and agroforestry. methods upon which permanent agricultural Phase II October 1994-September 1995: systems have always been based. Ka'aina Pono has Expansion of plantings. Forming initial as its vision to be a model of permaculture in connections between the home, the Hawaii. aquaculture system, and the agroforestry component. Ka'aina Pono Project Goals Phase III October 1995-onward: Developing The permaculture project at Ka'aina Pono will systems to full-scale productivity, value-adding establish a model and a training center of self­ on-site and direct marketing. Extension work reliant, sustainableI resource for small land _ and model training center for sustainable holdings in the tropics. This will demonstrate: agriculture in the subhumid tropics. .

agroforestry systems with a regenerative effect Design Elements: on local ecology; Permanent Ground Cover commercial viability of diversified agriculture; The existing ground cover is a mixture of fast on-site generation and use of organic growing weeds common to areas regularly sprayed fertilizers; with Round-up: herbaceous shrubs such as spanish minimized off-site inputs of water and fuel; needles, legumes such as desmodium and mimosa optimal use of space and time for high (sleeping grass), and grasses. such as California productivity in a small area; and grass and wire grass. In this case we have a very soil and water conservation practices; tame mix of weeds, and we are proceeding by selectively pulling out the noxious weeds such as Long-term benefits of the permaculture California grass, rampand desmodium, and tall project at Ka'aina Pono will include: woody weeds. The grasses are removed and mulched or composted and soft herbs cut to establishment of a food forest ecosystem. regrow and provide organic matter. including commercial production, The nitrogen fixing vines Arachis pintoi enhanced natural beauty, added stability (perennial peanut) and Desmodium heterophyllum and fertility of· the land, improved (Hetero) will complement the existing weeds, with watershed (better moisture retention), other plants such as cherry tomatoes, poha, sweet resource self-sufficiency, and wildlife potato, nasturtium, etc., spotted in for diversity. habitat; The perennial peanut grows well in shady subhumid agroforestry, including multi­ conditions, and therefore makes a good ground purpose, nitrogen fixing, native, and food­ cover under tree canopies; hetero is an excellent

- 41 ~ edge plant for paths. Over time, the ground cover trees is essential in the development of the system. will evolve, consisting of the most useful and desirable weeds together with a low growing cover Tree-based Agriculture for the Subhumid Tropics of nitrogen fixers. . Tree crops' form the basis of a stable The addition of mineral amendments (rock agriculture in semiarid lands, primarily due to phosphate and lime at 500 Ibs/acre each) are used their extensive root systems, accumulation of to enhance the health of the vegetative flora. also, organic matter, and resilience to extended periods regular applications of agrispon metabolic soil of drought. A forest garden forms the core of . stimulator, humic acid; and algae micronutrients agricultural acitvites on the project. are low cost beneficial additions. Multipurpose Trees in Agricultural Systems Contour hedgerows Multipurpose trees give added stability to a The prime functions of contour hedgerows are natural farming system. Trees with more than a erosion control and organic matter production. single yield also give economic benefits to the hedgerows are pruned back about 3, times per farmer, albeit often these are difficult to measure year, with the trimmings used for mulch around economically. Some functions of trees that are of trees and shrubs. Certain hedgerow species can interest in arid lands are shade, fruits, medicine, also be used for animal fodder. insecticidal properties, nitrogen fixation, timber, Results from a recent LISA for Hawaii project fodder, erosion control, and wind control. (report available) on organic matter production indicated that the technique can replace a large Training Areas of Ethnobotanical Species proportion of chemical fertilizer, at the same or Arranged by place of origin, useful plant less cost. The cost of establishing, maintaining, and species are grouped to form living classrooms for· pruning the hedgerows was comparable to the cost ethnobotanical instruction. As more species are of fertilizer replaced, with many other added acquired, they will be introduced into the benefits such as erosion control, pole ~ood, fuel,. ethnobotanical islands: .America (Amazonia, and fodder. Soil nutrient levels in mulched areas Central America,Mexico), Asia (Indonesia, India, around trees improved by a factor of 3 or more. China), Hawaii (native Hawaiian and Polynesian Double hedgerows designed as per SCS introduced), and Persian. specifications were installed at Ka'aina Pono begining July 1994.· The primary species are: Integration of Animals Calliandra calothyrsus, Acacia angustissima, Animals play an essential role in the biological Leucaena diversifolia, Flemingia macrophylla, function of soils and plants: they move nutrients, Cajanus cajan (pigeon pea), Sesbania sesban, seeds, and. energy in a form of ecological Paraserianthes falcataria, and Cassia siamea. information transfer. Domestic animals such as ducks (pond-land ally) and chickens (garden-ally) Shelter Belts will be integrated. Desirable wild and feral animals Damaging winds are always a risk to plantings such as birds, bees, bats are also encouraged in Hawaii, making windbreaks an essential actively trhough provision of forage and habitat. element of an agricultural system. Shelterbelts protect from wind and provide privacy, fruits, Aquaculture beauty and wildlife habitat. Our windbreaks. The. pond systems which are proposed bring include fruit trees including coconut, jackfruit, and aquatic life into the system, such as fish, ducks, spodilla. A living fence of natal plum k~eps out frogs, etc. They demonstrate traditional and new intruding animals such as dogs, horses, and cows. waterpolycultures, including the use of diverse . pond edge and marsh area plantings to make Long-term Stacked Cropping System optimum use of the water resource. Additionally, Plant assemblies of groundlayer (e.g., herbs, they function as water storage and nutrient leguminous ground covers), mid-layer (papayas, reservoirs for use in plant fertigation. bananas), and upper-layer (e.g., fruit and timber species) form natural ecosystems. Such systems Commercial activities have the stability and productivity of natural The project exemplifies low-imput on-site forests, Microclimate enhancement us~g a nurse production· and value-added processing. crop of pioneering species such as nitrogen fixing Operations will be·certified by organic standards.

- 42­ Representative Multipurpose Plant List

Common Name Species Name A B C D E F G H I

Allspice Pimenta dioica 3 1 2 1 Avocado Persea americana 2 1 2 2 2 Breadfruit Artocarpus communis 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 Caimito. Chrysophyllum cainito 2 1 2 2 1 1 Canistel Pouteria campechiana 2 1 2 Cashew Anacardium occidentale 2 2 3 2 2 1 2 Cinnamon Cinnamomum zeylanicum 2 1 1 Clove Syzygium aromaticum 2 1 2 Coconut Cocos nucifera 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 2 Feijoa Feijoa sellowiana 2 2 2 1 1 Gruminchama Eugenia braziliensis 2 1 2 1 laboticaba Myrciaria cauliflora 1 2 lackfruit Artocarpus heterophyllum 3 2 2 2 2 2 3 Kukui Aleurites moluccana 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 Langsat Lansium domesticum 2 1 2 3 Longan Dimnocarpus longan 2 1 2 2 2 3 Loquat Eriobotrya japonica 1 1 2 2 Lychee Litchi chinensis 2 1 2 1 2 2 Mango Mangifera Indica 2 2 2 3 2 3 2 Mountain apple Eugenia malacsensis 2 2 2 2 1 1 Mulberry Morus nigra 2 3 2 3 2 3 1 2 2 Natal Plum Carissa grandiflora 2 2 3 1 Neem Azadirachta indica 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 Santol Sandoricum koetjape 1 1 1 1 Sapodilla Minilkara zapota 3 2 1 3 2 2 Seagrape Coccoloba uvifera 2 2 2 1 1 Strawberry guava Psidium litorale 2 3 3 2 2 2 1 2 2 Sugarcane Saccarum officianale 2 1 1 1 2 3 2 Surinam cherry Eugenia uniflora 2 1 1 1 1 White sapote Casimiroa edulis 2 2 2 2 1 1

A = Wind tolerance: 1=good as minor windbreak component; 2 = good windbreak; 3 =excellent wind tolerance. B= Pioneer: 1= grows in full sun, depleted soils; 2 = same as 1 but fast growing; 3 = same as 2 and vigorous and spreading. C= Drought tolerance: 1= 50+ inches annually, 1-2 months dry; 2= 30+ inches annually, 2-3 months dry; 3= 20+ inches annually, 3-5 months dry. D= Wet: 1= tolerates poor drainage; 2= tolerates poor drainage and flooding; 3= tolerates long periods submersed. E= Food: 1= out-of-hand or marginal quality; 2= good quality; 3= excellent quality F = Fodder: 1= has edible parts of marginal quality; 2 = good quality fodder; 3 = outstanding fodder quantity and quality. G = Fuel: 1=has burnable parts; 2 =good fuel source; 3 =excellent quality fuel products. H = Erosion: 1=fair stabilization of soils; 2 = good soil stabilization; 3= excellent erosion control. I = Wood: 1= marginal wood products; 2 = good wood for timber or crafts; 3 = excellent timber. Blank spaces= information not available.

- 43 ­ Biological Management of Understory Veg«:~ation in Macadamia Orchards

Kent Fleming and Kathleen Delate Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa

The objectives of the USDA Sustainable Both sheet erosion (even removal across sloping Agriculture Research and Education· project lands) and rill erosion (concentrated water flow in shown at the Kona Experiment Station are the rills) constitute the main forms of erosion on the following: farm site. Because rainfall and runoff can lead to soil To develop and to demonstrate large-sale and detachment and erosion, we designed a catchment small-scale orchard-pastoral management system to quantify soil loss from the sites. In order systems which inCorporate sound grazing and to ascertain the effect of sheep grazing on the flock management strategies that complement erosion hazard of the farm site, we began orchard operations. measlJring the following parameters: montWy To identify and to quantify the biological, soil (i.e. quantity of rainfall; and volume of overland flow overland flow and sediment loading) and social (rainfall erosivity). factors associated with the inclusion of grazing Results demonstrate a reduction of overland animals in orchard environments. flow of rain in the sheep-grazed (agro-pastoral) To determine the economic feasibility of system compared with the conventional system. sustainable macadamia nut, avocado, and (Table 1), leading to a lower erosion hazard in this lychee orchard production systems which rely system. Comparison of ·nutrient runoff from the on biological methods, and to compare the two sites may also demonstrate the value of sheep­ economics of the sustainable system with the grazed orchards in retaining nitrogen and conventional (more chemically dependent phosphorus in soil vs. leaching into groundwater commercial prodl,lction system). resources. Organic agro-pastoral management was more This site is located at about 1,500 ft. elevation complicated than initially anticipated. High tensile in arid, rocky mountainous terrain on the leeward electric fencing was the most cost-effective means side of the Island of Hawaii. The climate is of containing the flock and excluding predators. characterized by tropical temperatures (60 to 80 However, since the organic farmers could not use degrees F) with rainy summers and dry winters. herbicides to control weeds at the base of the The terrain is primarily a ~ lava partially covered . fence, hand weeding was required. This process with a thin layer of easily erodable tropical soil. was excessively time consuming; thus, we designed The soil is nitrogen-leached and low in organic a fencing system (hog wire with one electric strand matter. The addition of nutrients via compost along the top to e~clude predators) which would and/or animal manures is critical for sustainable eliminate the weeding. It could function effectively crop production. The main focus of the project for but would involve a higher capital cost. Another 1993-94 was the· quantification of soil erosion in alternative would be to eliminate the top strand the pastoral-orchard systems versus the and place a donkey inside with the sheep to conventionally managed orchard (herbicide/ protect the sheep from predators, as has been mowing). Monitoring the erosion hazard of a suggested by various shepherds. particular farm site is essential in assuring the Other problems that occurred with sheep sustainability of the farm enterprise. Through a grazing under avocado trees mcluded their de­ monitoring program, one can detect wind and . barking the tree roots and trunk. De-barking is water patterns which create problems for field harmful to the health of the tree and reduces stability. Accelerated. erosion is induced by avocado yield. Uncontrolled de-barking will kill activities such as the raising of crops and livestock. the tree. However, it appears that sheep do not The inclusion of conservation practices, such as initially de-bark; rather, it is a learned behavior. cover crops and reducing tillage operations, will Unfortunately once they begin to de-bark, it is help serve to mitigate the erosion hazard by difficult to reverse this behavior. However, it does providing a protective barrier to erosive factors. appear that· de-barkers can be culled (or

- 44­ transferred to a macadamia nut orchard) and new sheep, the gross savings from utilizing sheep to sheep can be introduced to the avocado orchard to supplement orchard weed control and pruning avoid the debarking problem. activities amounted to $121 per acre per year. It is believed that the sheep must be rotated There were no net costs associated with using the periodically to avoid over-grazing and feeding on sheep in that their costs were more than covered alternate sources (bark and husks). Currently, by lamb sales. (The price for finished lambs has sheep are rotated every 7-8 weeks; the ideal been rising steadily and the sheep enterprise may rotational program should be based on the therefore eventually generate a significant direct . condition of· the grass and sheep consumption profit, but conceptually the sheep will continue to rates. A critical area is necessary for a sheep be viewed as "mowing/pruning machines") grazing project; an acre of orchard with sufficient The greatest contribution of this project will be ground cover between tree rows should suffice for the development of an economically feasible agro­ a flock of five sheep. The lychee and macadamia pastoral system, using sheep for weed nut orchard at the Kona Experiment Station management, pruning and nutritional appears to supply an adequate amount of pasture enhancement in tropical orchatd systems. Orchard grazing area (one acre) during the summer and production is the major diversified agricultural fall seasons of adequate rains. During the dry commodity group in hawaii. and with the decline winter months, however, an alternate pasture area of the sugar and pineapple plantations, orchard and/or feed must be provided. production is becoming a relatively more The primary economic benefit of the agro­ important component of the state's agricultural pastoral system is significantly lower weed control . sector. Information on sustainable alternatives to and pruning costs. The sheep enterprise itself is herbicides for orchard weed control, lower input not thought of as a "profit center." Rather the alternatives to high labor costs, and sustainable enterprise operating costs are covered by the sale alternatives to highly leachable, synthetic of lambs in .the fall. The small-scale sheep fertilizers because of the potential for new enterprises are managed by orchardists with little restrictions on groundwater pollutants under the or no livestock experience and the enterprise is Coastal Zone Management Act will help farmers not envisioned to be an intensive, profit­ consider alternatives to conventional farming. maximizing effort, but at MacFarms, with 610

Table 1. Catchment system output and rainfall• .•. . Time Period AccumUlated Overland Overland Rainfall Flow- Flow- No Sheep Sheep Included 10/19/93 to 1.50 in. 25.75 in. (in 22.00 in. 11/9/93 catchment barrel) 11/9/93 to 1.40 6.75 2.50 11/18/93 11/18/93to 3.77 13.75 1.25 3/4/93 3/4/94 to 5/24/94 6.38 17.00 6.50 5/24/94 to 4.55 16.00 3.25 6/30/94 6/30/94 to 2.31 10.50 3.25 7/15/94 7/15/94 to 0.97 6.88 0.75 7/29/9494 7/29/94 to 2.05 8.75 2.50 8/12/94 8/12/94 to 8/26 3.20 26.25 9.00 8/26/94 to 9/1/94 3.52 53.00 44.50

.. - 45 ­ Appendix: Australian System of Funding Research and Promotion

The following was presented by H C. Bittenbefuler, government through the HRDC. Department of Horticulture, University of Hawaii at Strategy Manoa. The infonnation comes from "Horticultural In 1992/93 the Corporation added quality R&D Funding - An Overview" (April 1994), a management as a strategy area aimed at summary of the operations of the Horticultural supporting the development of Quality Research & Development Corporation, New South Management Systems (QMS). This area is now Wales, Australia. supporting 12 projects with a total budget in excess of $350,000; Over the past· 12 months the Horticultural In supporting industry participation in QMS, Research and· Development Corporation (HRDC) the Corporations's objective is to obtain has seen continued growth in its funding activities. information on the costs and benefits to The research and development .program horticultural industries of an investment in a undertaken by the HRDC has grown from $9.5 quality management system. million in 1991/92 to $17 million in 1993/94 - a Research into pest and disease management pleasing result. given the overall economic continues to make up a significant part of overall environment. Corporation funding. It should be realized Strong growth of funding is expected to however, tha.t this research is directed toward continue in the areas of genetic improvement, pest reducing industry reliance on pesticides through and disease management and value adding and the use of integrated pest management systems in new product development. order to meet consumer and market requirements. The increased financial commitment of In the area of genetic improvement, the participating industries reflects acceptance of the HRDC initiated a review of potato breeding and Corporation as the research .arm of the variety information in order to· assess the overall horticultural industries. Each industry, through a benefits to industry of work in this area. As a research and development committee is able to result of this. review a National Management establish its own program based on identified Committee was put in place to ensure the priorities and this close involvement with the breeding and evaluation program continues to Corporation in determining the funding of meet industry needs. projects gives each industry a sense of ownership; The Corporation continues to strongly support. and responsibility for its own research needs. technology transfer through the use of· Industry Development Officers (IDO's). While extension Levies activities are required to be inherent in all projects New R&D levies were introduced for cherries supported by HRDC, the use of IDO's provides a and custard apples during 1993/94 and the rates of strong industry focus and communication structure levy for the apple, pear, and macadamia industries through which to disseminate research results. were increased: Negotiations have continued with In overall terms the R&D effort is directed at the tablegrape, stonefruit and vegetable industries maintaining and improving present viability, while over the introduction of levies. at the same time investing in the future growth In addition to this, a strong level of voluntary and international competitiveness of Australian contributions was achieved in what was a difficult horticulture. financial year for many horticultural industries. The continuing strong level of voluntary Industry Liaison/Planning contribution indicates a firm long term In developing its research program the commitment by industries to support R&D Corporation has consulted closely with a wide activities as an investment in the future. range of industry bodies including: eligible However, despite the promising outlook there industry bodies in the citrus, apple and pear, still remains a number of industries who are not nursery, macadamia, potato, avocado, chestnut yet taking full advantage of the funding and nashi industries (statutory levies); industry arrangements provided by the Commonwealth organization. such as the Queensland Fruit and

- 46 ­ 1993/94 R&D Program - by Corporate S,trategy

millions

R&D Program 1993/94 - by Industry

Thousands _._-----_._------, $3,000

$2,500

$2,000

$1,500 _.

$1,000

$500

Vegetable Growers and the mushroom and of the Corporation's objectives and activities and processing tomato industries (voluntary assisting individual industries to develop research contribution arrangement); and other R&D and development priorities. Corporations (opportunites for coordination and The HRDC reports to levy paying industries cooperation). annually as part of its statutory requirements, and The HRDC recognizes the importance of this liaises continually with these and other non-levy . consultation in promoting a better understanding paying industries at other times.

- 47­ The Corporation has used planning workshops in 1988' with the aim of improving the efficiency for the cherry, vegetable and stonefruit, industries and competitiveness of Australian horticulture and to develop programs and determine industry ensuring accountabilitY for expenditure on research and development priorities. The use of research and development. formal workshops has assisted in developing R&D Funding of research and development by the priorities tuned to the needs of individual HRDC is on the basis of equal cost s~aring by industries. industry and the Commonwealth Government on Industry liaison also continues through a dollar for dollar basis up to a set maximum level individual industry research and development based on 0.5% the industry's gross level of committees which review applications submitted production. A percentage of project cost has been to the HRDC for funding. These committees extablished as an administration charge, half of make recommendations to the Corporation on which comes from the industry and the other half funding priorities based on industry needs. from the Commonwealth. This administration charge has been reduced from 20% in 1988/89 to R&D Coordination 7% in 1993/94.

The HRDC has continued to support a series Funds are collected J in one of three ways: a of research .coordination meetings aimed at statutory levy (introduced at industry request minimizing the degree of duplication of research following widespread consultation) a voluntary effort. In 1993/94 meetings were held to address levy or through project related voluntary research in the followPtg areas: cadmium, citrus contribution (used to address a specific industry breeding and evaluation, citrus quality R&D need). management, Western Flower Thrips, Integrated HRDC's coordinating role covers all Pest Management (IPM) for potatoes, horticultural products including fruits, vegetables, disinfestation and market access. nuts, turf, nursery products, and cut flowers and foliage and includes production, postharvest and How the HRDC operates processing research and development. The only As the body responsible for the coordination specific restriction to the type of research and and funding of horticultural .research and development projects eligible for consideration development, the Horticultural Research and are that they must relate to. horticultural products Development Corporation is the research arm of and be of direct relevance to industry priorities. the Australian horticultural industries. In 1994/95 the HRDC estimates it will support A self-supporting Australian Government a budgeted program of close to $20 million. statutory organization, the HRDC was established

IIRDC Total R&D )lrogralll - 1988/89 to 1993/94

MilHons ._--.._.. _ ...._._--­ $20

$15

$10

:: ~J[""J~l 1988/89 t 989/90 t 990/9 t 1991/92 1992/93 1993/94

Year

- 48­ ·4'.

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension Work, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Depart­ ment of Agriculture. Roy K. Nishimoto, Interim Dean and Director, Cooperative Extension Service, College of Tropical Agri­ culture and Human Resources, University of Hawai'i at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawai'i 96822. An Equal Opportunity Employer/ Affirmative Action Institution providing programs and services to the citizens of lIawai'i without regard to race, color, na­ tional origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political beliefs, and marital or familial status. HITAHR 08.10.95 (.5M)