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URBAN PONDS AND LAKES: Exploring urban ecology as a part Natural Heritage

Conference Paper · December 2018

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The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. URBAN PONDS AND LAKES: Exploring urban ecology as a part Natural Heritage

Bulbul Shukla1, Rahul Shukla2 Assistant Professor, NIRMA University ABSTRACT

Many of the present cities previously emerged as settlements, along water bodies. The relation between settlements and water is important and unique. Urban Water bodies are the inherent part of natural as well as cultural ecosystem. The water bodies in an urban set up includes rivers, stream, ponds, lakes, nalas, wells etc. Apart from these functions, urban water bodies are also known to recharge ground water, channelize water flow to prevent water logging and flooding.

In urban ecosystems, urban water bodies like especially lakes and ponds has social, cultural and historic significance like since ages, it has also traditionally served the function of meeting water requirements of the populace for drinking, , household uses like washing, for agriculture, fishing, transportation and religious purposes in ancient civilizations. It also acts as stabilizer for microclimate of urban area. With the growing pressure from urban activities like industrialization, reclamation for urban infrastructure, anthropogenic activities etc. there is exploitation of urban water bodies, leading to degradation in their quality as well as quantity. Talking particularly in Indian context, most of the civilizations have been evolved around the water bodies within certain socio cultural context. But with changing urban dynamics, in last few decades, urban lakes and ponds have undergone deterioration due to various human interventions. So, this paper aims at investigating role of ponds (stagnant water bodies) in Indian culture and also tried to explore its image as part of natural heritage.

To study culture around urban ponds, we have selected two Indian cities i.e. Raipur and Mumbai, very different from each other geographically and socio-culturally as one is amongst the developing and other developed city respectively. In Raipur, set of ponds defines the urban culture and ancient social hierarchy on the basis of occupation in its walled city and in Mumbai, a fresh water pond (banganga tank) in Malabar hills at southern Mumbai serving religiously as well as culturally to the different ethnic groups around it. To study the culture around the water body, narrations in the form of semi structured interviews of ethnic groups around the ponds and references from historical literatures and archives have been taken as primary and secondary data collections respectively. Further, the data collected are examined with the help of deductive method, wherein compatible and non compatible activities around these ponds as per culture have been extracted out. The research findings indicate that the ponds are playing important role in retaining traditional culture in both the cities, inspite of their socio cultural differences but with the urban growth, it is at the vanishing state, which inturn has become the danger for traditional settlement and culture around it. Finally, the study concludes with the suggestive laws and policies to be made for conserving the urban ponds and lakes inside the dense urban fabric of the city and also urges to declare this stagnant water bodies as natural heritage to preserve socio cultural context around it. This research also shows various potential layers and sub layers of the lost spaces around these urban water bodies.

Keywords: Urban water bodies, ponds and lakes, socio cultural, natural heritage, urbanization

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Introduction

Cities are both complex ecological entities, which have their own unique internal rules of behavior, growth, and evolution, and important global ecological forcing functions and are evolve as the outcome of myriad interactions between the urban ecosystem and actions of many human agents (e.g., households, businesses, developers, and governments) and biophysical agents such as local geomorphology, climate, and natural disturbance regimes.

In particular, ecological system of the Indian cities, lakes and ponds are considered vital parts of freshwater ecosystems are an inherent part of it. Lakes have traditionally served the function of meeting, water requirements of the populace for drinking, household uses like washing, for agriculture, fishing and also for religious and cultural purposes and became the part of natural and cultural heritage of the many Indian cities.

Socio cultural history of water bodies in India is very rich. Tanks (tankas), ponds (johads, taalab) and lakes (taal) have always proved to be vital for irrigation, supplying drinking water, ecology, tourism/culture and domestic use. In every change of era, people India have used local techniques and skills to develop a wide variety of techniques to meet their water needs. With passage of time, there has been a shift away from traditional knowledge system in water management practices in both rural and urban areas. In countries where poverty and inequality are rampant such as developing and least developing countries, people are more directly dependent on ecosystem services as their lives are more intimately related to nature and natural resources. Such a scenario makes them highly vulnerable when natural ecosystems are degraded [1]. Increased water stress has a profound impact on food production and India is already struggling to be food secure. In such a scenario there is a pressing need to revive traditional water management systems to reduce social vulnerabilities and safeguard agricultural and environmental cycles. To achieve this, restoration of streams in urban areas and study and management of such designed ecosystems as unique ecosystems are advocated, with the aim of optimizing services to urban populations [2]

Apart from these functions, which involve direct use of the lake water, lakes are also known to recharge ground water, channelize water flow to prevent water logging and flooding. Lakes are also host to a wide variety of flora and fauna, especially birds.

Despite this crucial dependence on these lakes/ponds and wells, India has witnessed the destruction, negligence and reclamation of thousands of these water bodies and gross misuse of water bodies. Ponds and lakes being successful approach to water management since ancient times, needs to be emphasized and considered as part of natural heritage legal framework. Many efforts in the form of water laws, policies and decisions were made by the government. First government policies that came during British era in 1866 [3], focused more on the commercial aspect rather than social. The British government classified agricultural works as commercial and non-commercial. In another act by the Government of India Act 1935, the act transferred the subject of irrigation from the control of the center to the states. After Bengal famine in 1947, the era of planned development marked the era of development in the

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irrigation facility. In 1986, the umbrella body for the management of water in the country was constituted. It was chaired by the prime minister of India and called the National Water Resource Council (NWRC). This document was a comprehensive statement of various policy issues considering the opinion of the states. Till 1999, National water policy was modified and many other sectors like finance got involved. And in 2002, National Water Policy 2002 has graduated from the National Policy on Water 1987. The main change was the incorporation of the integrated water resource management (IWRM). River basin management was emphasized. The Policy has been reviewed and updated in response to the number of new issues that have emerged over a period of time since its formulation in 1987. It emphasizes developing management strategies for the conservation of water keeping in view the socio- economic aspects and the needs of the states [4]. The policy concludes on the remark that the depending on the specific situation, private participation in building, owning and operating, leasing and transforming water facilities may be considered.

Another perspective of looking at the water rights is participatory approach. Since traditionally lakes and ponds in India have been regulated through the community resource management systems and has related customary rights and laws, which take into account institutional and social structure around ponds and lakes to recognize the characteristics of it and device customary methods of its water management . Customary Rights over water were enjoyed by user communities for centuries and have evolved over a long period of time. It has juristic aspect associated with ponds/lakes and local communities around it, which relates to the political economy of the country. The rise of modern state, which seeks centralized control over resources and the dependency on the state or capitalistic authorities, would naturally not be in favor of the technologies, or resource distribution which would oppose it. If we are to follow constitutional mandate of economy and social justice, it is extremely important to utilize resource in a manner, which leads to equity and freedom from dependency on others [5][6].

What is a Pond?

There is a lot of debate about how to best define a water body such as ponds and lakes. Any depression in the ground which collects and retains adequate precipitation can be considered as a lake or pond based on the size of the water body. Both ponds and lakes catch and conserve rainwater, which can percolate into the soil and help in recharging the groundwater level. The water from ponds and lakes can be used for a variety of purposes for both human and animal consumption, for irrigation, recreational purposes etc. Water bodies can be formed due to geological and ecological events of different varieties. They can also be artificially created to induce the positive effects of water bodies, such as sustaining life at many levels and helping to maintain the biodiversity of a region. [7]

There is no specific definition of pond in India. The word “Pond” is used to loosely describe many types of pond – natural, manmade and ephemeral including wetlands. Many of them are euphemistically called Ponds more by convention and a desire to be grandiose rather than by application of an accepted definition.

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POND ECOLOGY

The pond ecology is important to understand how the pond ecosystem functions. It is divided into three general sections, which describe the fundamental physical, ecological and biological characteristics

Physical Characteristics • Formation of ponds • Pond variability • Light • Density stratification • Watershed

Formation of ponds Knowledge of the formation and history of a pond is important to understanding its structure. The current chemical and biological condition of a pond depends on many factors, including:

• how it was formed • size and shape of the pond basin • size , topography, and chemistry of its watershed • regional climate • local biological communities • activities of humans during past century

Why urban lakes are different?

Urban ponds are special ecosystems that influence the microclimate in the area. Apart from storing rainwater for assured water supply for domestic use and for agriculture, these ponds also help to recharge ground water. Ponds are flood cushions and are resource recovery areas that release nitrogen, inactive phosphates, remove toxins and treat wastewater. A freshwater lake when maintained free from pollution can offer many beneficial uses in an urban area, lakes more commonly act as recreation centers & de-stressing points in the highly-stressed urban life nowadays due to pressure from activities like urbanization, industrialization etc. from the polluted urban air and find solace in the cool air by the lake side and activities such as boating, fishing and strolling along the lake shores.

For the purposes of watershed management, urban ponds are defined in six operational criteria;

• They tend to be rather small, and generally have a surface area of 10 sq miles, or less. • They tend to be shallow, with an average depth of 20ft or less. • They have a watershed area/ drainage area ratio of at least 10:1, meaning that their watershed exerts a strong influence on the pond.

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• The pond watershed must contain at least 5% of impervious cover as an overall index of development. • Whether natural or manmade, the lake must be managed for recreation, water supply, flood control, or some other direct human use. • Finally, our definition excludes several types of ponds with unique hydrology or nutrients cycling. • These include solution ponds that are strongly influenced by groundwater; the rare nitrogen limited • Ponds, saline pond and playa ponds.

URBAN LAKES AND PONDS

Urban lakes are special ecosystems that influence the microclimate in the area. Apart from storing rainwater for assured water supply for domestic use and for agriculture, these lakes also help to recharge groundwater acts as micro-climate stabilizers of surrounding urban context. Lakes are flood cushions and are resource recovery areas that release nitrogen, inactive phosphates, remove toxins and treat wastewater. They have their own ecology, inhabits variety of flora and fauna, which helps in maintaining balance in ecology and microclimate too. These water bodies in urban context also plays significant role for retaining and building socio cultural and ecological balance in the life of human settlements. [8]

But with the urbanization process itself is predicated upon mastering and engineering the flow of water. The ecological conquest of water is a necessary component for the expansion and growth of the city. The capture, metabolism, and domestication of water require considerable capital. The commercialization of water through urbanization inserts the flow of water into the circulation of money and its associated relations of social power. The urbanization of water led to the water bodies to be valued on the basis of two factors – Quality and Quantity [8][9].

In the last 50 years of 20th century, lakes have undergone deterioration due to various human development interventions, which may be either planned or haphazard, some of them being Over exploitation and polluted due to improper management of natural resources and unwise development planned / unplanned.

The seriousness of environmental deterioration of these water sources and their implications are not understood until implications are resulted in like, Flooding of low lying areas, Extreme water shortage, reducing agricultural produce, spread of water borne diseases, rise of environmental concern and loss of valuable natural heritage.

To understand the value of lakes, try to imagine a world without them. In terms of water supply alone, lakes are invaluable as the source of approximately 90% of the world’s available liquid surface fresh water (derived from Shiklomanov, 1993) biodiversity. Even saline lakes are of great value, not the least for their role in supporting ecological and hydrological functions. [10][11]

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It is useful to have a systematic way of considering the many values that lakes provide. The World Bank, in its new Environmental Strategy (World Bank, 2001), divides the value of water and water- based ecosystems into the following four categories:

1. Direct Values (consumptive and non-consumptive use of resources); 2. Indirect Values (ecosystem functions and services); 3. Option Values (premium placed on possible future uses and applications); 4. Non-use Values (intrinsic significance).

Ponds in traditional water system

Archaeological evidence shows that the practice of water conservation is deep rooted in the science of ancient India. Excavations show that the cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation had excellent systems of water harvesting and drainage. The settlement of Dholavira, laid out on a slope between two storm water channels, is a great example of water engineering. Chanakya’s Arthashashtra mentions irrigation using water harvesting systems. Sringaverapura, near Allahabad, had a sophisticated water harvesting system that used the natural slope of the land to store the floodwaters of the river Ganga. Chola King Karikala built the Grand Anicut or Kallanai across the river Cauvery to divert water for irrigation while King Bhoj of Bhopal built the largest artificial lake in India [12] .

The fact is that water is essential for survival on earth, but this fact lost its meaning with increased urbanization in few decades. Today, fresh water is a limited resource and that is rapidly becoming scarce[12] . Especially in India, wherein both floods and droughts were regular occurrence in all parts of country. Perhaps, this is why every region in the country has its own traditional water harvesting techniques that reflect the geographical peculiarities and cultural uniqueness of the regions inturn, these techniques had played an important role for a civilization to grow and nourish. With rapid urbanization and warming climate, these traditional system are gradually drying and dying, with this urban areas are losing upon its cultural and natural heritage. Human interventions are continuously putting enormous pressure on the quantity and quality of surface and ground water. Water conservation is a key element of any strategy that aims to alleviate the water scarcity crisis in India.

Drawing upon centuries of experience, Indians continued to build structures to catch, hold and store monsoon rainwater for the dry seasons to come. Amongst traditional rainwater harvesting system, most common is Pond, Lakes or reservoirs. Since ages, India abounds in ponds, a preponderance of them manmade, typical of the tropics. The manmade (artificial) ponds are generally called reservoirs, ponds and lakes though it is not usual for some of them to be referred as ponds or lakes. Ponds are small in size as compared to lakes and reservoirs. These traditional techniques, though less popular today, are still in use and efficient. Unique water conservation systems prevalent in India and the communities practiced them for decades before the debate on climate change even existed [12] [13] . With shortage of water is a cause of concern throughout the world especially in developing and under-developed countries. India has already become water stressed country. Rainwater harvesting has been in practice around the world since ancient days. Traditional rainwater harvesting structures present exhibit the existence of such practice in India

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Natural heritage can be classified under: (1) "nature's treasure" that refers to physical formation, the flora and fauna; (2) "geology and rock formation" covering animals and plants; and (3) "natural sites" which refer to natural areas (non-human built) which have universal value from the perspectives of science, conservation and natural beauty [14] . In natural heritage category, traditional water system forms an important part, as it is not only serving to the community daily needs but it is also acting as artifact to sociocultural context of local communities.

RAIPUR PONDS AS CULTURAL SOURCE

Upto 1868 AD 1868-1900 AD 1900-1925 AD

1950-1975 AD 1925-1950 AD

Figure 1 : Stages of Evolution of Raipur City

Source: INTACH

Raipur is the capital city of the recently formed state of Chhattisgarh, carved out of the erstwhile state of Madhya Pradesh. The city is also the head quarter of Raipur District. Raipur District is situated between 21°14'N to 22 °33'N latitude and 81°38'E to 82°6'E longitude. The district is administratively divided into 13 tehsils and 15 revenue blocks [18].

Evolution of Raipur city has seen many phases of growth and development in different era during the reign of various ruling kingdom. These periods of city development can broadly be defined into following cultural group; [15]

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• The Haihaivansi Period • The Maratha Period • The British period • The post independence

Figure 2 : Topography Map of Raipur Figure 4: Glimpses of ponds Source: Author,2014

Source: Author,2014

In local literatures, Raipur is also mentioned as “city of Ponds”. The city is dotted by 85 lakes within municipal boundary as shown in figure no. [2] and [3], which was 103 in count till economic liberalization triggered city growth, causing reclamation of city ecology including ponds in mid 20th century [15] as shown in figure [7]. Most of these ponds were made to serve locality around it and are situated accordingly. Interestingly some of the group of ponds is connected with each other through overflow system on natural topographic profile. One of such group of ponds is located right in the central area of city of 16th century, which consists of 7 ponds, connected through

natural overflow system[16]. Urban biodiversity Figure 3 : Map Showing Ponds of Raipur in late 1900 AD can be understood in the context of response Source: Intach diversity—a diversity of species and ecosystems that collectively support specific

8 functions but respond differently to change and disturbance. For example, because urban trees intercept large quantities of precipitation that buffers cities from flooding impacts, a high diversity of urban tree species directly contributes to the response diversity function of precipitation interception (Walker and Salt 2006). Similarly, ponds of Raipur city, each pond have its own contextual biodiversity set in specific ecosystem. Also, water body characteristics such as size, shape, and connectivity have implications for the inference of mechanisms that generate surface water patterns, for landscape scale ecological and biogeochemical processes, and for interactions between urban water bodies and their watersheds.

Indian civilizations since the ancient past have been associated with various rivers that flow through its landscape (Pandey et al., 2003). These civilizations have utilized advantages offered by undulating geographical terrains or have tapped into groundwater and rainwater to create magnificent lakes and ponds, and architecturally impressive open wells, step wells, and other water storage and recharge structures that augmented their water supply, while increasing their water security (Agarwal and Narain 1997). The value of lakes and ponds are enhanced by the community using for its socio cultural needs. Often with considerable history and heritage associated with them, these structures are also socially, culturally, and traditionally important to communities that are dependent upon them (Krishnan 2011). In similar lines, ponds of Raipur were made and preserved by the different communities like marwaris, brahmins, oriyas etc. to fulfill their social cultural and economical needs [17]. The description of history, community structure, drainage pattern and urbanism around each pond are as follows. The brief account of these 7 ponds with history and urbanism around it are as follows:

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Bandhawa Kankali talab talab

Pehladawa talab Budha Talab Khokho talab

Maharaja bandh

Panchbhai talab

Figure 5 : Raipur city base Map showing position of selected group of pond Source: Author

The Kankali Talab nears the Kankali Temple goes all the way back to the 1660s and was constructed under the supervision of Mahant Kripalgiri; Budha Talab was bought into life by the king Bhuneshwar deva in 1660s; Maharaja Roadani built the Maharajabandh in 1770 and also gets credit for the Raja Talab; Panchbhai Talab was built by the five Marwari brothers to serve the community around in 1770s; Tikrapara talab as the recent one made by the local people in between 80’s and 90’s and the last set of talab is Khokho group

was made in the kalchuri reign to serve Figure 6 : Selected Group of pond Source: Author,2014 different communities around it, first talab i.e Khokho talab for their queens , second one i.e. Pehladwa talab were for Brahmins and Rajputs and third the Bandhawa talab for oriyas and chamars. This above mentioned talab in the delineated are internally interconnected through overflow system [19].

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Relationship between Ponds

Kankali Budha talab Maharajband talab h

Bandhwa talab

Khokho Pehladwa Panchbh talab talab ai talab

01. Kankali Talab – This is the source pond, came into being around 14th century. Made for rituals after cremation of the body by the Nagdev Sadhus and was meant for only religious purpose. Due to the abundance of sulphur content, the pond water is considered

for various healing skin disease. Behind this Figure 7: Kankali talab Source: Author, 2014 pond there is set of Devi temples, destination at the time of Navratri. Around this pond, on one side has the area with four different ethnic groups residing there since 400 yrs and on other side, has mixed used with commercial shops on ground floor and residential on upper floors [18].

02. Budha Talab – This is the biggest pond of Raipur, was made in the reign of Budheswardeva around 17th century. It was made for the local people by the king Budheshwardeva. In front of this pond, there is temple of lord Shiva ,known as Budheshwar Mandir of around 17th century and a Banyan tree acting as roundabout of that area. Recently this pond has been redeveloped as recreational zone with ferry points and garden in between. The area around this pond consist of institutions on one side , stadium on other and the muslim Figure 8: Budha Talab Source: Mishra. A. (2009) Author,2014

11 dominated area on third side which even after redevelopment has the same face as before [18] .

03. Maharajbandh and Panchbhai talab

This ponds has rural character, it is surrounded by the 80% farmland of Raipur. It was made by the Dani Family in 18th century for the local people and irrigation of farmlands. In today time , it is being use for daily purpose by the community around. Some use it for irrigation and cattle too. The area around has the 16th century temple dedicated to lord Shiva and the nursery. With the coming of newer development facing its to pond, contamination has been observed on that points. [17][18]

04. Tikrapara talab - This ponds has rural character, it is too surrounded farmland It was made by the local people in 19th century for irrigation of farmlands. In today time, it is being use for daily Figure 9 : Maharajabandh, Panchbhai and tikrpara talab purpose by the community around. Some Source: Author,2014 use it for irrigation and cattle too. The area around has the 18th century eidgah ground for karbala festival and rawanbhata as dusshera ground With the coming of newer development facing its to pond, contamination has been observed on that points. [18]

05. Khokho Group of talab – It is consist of three set of talab, first Khokho talab made in the reign of Haihaya kingdom for the use Queens of their reign, second is Pehladwa talab , dedicated to the local people use and third is the Bandhwa talab, for the oriya community,. This ponds is surrounded by the earth bund all around with small farms on one side and newer development on other. This area also has the Devi temple on its periphery known as Danteshwari mandir, most visited place during Navratri. [18][19]

Figure 10: Khokho Group of Talab Source: Author,2014

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BANGANGA TANK, MUMBAI

Banganga or Banganga Tank is an ancient water tank which is part of the Walkeshwar Temple Complex in Malabar Hill area of Mumbai in India.

History

Tank was built in the 1127 AD, by Lakshman Prabhu, a minister in the court of Silhara dynasty kings of Thane. The tank was rebuilt in 1715 AD, out of a donation for the Walkeshwar Temple by Rama

Kamath. The main temple, has been reconstructed since then and is at present a reinforced concrete structure of recent construction.

According to local legend, it sprang forth when the Hindu god Ram, the exiled hero of Figure 11: Banganga Tank Source: Author,2014 the epic Ramayana, stopped at the spot five thousand years ago in search of his kidnapped wife Sita. As the legend goes, overcome with fatigue and thirst, Rama asked his brother Lakshmana to bring him some water. Laxman instantly shot an arrow into the ground, and water gushed forth from the ground, creating a tributary of the Ganges, which flows over a thousand miles away, hence its name, Banganga, the Ganga created on a baan (arrow). The Banganga also houses the 'Shri Kashi Math' and 'Shri Kaivalya or Kawle Math' of the Goud Saraswat Brahmins at its banks and samadhis of their various past heads of the Math. The area also has a Hindu cremation ground which after 2003, received a makeover to house a Gas crematorium [20].

The area still has an old Hindu cemetery consisting of samadhi shrines of Figure 12: Map showing relation of surrounding with Banganga various Advaita gurus, such as Sri Ranjit Maharaj tank Source: Author, 2014 (1913–2000) and his guru Sri Siddarameshwar Maharaj (1888–1936).The tank today is a rectangular pool structure surrounded by steps on all four sides. At the entrance are two pillars in which oil lamps called diyas were lit in ancient times. The tank, as well as the main Walkeshwar Temple and the Parshuram Temple belong to the Goud Saraswat Temple Trust, which once owned most of the property in the complex. Many Goud Saraswat Brahmin

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families (Rege, Anaokar, Mulgaonkar, Kenkre, Sakhardande, Sukthankar, Keni, Marudkar, Naik, Wartikar, Warerkar, Bidikar, Bhende, Prabhawalkar, Pagnis) used to reside / still reside in the Temple Trust buildings in the complex.

The tank is spring fed and so its water remains sweet, despite being located only a few dozen meters away from the sea. Apart from being a cultural hub, the place over the years has provided inspiration to many artists, be it on film or on canvas.

Government Intervention

Seeing the deteriorating condition of the tank, BMC (Brihan Municipal Corporation) in collaboration with UDRI (Urban design research Institute) intervened Banganga tank and community around it. The Following steps were taken by them to revive the place:

Approach Lanes – surveying the approach pattern of visitors and local people to the tank, they segregated the lanes for visitors and local people as per usability survey. Figure 13 : Map Showing Temples and other religious places Each lane especially visitors lane is filled with around Banganga Tank local vendors from that area i.e. metalwork Source: Author,2014 shops, homemade pickles and spices, vegetables etc. to boost local economy.

Recognizing the community structure – They found that the core around tank has been divided into three basic communities i.e. Brahmins, potter and metal workers (basically copper and brass) and studied their occupation and lifestyle.

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Topography and drainage pattern – Drains are integrated with topography to get proper drainage pattern which then integrated with the movement pattern and water treatment have been proposed for untreated sewage and storm water.

Festivals and rituals – local festivals and rituals have been recognized and temporary and permanent arrangements were made to celebrate and perform those events time to time, which will not keep alive that place, but also boost local economy.

Conclusion: As discussed above about the formation of various government water laws/policies and its modification since 1866 like National lake conservation policy, the national water policy and also some of states own water rights like customary rights. The overall system of laws and policies related to water body by the government covers almost every aspect of water body conservation as well as projecting its needs for the future. Despite of these efforts made in the form of laws and policies, India has witnessed the destruction, negligence and reclamation of thousands of water bodies and gross misuse of groundwater. Constitutionally water is a state subject [21]. In the absence of uniform law and policy, water management in India remains by and large uncoordinated. Various states have varied legal positions on water ownership. It is felt that water being a common natural heritage has to be governed by different set of laws which are essentially not just civil (Laws that are governed by private property).Water is a natural heritage to be protected and not a commercial property for absolute private use and exploitation it has to be governed by different set of laws which meet the requirement of the contemporary society. Lacuna is the lack of clearly defining the state of water bodies in Indian constitution. In our constitution, water has been considered just a part of natural environments, which needs to protect for the sake of livelihood but for many traditional communities, it is not just a part of livelihood, it plays important in their sociocultural life. So, until Indian constitution considered water bodies as cultural heritage, survival of traditional water bodies and communities related to it is hard and are mostly likely subjected to extinct. It may be possible through developing traditional customary rights as constitutional law i.e. giving rights to the local communities to protect water as their cultural and natural heritage.

References

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