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CHAPTER Consciousness, , and 37 Postmaterialist : An Empirical and Experiential Approach

Gary E. Schwartz

Abstract Consciousness and spirituality are inherently experiential processes. The defi nition of “spirituality” ranges from (1) personal opinions regarding the of and being part of something greater, through (2) of transcendental states and oneness, to (3) beliefs regarding the of , life after , , angels and guides, and some sort of omnipresent infi nite and power. Academic has typically taken a materialistic view toward consciousness and spirituality; both are interpreted as neurobiological processes shaped by genetics and developmental and cultural factors. However, as reviewed in this chapter, contemporary consciousness research provides emerging proof-of- evidence suggesting that (1) is separate from , (2) spirit and are comparable to and that persist in the of , (3) people can receive intuitive information that is accurate and useful in their and , and (4) physical and psychological health can be fostered by active loving spiritual processes. The evidence points toward the of a postmaterialist in psychology and science in general. Key Words: consciousness, spirituality, , postmaterialism, the mind–brain relationship, the Big Five, , survival of consciousness, continuity of consciousness, spirit, soul, infor- mation, energy, , energy healing, spiritual healing, angels, guides, infi nite intelligence,

When Kepler found his long-cherished did not agree with the most precise observation, he accepted the uncomfortable fact. He preferred the hard truth to his dearest ; that is the heart of science. —Carl Sagan

Do not bite my fi nger; look where I am pointing. —Warren McCulloch

Introduction in consciousness and spirituality and to integrate Th e broad title of this chapter—“Consciousness, them with real-life experiences. Spirituality, and Postmaterialist Science: An Consciousness is inherently an experiential pro- Empirical and Experiential Approach”—was sug- cess (Tart, 2009); it is only witnessed directly by the gested by the editors. It provides a unique oppor- having the experiences. Th e same applies to tunity for the author and readers to explore the spirituality (Walsh, 2000). Whether we defi ne “spir- relationship between empirical research and theory ituality” as (1) a of personal opinions about the

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and/or as being part of something theoretical question of the potential existence of greater, (2) experiences of transcendence and/or “spirit” and “soul” is examined in light of parallels a of oneness with everything, or (3) involving energy and information. beliefs about the actual existence of a greater spir- Th e chapter then examines the possibility that itual , including spirits, life after death, rein- people can intuitively receive information from carnation, angels and guides, and/or some sort of “spirit” that is potentially accurate as well as use- omnipresent and omnipotent intelligence, they all ful in real-life situations. Research is reviewed involve conscious processes. on medical intuition, and examples are provided Th e scope of this chapter, as proposed by the involving the author and his research staff that title, invites us to examine contemporary con- illustrate how “spirit-assisted” intuition can be sciousness research as it relates to spirituality and practiced in daily life. postmaterialist science, from both an empirical and Th e relationship of spirituality to health is exam- experiential point of view. It turns out that research ined next from the theoretical possibility of “spirit- on the cutting edge of consciousness science points assisted” healing. Exemplary proof-of-concept strongly to the possibility that (3) some sort of research and observations are reviewed that illustrate larger spiritual reality actually exists (Schwartz, how psychology and are being potentially 2011; Tart, 2009). In light of this possibility, the expanded and advanced in this area. emerging proof-of-concept research has profound Finally, the chapter looks to the future and con- potential implications for the fi eld of psychology siders some of the profound implications for psy- as a whole. It also has signifi cant potential impli- chology and society that stem from the possibility cations and applications to virtually all aspects of that this emerging vision of consciousness and life. Th is chapter integrates state-of-the-art spirituality is valid. Th e implications range from proof-of-concept research and theory on conscious- experimental designs, through alternative interpre- ness and postmaterialist science as it relates to the tations of psychological and data, to existence of a greater spiritual reality, with examples new postmaterialist applications in technology and of real life applications. education. Th e concept of “-science” is explored Th e chapter focuses on “proof-of-concept” as an emerging paradigm for integrating contem- research primarily because much of the research is in porary consciousness and spirituality research and its early stages. Given the of the topic—that fostering “evidence-based spirituality” in daily life. is, the possible existence of a greater spiritual reality and its relationship to consciousness—the research Materialism and the Mind-Brain Problem is inherently controversial, at least as viewed by Mainstream psychology, neuroscience, and sci- conventional psychology, neuroscience, and main- ence in general typically adopt a materialistic view stream science in general. However, the collection of nature and the . Materialism is the belief of proof-of-concept research fi ndings, when consid- that (1) what is real is physical , that (2) only ered as a whole, not only demonstrate the feasibility matter exists, and that (3) everything that happens of conducting large-scale systematic research in this in nature and the universe can be understood and area, but it illustrates the promise of this research for explained in materialistic terms (Tart, 2009). In increasing our of human nature (and psychology this belief is expressed in terms of the nature in general) as well as evolving our relationship of mind and brain; consciousness is as a species. assumed to be a by-product or “epiphenomenon” of Th e chapter begins with the fundament “mind- brain function (e.g., an emergent property of neural brain” problem—is consciousness a by-product of networks). Note that a materialistic interpretation brain function, or is it separate from the brain? It of the mind–brain relationship precludes the pos- illustrates how mainstream theory in electronics sibility that a greater spiritual/nonmaterial reality and electrical engineering, combined with state-of- could, in principle, exist. the-art empirical research addressing the survival of Th ere is no question that adopting a materialistic consciousness (SOC) after death hypothesis, point perspective helped science historically break away to the serious possibility that consciousness as a pro- from the constraints and biases (including censor- cess is ultimately separate from the brain. Included is a ship) of various religious institutions. Moreover, discussion of the challenge of determining whether scientifi c methods based upon materialistic philoso- consciousness has , and whether evidence phy have been highly successful in not only increas- of intention is observed in research. Th e ing our understanding of nature and the universe

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but also in obtaining greater control and freedom Th e logic is as follows: If the brain is solely respon- through advances in technology. It is understandable sible for the existence of consciousness, then when how materialism became the cardinal assumption in the brain dies, consciousness should die. Th ere are mainstream science. no ifs, ands, or buts to the logic; this is an essential, Not surprisingly, when the assumption of mate- even absolute, prediction of materialism. It follows rialism is questioned today, it typically evokes that if empirical SOC research documented that and criticism, if not consternation, by consciousness continued after physical death, the conventional scientists. Th e history of materialism materialistic interpretation would be resoundingly is comprehensively reviewed, and seriously chal- refuted. lenged, in Tart’s (2009) visionary and controver- Before we review contemporary SOC research, sial book Th e End of Materialism. A distinguished it is helpful to examine how psychology and neu- researcher at the frontiers of consciousness science, roscience routinely come to the conclusion that Tart reviews what he calls the “Big Five” areas of consciousness is created by the brain, followed by “anomalous” consciousness research—often labeled the compelling logic that clearly explains how this as parapsychology—which together question the assumed-to-be-true conclusion is actually (and ulti- foundation of a simple materialistic perspective. mately fatally) fl awed. Th e fi ve areas are as follows: (1) Precognition, the ability to predict the Does Consciousness Require a Brain? future. Th e information sometimes comes as a Th ere are three types of experimental evidence vision, a mental fl ash, or a . that together seem to point to the conclusion that (2) Telepathy, often called mind reading or consciousness is created by the brain. Th e word mind-to-mind communication. It literally means “seem” is emphasized here because careful examina- “distant feeling.” tion of the totality of evidence, when viewed from the (3) Clairvoyance, the ability to perceive remote perspective of electronics and electrical engineering, places, objects, or people. In science it is typically reveals how the evidence is actually as consistent with referred to as “remote viewing.” the explanation that the mind is separate from the brain (4) Psychokinesis, the ability to move objects as it is with the explanation that the mind is created by with the power of mind only. the brain. Unfortunately it is not widely appreciated (5) Healing, spiritual practices (often equated by mainstream scientists that the three experimental with energy) that may aff ord gradual relief from approaches used to investigate mind–brain relation- or sickness and may sometimes bring about a ships do not, by themselves, require a materialistic sudden “miraculous” healing. conclusion—and they are wholly consistent with a nonmaterialistic (postmaterialist) explanation. Space precludes reviewing the substantial body Th e three kinds of evidence are as follows: of replicated research in each of these fi ve areas that together strongly justify Tart’s sweeping conclusion. 1. Evidence from recordings— What is important to recognize here is that a large record brain waves (via electroencephalograms body of methodologically sound research exists in [EEGs]) using sensitive electronic devices. For these fi ve separate areas and serves as a compel- example, it is well known that occipital alpha ling challenge to the conclusion that consciousness waves decrease when people see visual objects or can be explained solely as a by-product of brain imagine them. processes. 2. Evidence from stimulation—Various areas A sixth area of research—on the possibility of of the brain can be stimulated using electrodes SOC after physical death (Braude, 2003; Fontana, placed inside the head or magnetic coils placed 2005; Schwartz, 2002, 2005, 2011; van Lommel, outside the head. For example, stimulation of the 2010)—is emerging that potentially provides occipital cortex is typically associated with people “proof” that materialism is in error, and that some experiencing visual sensations and images. sort of a postmaterialist paradigm is called for. Th e 3. Evidence from ablation—Various areas of the word “proof” is used here intentionally because if brain can be removed with surgical techniques (or the fi ndings from this emerging research are valid— areas can be damaged through injury or disease). the word if is important here—then an essential For example, when areas of the occipital cortex are core prediction of the materialistic premise will have damaged, people and lower lose aspects of been eff ectively disproved. vision.

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Th e generally accepted—and seemingly com- It should be clear how this basic logic—as applied monsense—neuroscience interpretation of this set to television receivers—can equally be applied to of fi ndings is that visual is created by the neural network (brain) receivers. Th e three kinds brain. of evidence (correlation, stimulation, and ablation) However, the critical question is whether this cre- only allow us to conclude that television sets—as ation of consciousness explanation is the only possible well as —play some sort of role in visual expe- interpretation of this set of fi ndings. Th e answer is rience. Th e truth is that the three kinds of evidence, actually no. Th e three kinds of evidence are also con- by themselves, do not tell us whether either televi- sistent with the brain as being a receiver of external con- sion sets or brains: sciousness information (Schwartz, 2002, 2005, 2011). (1) “self-create” the information internally— Th e reasoning is straightforward and is illustrated the materialist assumption, or in electronics and electrical engineering. Th ough it (2) function as complex receivers of external is rare to discuss an electronics example in the con- information—which allows for both survival of text of a psychology monograph (especially one consciousness after death and a larger spiritual focused on and spirituality), it turns out to reality. be prudent and productive to do so here. In other words, the three kinds of evidence, by Consider the television (be it analog or digital). It themselves, do not speak to (and do not enable us is well known—and generally accepted—that tele- to determine) whether the signals—the information visions work as receivers for processing information fi elds—are: carried by external electromagnetic fi elds oscillat- (1) coming from inside the system (the ing in specifi c frequency bands. Television receivers materialistic interpretation applied to brains), do not create the visual information (i.e., they are or not the source of the information) —they detect the information, amplify it, process it, and display it. (2) coming from outside the system (the Apparently it is not generally appreciated that interpretation routinely applied to televisions). electrical engineers conduct the same three kinds It follows that additional kinds of experiments are of experiments as neuroscientists do. Th e parallel required to distinguish between the “self-creation” between the brain and the television is essentially versus “receiver” hypotheses. perfect. Experiments on the SOC hypothesis with skilled research mediums provide an important fourth 1. Evidence from recordings—Electrical kind of evidence that can neither be predicted nor engineers can monitor signals inside the television explained by the self-creation (i.e., materialism) set using sensitive electronic devices. For example, hypothesis, but it can be predicted and explained electrodes can be placed on particular components by the receiver hypothesis (Schwartz, 2002, 2005, in circuits that correlate with the visual images seen 2011). on the screen. It should be noted that in physics, external elec- 2. Evidence from stimulation—Electrical tromagnetic fi elds are not labeled as being “mate- engineers can stimulate various components of rial” per se. Th ese fi elds do not have mass (e.g., the television using electrodes placed inside the they do not have weight) and are invisible; they television set or magnetic coils placed outside are described by a set of equations that characterize the set. For example, particular circuits can be an as-yet-unexplained property of the “vacuum” of stimulated with specifi c patterns of information, space (which may be empty of “mass” but is actually and replicable patterns can be observed on the TV full of energy and information). screen. 3. Evidence from ablation—Electrical engineers Contemporary Experiments on Survival of can remove various components from the Consciousness television (or areas can be damaged or wear out). Th e SOC hypothesis has been investigated For example, key components can be removed and for more than 100 years. Gauld’s (1984) book, the visual images on the screen will disappear. and Survival: A Century of Investigations, However, do these three kinds of evidence imply provides a comprehensive review of this research up that the source or origin of the TV signals is inside to the early 1980s. the television—that is, that the television created the Th ough much of this research was conducted in signals? Th e answer is obviously no. England, infl uential research was also conducted in

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the United States, most notably by , Internet, and the sitter, located in a diff erent state, the father of experimental psychology. James inves- did not know when the reading had taken place. tigated a number of mediums— who All information—including initials, names, his- purportedly receive information from deceased torical facts, physical descriptions, and personal individuals—especially Mrs. Piper (see Blum, 2007; descriptions—were typically scored, item by item, Gauld, 1984). using a 7-point scale, from –3 (a complete miss) to Contemporary research has been conducted +3 (a complete hit). In some experiments the sitters in the Laboratory for Advances in Consciousness scored more than a thousand items. and Health (formally the Human Energy Systems A growing group of research-oriented mediums Laboratory) at the University of Arizona (reviewed (n = 15) who (1) claimed high success rates in their in Schwartz, 2002, 2005, 2011). private practice of mediumship, (2) were interested Th e early experimental designs were mostly sin- in the science of mediumship and typically donated gle blinded; the medium was blind to the iden- their , and (3) recognized the risks involved (for tity of the sitters (e.g., Schwartz & Russek, 2001; example, they knew that if they were caught cheat- Schwartz, Russek, & Barentsen, 2002; Schwartz, ing, they would be exposed) have participated in as Russek, Nelson, & Barentsen, 2001). Some explor- few as one experiment or as many as eight experi- atory experiments designs were double blinded; not ments. A larger group of research-oriented sitters only was the medium blind to the of the (approximate total n = 50) who (1) experienced one sitters, but the sitters were blind to the identity of or more signifi cant of loved ones, (2) were their personal readings (Schwartz, 2002). Th is was interested in the SOC hypothesis for personal and/ accomplished by not allowing the sitter to hear or scientifi c and typically donated their the readings when they occurred. Th e sitters later time, and (3) agreed to spend the many hours nec- received transcripts of their personal readings as well essary to score the transcripts, sometimes under sit- as the readings of others, and they blindly score all ter-blinded conditions, have participated in as few the information. as one experiment or as many as four experiments. Also, some experiments were double-blinded in Space precludes presenting a detailed review that the medium was blind to the identity of the sit- of these experiments here (they are reviewed in ters and the experimenter was blind to information Schwartz, 2002, 2005, 2011). Briefl y, the average regarding the sitter’s deceased loved ones (Schwartz, accuracy (counting only +3’s as hits, a conservative 2002;2005). estimate of accuracy per experiment) has ranged Th e most recent experimental designs were tri- from 40% to 80% for actual readings compared to ple blinded; for example, the research assistant who 10% to 40% for control readings. Sitters have varied received the transcripts, and interacted with the widely in how readily mediums obtain information sitters, was blind to which readings were associ- about their deceased loved ones; the range for indi- ated with which sitters (e.g., Beischel & Schwartz, vidual sitters’ readings is from 0% (very rare, but 2007. observed on a few occasions) to 100% (also rare, All of the experiments (single, double, or tri- but observed on a few occasions). pled blinded) eliminated visual cues. Depending Th e totality of the experiments eff ectively rules upon the study, the medium and sitter were in the out potential conventional psychological explana- same room, separated by a screen, or the medium tions of (1) fraud, (2) “cold reading” techniques and sitters were in separate locations, separated by used by fake mediums (psychic entertainers) to coax hundreds or thousands of miles of distance, and information from sitters, (3) visual, auditory, and the readings were conducted by phone (and even olfactory cues, (4) sitter rater bias, (5) vague, general e-mail). information, (6) statistical guessing, and (7) exper- Some experiments eliminated auditory cues. imenter eff ects. Depending upon the study, the medium may have Th e totality of the experiments also essentially spent the fi rst 10 minutes attempting to receive rules out one potential anomalous (i.e., paranor- whatever information she or he could get about the mal) explanation: the possibility of telepathy (or sitter in the room, but the medium was not allowed mind reading) by the medium of the sitter’s mind. to ask questions, and the sitter was not allowed For example, in numerous experiments research to speak (termed the “sitter silent condition”), or mediums obtained information that the sitter did the medium conducted the reading in his or her not know, which was subsequently confi rmed by own home and conveyed the information via the relatives or friends living hundreds or thousands of

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miles from the sitter and the medium. And in triple- CCD cameras, are presumed to refl ect the accurate blinded experiments, the experimenter (the proxy history of star light traveling for millions or billions “sitter”) was blind to information about the sitter; of years. hence, the mediums could not have been read- It is well established that the as ing the mind of the proxy sitter (experimenter) to whole, and each of its individual organs and cells, obtain the accurate information they received about refl ect and emit super-complex patterns of photons the sitter’s deceased loved ones. that also travel out into space and continue to do so. Schwartz has concluded that when the fi nd- Th is fact has been documented by super-sensitive ings are viewed collectively as a whole, the sim- spy satellites in space that can not only see plest and most parsimonious explanation of the on but record other frequencies of photon data (Ockham’s razor) —including “dazzle shots” emission that identify individuals, including infra- of remarkably specifi c and unique pieces of infor- red and ultraviolet frequencies of light. Like the mation that may be unknown to the sitter—is the information from star light, the photonic informa- SOC hypothesis. tion refl ected and emitted by biological systems is Schwartz et al.’s fi ndings have been independently presumed to be nonliving and nonconscious. replicated in Scotland (Roy & Robertson, 2001, Interestingly, the information received by research 2004) as well as by researchers at the University of mediums does not appear to be “dead.” Mediums do Virginia (Kelly & Arcangel, 2011) ). At the time not describe the process of receiving the information this chapter was written, a complex quintuple-blind as if they are watching a movie or reading a book. experiment was being carried out by Dr. Beishel and Th ey describe the information retrieval process as being colleagues at the Windbridge Institute. dynamic, interactive, often surprising, and even some- confrontational. In other words, the information Is Th e Emerging Evidence Proof of Survival seems like communication with a living person. of Consciousness? Th e information appears as if it is “intentional.” Th ough this collection of experiments, taken Various authors have described instances where together, point strongly to some sort of noncon- the information evidences compelling qualities of ventional mechanism of information reception on (reviewed in Fontana, 2005; Gauld, the part of the mediums, they do not establish the 1984); however, no laboratory research to date has source of the information. examined this observation systematically. Various authors have written about alterna- Schwartz and colleagues have begun to exam- tive possible paranormal explanations—sometimes ine the apparent intentional nature of SOC com- called “super-psi” —that might be imagined to munications. Schwartz (2011) has reviewed a set possibly explain these observations (e.g., Braude, of compelling case examples, some observed in the 2003). Th e most speculative is the notion that context of double-blinded laboratory experiments mediums somehow retrieve information about the that provide signifi cant proof-of-concept observa- deceased that was presumably left, and continues tions, which individually and collectively support to exist, in the “vacuum” of space—in physics this the intentionality hypothesis. Th e combined evi- is termed the “quantum hologram” (also the “zero- dence points to the experiential as well as empirical point fi eld”). Th e implication here is that although nature of this work. the information continues to exist, it is “dead infor- mation.” In other words, the speculation presumes Integrating Experiential and Empirical that the information is not “conscious” and there- Approaches to Survival of Consciousness fore does not indicate the presence of a living, con- In one example, Schwartz (2005) explains how scious mind. immediately after Susy Smith, a famous lay scien- Schwartz (2002, 2005, 2008, 2011) has pointed tist and author of 30 books in parapsychology and out that in astrophysics it is assumed that photons SOC had died (e.g., Smith, 2000), information was of light emitted by distant stars continue to travel received by mediums that continued for months. in the vacuum of space long after a given star has Schwartz came to know Ms. Smith well before she “died.” Th e foundation of astrophysics is based on died. Th ough the information received could not the assumption that photons in the vacuum of space be explained by conventional psychological mecha- do not signifi cantly lose their information. Th e pat- nisms (e.g., fraud, rater bias, sensory leakage), the terns of star light as witnessed in a dark night sky, or information per se did not rule out possible “super- as sensitively recorded with contemporary low-light psi” explanations.

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A particular research medium participated in to e-mail the information to Schwartz, who presum- a private personal exploratory investigation with ably would know what to do with the information. Schwartz (reported in Schwartz, 2011). Th e medium Schwartz wondered whether the unknown conducted long-distance readings by e-mail 5 days woman allegedly read by the medium could be the a week for more than 10 weeks; the medium lived deceased sister. Mustering his courage, he called the more than 1,000 miles from Tucson. Th e medium older sister. He explained the strange circumstances was kept blind to Schwartz’s activities, including of the unexpected and surprising e-mail reading and his travel schedule. Th e medium was requested to asked her whether she would be willing to score the contact Ms. Smith in the mornings on Mondays information. Schwartz read her the information, through Fridays and ask her two questions: (1) what item by item, over the phone. Th e scoring took had Ms. Smith witnessed Schwartz doing in the pre- about an hour. Th e sister’s scoring of the accuracy vious 24 hours, and (2) what did she see happening of the e-mail reading was greater than 80%. Both within the next 24 hours that might be memorable the sister and Schwartz were moved by the sponta- or meaningful for Schwartz. neity, timing, and accuracy of this apparent “spirit- Th e accuracy of the information received (scored initiated” reading. by Schwartz using the procedures described previ- What actually convinced Schwartz that this ously) averaged around 80%. Th ough the informa- might be a genuine reading was a highly specifi c and tion appeared to be communication-like in nature, novel piece of information regarding eagles. Th e and though this is a necessary condition for inferring medium claimed that the deceased sister wanted intentionality, it is not by itself suffi cient to estab- her family to know that she loved eagles, and that lish intentionality, and Schwartz was well aware of eagles were important to her life. Sobbing on the this fact. phone, the older sister explained the following: (1) Th en, something completely unexpected hap- her deceased sister had indeed loved eagles; (2) she pened that proved to be scientifi cally propitious as collected statues of eagles, (3) that instead of her well as productive. Schwartz was on the East Coast, ashes being present at the memorial service, one of meeting with a woman whose younger sister, a sur- her deceased sister’s favorite eagle statues was dis- geon, had recently died of brain cancer. Th e older played, and (4) the song “Fly Like an Eagle” was sister asked Schwartz to meet with her parents who selected to be played at the service. To prove this to were Holocaust survivors and were grieving the Schwartz, the older sister later mailed him a VHS death of their younger daughter. video tape of the service verifying these facts. In the car on the way to the parents’ home on a At this point Schwartz had witnessed hundreds of Saturday morning, the sister shared how she wished research readings, and he knew that at no time had she could have had a compelling reading with a a medium ever spontaneously brought up informa- gifted psychic who could convince her that her youn- tion about an eagle. Moreover, he realized that what ger sister was okay and still with them. Schwartz he had just witnessed was extraordinary—the possi- recounted how in the car he about how bility that one deceased person could intentionally bring fortunate he had been for having received over 50 a second deceased person to a medium. Moreover, in evidential (i.e., accurate) readings with a medium this instance not only was the medium blind to the via e-mail, and he secretly wished this family could identity of the second “mystery” deceased person, have had a similar experience with a medium. but the medium was blind to the possibility that Th e next morning, Schwartz received an unex- this could happen in the fi rst place. A very unusual pected and surprising e-mail from the medium. She and compelling set of circumstances apologized for e-mailing him on a Sunday, but she Th is unexpected observation inspired the crea- explained that something strange had happened. She tion of what Schwartz called the “double-deceased” had been driving on Saturday morning when pur- research paradigm. He further realized that double- portedly Ms. Smith showed up unannounced in the blinded experiments could be designed using this car, accompanied by an unknown deceased woman, “spirit-mediated” double-deceased research par- and Susy insisted that the medium do a reading on adigm. As described in Schwartz (2011), collab- the mystery woman ASAP. Th e medium claimed orating with a second scientist on the East Coast, that she pulled over to the side of the road and, as they conducted a dual-location, double-blinded, allegedly requested, did a reading with the unknown double-deceased proof-of-concept personal explor- woman. Th e medium carefully wrote down the infor- atory experiment, and obtained promising positive mation; Ms. Smith then supposedly instructed her results.

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Space precludes discussing additional proof-of- information. In physics, energy refers to the capac- concept observations (1) where the deceased appear ity to do work and overcome resistance. Energy to have “ of their own,” as well as (2) various refl ects power, force, vibration, vitality. Interestingly ways in which the spirit intentionality hypothesis the term “spirit” is often associated with life, vital- can be operationalized and put to experimental test ity, passion, strength, conviction. Note that by def- (see Schwartz, 2011). What is important to rec- inition, the existence of energy is inferred from its ognize here is that not only can such research be eff ects on matter (for example, the force of gravity designed and conducted, but that intentional-like is inferred from the observation that objects fall to spirit behavior can be observed and appreciated in the earth, or that planets are observed to revolve real-life situations (as well as in the laboratory). In around stars); the existence of spirit is also inferred fact, Schwartz illustrates how innovative proof-of- by its eff ects. Take together, the terms “spirit” and concept experimental are being suggested “energy” both share an implicit (i.e., inferred) sense by sophisticated deceased individuals who seem- of the capacity to act and have eff ects on things. ingly are participating in current SOC research. In physics, information refers to patterns, form, nonrandom sequences, structure, and complexity. On the Scientifi c Meanings of the Words Interestingly, the word “soul” is often associated “Spirit” and “Soul” with person, identity, the essence that describes When the author was a graduate student at something about the person, and . Harvard University in the late 1960s, words like Stimulated by the apparent parallels of (1) “consciousness,” “,” “,” and “mind” spirit with energy, and (2) soul with information, were generally considered to be taboo. Th is was the Schwartz (1997) wrote a science-based spiritual era of the emerging shift from to cog- poem, which expresses these parallels. Th e fi rst few nitive psychology. Th e “C” words (“” and stanzas of this science-based spiritual poem intro- “consciousness”) were perceived as being contro- duce the core parallels; the stanzas are included at versial (if not illusory) and often denigrated if not the end of this chapter to honor the experiential side dismissed. of consciousness and spirituality. However, by the late 1990s, the zeitgeist had Th ough drawing an energy and information dis- radically changed. , cogni- tinction between spirit and soul is useful heuristi- tive neuroscience, and cognitive-behavioral therapy cally and potentially theoretically, scientists and were well established in universities worldwide. laymen alike typically use the spirit and soul syn- Moreover, a growing set of universities, such as Th e onymously. In keeping with the overarching theme University of Arizona, were creating Centers for of consciousness and spirituality in this chapter, the Consciousness Studies; and the topic of conscious- term “spirit” is being used broadly here to refer to ness was on the road to becoming mainstream. (1) potentially living minds of deceased beings, as Meanwhile, during the same time period “S” well as (2) purportedly higher level beings (e.g., words like “spirit” and “soul” were generally consid- hypothesized angels, guides, and the Source). ered to be taboo. Even in 2011 (the year this chap- Th e author understands that some readers may ter was written), despite increasing research on the experience the words “spirit” and “soul” negatively, and spirituality, words like a response not unlike his reaction to raw oysters. “spirit” and “soul” are generally frowned upon (and Briefl y, the author never developed a for raw words such as “angels” and “guides” typically evoke oysters. Quite the contrary, to him oysters appear even stronger negative reactions). slimy and gooey, and they make him gag. However, If (1) materialism is an incomplete description just as the author fi nds it signifi cantly easier to write of nature and the universe, and if (2) “nonphysical” about oysters than to actually eat them, he is invit- like energy (including fi elds) and informa- ing the reader to merely think about the concepts of tion are necessary for a more complete and accurate spirit and soul—and not necessarily swallow them. portrayal of nature and the universe, then (3) it is useful to consider how the spiritual terms “spirit” If Spirits Exist, Can Th ey Play a Practical and “soul” may relate to the scientifi c concepts of Role in Daily Life? “energy” and “information.” Let us imagine for the moment that future con- Schwartz (1997) proposed that the concepts of trolled laboratory research on SOC continues to spirit and soul have a curious and potentially fun- generate positive evidence consistent with the con- damental parallel with the concepts of energy and tinuity of consciousness hypothesis. Furthermore,

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let us imagine that future innovative experimental Th e medical intuitives (who lived in various designs will document the presence of intentional- states across the country) were asked to provide ity (including properties of thinking, information medical diagnoses for all subjects; hence, the medi- processing, memory, decision making, choice, hav- cal diagnoses were made from a distance. Th e intu- ing preferences, the capacity to withhold informa- itives were given only the subjects’ names, dates of tion, and even giving false information). Finally, let birth, gender, and the city and state in which they us imagine that the future research justifi es the con- lived. Th ey were kept blind to the patient selec- clusion that consciousness is in some sense similar tion criteria (i.e., they were not informed that the to the light from distant stars in that the organized patients had been selected for congestive heart fail- energy and information continues to exist long after ure). Complete data were available on 19 pairs for the brain has died—not only consisting of accurate scoring. Undergraduate students were trained to information but of conscious intentionality as well. count the number of diagnoses given to each sub- If Spirit exists, and if the claims of well- ject by each intuitive. Two cardiologists rated the researched and genuine (not fraudulent) mediums likelihood of a diagnosis being congestive heart fail- are to be considered, then it will be prudent for sci- ure for each diagnosis given by the intuitives. Both entists to keep an open mind about the possibility groups of raters were blind to which subjects were that numerous so-called paranormal capabilities— patients versus controls. including Tart’s (2009) Big Five—may be mediated Th e results for the undergraduate raters revealed by spirit assistance to various degrees. Th is could be that on average the intuitives gave signifi cantly called the “spirit partnership” hypothesis (it is some- more medical diagnoses to the subjects who were times also called the sacred partnership hypothesis; originally diagnosed by the cardiologist as having Schwartz, 2011). congestive heart failure (the patients) than to the One example of purported spirit assistance is subjects who did not have congestive heart failure the controversial area of medical intuition. Medical (the controls). Moreover, the cardiologists rated intuition is a form of clairvoyance (third on Tart’s the patients as signifi cantly more likely to have the list) as applied to medical diagnosis. Th ere is a long diagnosis of congestive heart failure—based on the history of claims of medical intuition, including the symptoms reported by the medical intuitives— beliefs and practices of ancient Greek physicians, compared to the controls. shamans throughout the world, healers in India, Th is proof-of-concept experiment documented and Edgar Cayce in America. In more recent times that for this relatively small sample (n = 7) of skilled exploratory research has been conducted on medi- medical intuitives, clairvoyant/remote-viewing cal intuitives, including practitioners of therapeutic diagnoses could be made in patients versus controls touch, Silva Mind Control, and Mind Dynamics in that were signifi cantly greater than chance. Th ough Sweden. However, no double-blinded studies had the experiment validated the primary claims of the been conducted to evaluate the purported accuracy medical intuitives that they could make statistically of diagnosing illnesses using medical intuition. accurate diagnoses, the study does not address the To address this gap, Attig and Schwartz (2006) secondary claims made by a majority of the medical conducted a double-blind experiment using seven intuitives that they were able to achieve this degree practicing medical intuitives. Th e study involved 20 of accuracy because of the active assistance of their pairs of congestive heart failure patients (10 males “spirit guides.” and 10 females) and their respective spouses; the Medical intuitives typically believe in spirit assis- spouses (who did not have congestive heart failure) tance, and many claim that the spirits provide most served as matched controls. As a result of counter- if not all of the information. Of the seven intuitives, balancing for the sex of the patients, the average age the one participant who had the greatest accuracy of the patient and control groups was comparable. (a high school–educated grandmother) claimed that A cardiologist collected medical data on the she received much of her information directly from patients with congestive heart failure as well as the deceased Edgar Cayce (whom she aff ectionately on their spouses. As anticipated, given the conse- referred to as “Eddie”) as well as other alleged spirits quences of congestive heart failure, on the average and angels. the patients (males and females) were found to have Th eir life histories are revealing and potentially a signifi cantly greater number of other medical con- meaningful. One intuitive explained that early in her ditions (in addition to congestive heart failure) than medical intuitive training, she was diagnosed with their respective spouses (females and males). breast cancer. She went to numerous oncologists

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who confi rmed the diagnosis and recommended a had extraordinary healing powers that they attrib- double mastectomy. However, her “guides” insisted uted to their ancestors, angels, or the Great Spirit/ that she did not have cancer. She ultimately decided God/the Sacred (etc.). to ignore her guides’ persistent advice and chose to In contemporary complementary and alternative undergo the surgery. To her shock and dismay, subse- medicine, spiritual healing is typically considered quent laboratory examination of her tissues revealed in the context of “energy” healing, a less controver- that her (allegedly from her guides) were sial and more physical/materialistic phrasing (and correct; she did not have cancer. Her surgery had reframing) of the . A growing body of indeed been unnecessary. Th e critical question research in complementary and alternative medi- arises, Was this merely a chance occurrence, a lucky cine, including double-blinded experiments, docu- guess, or did it involve spirit assistance as claimed by ments that energy/spiritual healing sometimes has the intuitive? It is not possible to reach a conclusion measurable basic as well as clinical eff ects (reviewed based on a single case. in Schwartz, 2008; Tart, 2009). Th e author has witnessed a number of highly Mainstream psychologists and physicians gener- visible medical intuitives practice their art; one of ally assume (incorrectly so) that if signifi cant heal- the most visible is Mary Occhino on her popular ing eff ects are actually observed, that they must be daily Sirius XM radio show. Ms. Occhino provided due to expectancy and belief (i.e., placebo eff ects). medical diagnoses as well as medical predictions Th ere is a large body of research in psychophysiol- that are often uncannily accurate and later verifi ed ogy and mind-body medicine documenting how the to be true. Moreover, listeners regularly called into mind of the patient can aff ect his or her physiology Ms. Occhino’s radio show recounting instances and healing (Schlitz, Amorok, & Micozzi, 2004). where their alleged spirit guides have helped them However, the totality of the research that specifi cally in everyday situations ranging from selecting the addresses energy and spiritual healing indicates that right book to read, to avoiding a life-threatening car expectancy and belief eff ects, though important, accident. Ms. Occhino claims that the that cannot fully account for the eff ects observed. she is personally able to be so accurate is because of For example, Baldwin and Schwartz (2006) the skilled and dependable assistance of her spirit conducted a controlled experiment inves- guides; her show is aptly called “Angels on Call.” tigating the eff ects of a Japanese spiritual energy Understandably, mainstream academic psychol- healing technique (Reiki) on microvascular infl am- ogy has been reluctant to examine such controver- mation and leakage in the capillary beds of the guts sial claims closely and put them to experimental of noise-stressed rats. Noise stress has been shown test. Speaking metaphorically, the actual process of to produce signifi cant increases in (1) the number designing and conducting such research would be of leaks and (2) the size (areas) of leaks, measured for many psychologists like eating oysters would be microscopically in the rat’s capillary beds. In these for the author. studies the microscopic analyses of the tissues sam- However, if (1) medical intuition is a genu- ples were conducted blindly by the technicians (i.e., ine phenomenon (the key word here is “if”), and the samples were not identifi ed in terms of experi- if (2) their explanation for the mechanism of how mental conditions). it works involves an active partnership with spirits Th e Baldwin and Schwartz (2006) study included (again, “if”), then (3) the implications for the sci- four groups of animals: ence of consciousness and spirituality, psychology, 1. No noise controls and science in general, is suffi ciently substantial as 2. Noise alone to warrant serious consideration. We will return to 3. Noise plus Reiki this challenging issue at the end of the chapter. 4. Noise plus Sham Reiki Potential Applications of Consciousness Th e of the experiment was 21 days and Spirit to Healing per group. For the Noise plus Reiki group, skilled One of the most controversial of all claims in Reiki practitioners visited the laboratory each day religion and spirituality involves reports of spiri- and performed Reiki healing. Th ey did not touch tual healing and associated “.” Th roughout the animals or the cages; the healings were done recorded history, certain individuals—including silently. shamans and medicine men and women, the most For the Noise plus Sham Reiki group, research notable healer being Jesus of Nazareth—purportedly assistants who had no background in healing and

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no intention to heal were taught to mimic the hand then conduct an energy healing session and record movements of the Reiki practitioners. whether his hands warmed up (1) early or (2) late Both groups were videotaped; it was not possible in the session. Schwartz was also kept blind to the by watching the recordings to discern who the true alleged decisions. After ten sessions—fi ve purport- versus sham practitioners were. Using this experi- edly when the deceased physician would enter early, mental design, the question of possible belief and and fi ve when he would enter late—the data were expectancy eff ects (on the part of the rats) was not unblinded and analyzed. Th e results revealed that relevant and therefore could be ruled out. the match between the medium’s alleged decisions Th ough compared to noise alone, the presence of with the deceased physician regarding early versus the sham practitioners was associated with a small late, and the hand warming times recorded by the decrease in both the number and size of the stress- healer concerning early versus late, was 100%. induced leaks; the decreases were not statistically Presuming that (1) fraud was not involved in this signifi cant. However, the presence of genuine Reiki experiment, and that (2) this was not a spurious or treatments was associated with substantial and sta- chance fi nding, explanations other than spirit assis- tistically signifi cant decreases in both the number tance can still be imagined. For example, one could and size of the stress-induced leaks. Th e fi ndings speculate whether it possible that the healer somehow comparing true versus sham practitioners were rep- read the mind of the medium (who was located over licated three times. a thousand miles from the healer). In principle, the Again, similar to Attig and Schwartz’s (2006) answer could be yes; however, future research could experiment on medical intuition discussed previ- be conducted to test directly whether the healer could ously, the Baldwin and Schwart (2006) experi- actually read the mind of the distant healer. ment only demonstrates the presence of an eff ect; Note that even if the spirit-presence hypothesis it does not address the potential mechanism (s) of were ultimately established, the question would still the eff ects. Th ough the experimental design rules remain: Did the presence of the spirit actually play out conventional explanations of the fi ndings (most a healing role in the recovery of the patient? Again, notably placebo eff ects), the design does not make this is a question that can be addressed in future it possible to determine whether any portion of the research. What is important to recognize here, at observed eff ect can be attributed to spirit assistance this early proof-of-concept stage of research, is that per se (as apposed to the consciousness and energy challenging questions such as these can be raised of the practitioner per se). and carefully addressed in future research. Nonetheless, the practitioners insist that they Proof-of-concept observations can sometimes are being assisted by ancestors, spirit guides, and be made in the laboratory of one’s personal life. the “Source” (they use many diff erent terms, from Schwartz (2011) recounted a personal experience Universal Intelligent Energy to Divine Mind and where he was suff ering from a severe fl u, and on God). Th e question becomes, Can their spirit-assis- three separate occasions he was unknowingly given tance claim be addressed experimentally? distant healing by a person who practiced a divine- Th e answer in principle is yes. For example, focused spiritual healing tradition. He was not told Schwartz (2011) described a proof-of-concept when the healings would be provided; in fact, he experiment that tested the claims of a spiritual did not even request that healings be off ered (and energy healer that a deceased physician was pres- he was not aware that they were being provided). ent in his healing sessions and provided assistance. Th ere were three signifi cant moments in his recov- Th e healer claimed that when the spirit physician ery: (1) when his fever broke after 5 days, (2) when entered the healing, his hands became warm. Th e his persistent coughing broke a few days later, and healer further claimed that sometimes the deceased (3) when his severe coughing reappeared, and then physician showed up earlier in the session, and broke. To his surprise, each signifi cant moment in other times late in the session. Th is precise claim his healing happened to have been preceded, within was tested experimentally. an hour, by an essentially secret distant spiritual With the aid of a skilled research medium, healing session. One such pairing (a secret healing Schwartz requested that the medium contact the preceding symptom relief) could have been a coin- deceased physician, and together they would decide cidence; two such pairings might have been a coin- whether the spirit physician would show up (1) cidence as well. However, the replicated occurrence early or (2) late for a given healing session. Th e of three separate and precise pairings suggests that healer, who was kept blind to this decision, would more than coincidence was taking place.

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It is one thing to read about an experiment in to revise and expand its vision of (1) what is mind, a publication (or even to conduct such an experi- (2) how does mind operate, and (3) what are its ment); it is another thing to experience the phenom- limitations and potentials. Just as the television set enon in real life. Th e fact that Schwartz happened to is required to receive and convert the external elec- be thoroughly blind to the occurrences and timings tromagnetic fi eld signals into viewable information of the healings speaks to the possibility that a genu- and energy that can be processed by human beings, ine spiritual healing eff ect was occurring. Th is per- the brain as a receiver may be needed in a parallel sonal scientifi c account demonstrates how blinded fashion. spiritual healing experiments (with appropriate Interestingly, the hypothesis that the brain human subjects consenting) can be carried out in might serve as a receiver (as well as a transmitter) the future. of information and energy for consciousness has an illustrious history. Th e brain-receiver hypothesis Conclusion was seriously entertained by William James, the Th ere are special moments in the history of sci- founding father of American psychology; Wilder ence when major conceptual breakthroughs occur. Penfi eld, a distinguished Canadian neurosurgeon Th ey are sometimes called paradigm shifts or who mapped consciousness and the brain; and Sir changes (Kuhn, 1996). Classic examples of para- John Eccles, a British neurophysiologist who won digm changes include the shift in thinking that (1) the Nobel Prize in Medicine for discoveries involv- the Earth was fl a t , to the Earth being spherical, that ing the neuron. Th ese luminaries may have had the (2) the Sun revolved around the Earth, to the Earth correct thesis (van Lommel, 2010). revolving around the Sun, that (3) matter was solid and fi xed (how we conventionally experience it), to Future Directions matter being mostly “empty space” and dynamically If the mind is not limited to the brain per se, but probabilistic (quantum physics), and (4) the vacuum it extends into space and can operate independently being “empty,” to space being fi lled with invisible of the brain (Kelly et al., 2009; Schwartz, 2011; van energy and information (the zero-point fi eld). Lommel, 2010), then the nature of the scientifi c Major advances linking quantum physics (and method needs be carefully reexamined. It is possi- other more innovative and visionary physics) with ble that the beliefs and expectations of the exper- consciousness and spirituality is capturing the imag- imenter may sometimes directly infl uence what ination of contemporary researchers (Goswami, they discover, regardless of their specialty (Radin, 2001; Radin, 2006), and some of the core under- 2006). Researchers may be “participant-observers” pinnings of the materialistic are being in what they are investigating, even at a fundamen- seriously challenged if not disproved. Visionary sci- tal quantum level (termed the Heisenberg uncer- entists (as exemplifi ed in this Handbook) are begin- tainty principle). Additional experimental control ning to explore what science might look like from a conditions will need to be designed and employed. postmaterialist perspective. For example, in postmaterialist science even physics As Schwartz (2011) illustrates, new advances in and chemistry experiments may need to manipulate technology (including the recording of patterns of (or at least monitor) the beliefs and expectations of cosmic rays as well as individual photons of light) technicians. are making it possible to address the presence and Moreover, if minds other than those of the exper- eff ects of a greater spiritual reality. A recent paper imenters can directly infl uence the physical world— documents how a super-sensitive silicon photomul- that is, the spirit-assistance hypothesis—then we tipier system can be used to monitor the presence may need to take spirit-assisted mechanisms into of spirit and potentially serve as a communication account to better explain and predict certain labora- device (Schwartz, 2010). Th ough the of tech- tory fi ndings. Many seemingly anomalous phenom- nology advancing to the point of creating a reli- ena in physics, chemistry, , and psychology able spirit-communication device—what Schwartz may be predictable and explainable by taking into playfully calls the “soul phone” —might sound like account hypothesized spirit-assisted processes. science fi ction, the history of science reminds us of Also, improving healing and health may require countless instances where what was once viewed as that processes involving spirit and soul be addressed science fi ction became science fact. and included as part of diagnosis, treatment, and If there is a greater spiritual reality, and if con- prevention. Th is not only includes the possibility of sciousness is the key to it, then psychology will need spirit-assisted healing, but the idea that healing may

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require a broad collaboration between the phys- Derived from a common Name? ical and the spiritual, including so-called past-life Or is it the case that Soul and Spirit information. Th e emerging frontier research in con- Refl ect two sides of a coin: sciousness and spirituality should serve to encour- Where Soul refl ects the Information that fi ts? age scientists to resist the inclination to simply dismiss And Spirit, the Energy that joins? or denigrate such (what Tart calls “scientism”); Is Soul the story, the Plan of Life? instead, a more “agnostic” and cautiously open- Th e music we play, our score? minded approach is indicated if psychology, and Is Spirit the passion, the Fire of Life? science in general, are to advance with responsibility Our motive to learn, to soar? and . Th is chapter was written following the Soul directs the paths we take, framework suggested by Warren McCulloch: “Do Th e guidance that structures our fl ow. not bite my fi nger; look where I am pointing.” Th e Spirit feels very alive, awake, strong version of this open-minded philosophy is Th e force that moves us to grow. expressed in Carl Sagan’s quote that introduces the chapter: “Th is is the heart of science.” References Unfortunately, the politics of science promises Attig, S., & Schwartz, G. E. (2006). Remote diagnosis of med- to make diffi cult. Conventional fund- ical conditions: A double-blind experiment of medical intui- ing agencies, as well as mainstream scientifi c jour- tion. Paper presented at Toward a Science of Consciousness. nals, are strongly materialistic. Th ey are typically Tucson, AZ. threatened by the serious possibility that their core Baldwin, A. L., & Schwartz, G. E. (2006). Personal interaction with a Reiki practitioner decreases noise-induced microvas- assumptions will need to be expanded and revised. cular damage in an animal model. Journal of Alternative and University politics for promotion and tenure require Complementary Medicine, 12(1), 15–22. acceptance by the mainstream. Beischel, J., & Schwartz, G. E. (2007). Anomalous information Meanwhile, the public is increasingly becoming reception by research mediums demonstrated using a novel interested in of consciousness and spirit. Th is triple blind design. EXPLORE: Th e Journal of Science and Healing. 3(1), 23–27. is evidenced by numerous successful televisions— Blum, D. (2007). Ghost hunters. New York: Penguin. documentaries, reality shows, and fi ctional series— Braude, S. E. (2003). Immortal remains: Th e evidence for life after spanning parapsychology, mediumship, “ghost death. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefi eld. hunting,” angels, and spiritual healing. Support Fontana, D. (2005). Is there an afterlife? Oakland, CA: O Books. from the private sector appears to be necessary to Gauld, A. (1984). Mediumship and survival. Chicago: Academy Chicago Publishers. foster and promote future research in this area. Goswami, A. (2001). Physics of the soul. Newburyport, MA: In closing, it should be remembered that certain Hampton Roads. discoveries in consciousness and spirituality, by their Kelly, E. F., Kelly, E. W., Crabtree, A., Gauld, A., Grosso, M., very nature, can only be made by individuals directly & Greyson, B. (2009). Irreducible minds. Lanham, MD: experiencing them. Adding the scientifi c method to Rowman & Littlefi eld. Kelly, E.W., & Arcangel, D. (2011). An investigation of medi- daily life becomes a prudent and eff ective practice ums who claim to give information about deceased . (Walsh, 2000). When the scientifi c method is inte- Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 199, 11–17. grated with everyday activities, life becomes a living Kuhn, T. S. (1996). Th e structure of scientifi c revolutions. Chicago: laboratory of personal exploration and . University of Chicago Press. Schwartz (2011) illustrates how “self-science” Radin, D. (2006). Entangled minds. New York: Paraview Pocket Books/Simon & Schuster. can fruitfully be employed in discovering a wide Roy, A. E., & Robertson, T. J. (2001). A double-blind proce- variety of spiritual phenomena, including develop- dure for assessing the relevance of a medium’s statements to ing one’s intuitions and charting complex patterns a recipient. Journal of the Society for Psychical Research, 65(3), of events (called ). Self-science can 161–174. foster the development of evidence-based spiritual- Roy, A. E., & Robertson, T. J. (2004). Results of the application of the Robertson- Roy protocol to a series of experiments ity as a practical consequence of a postmaterialist with mediums and participants. Journal of the Society for paradigm. Let us close with the fi rst four stanzas Psychical Research, 68(1), 18–34. of Schwartz’s (1997) poem “Soul as Information, Schlitz, M., Amorok, T., & Micozzi, M. (2004). Consciousness Spirit as Energy”: and healing. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger. Schwartz, G. E. (1997). Energy and information: Th e soul and What, pray tell, are Spirit and Soul? spirit of mind-body medicine. Advances: Th e Journal of Mind- Body Health, 13(1), 75–77. Are they one and the same? Schwartz, G. E. (2002). Th e afterlife experiments. New York: Atria Are Soul and Spirit a functional Whole? Books/Simon & Schuster.

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Schwartz, G. E. (2005). Th e truth about medium. Charlottesville, Schwartz, G. E. R., Russek, L. G. S., & Barentsen, C. (2002). VA: Hampton Roads. Accuracy and replicability of anomalous information Schwartz, G. E. (2008). Th e energy healing experiments. New retrieval: replication and extension. Journal of the Society for York, NY: Atria/Simon & Schuster. Psychical Research, 66(3), 144–156. Schwartz, G. E. (2010). Possible application of silicon photo- Schwartz, G. E. R., Russek, L. G. S., Nelson, L. A., & Barentsen, multiplier technology to detect the presence of spirit and C. (2001). Accuracy and replicability of anomalous after- intention: Th ree proof-of-concept experiments. EXPLORE: death communication across highly skilled mediums. Journal Th e Journal of Science and Healing 7(2), 100–109. of the Society for Psychical Research, 65(1), 1–25. Schwartz, G. E. (2011). Th e sacred promise. Hillsboro, OR: Smith, S. (2000). Th e afterlife codes. Charlottesville, VA: Beyond Words/Atria/Simon & Schuster. Hampton Roads. Schwartz, G. E. R., & Russek, L. G. S. (2001). Evidence of Tart, C. T. (2009). Th e end of materialism. Oakland, CA: New anomalous information retrieval between two mediums: Harbinger. telepathy, network memory resonance, and continuance of Van Lommel, P. (2010). Consciousness beyond life. San Francisco, consciousness. Journal of the Society for Psychical Research, CA: Harper One. 65(4), 257–275. Walsh, R. N. (2000). Essential spirituality. San Francisco: Wiley.

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